DUAL NATURE

DEFINITION
Electric Discharge: The passage of an electric current
through a gas is called electric discharge.
Discharge Tube: A hard glass tube along with the
necessary arrangement, which is used to study the
passage of electric discharge through gases at low
pressure, is called a discharge tube.
Cathode Rays. Cathode rays are the stream of negatively
charged particles, electrons which are shot out at a high
speed from the cathode of a discharge tube at pressure
below 0.01 mm of Hg.
 DUAL NATURE
Work Function. The minimum amount of energy
required by an electron to just escape from the metal
surface is known as work function of the metal.

Electron Emission. The Phenomenon of emission of

electron from metal surface is termed as electron
emission

TYPES OF EMISSION
(i) Thermionic emission Here electrons are emitted
from the metal surface with the help of thermal energy.
 DUAL NATURE
(ii) Field emission : Electrons are emitted from a metal
surface by subjecting it to a very high electric field. (Also
Cold Cathode)

(iii) Photoelectric emission : Electrons emitted from a

metal surface with the help of suitable electromagnetic
radiations.

(iv) Secondary emission. Electrons are ejected from a

metal surface by striking over its fast moving electrons.
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of substances (mainly metals),
when exposed to electromagnetic radiations of suitable frequency, is called photoelectric
effect and the emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.

Stopping Potential The value of the retarding potential at which the

photoelectric current becomes zero is called cut off or stopping
potential for the given frequency of the incident radiation.
Threshold Frequency The minimum value of the frequency of incident
radiation below which the photoelectric emission stops
altogether is called threshold frequency.
 GRAPHS I

Increasing the intensity, thereby increasing

the number of photons per unit area per
unit time increases more photoelectrons
for conduction. As per I = vdenA when ‘n’
increases the saturation current increases

As intensity is increased, due to more

photoelectron emitted, saturation current
increases, but as stopping potential is due
to the kinetic energy of photon it does not
change
GRAPH II

In this graph the frequency of incident

radiation is increased, but intensity
remains the same. Consequently
stopping potential increases and
saturation current remains constant

Slope of such a graph is

constant (h/e) and x intercept
is 0
Existence of Threshold Frequency:
For a given photo sensitive material, there is a minimum
frequency called the threshold frequency, below which
emission of photoelectrons stops completely, however
great the intensity may be.
Effect Of Intensity:
For a given photosensitive material, the photo electric
current is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation, provided the frequency is greater than
the threshold frequency.
Effect Of Frequency:
The maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation,
but is independent of its intensity.

No Time Lag:
The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
i.e. there is no time lag between the incidence of
radiation and the emission of photo electrons.
 EINSTEIN EQUATION

Explanation of laws:
Existence of threshold frequency
As kinetic energy cannot be negative  > 0
Effect Of Intensity :
As every photon Ideally ejects one electron only, More Photons means more electrons and
hence more saturation current, but no effect on stopping potential
Effect of frequency:
Energy of photon is h, hence increasing frequency increases energy so stopping potential
increases but no effect on saturation current
No Time Lag:
As photoelectric emission is a result of collision of electron and photon and hence is an
instantaneous.
 de Broglie wave length
De Broglie proposed that the wave length associated with particle of
momentum is given as

When an electron is accelerated through potential V, the work done = eV

This work converted in the form of kinetic energy = ½ mv2

In this expression ‘h’ ‘m’ and ‘e’ have fixed values.

After placing the values we get
 DAVISSON GERMER

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DAVISSON GERMER
DAVISSON GERMER