FORGOTTEN AGRICULTURAL

HERITAGE

Contemporary agriculture is often criticized for its industrial scale, adverse effects
on nutrition, rural employment and the environment, and its disconnectedness from
nature and culture. Yet many examples exist of traditional smaller scale systems that
have survived the test of time and provide more sustainable solutions while maintain-
ing food security in an era of climate change. This book provides a unique compilation
of this forgotten agricultural heritage and is based on objective scientific evaluation
and evidence of the value of these systems for present and future generations.
The authors refer to many of these systems as Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage Systems (GIAHS) and show how they are related to the concepts of heri-
tage and the World Heritage Convention. They demonstrate how GIAHS based on
family farms, traditional indigenous knowledge and agroecological principles can
contribute to food and nutrition security and the maintenance of agro-biodiversity
and environmental resilience, as well as sustain local cultures, economies and societies.
Two substantial chapters are devoted to descriptions and assessments of some
50 examples of designated and potential GIAHS from around the world, including
rice-fish culture in China, mountain terrace systems in Asia, coffee agroforestry in
Latin America, irrigation systems and land and water management in Iran and India,
pastoralism in East Africa, and the dehesa agrosilvopastoral system of Spain and Portu-
gal. This book concludes by providing policy and technical solutions for sustainable
agriculture and rural development through the enhancement of these systems.

Parviz Koohaf kan is Chairman of the World Agricultural Heritage Foundation

(WAHF) and Senior Honorary Research Fellow at Bioversity International, Rome,
Italy. He retired as Director of the Land and Water Division at the Food and Agri-
culture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, in 2012, where he
conceptualized and spearheaded the GIAHS concept and Partnership Initiative.

Miguel A. Altieri is Professor of Agroecology in the Department of Environmental

Science, Policy and Management at the University of California, Berkeley, USA.
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FORGOTTEN
AGRICULTURAL
HERITAGE
Reconnecting food systems
and sustainable development

Parviz Koohafkan and Miguel A. Altieri

First published 2017
by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Parviz Koohaf kan and Miguel A. Altieri
The right of Parviz Koohaf kan and Miguel A. Altieri to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Koohafkan, P. (Parviz), author. | Altieri, Miguel A., author.
Title: Forgotten agricultural heritage : reconnecting food systems and
sustainable development / Parviz Koohaf kan and Miguel A. Altieri.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2016. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016022837 | ISBN 9781138204133 (hbk) |
ISBN 9781138204157 (pbk) | ISBN 9781315470092 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable agriculture. | Traditional farming. |
Farms, Small.
Classification: LCC S494.5.S86 K66 2016 | DDC 338.1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016022837
ISBN: 978-1-138-20413-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-20415-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-47009-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
This book is dedicated to all the smallholders, family
farmers and indigenous communities.
‘This publication is unique both in its scope and coverage. It is a stock-take of the
work carried out so far, in cooperation with several governments, donor institu-
tions, FAO and other UN agencies, international organizations, non-governmental
institutions, civil society organizations, academic and research institutions and many
individuals. This informed source should serve as a new reference tool for all who
share the common goal of contributing to solutions for sustainable agriculture and
rural development.’
– from the Foreword by José Graziano da Silva, Director-General,
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Italy

‘I must congratulate the authors for writing a book that does not mince words
when conveying the urgency inherent in solving the world’s current crises and
fully articulates how reclaiming our agricultural heritage – neglected or forgotten
in many parts of the world but not beyond recovery – can usher in a new era of
sustainable development.’
– from the Foreword by M. S. Swaminathan, Founder,
Chairman and Chief Mentor, UNESCO Chair in Ecotechnology,
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, India
CONTENTS

List of figures viii

List of tables xi
List of abbreviations xii
Foreword, by José Graziano da Silva xiv
Foreword, by M. S. Swaminathan xvi
Preface, by Parviz Koohafkan xix
Acknowledgements xxii

1 Past, present and future of agriculture 1

2 Agricultural heritage and sustainable food systems 10

3 A view to protecting and safeguarding our heritage 23

4 Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems:

concept and the initiative 36

5 Dynamic conservation of GIAHS 52

6 Lessons learned, experiences and impacts 74

7 GIAHS are around us: sites and systems of interest 86

8 Final reflection and key messages 253

Index 261
FIGURES

FM.1 One of the clusters in the Ifugao rice terraces of

the Philippines inscribed in the World Heritage Properties,
featuring a remarkable agricultural heritage system, which has
retained the viability as well as the efficacy of rice terraces that are
more than 2,000 years old. xxi
1.1 From the Chinese Han nationality, happy Hani children from
Yuanyang, Yunnan Province. One of the 55 known ethnic
minorities in China. 1
1.2 Vavilov centres of domesticated crops. 3
1.3 A Quechua woman farmer and her varieties of quinoa. 4
2.1 Quinoa is a food with high nutritive value from the
Andean region. 10
3.1 Saffron flowers from Iran. Ancient Persian worshippers used
saffron as a ritual offering, perfume, food spice and medicine. 23
3.2 The properties of intangible cultural heritage. 26
3.3a–3.3b Number and distribution of World Heritage properties by region. 31
4.1 The Hani minority. 36
4.2 The indigenous farmers in the Andes mountains start their day
early in their fields of ‘chakras’. 40
4.3 A farm with multiple varieties of quinoa, creating amazing landscapes. 48
5.1 In many GIAHS around the world, agricultural festivals are
celebrated through sharing of food, dancing and singing that
includes the children participating in the celebration of planting
and harvesting. 52
5.2 The framework to support dynamic conservation of GIAHS. 56
5.3 Cecilia Guineo, a woman farmer on Chiloé Island, Chile. 57
 Figures ix

5.4 Parviz Koohaf kan and Mrs Lizhen Wu, a rice-fish

farmer in Qingtian County, China, during a field visit in 2007. 59
5.5 Julie, a woman farmer in the ancient Ifugao rice terraces. 64
5.6 Hani heritage festival – the biggest agricultural and cultural festivity
of the Hani community – is a street banquet in Luchun Town with
signature Hani traditional food. It’s a communal feast of thousands
of people along the road with songs and dances by the different
Hani ethnic groups. 69
6.1 Chiloé women farmers are very much connected to their
traditional agriculture as the main source of food and livelihood. 74
6.2 Family farmers, smallholders and indigenous farming communities
are at the heart of the GIAHS concept. 77
6.3 Diverse cropping system showing locally and globally important
food biodiversity that is managed and conserved through indigenous
practices of the Ifugao people, Kiangan Province, Philippines. 80
6.4 Example of institutional setting of GIAHS management in China. 84
7.1 Tea for a healthy life, tea for culture: complementing the ancient
forest tea plantation with a modern agroecological tea terrace
system in Pu’er, China. 86
7.2 A fish monument at the entrance to the Longxian village, Qingtian
County, constructed in 2005 by the local government in honour of
the selection of the rice-fish system. 90
7.3 Chiloé Island is endowed with biodiversity and genetic resources of
global significance in its land, while its ocean and bays are used for
industrial salmon production. 97
7.4 The waru-waru or sukacollos are alternate land and water stripes
created by indigenous farmers in the Puno region of Peru. 101
7.5 The historical Gafsa Oasis in Tunisia is among the first GIAHS
nominations in North Africa. 106
7.6 Hani rice terraces and their irrigation and integrated fertility
management system are unique, harbouring numerous flora
and fauna that are of national and global significance. 117
7.7 Heqiao, the only village in Jiangxi Province that possesses specific
agroecological features for cultivating traditional Wannian rice. 120
7.8 The rice-fish-duck system is one of the most traditional
eco-farming systems. 123
7.9 An indigenous woman harvesting tea in the Pu’er tea forest. 124
7.10 This Xuanhua milk grape garden is the first designated Urban
Agricultural Heritage Site, located in Heibei Province with a
cultivation history that dates back 1,300 years. 125
7.11 Local government officials showing the Chinese Torreya to Parviz
Koohaf kan during a visit in May 2013. 127
7.12 Xinghua duotian raised fields during September. 131
x Figures

7.13 The Kuttanad wetland agriculture system is a unique farming

system and the only system in India that favours rice cultivation
below sea level. 144
7.14 A traditional Bengali fisherman and his wife drying fish for
self-consumption and for marketing. 152
7.15 The integrated terraced valley rice cultivation system. 157
7.16 The Bali rice terraces, one of the oldest irrigation systems. 160
7.17 Winter season view of the rain-fed traditional fig orchards in
Estahban, Fars Province, in Iran. 166
7.18 The historical lemon gardens of Costiera Amalfitana. 171
7.19 The satoyama-senmaida rice terraces in Japan. 176
7.20 Introducing the GIAHS Initiative, involving the local peoples and
the Maasai pastoral communities. 186
7.21 The maize-fríjol agricultural heritage system is the basis of food
security of many countries in Central and South America. 201
7.22 Ecuadorian Cacao arriba, famous for its very specific fine aroma. 206
7.23 Sri Lanka’s tank system, also known as wewe, an ancient irrigation
system that evolved between 300 BCE and 1200 CE. 236
8.1 Traditional farming landscape with a diversity of farms and
rich agro-biodiversity. 253
TABLES

3.1 The categories of World Heritage cultural landscapes adopted

by the Committee in 1992 and included in Paragraph 39 of
the Operational Guidelines (2002). 28
3.2 The World Heritage Sites, by region. 30
ABBREVIATIONS

ADEs Amazonian dark earths

ASM Association pour la Sauvegarde de La Médina De Gafsa (Tunisia)
BCE Before the Common Era
BMELV Federal Ministry for Nutrition, Agriculture and Consumer
Protection (Germany)
CAS Chinese Academy of Sciences
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CE Common Era
CEEC Central and Eastern European Countries
CET Centro de Educaciòn y Tecnologia
CWFS Committee on World Food Security
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines)
EMBRAPA Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária
ETC Group Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIAHS Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
HYV High Yielding Varieties
IAASTD International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science
and Technology for Development
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IGOs International Governmental Organizations
 Abbreviations xiii

IGSNRR Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research

(China)
INRAA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique d’ Algerie (Algeria)
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
IRT Ifugao Rice Terraces (Philippines)
ITPGRFA International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IYFF International Year of Family Farming
MINAM Ministerio del Ambiente (Peru)
MOA Ministry of Agriculture (China)
MSSRF M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (India)
NGOs Non-governmental Organizations
NIAHS Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
ODEPA Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias (Ministerio de
Agricultura, Chile)
PES Payment for Environmental Services
PICT Pacific Island Countries and Territories
RFC Rice-Fish Culture (China)
RMISP Centro-Latino-Americano para el Desarrollo Rural
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SIPAM Systèmes Ingénieux du Patrimoine Agricole Mondial
SIPAM Sistemas Ingeniosos del Patrimonio Agrícola Mundial
SNNPR South Nation Nationality and People Regional State (Ethiopia)
SOLAW The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and
Agriculture
STRK Subak Tri Hita Karana (Indonesia)
TK/TEK Traditional Knowledge / Traditional Ecological Knowledge
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WHC World Heritage Convention
WHS World Heritage Sites
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
FOREWORD

The history of agriculture, the establishment of early civilizations and the evolu-
tion of cultures, as well as the present-day solutions for food insecurity, poverty
reduction and sustainable development, are inseparable. The invention of agricul-
ture and the process of human development that dates back more than 10,000 years
have created a myriad of agricultural systems characterized by tremendous diversity
of agroecosystems, with an abundance of domesticated crops and animal species,
maintained and enhanced by ingenious soil, water and biodiversity management
practices – all complemented by complex traditional knowledge systems and inno-
vations. Through a remarkable process of coevolution, these systems have emerged
through centuries of cultural and biological interactions and represent the founda-
tion of resiliencies and sustainable development.
The Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) initiative was
conceived during the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg,
2002) as a cornerstone of the Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development
(SARD) programme. It was created to identify and safeguard numerous agricultural
systems of global significance – systems which are at the heart of local food secu-
rity and the livelihoods of millions of poor and remote rural communities which
harbour ample biological diversity, and are repositories of a wealth of traditional
knowledge and cultural values. The distinctive features of GIAHS serve as power-
ful reminders of the human capacity to leave a rich cultural imprint on a region’s
landscape, and by doing so, they demonstrate the error of disrupting or altering the
environment’s natural balance and the ecosystem services it provides.
The smallholders, family farmers and rural communities living in and around
GIAHS offer a broad range of solutions for food security and sustainable develop-
ment which are resilient, environmentally friendly, socially just and sustainable, as
well as competitive in the market, producing high added-value products that derive
 Foreword xv

from the intelligent use of natural resources. Traditional farming practices in these
regions are supporting the current trends in agroecology to strengthen highly pro-
ductive and diverse agricultural systems, where the importance of local knowledge
and cultural identity is recognized. Not only has this process had a significant
impact on food production, but it has evolved alongside several other technological
advances and dynamics in the recent history of agriculture. These are converging
pathways to create a new vision of sustainable development that promotes special-
interest tourism, innovative solutions for the dynamic conservation of bio-cultural
assets and the establishment of heterogeneous and extensive networks, in which
family farming has the opportunity to grow both economically and socially.
I am very pleased that the wise decision of the FAO governing bodies made
it possible for the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems – originally
a small pilot initiative – to have successfully evolved to have become a now fully
fledged FAO programme. This achievement is also a result of more than a decade of
tireless dedication by FAO colleagues, including and not least, Dr Parviz Koohaf kan,
former coordinator of this programme.
I am also proud that the International Year of Family Farming, celebrated in
2014, was a leap forward in addressing sustainable agriculture and rural develop-
ment, promoting the recognition and acknowledgement of the important role of
smallholders, family farmers and indigenous communities as the custodians of our
agricultural legacy – from ancient generations to these modern times.
Now that the GIAHS programme has been firmly established locally, nationally
and internationally, there is a need to look at ways to build on its achievements and
to document the philosophical and scientific underpinning of this programme, as
well as to support the expansion and up-scaling of GIAHS sites in other countries
or areas of the world, as a viable and effective agricultural development strategy.
Indeed, this publication is unique in both its scope and coverage. It is a stocktake of
the work carried out so far, in cooperation with several governments, donor institu-
tions, FAO and other UN agencies, international organizations, non-governmental
institutions, civil society organizations, academic and research institutions and many
individuals. This informed source should serve as a new reference tool for all who
share the common goal of contributing to solutions for sustainable agriculture and
rural development.
Dr José Graziano da Silva
Director-General
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
FOREWORD

In the context of contemporary problems relating to environmental degradation,

global climate change, economic instability and political turmoil, what is most
important is work relating to sustainable food and livelihood security. This is what
the Globally Important Agricultural Systems (GIAHS) programme is fully commit-
ted to, and I must congratulate the authors for writing a book that does not mince
words when conveying the urgency inherent in solving the world’s current crises
and that fully articulates how reclaiming our agricultural heritage, neglected or
forgotten in many parts of the world but not beyond recovery, can usher in a new
era of sustainable development.
In all areas of human endeavour, the past, present and future constitute a con-
tinuum. The history of agriculture and biodiversity conservation teaches us many
lessons. First of all, about 10,000 years ago, when men went out hunting for food,
women started gathering seeds and cultivating crops. This was the origin of agri-
culture or early sedentary civilizations. The evolution of agriculture was based on
selections from naturally occurring genetic variability. Thus, there is a strong rela-
tionship between cultural, culinary and curative diversity and biodiversity.
Dr Parviz Koohaf kan has spent most of his life working through the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) to implement his global vision for improving local
economies and building a bridge for the mutual transfer of knowledge between
the scientific community and the farmers who are the wisest custodians of the
world’s natural resources. He is now expanding that vision as president of the World
Agricultural Heritage Foundation and continues to link local communities to
global opportunities for the benefit of smallholders, family farmers and indigenous
communities. As his mentor, I am happy that Dr Koohaf kan’s goal of establishing
worldwide recognition of Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems has
been achieved and that his mission to build on this accomplishment to change the
 Foreword xvii

face of agriculture is rapidly nearing fruition. Dr Miguel Altieri has and continues
to be instrumental in this mission, promoting the agroecological foundations of
Agricultural Heritage Systems and spearheading a vast number of scientific studies
of unique, traditional agricultural systems for the purpose of safeguarding not only
our agricultural past, but our agricultural future as well.
It has also been an act of foresight on the part of the Food and Agriculture
Organization to initiate a programme for recognizing GIAHS among FAO mem-
ber countries. This has been accomplished with personal support from Dr Jose
Graziano da Silva, the director-general of FAO. The GIAHS Partnership Initiative
was formally launched at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development held
in Johannesburg in 2002, and I attended the launching ceremony and pointed out
the importance of the GIAHS Initiative for the conservation and sustainable use of
agro-biodiversity in an era of climate change. My editorial in Science Magazine (31
July 2009) points out that:

The bicentenary of Charles Darwin’s life and work reminds us that the great
biodiversity on earth underlies natural selection, selective breeding and the
biotechnology required to provide humanity with food, fibre, fodder and
fuels. In particular, biodiversity affords the development of plant varieties
with novel genetic combinations, which will be required to meet the chal-
lenges arising from adverse alterations in temperature, precipitation, sea level
and the frequency of drought and floods – all of which are anticipated from
human-induced climate change. The loss of each gene and species therefore
limits our options for the future.

Some years ago, I published a book titled Towards an Era of Bio Happiness. This
particular book shows how we can convert – and by we I mean local communities
mostly made up of women and men living in remote areas – bio-resources into
job opportunities and income growth on a foundation of environmental sustain-
ability and social equity. The biodiversity-rich areas in our world also tend to be
characterized by poverty and hunger. This is morbidly ironic because although the
communities in these areas are the ones primarily conserving nature for the public
good, most of them remain poor in today’s globalized market.
Then, how can we disengage or separate poverty among the world’s primary
conservationists from the prosperity of nature? How can we additionally help them
to prosper by using nature’s resources in an equitable and sustainable manner? The
answer begins with recognizing and safeguarding the world’s most enduring and
tested agricultural heritage systems. They show us the way forward – how from
the distant past up until today, many local communities have conserved natural
resources and managed them sustainably. Whether we look to the island of Chi-
loé, the Andean corridors, the great rice terraces of the Philippines and China or
countless other splendid examples of agriculture heritage throughout the world for
inspiration, we can find veritable models of sustainable agriculture.
xviii Foreword

Finally, our forgotten heritages – our Globally Important Agricultural Heritage

Systems – represent not only a celebration of the achievements of our ancestors,
but also a guide to achieving sustainable food, nutrition and livelihood security.
Reminding the world about our agricultural heritage teaches younger generations
the glory of past agricultural innovations and inspires them to make their own
contributions to our agricultural legacy. Above all, it recognizes the role that farm-
ers, particularly women, have played in the origin, development, diversification and
conservation of genetic resources in food and agriculture. Thus, our agricultural
heritage serves as a flagship for the growing movement to enhance agricultural
productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological or social harm.
Prof. M. S. Swaminathan
Founder Chairman and Chief Mentor
UNESCO Chair in Ecotechnology
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Chennai, India
PREFACE

Remember the ‘World Heritage Trust’? The idea of combining conservation of cul-
tural sites with those of nature comes from the United States of America way back
in 1965, which called for a ‘World Heritage Trust’ that would stimulate international
cooperation to protect ‘the world’s superb natural and scenic areas and historic sites
for the present and the future of the entire world citizenry’. The World Heritage
Trust recognizes the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental
need to preserve the balance between the two. Thus in 1972, the General Confer-
ence of UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of World
Cultural and Natural Heritage. The rationale of the Convention was to prevent the
deterioration or disappearance of any items of cultural and natural heritage that are
increasingly threatened with destruction.
Indeed, the World Heritage Convention (WHC) is one of the most important
instruments in the history of international development policies. However, as we
admire and build efforts to protect and preserve our natural and cultural heritage,
we have forgotten our agricultural heritage, the foundation of the Neolithic Revo-
lution which introduced ‘agriculture’ as the basis of all civilizations. During the
Neolithic era, all agricultural activity, whether it was farming, herding, fishing or
hunting-gathering, constituted the way of life of the previous generations up to the
present, as well as underscored diversity, culture, evolution, development, continu-
ity and resilience in order to preserve its core values while adjusting to forces of
changing environmental and sociocultural demands. But in our recent civilization,
history has witnessed modernization, globalization and digital revolution, separating
us from our roots, and has made us forget and neglect our own agricultural heritage.
Putting back the culture in agriculture and highlighting the importance of diversity
for sustainable development was the primary motivation for me to conceptualize the
recognition of agricultural heritage systems as the foundation of food security and sus-
tainable agriculture. The concept of GIAHS and the innovative approach of ‘dynamic
xx Preface

conservation’ capture the essence of culture in agriculture and promote the interna-
tional and national recognition of GIAHS and the role custodians and communities
are playing in nurturing our agricultural heritage systems for our sustainable future.
GIAHS is the first global initiative that brings the link between agriculture and cultural
heritage to the forefront of development, not only because of the great heritage value
of outstanding agricultural systems, but in view of their historic, current and potential
future contribution to food security and more sustainable forms of development.
Numerous GIAHS around the world have proven their outstanding robustness and
resiliency and have passed the test of time. They offer solutions for present and future
generations and for social, economic and environmental sustainability. Building on
generations of accumulated knowledge and experience, these ingenious agri-‘cultural’
systems reflect the evolution of humanity and its profound harmony with nature. They
have resulted not only in outstanding aesthetic beauty, maintenance of globally signifi-
cant agricultural biodiversity, resilient ecosystems and valuable cultural inheritance but,
above all, in the sustained provision of multiple goods and services, food and livelihood
security and quality of life for the poorest and most remote communities.
As I have repeated at every occasion,‘GIAHS is not about the past; GIAHS is about
the future’. Humankind faces many challenges today and the foundations of our
modern civilization are threatened. Population growth, climate change, unsustainable
natural resources management, changes in diet and lifestyles and globalization are
creating many distortions in resource use and local values. If this direction continues,
future generations will not be able to see our diverse, naturally nutritious food crops
or to know and experience the associated evolving culture. At the international
policy dialogue, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goal to ‘end hunger,
achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agricul-
ture’ (SDG2) recognizes the interlinkages among supporting sustainable agriculture,
empowering small farmers, promoting gender equality, ending rural poverty, ensur-
ing healthy lifestyles, tackling climate change and other issues addressed within the
set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals in the Post-2015 Development Agenda. It
is evident that there is wide recognition of and growing concern that agriculture sys-
tems worldwide must become more productive and less wasteful, and that sustainable
agricultural practices and food systems, including both production and consumption,
must be pursued from a holistic and integrated perspective. I am certain that safe-
guarding and cherishing our GIAHS will contribute to many of the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals and to the pledge that no one will be left behind.
The GIAHS Initiative is about preserving the pillars of sustainable development –
environmental, economic and social – in a balanced and holistic manner. It is about
meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future gener-
ations to meet their own needs. It is about local food production and consumption;
the empowerment of local communities; the promotion of traditional farmer
knowledge systems enriched by the latest scientific knowledge; the reduction of our
carbon footprints; the conservation and sustainable utilization of our biodiversity
and natural resources; and living in harmony with nature. It is about the promotion
of cultural heritage values, as well as rural landscapes’ aesthetic values.
 Preface xxi

FIGURE FM.1 One of the clusters in the Ifugao rice terraces of the Philippines inscribed in
the World Heritage Properties, featuring a remarkable agricultural heritage system, which
has retained the viability as well as the efficacy of rice terraces that are more than 2,000 years
old. The continued existence and viability of this agricultural legacy is a manifestation of a
strong culture-nature-society balance that has helped to create a landscape of great beauty.
Credit: Mary Jane Ramos dela Cruz

However, GIAHS designation goes beyond the mere identification of outstand-

ing agricultural systems and their transformation into attractive snapshots of aesthetic
landscapes for tourists. As UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention has demonstrated,
people take pride in the value given to their heritage and are extremely gratified when
the system they have nurtured is singled out as a World Heritage Site or a Globally
Important Agricultural Heritage System. The myriad of agricultural heritage systems
around the world are cultural identities, sources of innovation, creativity and knowledge
exchange but also humanity’s guarantee for a mutually enriching, sustainable future.
As the son of a family farmer in a small village in Iran, I have dedicated most of my
professional and personal life to supporting smallholders, family farmers and indig-
enous communities and to the conceptualization, development and promotion of the
GIAHS Initiative in FAO from 2002 to 2012. I continue this support through the
establishment of the World Agricultural Heritage Foundation together with a number
of long-standing collaborators and dedicated scientists and advocates of GIAHS. I am
confident that if we work together, we will achieve the objectives and goals of valuing
and safeguarding the world’s outstanding agricultural heritage systems together with
their communities and livelihoods while allowing their continued evolution in the
face of ever-changing socio-economic and environmental circumstances.
Dr Parviz Koohaf kan
President
World Agricultural Heritage Foundation
Rome, Italy
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book, Forgotten Agricultural Heritage, is the result of a long and continuous
process of conceptual formulation, partnership building, field testing and implemen-
tation and, finally, meeting our ultimate objective of the international recognition
of the smallholders, family farmers and indigenous communities who created these
treasures of humanity and the mainstreaming of the GIAHS programme in FAO.
The road that has led to success and recognition of Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage Systems has required extensive work, a great deal of collective efforts from
various institutions and organizations, professionals, scientists, individuals, policy
makers and officials from various sectors of government, international organizations
and non-governmental, civil society and farmers’/indigenous peoples’ organizations
around the world – who shared the same passion of valuing and reviving agricul-
tural patrimony and who opened the door for what is now known as GIAHS. Our
appreciation and gratitude go to:

Former FAO colleagues and friends: David Boerma, Alan Bojanic, Marzia Cal-
isse, Jazmine Casafranca, Saulo Ceolin, Linda Collete, Barbara Cooney, Eve
Crowley, Paola Dini, Jose Esquinas, Jean Marc Faures, Catherine Gaury,
Peter Kenmore, Hiroyuki Konuma, Sarah Lacson, John Latham, Percy
Misika, Kuena Morebotsane, Jim Morgan, Alexander Mueller, Rakesh Mut-
hoo, Noureddine Nasr, Vicente Ossa, Aristeo Portugal, Wolfgang Prante,
Thomas Price, Roberto Samanez, Pasquale Steduto, Caroline von Gayl, Dai
Weidong and Yao Xiangjun.
Algeria: Dyamel Echir and Abdellatif Fatah Achour.
Chile: Teresa Aguero, Ximena George-Nascimento and Carlos Venegas.
China: Zhao Lijun, and Xu Ming, Min Qingwen, Qu Sixi, Li Wenhua, Yao
Xiangjun and Sun Yehong.
 Acknowledgements xxiii

Japan: Yasurou Funaki, Nakamura Koji, Luohui Liang, Yugo Matsuda, Anne
McDonald, Akira Nagata, Ramsar Civil Network, Masanori Sato, Yutaka
Sumita, Kazuhiko Takeuchi, Kazem Vafadari and Hideya Yamada.
Peru: Alipio Canahua, Miriam Cerdan, Jose Antonio Gonzales, Walter Hua-
mani, Hernan Mormontoy and Mario Tapia.
Philippines: Noel de Luna, Edwin Domingo, Maris Gavino, Lupino Lazaro
Jr., Teresa Mundita Lim, Cristina Regunay, Brenda Saquing, Segfredo Ser-
rano and Analiza R. The.
Tunisia: Lazhar Cherif, Najeh Dali and Atef Dhahri.
Individuals and professionals: D. K. Giri, Stefano Grego, Stuart Harrop, Manu
Ji, Liana John, Andrea Kutter, Maharaj Muthoo, Vincenzo Naso, Ajay Parida,
P. S. Ramakrishnan, Frank Schoebroeck and Michael Stocking.
Bioversity International: Nadia Bergamini Pablo Eyzaguirre and Stephen
Wise.
CBD: Ahmed Djoghlaf and John Scott.
GEF: Former CEO Monique Barbut and Andrea Kutter.
IFAD: Rima Alcadi and Shantanu Mathur.
ISESCO: Abdulaziz Altwaijri, Aicha Bammoun and Faiq Bilal.
Netherlands International Cooperation: Cathrien de Pater, Arend Jan van
Bodegom and Gerard van Dijk.
RIHN: A great deal of the research on this book took place during Dr Koo-
haf kan’s 2014 visit to RIHN as a senior visiting scientist, and we are grate-
ful for the hospitality of this prestigious institution and in particular to his
colleagues Dr Abe Kenichi, Stephen McGreevey, Daniel Niles and Tetsuzo
Yasunari.
The Christensen Fund: Ken Wilson.
UNDP: Adriana Dinu, John Hough, Maryam Niamir-Fuller and Nick Remple.
UNESCO: Salvatore Arico, Antonio Bandarin, Walter Erdelen, Han Quanli,
Kishore Rao and Mechtild Rossler.
Staff, consultants and volunteers who worked on GIAHS: Natalia Acosta, Mauro
Agnoletti, Rosemary Allison, Meissa Aytekin, Tullia Baldassari, Anya Bellali,
Sonja Berweck, Nora de Falco, Frederick Deve, Nuria Felipe, Jose Furtado,
Lena Gubler, Angela Hilmi, Patricia Howard, Elisa Lorenson, Ludovica Mei,
Cordula Mertens, Julia Morelli, Francisco Palma, Raj Puri, Sabine Remmel,
Samira Sarvi, J. P. L. Srivastava and Soraya Thabet.

We are particularly grateful and indebted to Prof. M. S. Swaminathan, whose wis-

dom and unwavering support were always available; and to Alex Koohaf kan, Jose
Esquinas, Philip Mahler, Charles Lilin and Jean Bedel for their indispensable techni-
cal and editorial help.
We would like specifically to thank Ms Mary Jane Ramos dela Cruz, who worked
10 continuous years on the GIAHS Initiative during its conceptualization and imple-
mentation. Her enthusiastic support and creativity, professional competence and
xxiv Acknowledgements

generous investment of time and energy made the GIAHS achievements possible
during those difficult moments of raising awareness, piloting dynamic conservation,
project formulation and implementation.
Finally, we acknowledge the great efforts of Dr Jose Graziano da Silva, director-
general of FAO, and his management team, and every other one whom we failed to
mention, and to everybody who advocated and supported GIAHS; may we continue
to plant the seed of hope for food security and nutritious food, food sovereignty,
farmer and indigenous rights and diversity for sustainable development.
Parviz Koohaf kan
Miguel A. Altieri
1
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 1.1 From the Chinese Han nationality, happy Hani children from Yuanyang,
Yunnan Province. One of the 55 known ethnic minorities in China.
Credit: Mary Jane Ramos dela Cruz

The evolution and role of traditional agriculture

For a long period of human history, people were hunter-gatherers directly depen-
dent on nature and natural resources. They relied on wide areas to meet their needs
for food, fibre, shelter and medicine. From trailside plantings they moved through
2 Past, present and future of agriculture

forested areas as hunter-gatherers (Hynes and Chase, 1982) and, during their socio-
ecological evolutionary phase, they moved to shifting cultivation followed by settled
farming. It was during this time that a variety of complex multi-species sedentary
systems evolved within natural ecosystems such as forests, grasslands or wetlands.
Traditional societies practising shifting cultivation, variously termed slash and burn,
swidden and a range of local names, and other traditional sedentary systems developed
in various regions of the world and continue today to be closely related to nature
and based on local natural resources. The available biodiversity contributed towards
meeting the basic livelihood needs of traditional societies (Ramakrishnan et al., 1996;
Ramakrishnan 2000, 2008), and as these traditional cultures depended on both natural
and human-managed biodiversity, they developed a culture of conserving biodiversity.
Primary agricultural civilization consists of the first settled and stable commu-
nities that became the foundation for later states, nations and empires. Although
modern humans (Homo sapiens) have existed for more than 150,000 years, it is only
in the past few thousand years, since the discovery of agriculture, that civilization
has existed. Around 7,000–10,000 years ago, a most important revolution, the Neo-
lithic Revolution, as it is called, forever changed the interaction between humans
and the world around them, by introducing the ingredient that makes civilization
possible: agriculture. Indeed, the single, decisive factor that allowed mankind to
settle in permanent communities was agriculture. According to archaeologists, once
farming was developed in Mesopotamia in about 6500 BCE, people living in tribes
or family units did not have to be on the move continuously searching for food or
herding their animals.
Earliest agricultural civilization seems to have appeared in the Middle East and
the main agriculture regions of the world seem to have centred in Mesopotamia,
Ethiopia, sub-Saharan Africa, China, Mesoamerica and the highland and lowlands
of South America. Each had its own ecological feature and suite of cultivated plants
and domesticated animals. People associated with them, their cultures and religions,
were closely intertwined with the main crops they grew. This appears to be the
pattern on a global scale.
This agricultural development was mostly driven by great differences in climates,
cultures and technologies, and all agricultural civilization underscores its diversity,
evolution, continuity and resilience to preserve its core values while adjusting to
forces of environmental, economic and social transformation and scientific and
technological advances, a process which still is in a state of transition in the wake of
the digital revolution, globalization and instant communication.
The early agricultural civilizations often developed along rivers as farming in
ancient civilizations had always relied on a dependable water supply and, for the
first societies, this meant rivers and streams or regular rainfall. People began to
found permanent communities in fertile river valleys, and settlers learned to use the
water supply to irrigate the land. Settlement in a place made it possible for them
to domesticate plants and animals in order to provide themselves reliable sources of
food and clothing. Some of the most sophisticated water management and irriga-
tion systems today bear witness to the ingenuity and agricultural heritage systems
 Past, present and future of agriculture 3

FIGURE 1.2 Vavilov centres of domesticated crops.

Source: Redwoodseed, en-wiki: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vavilov-center.jpg

of drylands (the qanat irrigated farming system in Iran, oases in the Middle East and
North Africa, orchards and fruit gardens in Central and East Asia).
According to Vavilov, plants were not domesticated at random, but were domes-
ticated in specific regions where domestication started. These centres of origin are
also the centres of megadiversity. Until today the Vavilov centres (see the map) are
regions where a high diversity of crops’ wild relatives can be found, representing
the natural relatives of domesticated crop plants.
The earliest agricultural civilization engaged in what was basically wheat-barley
agriculture, although other crops like lentil, chickpea, pea, root crops and so on were
associated with it. This agriculture spread westward around the Mediterranean,
across North Africa and Southern Europe and thus northward across the Balkans
to Western Europe, the British Isles, Scandinavia and Russia. It spread eastward
to the Ethiopian Plateau and on to India. In India the wheat-barley combination
found a congenial home in the highlands and was also grown in the lowlands in the
winter season. This complemented rice, sorghum and millet summer crops. Wheat
and barley became important in China and Japan, but were not suited to Southeast
Asia, where rice was the dominant cereal (Damania et al., 1998; Loskutov, 1999).
Meanwhile, an independent agriculture was evolving in Africa. A suite of crops
became domesticated in sub-Saharan Africa with no obvious centre, but the activity
ranged from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Plants included sorghum, pearl mil-
let, cowpea, African rice and others. Ethiopia contributed a short list of indigenous
crops, some of which are grown nowhere else. This includes tef (Eragrostis tef ),
noog or niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) and ensete (Musa spp.). Ethiopia has the
characteristics of a centre while sub-Saharan Africa does not. Clearly a sub-Saharan
agriculture did evolve independently from the Middle East centre.
4 Past, present and future of agriculture

Another agricultural civilization was developed in northern China dating from

about 8500 BCE. Many of the early sites are located on the loess terraces associated
with the Yellow River. The early crops were millets of one kind or another, primar-
ily a proso (Panicum spp.) and foxtail millet (Setaria spp.). A rice-based agriculture
developed in the lowlands, perhaps centred on the Yangtze River delta. It was an
expansive kind of agriculture, and rice became important from eastern China to
India and southward into Indonesia.
In the New World, a maize-based agriculture evolved in southern Mexico and
spread as far north as Canada and deep into South America. There were other
crops, but maize was the dominant cereal over a wide range of the Americas. In
South America, agriculture developed in the highlands based on tuber crops, among
which was the potato (Solanum spp.), which became important in North America,
Europe and other temperate regions. In the lowlands, the dominant crop was cas-
sava originated in the Amazon region, a very important source of starch adapted to
tropical rainfall conditions.

Whether nomadic hunter-gatherers or settled farmers involved with tradi-

tional agricultural systems, these eco-cultural groups have always looked upon
nature with respect and reverence. Indeed, this reverence for nature and natu-
ral resources as ‘intangibles’, along with the tangible benefits, has been the
basis for the dynamic conservation of traditional agricultural systems as an
integral part of their complex landscape and environment.
Ramakrishnan et al., 1998

FIGURE 1.3 A Quechua woman farmer and her varieties of quinoa – a traditional gluten-
free, low-fat, high-protein and fibre-rich grain crop from the Andes (Andean) region.
Credit: Alipio Canahua
 Past, present and future of agriculture 5

Traditional agricultural systems are fundamental to the future of sustain-

able agriculture and rural development as a source of rural livelihood, local and
diversified food systems, employment, conservation and sustainable utilization of
agro-biodiversity and viable ecosystem goods and services. While not always recog-
nized by the scientific community, these systems, which bear ancestral knowledge,
could be the basis for actual and future agricultural innovations and technologies.

Back to the roots, traditional agriculture and agroecology

Starting points in the development of new agricultural systems are the very systems
that farmers have developed and/or inherited throughout centuries. Such complex
farming systems, adapted to local conditions, have helped small farmers to sus-
tainably manage harsh environments and to meet their subsistence needs without
depending on mechanization, chemical fertilizers, pesticides or other inputs and
technologies of modern agricultural science (Denevan, 1995). Although many of
these systems have collapsed or disappeared in many parts of the world, the stubborn
persistence of millions of hectares of agricultural land under ancient, traditional
management in the form of raised fields, terraces, polycultures (with a number of
crops growing in the same field), agroforestry systems and so forth documents a
successful indigenous agricultural strategy and constitutes a tribute to the creativity
of traditional farmers. These microcosms of traditional agriculture offer promising
models for other areas because they promote biodiversity, thrive without agrochem-
icals and sustain year-round yields.
Since the early 1980s, hundreds of agroecologically based projects, promoted by
NGOs and farmers’ organizations throughout the developing world, have shown
that by blending elements of traditional knowledge and modern agricultural sci-
ence, the productivity and sustainability of small farming systems can be optimized
and the conservation of natural resources and community food sovereignty can be
enhanced. The emerging concept of food sovereignty emphasizes farmers’ access
to land, seeds and water while focusing on local autonomy, local markets, local
production-consumption cycles, energy and technological sovereignty and farmer-
to-farmer networks (Altieri and Toledo, 2011).
The new models of agriculture humanity will need to include are forms of
farming that are more ecological, biodiverse, local, sustainable and socially just. This
means that they should be rooted in the ecological rationale of traditional small-scale
agriculture, representing long-established examples of successful community-
based local agriculture. Such systems have fed much of the world for centuries
and continue to feed people in many parts of the planet. The future sustainability
of agriculture depends also on young people wanting to remain on the land, and
therefore farming must provide a way of life which is satisfying for young people.
Historical evidence shows that smallholder agriculture, adequately supported by
policy and public investments, has the capacity to contribute effectively to food secu-
rity and food sovereignty, and substantially and significantly to economic growth,
the generation of employment, the alleviation of poverty, the emancipation of
6 Past, present and future of agriculture

neglected and marginalized groups and the reduction of spatial and socio-economic
inequalities. Within an enabling political and institutional environment, it can con-
tribute to sustainable management of biodiversity and other natural resources while
preserving cultural heritage.
The contribution smallholder agriculture makes to world food security and
nutrition is both direct, in as far as it links production and consumption for many
rural households, and indirect because (a) it is provisioning domestic markets with
the main food products, (b) it does so in a potentially resilient way, and (c) in many
countries smallholder agriculture functions as an important social safety net.
At a time when fortification is widely promoted as the most effective solution to
address micronutrient deficiencies, we should remember that nature and traditional
agriculture provide an almost infinite variety of food diversity which is disregarded
and therefore pushed into oblivion and extinction by the prevailing industrial food
production system (Hajjar et al., 2008). The recognition of the value of nutritional
and dietary diversity of traditional agriculture is also becoming an important entry
point for exploring more sustainable food systems. The causes and consequences of
impoverishment in food diversity and simplification of diets are complex and span
culture, health, agriculture, markets and environment. However, it seems likely that
agricultural biodiversity can play a role in moderating nutritional problems (Johns,
2006; Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006; De Wit, 2015). The combination of various
crops and animals in traditional agroecosystems not only allows the more efficient
utilization of ecological niches; it also increases locally available nutrients for human
diets or improves household income, allowing the purchase of alternative food items
on the market.
Indigenous species harboured in traditional agriculture and family farms are
important to health, besides having an important role in ecologically based produc-
tion systems. In many crops, the choice between one variety and another can make
the difference between micronutrient deficiency and micronutrient adequacy. Proj-
ects implementing an integrated approach to sustainable agriculture and improved
nutrition have successfully built upon locally available biodiversity to revitalize local
or regional food products and systems and have had a positive impact on communi-
ties’ livelihoods and health.
The challenge of future agriculture in both developing and developed countries
is to identify win-win options whereby intensification or changes in land use meet
the demands of expanding population and economic development while reducing
negative externalities of purely market-based agricultural production and main-
taining the goods and services provided by the environment. A desirable endpoint
for all viable land use and agricultural systems is clearly a design that enhances both
the private benefits for resource users or managers and the public benefits through
other functions and services. The goals of a cross-disciplinary design in this con-
text are to improve food security, alleviate poverty and protect the environment
beyond individual landholdings and to include issues of overall human well-being
and ecosystem services. Communities need to be involved in development deci-
sions so as to mobilize collective wisdom and willingness to balance production
 Past, present and future of agriculture 7

and protection and to identify complementary scenarios of sustainable agriculture

(Nabhan, 2008).
Increasingly, scientists acknowledge that traditional agroecosystems could solve
many of the crises in the world today (Toledo et al., 2010). Traditional agricultural
systems are beacons of sustainable development and environmental harmony in
an era of upheaval in finances, energy and the climate. In fact, promising agricul-
tural pathways, based on the rationale of evolving traditional agricultural systems,
could contribute substantially to the achievement of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs).
Well into the second decade of the twenty-first century, the world is witnessing
millions of smallholders and traditional farmers practising biodiverse and resource-
conserving farming. This perseverance of ancient farming practices, despite the
aggression of modern economic forces, is a testament to the remarkable resiliency
of traditional agroecosystems in the face of continuous environmental and eco-
nomic change, and contributes substantially to food security at the local, regional
and national levels (Altieri and Toledo, 2011). Working with nature, and using its
biological diversity, these traditional societies accumulate and dynamically con-
serve a rich traditional ecological knowledge, a heritage that has evolved over space
and time, ascribing a ‘sacred’ dimension to biodiversity in all its scalar dimensions:
genetic, species, ecosystem and landscape levels. Apart from the tangible benefits
traditional societies seek from biodiversity, they also attach intangible values. This
connectivity between the ‘tangibles’ and ‘intangibles’ has enabled them to be close
to nature, which is a dimension that is becoming increasingly significant from the
viewpoint of biodiversity conservation today.
The process of agricultural innovation and evolution has also created a myriad
of agricultural systems characterized by a tremendous diversity of domesticated
crop and animal species that have been maintained and enhanced by the ingenious
management of soil, water and biodiversity, all nourished by complex accumulated
knowledge systems. This cultural, ecological and agricultural diversity is still evident
in many parts of the world, maintained by both men and women, from family and
small-scale farmers to indigenous peoples and minorities, who employ ancestral and
local varieties of plant and animal races. Emerging research reveals that smallholder
agroecological production contributes markedly to food security, rural livelihoods
and both local and national economies. Yet these contributions have not been ade-
quately appreciated; neither have the ecosystem goods and services provided to
global society (Zimmerer, 2014).
In order for time-tested, traditional agricultural systems to become part of the
solution, we must understand the causes of and risks of environmental degradation
and disruption in the landscape. We must comprehend what makes up biological
integrity and how it impacts conservation and the sustainable use of agricultural
biodiversity in the livelihood systems of the populations concerned. What is required
is continuous agroecological and social innovation that is combined with the care-
ful transfer of accumulated knowledge and experience that has been carried across
generations. Careful consideration is needed of the critical issue of how to meet the
8 Past, present and future of agriculture

often-conflicting goals of conservation and development. For instance, how to avoid

creating farming ‘museums’; how key characteristics of traditional systems can be con-
served while enhancing their dynamic evolution and viability; how the aspirations
of local populations and national goals can be met through technical improvements,
incentive measures and livelihood opportunities for the rural communities.

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1 Past, present and future of agriculture

Altieri, M. A., Koohafkan, P. and Nicholls, C. 2013.

Strengthening Resilience of Modern Farming Systems: A Key
Prerequisite for Sustainable Agricultural Production in an
Era of Climate Change (Briefing Paper 70). Third World
Network (TWN), Malaysia.

Altieri, M. A. and Toledo, V. M. 2011. The agroecological

revolution in Latin America: Rescuing nature, ensuring
food sovereignty and empowering peasants. Journal of
Peasant Studies 38 (3): 587–612.

Bosc, P. M., Piraux, M. and Dulcire, M. 2014. Contributing

to innovation, policies and local democracy through
collective action. In: Family Farming and the Worlds to
Come , Sourisseau J. M. (Ed.), Dordrecht: Springer. pp.
145–162.

Damania, A. B., Valkoun, J., Willcox, G. and Qualset, C. O.

(Eds.) 1998. The Origins of Agriculture and Crop
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Denevan, W. M. 1995. Prehistoric agricultural methods as

models for sustainability. Advance Plant Pathology 11:
21–43.

De Wit, M. M. 2015. Are we losing diversity? Navigating

ecological, political, and epistemic dimensions of
agrobiodiversity conservation. Agriculture and Human
Values 32 (2 Summer issue).

FAO. 2011. Women in agriculture, closing the gender gap for

development. In: The State of Food and Agriculture
2010–2011 . Rome, Italy, pp. 1–61.

FAO. 2012a. Greening the Economy with Agriculture . Rome,

Italy.

FAO. 2012b. Smallholders and family farmers – factsheet.

FAO. 2012c. Strategy for Partnerships with Civil Society .

Rome, Italy.

FAO. 2013. Coping with the food and agriculture challenge:

Smallholders’ agenda, preparations and outcomes of the 2012
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(Rio+20), paper prepared by K. D. Maass Wolfenson.
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Note . Rome, Italy.

FAO. 2014b. The State of Food and Agriculture: Innovation

in Family Farming . Rome, Italy.

FAO, IFAD and WFP. 2015. The State of Food Insecurity in

the World 2015: Meeting the 2015 International Hunger
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Italy.

Hajjar, R., Jarvis, D. I. and Gemmill-Herren, B. 2008. The

utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem
services. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 123:
261–270.

Hynes, R. A. and Chase, A. K. 1982. Plants, sites and

domiculture: Aboriginal influence on plant communities in
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