06 2015 04 14 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Chapter 4 Wheels & Internal Airflows

ROAD VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS chapter 4 WHEELS & INTERIOR FLOWS
WHEEL
Interaction between wheel and Lokari is really complex. New wind tunnels with moving belt have been really
useful to learn around the physic of this concept and to solve problems on Drag and brake cooling.
A standing still wheel, far from the road surface, has got a Drag with a quite high CD, around 0,4 – 0,5.
The same wheel, but rotating ALONE adds also a downforce, due to Magnus effect.
Once the wheel is touching the ground, the Z force becames a LIFT
1 paolomassai 2012 04 09
Another important aspect of a wheel rotating at a certain speed is that the wheel itself rotates around the IRC
(Instantaneous Rotation Center): this means that the upper part of the wheel is traveling at the double of the
speed of the wheel center (2V0).
Open wheels race cars, as F1, can have top speed around 350 km/h, this means that upper part of the wheel is
moving at 700 km/h. This is another simple reason why in F1 the DRAG is so high.
The main problems around wheel, in road cars with faired wheels, are:
• There are many interaction between the flow around wheels and what that is going along the sides, with the
danger that it is delivering some effects of posting wake
• A strong dynamic pressure it is generating in the wheels compartment: to avoid a lift effect, this must be
vented but also becomes possible to use this kinetic energy for re-energize a “tired flow”
The most simple solutions adopted in road vehicles, could be:
• Reduce the air volume in the wheel compartment in disordered motion

• making the wheel compartment less “roughness" than possible
Normally a smooth and complete closing of the zone is generally adopted in standard Road Production Cars
(from the name of supplier is
named LOKARY) with the aim to
close all holes and give continuity
to the stream around the wheel.
Brake cooling ducts can pass

internally or can cross the Lokari
itself.
Brake cooling duct on front Lokari in

BMW serie 3
Rear Lokari in Citroen C4 - Picasso

2007: are very smooth, as you can see
Front Lokari of Lamborghini

Murcielago LP 640, carbon fiber
realized, very polished, obtained
with an appropriate positioning
of the molding
Mercedes ML solution front wheel: also in

the off-road condition, the Lokary is
necessary to avoid interaction between
the mud and the little blocks of the tires
VolksWagen Polo 1,2 2010: front

wheel , McPherson suspension, quite
complete Lokary, with, in the front,
cross channel for brake air cooling
HONDA JAZZ only ½ lokary in this front wheel compartment with Mc Pherson suspension, very poor
HONDA JAZ: in the rear absolutely no Lokary, a cost saving forced too
FORD FIESTA 2010: also here an almost complete Lokary in the front , without sharp edge of the body's metal
sheet
FORD FIESTA: to the rear, an almost complete Lokary, covering the interference of the fuel line to tank
First, at least two ways of solving could be considered:
 The Wheel has to be

aligned to the external
boundary of fender, or
maybe slightly inside
 The fender has to be

designed in order to avoid
“spoon” shape, that create
mess and drag.
 Sometimes a good behavior could be reached with long sills, but often this is only a style measure.
TOYOTA PRIUS 2011 the tyre “slightly inside”
FORD CONCEPT IOSIS: wings and sills are aesthetic
in reality this
FERRARI
GTO, has an
efficient
wider sill
that really
improves the
rear wheel
fairing.
Note also the

rear exit
from the rear
fender, just
behind it: it
allow to
decrease
the dynamic
pressure
inside wheel
compartment
, and could
give energy
to the wake
Also wider bumper improves the wheel fairing

One very important research has been done by Ferrari, on its researching car 599 XX. The wheel DO-NUTS
It consist of one SCREEN (“donut”) with a little gap into the rim of wheel, for brake cooling air management in order
to optimize the side flows
Tyre
Brake disk
Bodywork
Gap between rim and screen
Screen (“donut”)
The experimental results show also an improvement of brakes

cooling, due to the incremented kinet energy
These are the velocity vectors that are showing

how all flows will be modified in order to optimize
the lateral flow
DRAG – 5%
EFFICIENCY + 7%
these are the pressure zone without DO NUCTS
And these other with DO NUCTS
 Improved brake
cooling
 Lower drag by
reducing energy
losses caused by
turbulence created
by rims
Another interesting
applied research, in
the Ferrari California
roadster production
car:
through a
comunication between
wheel housing and the
rear end, where it was
a favorable pressure
gradient, the dynamic
pressure in the wheel
compartment was
used to increase the
energy of the wake.
The complex interaction between wheel and Lokari is studied before with CFD techniques, to optimize the
management and interaction of the internal and external flow
as well as experimental testing work on the rolling belt in the wind tunnel.
Unfortunately, in these circumstances and with this configuration, the measured values include the rolling
resistance, which must first be estimated and then subtracted from the results.
Another solution is achieved through application of opportune rotating belts placed under each wheel and set in
motion by electric motors
The track that

runs beneath the car is simulated
with a rotating tape of more size
(about
1 meter width and length of about
5 meters) that is slipped under
the car in the
area between the right and left
wheels
Some interesting experimental results about wheels:
the contribution of the wheels and wheel arches is about 30% of the total. In a correct way, if the car had 0,320 CD,
after the restyling the same car could reach a goal of 0,280, that could be a very important improvement
and this is the influence of the tire profile, that is different and specific of any Company: about 0,4 CD points
Here is how to measure in what way the design of a circle affect the aerodynamic drag of the whole car.
(there is also a little LIFT)
CD from 0,2985 to 0,2906
designing with high know how, so as to choose the right tire profile and the correct circle plate, it will be possible to
reduce the CD like as 4 points, if the primary design was not good enough
That is what happened with this configuration
Usually race cars are good examples of good aerodynamics. Let us see
Audi RS4:
Audi RS4: longitudinal guide for air stream

deviation (to create DownForce) around front
wheels and the plastic nolder that covers the front
wheel
RS4: front wheel, the outlet for the air stream is open
RS4: rear wheel, the outlet for the air

stream is open
detail of exit border of rear wheel; rear
wing
CHEVROLET CRUIZE. 2011 WTCC winner: outlet completely opened

And the rear, also with some sill to improve downforce
Citroen C4 RALLY: front wheel

And rear wheel

FORD FIESTA 2012 RALLY
FORD FIESTA 2012 RALLY

INTERNAL AERODYNAMIC
The internal aerodynamic studies, especially the cooling circuit for the engine and the air conditioning system, now
are the most modern development of total aerodynamics aspect, not only to reduce CD, but also for a good energy
management.
In this chapter are studied also all unwanted “inlet” and “outlet”, as various spillage.
COOLING CIRCUIT
the stream of engine cooling is the main part of the so-called internal streams. Engine cooling system is a part of
vehicle which is necessary for keeping engine and accessory temperature in a certain temperature range, so
assuring their functioning on every motion condition and with a minimum energy consumption (the energy is
taken away from engine for the functioning of auxiliary organs such as pumps or fans).
For this purpose it is necessary to make air pass through the heat exchanger (radiator) by exploiting the
difference of pressure Δp between the inlet of the cooling DUCT, near the stagnation point, namely in the
presence of maximum pressure, and the EXIT, possibly collocated in the low pressure area of the car.
The radiator is made up of foils which are in parallel to air stream and whose density determines the heat quantity
per surface unit which is given away to fluid and causes a pressure loss ΔpR through radiator between the inlet
and outlet sections of stream.
Commonly a coefficient of load loss kP is defined as
p R
kP  1
/ 2   VR2 where VR is the speed of stream in the radiator.
At low speed, fluid motion is mainly laminar: so kP is in inverse proportion to Reynolds number and so to VR.
1
kP 
At high speed, stream is turbulent and it is possible to define .
5 VR
usually kP is presumed to be steady with an average value for cars, equal to kP=6 and valid for most common
radiators; the relationship with VR will be:
interpolating experimental figures, these curves were obtained.
They connect the ratio between stream speed through the radiator ( V R ) and the speed of vehicle (V∞) with the
coefficient of pressure loss kp. The analytical expression follows (the first one refers to scale models, the second
one to real cars):
VR 1 VR 1
 ;  .
V 1  k P 4 V 1 kp
Applying Bernoulli theorem to control volume, taking into account the changing quantity of fluid motion and the
inclination of the exhaust duct α, it is possible to define cooling CD,C CD (Cooling), by means of the following equation:
VC AC  A V 
C D ,C  2  1  C  C  cos  
V A f  AO V 
where VC and V∞ are stream speed through the radiator and the speed up stream the vehicle respectively, whereas
AC, AO and Af are areas of radiator, exit DUCT and frontal section.
- Model for analytic defining of cooling CD due to pressure loss. Scheme of cooling stream in the engine.
The analytic expression of CD,C highlights also the importance of angle α, where cooling air is ejected. As a matter
of fact, analysing the changing resistance according to changing angle, from a quality point of view, we observe
that if:
 α tends to zero, CD,C has a minimum,

 vice versa it goes up if α is bigger.
We must also remind that if α varies, also Cp

varies contextually in the area near air EXIT, so
changing the coefficient of car lift force (generally
CLfront as the EXIT DUCT is in front situated).
In sport or competition cars, as CL has to

be <0, or very low anyway, exit ducts
have to be placed on the bonnet, by
using dynamic air vents for the orientation
of stream coming from the engine in
parallel to external current (avoiding to
increase CD because of the interferences)
The expression for determining CD is valid only for the resistance component due to pressure loss near the
radiator.
However there is another component which is due to the interference between the external stream and stream
coming from cooling system.
Both components are not usually separate and this is the reason why the aerodynamic resistance of cooling
system is obtained like the difference between vehicle resistance with open air vents (C D) and resistance with
closed air vents (CD0) (figure 3-15).
Tests carried out on many cars showed that average CD increase is equal to ΔCD = CD-CD0 = 0,03 ÷ 0,04.
Open air vent. Closed air vent.

Following images illustrate pressure distributions on the front of the car in both configurations (figure 3-16) by using
CFD.
Open engine air vent. Closed engine air vent (Maquette).
Some new cars, high level cars, today are applying an electronic controlled system which is actuating the CLOSE
AIR VENT when the engine cooling condition are in correct condition. So they can reach an improvement of 40, 50
points of CD.
Particular attention has to be paid to to air vents up stream the radiator. (remember the AIR DUCT for F1
Radiator)
Edges or sharp shapes cause the detachment of fluid and consequent vortexes as well as the loss of radiator
efficiency in addition to an increase in total resistance.
Vice versa by rounding opportunely the frontal edge of the air inlet, adding a correct long diffuser, the CD,C can
decrease (remember that the CD of a free radiator in an air flow, is 7-13 times higher than nicely ducted system),
the flow can increase, and also the radiator efficiency can increase.
In order to maximize cooling efficiency and limit the CD increment due to the incorrect flow under the bonnet, it is
very important to introduce diffuser plates, so that all the inlet air at the front passes through the radiant masses: .
THERMAL AND AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY ARE IMPROVED IF WE SLOW THE AIR DOWN AHEAD OF THE
RADIATOR AND TO DO THIS WE NEED A PROPER DUCT
Air stream is calculated introducing all loss inside engine bay.

Aerodynamic resistance introduced on the car due to the cooling system, can be also given by the following
formula mass flow G
∆R = G ( V0 – V2 COS ∂)
Due to big dissipation inside engine bay, usually V2 is lower than V0 and ∂ is never zero, often G is left free
underneath the car. Also this can reduce the efficiency.
Aerodynamic resistance introduced by the cooling system could be limited decreasing G. This could be possible
only rising temperature of cooling liquid, pressurizing radiators to elevate the step between air and water. Modern
engines are designed to be in these conditions, with cooling liquid around 120° C, or more.
Reducing the frontal area of air inlet and study properly the outlet of hot air are the best solutions to decrease C D,C.
Internal aerodynamics is become more and more interesting and it is studied with CFD soft wares as STAR or
similar.
Designed air mass flow G0, is verified with an experimental procedure called ATB (Air To Boil). This test is
accomplished in a wind tunnel with certain temperature conditions and in special engine situations.
Usually the engine is in the worst condition possible, 2° gear and full throttle, with slow car’s speed; external
temperature of 35° C with sun irradiation. For a given outer temperature, air mass flow G0 is the one needed to
remove thermal power from the engine with the cooling liquid at the boiling point.
Both engine cooling and air-to-air heat exchanger have to be properly designed to ensure the correct cooling to the
mechanical components. Due to the interest in supercharged engines it is very important to study properly the heat
exchanger to rise up the efficiency, using conveyors to avoid laterals escapes. The idea is also to direct to the front
wind the intercooler exchanger before than the other exchangers (oil, power steering assistance, condenser of air
conditioning, etc).
Last but not least, consider also that if the Engine cooling circuit had got a scheme like this one:
The External diffusion is, generally speaking, more efficient than internal one. The reason is that Venturi needs
boundaries, that need boundaries and therefore boundary layers. Boundary layers could mean separation,
dissipation, inefficiency.
External diffusion is not heavy and does not need structures and it is “spontaneous” if the inlet is properly designed.
S0 and V0 represent asymptotic section the inlet, and correspond to V and to flow G that cross the circuit.
V2 could be bigger than V0 with the use of a fan and if ∂ could be designed = zero. In this case the fan could be a
sort of propulsion for the car.
Unfortunately fans for radiators have got really low efficiency and have got other priorities: no vibrations and no
risonances, for example. To avoid resonances usually they have got blades with variable rate.
CITROEN C4 PICASSO: fan with rounded blade with asymmetric rate

…and
equilib
ration
masse
s.
CITROEN C4 PICASSO: radiators conveyors that have got the same shape of all frontal parts of the car
HONDA JAZZ 2009: no diffuser plates in front of radiator, the airflow can go anywhere bypassing the radiator. So
the drag increases and the cooling flow through the radiator matrix decreases
FORD FIESTA 2010: no exit duct at the radiator, the airflow is coming out with random α and direction: the
possibility of interferences with principal flow will be more and more.
Brake cooling
Apart from engine cooling stream, we must consider another one which belongs to internal streams too and is as
much important for car safety, namely the stream for brake cooling.
Brake disk cooling is possible using pressure difference between
 an air vent, situated in areas where pressure is higher than in freestream (near stagnation point)
 an exit duct, which is usually the wheel itself.
Unfortunately it is difficult to measure the increase in aerodynamic resistance due to this stream, so it is necessary
to adopt solutions which interfere as little as possible with the stream around vehicle.
 The current trend in design are openings on the front of the car, which convey air near the brake system
through a duct. This solution is the most advantageous as far as C D is concerned and has the benefit it does
not interfere with streams in the bottom of the car nor with streams coming out from engine cooling.
 Another possible solution are NACA dynamic air vents (from aeronautics), whose general shape is.
NACA dynamic air vent – sight in plan. NACA dynamic air vent– section.
Such air vents are particularly useful for taking air in areas without overpressure, avoiding separations,
otherwise dynamic vents are used.
an example of dynamic vents, which are situated on the car undertray. The duct conveys cooling air
directly on brake disks.
Scheme of rear brake cooling in a PORSCHE 911 Turbo Detail of a rear brake cooling duct in a PORSCHE 911 Turbo
We must remind that air (SdV/dt [m3/s]) required for brake cooling is directly proportional to car speed (V), whereas
cooling efficiency increases if frontal Ram Air Inlet is replaced by Dynamic Pressure inlet.
AIR CONDITIONING
For the air conditioning the concept are the same. The lateral windows suck air with V = V0, and release the air at
V2 (low) or with ∂ different to 0. This means that windows are producing reduction in momentum, and therefore are
creating resistance.
The design of air conditioning requires

specific calculations and simulation
extended to the whole cockpit. This
simulation is imperative to reduce
conditioning time and avoid streams
concentration.
SPLITS, MOLDINGS
Also in this case the concept is the same: each air flow sucked at V0 that is entering in the car and that is expulse
at V2 (power that V0) and / or with an high ∂, produce a corresponding momentum variation, then a DRAG. Some
measurable advantages can be achieved only using thin rubber strips that close all holes and splits.
Worst moldings are those perpendicular to the stream, as chromed frame of lateral windows. In the last cars, we
often see frameless lateral windows, that avoid the problem because all thickness are inside the boundary layer.

06 2015 04 14 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Chapter 4 Wheels &amp; Internal Airflows

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06 2015 04 14 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Chapter 4 Wheels &amp; Internal Airflows

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ROAD VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS chapter 4 WHEELS & INTERIOR FLOWS

The most simple solutions adopted in road vehicles, could be:

• Reduce the air volume in the wheel compartment in disordered motion

Brake cooling ducts can pass

Brake cooling duct on front Lokari in

Rear Lokari in Citroen C4 - Picasso

Front Lokari of Lamborghini

Mercedes ML solution front wheel: also in

VolksWagen Polo 1,2 2010: front

First, at least two ways of solving could be considered:

 The Wheel has to be

 The fender has to be

TOYOTA PRIUS 2011 the tyre “slightly inside”

FORD CONCEPT IOSIS: wings and sills are aesthetic

Note also the

Also wider bumper improves the wheel fairing

Gap between rim and screen

The experimental results show also an improvement of brakes

These are the velocity vectors that are showing

these are the pressure zone without DO NUCTS

And these other with DO NUCTS

The track that

Some interesting experimental results about wheels:

CD from 0,2985 to 0,2906

That is what happened with this configuration

Audi RS4: longitudinal guide for air stream

RS4: rear wheel, the outlet for the air

CHEVROLET CRUIZE. 2011 WTCC winner: outlet completely opened

And the rear, also with some sill to improve downforce

Citroen C4 RALLY: front wheel

And rear wheel

FORD FIESTA 2012 RALLY

FORD FIESTA 2012 RALLY

interpolating experimental figures, these curves were obtained.

 α tends to zero, CD,C has a minimum,

We must also remind that if α varies, also Cp

In sport or competition cars, as CL has to

Open air vent. Closed air vent.

Open engine air vent. Closed engine air vent (Maquette).

Air stream is calculated introducing all loss inside engine bay.

CITROEN C4 PICASSO: fan with rounded blade with asymmetric rate

The design of air conditioning requires

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06 2015 04 14 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Chapter 4 Wheels & Internal Airflows

06 2015 04 14 Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Chapter 4 Wheels & Internal Airflows