126 Principles and Basic Applications

Check

hL + hf = 146.42 + 3.22 = 149.64 ! 150

This is sufficiently accurate to be acceptable.

Hence,
Q = 2 .386 × π × 0.32 /4 = 0.17 m3 /s

Note: Ignoring hL gives Q = 0.18 m3/s.

4.7 PARTIALLY FULL PIPES

Pipe systems for surface water drainage and sewerage are normally designed to flow full, but not
under pressure. This contrasts with water mains, which are normally full and under pressure.
The Colebrook–White equation may be used for drainage pipes by noting that, because the pipe
flow is not pressurised, the water surface is parallel to the pipe invert (for uniform flow), so the
hydraulic gradient equals the pipe gradient:

hf
= S0
L

where S 0 is the pipe gradient.

Additionally, an estimate of the discharge and velocity for the partially full condition is
required. This enables the engineer to check if self-cleansing velocities are maintained at the min-
imum discharge. Self-cleansing velocities are of crucial importance in the design of surface water
drainage and sewerage networks, where the flow may contain a considerable suspended solids
load. A self-cleansing velocity of 0.75 m/s is commonly assumed for drainage and sewerage design.
A free surface flow has one more variable than full pipe flow, namely the height of the free
surface. This can introduce considerable complexity (refer to Chapter 5). However, for the case
of circular conduits, the Colebrook–White equation may be modified to provide a solution.
Starting from the assumption that the friction factor for the partially full condition behaves
similarly to that for the full condition, it remains to find a parameter for the partially full pipe which
is equivalent to the diameter for the full pipe case. The hydraulic radius R is such a parameter:

A
R=
P

where
A is the water cross-sectional area
P is the wetted perimeter

For a pipe flowing full,

πD2 D
A /P = =
4πD 4
 Flow in Pipes and Closed Conduits 127

or

4R = D

Hence, the Colebrook–White transition law applied to partially full pipes becomes

1 ⎛ kS 2 .5 1 ⎞
= −2 log ⎜ + (4.20)
λ ⎝ 3.7 × 4 R Re λ ⎟ ⎠

where Re = 4RV/ν.
Figure 4.8 shows a pipe with partially full flow (at a depth d). Starting from the Darcy–
Weisbach equation (4.8) and replacing hf/L by S 0 gives

2gS0 D
V2 =
λ

Hence, for a given pipe with partially full flow,

1/ 2
⎛ 2gS0 4 R ⎞
V =⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠

or

R1/ 2
V = constant ·
λ1/ 2

Forming the ratio Vd /VD = Vp gives

λ1D/ 2 R1p/ 2
Vp = (4.21)
λ1d/ 2

D
φ d

FIGURE 4.8 Pipe running partially full.

128 Principles and Basic Applications

where the subscripts p, D and d refer, respectively, to the proportional value, the full depth (D)
and the partially full depth (d). Similarly,

λ1D/ 2 Ap R1p/ 2
Qp = (4.22)
λ1d/ 2

For a circular pipe,

⎛ φ − sin φ ⎞ 2
Ad = ⎜ ⎟ D
⎝ 8 ⎠

Pd = φD / 2

⎛ sin φ ⎞ D
Rd = ⎜1 −
⎝ φ ⎟⎠4

and hence

⎛ φ − sin φ ⎞
Ap = ⎜ (4.23)
⎝ 2π ⎟ ⎠

⎛ sin φ ⎞
Rp = ⎜1 − (4.24)
⎝ φ ⎟⎠

Substitution of (4.23) and (4.24) into (4.21) and (4.22) allows calculation of the proportional
velocity and discharge for any proportional depth (d/D). The expression for λ (Equation 4.20)
is, however, rather awkward to manipulate. Consider first the case of rough turbulence. Then,

1 ⎛ 3 .7 D ⎞
= 2 log ⎜
λ ⎝ kS ⎟ ⎠

Hence,

λ D 2 log(3 .7 × 4 Rd/kS)
=
λd 2 log(3 .7D /kS)

This may be expressed by its equivalent:

λD log Rp
=1 + (4.25)
λd log(3.7 D /kS)
 Flow in Pipes and Closed Conduits 129

as

log Rp log(3.7 D /kS ) + log Rp

1+ =
log(3.7 D /kS ) log(3.7 D /kS )

log ⎡⎣(3.7 D /kS )( Rd/RD )⎤⎦

=
log(3.7 D /kS )

log ⎡⎣3.7 × 4 Rd/kS ⎤⎦

=
log(3.7 D /kS )

Equation 4.25 may be substituted into (4.21) and (4.22) to yield

⎛ log Rp ⎞ 1/ 2
Vp = ⎜1 + Rp
⎝ log(3.7 D /kS ) ⎟⎠

and

⎛ log Rp ⎞
Qp = ⎜1 + Ap R1p/ 2
⎝ log(3.7 D /kS ) ⎟⎠

The equivalent expressions for the transition region (as derived in Hydraulics Research Paper
No. 2, published in 1959) are

⎛ log Rp ⎞ 1/ 2
Vp = ⎜1 + Rp (4.26)
⎝ log 3.7 θ ⎟⎠

and

⎛ log Rp ⎞
Qp = ⎜1 + Ap R1p/ 2 (4.27)
⎝ log 3.7 θ ⎟⎠

where

−1
⎛k 1 ⎞
θ!⎜ S + (4.28)
⎝ D 3600 DS01/ 3 ⎟⎠

These results for θ = 1000 are plotted in Figure 4.9. Tabulated values for various θ may be found
in HR Wallingford (2006). Neither Vp nor Qp are very sensitive to θ.
It has already been said that pipe systems for surface water drainage and sewerage are
normally designed to flow full, but not under pressure. However, Figure 4.9 shows that the dis-
charge in a partially full pipe may be greater than the discharge for a full pipe. This is because
the wetted perimeter reduces rapidly immediately the pipe ceases to be full whereas the area
130 Principles and Basic Applications

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6 Qp
d/D

0.5

0.4

0.3 Vp

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Qd/QD and Vd/VD

FIGURE 4.9 Proportional discharge and velocity for pipes flowing partially full (with θ = 1000).

does not, with a consequent increase in velocity. This condition is usually ignored for design
purposes, because if the pipe runs full at any section (e.g., due to wave action or unsteady con-
ditions), then the discharge will rapidly reduce to the full pipe condition and cause a “backing
up” of the flow upstream.

Example 4.6: Hydraulic Design of a Sewer

A sewerage pipe is to be laid at a gradient of 1 in 300. The design maximum discharge is
75 L/s and the design minimum flow is estimated to be 10 L/s. Determine the required
pipe diameter to both carry the maximum discharge and maintain a self-cleansing veloc-
ity of 0.75 m/s at the minimum discharge.

Solution
The easiest way to solve this problem is to use the HR Wallingford design charts or tables.
For a sewer, k S = 6.00 mm (Table 4.2). However, to illustrate the solution, Figure 4.6 is
used (for which k S = 0.03 mm):

Q = 75L/s

100hf /L = 100 /300 = 0.333

Using Figure 4.6

D = 300 mm an d V = 1 .06 m/s

 Flow in Pipes and Closed Conduits 131

Next check the velocity for Q = 10 L/s

Qp = 10 /75 = 0.133

Using Figure 4.9 (neglecting the effect of θ),

d / D = 0 .2 5 for Qp = 0 .133

Hence Vp = 0.72 and

Vd = 0.72 × 1.06 = 0.76 m/s

This value exceeds the self-cleansing velocity, and hence the solution is D = 300 mm. In
cases where the self-cleansing velocity is not maintained, it is necessary to increase the
diameter or the pipe gradient.
Note: The solution using k S = 6 mm and accounting for θ gives the following values:

D = 375 mm for Q = 81 L/s and V = 0.73 m/s

θ = 45
Qp = 10/81 = 0.123
d/D = 0.024
Vp = 0.67 m/s
Vd = 0.49 m/s

Hence, it would be necessary to increase D or S 0. In this case, increasing S 0 would be pref-

erable, but this is often not possible because of topographical constraints.

4.8 SUMMARY
This chapter has summarised the historical development of pipe flow theories and detailed
the derivations of the resulting equations for both pressurised and non-pressurised pipe flow.
Methods for the solution of these equations have also been presented for the most common
design problems. One good source of further reading may be found in Webber (2007).

PROBLEMS FOR SOLUTION

4.1 Find the maximum discharge in a 12 mm diameter domestic plumbing system for which
the flow is laminar. For this discharge find the head loss per metre run, the maximum veloc-
ity and the friction factor. Take μ = 1.14 × 10 −3 kg/ms.
[Q = 0.0215 L/s, hf = 4.9 mm/m, Vmax = 0.38 m/s, λ = 0.032]
116 Principles and Basic Applications

However, the basic engineering objections to the use of the Colebrook–White equation were
not overcome until the publication of Charts for the Hydraulic Design of Channels and Pipes in
1958 by the Hydraulics Research Station. In this publication, the three dependent engineering
variables (Q, D and Sf ) were presented in the form of a series of charts for various k S values, as
shown in Figure 4.6. Additional information regarding suitable design values for k S and other
matters was also included. Table 4.2 lists typical values for various materials.
These charts are based on the combination of the Colebrook–White equation (4.13) with the
Darcy–Weisbach formula (4.8), to give

⎛ k 2 .5 1 ν ⎞
V = −2 2gDSf log ⎜ S + ⎟ (4.16)
⎝ 3.7 D D 2gDSf ⎠

Discharge (1/s)

10,000

20
1,000

2,0

4,0
6,0
8 00
,00

,00
100

20

40
60
8
10

20

40
60
8

00

00

00
4
6
8

0
0

0
6.0
0.4

6
8
10

0.
80
60

30

20

0.
2
8

4.0
0.2
3.0
0.18
2.0 0.0
6
1.8 0.0
4
0.0

100 × Hydraulic gradient (m/100 m)

1.4
2
1.0 0.0
Velocity (m/s)

0.8 1
0.008
0.6 .
0 60
0.5

0
0.0
04
0.4 0.0

02
0.3 0.0

01
0.2

0.2 0.0 08
0 0
0.18 0. 06
0
0.0 4
0.14 00
0. 0
0. 1

0.1 2
00
0.08 0.0
0.0
6

0.06
0.025 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.5
0.03 0.1
Diameter (m)

FIGURE 4.6 Hydraulics Research Station chart for kS = 0.03 mm.