Presented by

Presented by
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the session, the students must
be able to determine the origin of the word
Thermodynamics, its definition and
familiarize the contributors of
Thermodynamics.
Figure 1.1: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907), Ulster-born Scottish scientist;
image from http://www-history.mcs.st- and.ac.uk/∼history/Biographies/Thomson.html
and image giving the first use of “thermo-dynamic” extracted from his 1849 work.
Figure 1.2: Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC), Greek philosopher who gives the first
recorded use of the word “energy” and whose method of logic permeates
classical thermodynamics; image from http://www-history.mcs.st-
and.ac.uk/∼history/Biographies/Aristotle.html and an image of Aristotle’s
usage of the word “energy” from his Nicomachean Ethics.
Figure 1.3: Thomas Young (1773-1829), English natural philosopher; image
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas Young (scientist), and a
reproduction of his more modern 1807 definition of (kinetic) energy.
 first century AD: Hero of Alexandria
documents many early thermal
engines.
 1593: Galileo develops a water
thermometer.
 1650: Otto von Guericke designs and
builds the first vacuum pump.
 1662: Robert Boyle develops his law
for isothermal ideal gases.
 1679: Denis Papin develops his steam
digester, forerunner to the steam
engine.
 1698: Thomas Savery patents an early
steam engine.
 1710: Thomas Newcomen creates a
more practical steam engine.
 1760s: Joseph Black develops
calorimetry.
 1780s: James Watt improves the
steam engine.
 1798: Benjamin Thompson (Count
Rumford) considers the mechanical
equivalent of heat from cannon
boring experiments.
 1824: Nicolas L`eonard Sadi Carnot
discusses idealized heat engines.
 1840: Germain Henri Hess considers  1865: Clausius introduces the
an early version of the first law of concept of entropy.
thermodynamics for work-free  1871: James Clerk Maxwell develops
chemical reactions. the Maxwell relations.
 1840s: Julius Robert von Mayer relates  1870s: Josiah Willard Gibbs further
heat and work. formalizes mathematical
 1840s: James Prescott Joule relates thermodynamics.
heat and work.  1870s: Maxwell and Ludwig
 1847: Hermann von Helmholtz Boltzmann develop statistical
publishes his theory of energy thermodynamics.
conservation.  1889: Gibbs develops statistical
 1848: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) mechanics, giving underlying
postulates an absolute zero of foundations for classical and
temperature. statistical thermodynamics.
 1850: Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius
formalizes the second law of
thermodynamics.
Origin of Thermodynamics

Definition of Thermodynamics

Contributors of Thermodynamics
1. What is meant by Therme and Dynamis in
Greek?
2. What is the contribution of Nicolas L`eonard
Sadi Carnot in 1824?
3. Who postulated the absolute zero temperature
in 1848?
4. Who first developed a water thermometer?
5. Who first patented an early steam engine in
1698?
1. What is meant by Therme and Dynamis in
Greek? Heat – Power
2. What is the contribution of Nicolas L`eonard
Sadi Carnot in 1824? Heat Engine
3. Who postulated the absolute zero temperature
in 1848? William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
4. Who first developed a water thermometer?
Galileo
5. Who first patented an early steam engine in
1698? Thomas Savery
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the session, the students
must be able to define, compute and
describe thermodynamic properties.
 The mass (m) of a body is the measure of the amount of
material present in that body. The weight (W) of a body is
the force exerted by that body when its mass is accelerated
in a gravitational field. Mass and weight are related as
shown in Equation 1-1.
where:
W = weight
𝒎𝒈
𝑾= m = mass
𝒈𝒄 𝒎 𝒇𝒕
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 𝟐 = 32.2 𝟐
Equation 1-1 𝒔 𝒔
𝒌𝒈𝒎 ∙𝒎 𝒍𝒃𝒎 ∙𝒇𝒕
gc = gravitational constant = 9.81 𝒌𝒈 ∙𝒔𝟐 = 32.2 𝒍𝒃 ∙𝒔𝟐
𝒇 𝒇
 The force (F) is directly proportional to the product
mass (m) of a body and its acceleration (a) as
shown in Equation 1-2.

where:
F = force
𝒎𝒂
𝑭= m = mass
𝒈𝒄 g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81
𝒎
= 32.2
𝒇𝒕
Equation 1-2 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐
𝒌𝒈𝒎 ∙𝒎 𝒍𝒃𝒎 ∙𝒇𝒕
gc = gravitational constant = 9.81 𝒌𝒈 ∙𝒔𝟐 = 32.2 𝒍𝒃 ∙𝒔𝟐
𝒇 𝒇
Example:
Using Equation 1-2, prove that 1 lbf = 1 lbm on
earth.
𝒎𝒂
Solution: 𝑭=
𝒈𝒄
Equation 1-2
𝒎𝒂
𝑭=
𝒈𝒄
𝒇𝒕
𝟏 𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔
𝟏 𝒍𝒃𝒇 = 𝒍𝒃𝒎 ∙ 𝒇𝒕
= 𝟏 𝒍𝒃𝒇
32.2
𝒍𝒃𝒇 ∙ 𝒔𝟐
The specific volume (𝒗) of a substance is the total volume
(V) of that substance divided by the total mass (m) of that
substance (volume per unit mass) as shown in Equation 1-3.

where:
𝑽 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒎𝟑
𝒗= 𝒗 ̇ = specific volume, or
𝒎 𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎
Equation 1-3 m = mass, 𝒍𝒃𝒎 or 𝒌𝒈𝒎
V = volume, 𝒇𝒕𝟑 or 𝒎𝟑
The density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that
substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that
substance (mass per unit volume). It has units of pound-
mass per cubic feet (lbm/ft3). The density (ρ) of a substance
is the reciprocal of its specific volume ( 𝒗 ) as shown in
Equation 1-4.
where:
𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎
ρ = density, or 𝟑
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒎
𝒎 𝟏 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒎𝟑
𝝆= = 𝒗 ̇ = specific volume, 𝒍𝒃 or
𝑽 𝒗 𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎
Equation 1-4 m = mass, 𝒍𝒃𝒎 or 𝒌𝒈𝒎
V = volume, 𝒇𝒕𝟑 or 𝒎𝟑
The specific weight (𝜸) of a substance is the total
weight (W) of that substance divided by the total
volume (V) occupied by that substance (mass per
unit volume).
where:
𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒌𝒈𝒇 𝒌𝑵
𝜸 = specific weight, or or
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝟑
𝑾 𝒎𝒈 𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎
𝜸= = = 𝝆𝒈 ρ = density,
𝒇𝒕𝟑
or
𝒎𝟑
𝑽 𝑽 𝒎 𝒇𝒕
Equation 1-5 g = acceleration of gravity, or
𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐
m = mass, 𝒍𝒃𝒎 or 𝒌𝒈𝒎
V = volume, 𝒇𝒕𝟑 or 𝒎𝟑
Specific gravity (SG) is a measure of the relative density of
a substance as compared to the density of water at a
standard temperature. Physicists use 39.2°F (4°C) as the
standard, but engineers ordinarily use 60°F. In the
International System of Units (SI Units), the density of water
is 1.00 g/cm3 at the standard temperature.
where:
𝝆𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝝆𝒈𝒂𝒔
𝑺𝑮 = = SG = specific gravity
𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒌𝒈𝒎
ρwater = 1000 𝒎𝟑 =
𝒍𝒃𝒎
62.4 𝒇𝒕𝟑
Equation 1-6
𝒌𝒈
ρair = 1.2 𝒎𝟑𝒎
Humidity is the amount of moisture (water vapor) in the air.
It can be expressed as absolute humidity or relative
humidity in percentage.

RH is 100% if the air is saturated with water vapor and 0% if

no water vapor is present in the air at all.

𝒎𝒘𝒗 where:
𝑹𝑯 = RH = relative humidity, %
𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒓 mwv = mass of water vapor, 𝒌𝒈𝒘𝒗
Equation 1-7
mair = mass of air, 𝒌𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒓
Intensive Property – is a thermodynamic property that is
independent of the amount of mass.
Example: Temperature, pressure, specific volume,
and density are examples of intensive properties.

Extensive Property – is a thermodynamic property that

varies directly with the mass.
Example: Mass and total volume are examples of
extensive properties.
The following properties were
defined:
Specific volume (𝒗) is the total volume (V) of a
substance divided by the total mass (m) of that
substance.
Density (ρ) is the total mass (m) of a substance
divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that
substance.
Specific weight (𝜸) is the total weight (W) of a
substance divided by the total volume (V)
occupied by that substance.
The following properties were defined:
 Specific gravity (SG) is a measure of the relative density of
a substance as compared to the density of water or air at a
standard temperature.
 Humidity is the amount of moisture (water vapor) in the air.
It can be measured in absolute or relative units.

The following classifications of

thermodynamic properties were
described:
 Intensive properties are those that are independent of the
amount of mass.
 Extensive properties are those that vary directly with the
mass.
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the session, the students must be able to:
 Define the thermodynamic properties temperature
and pressure.
 Describe the Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin and
Rankine temperature scale.
 Convert temperature between Fahrenheit, Celsius,
Kelvin and Rankine scale.
 Describe the relationship between absolute
pressure, gauge pressure, and vacuum.
 Convert pressure from one unit to another.
1. Pure substance - is one that remains
the same in its state of rest even if
there is a change in phase.

2. Ideal gas - is one that remains in its

gaseous state while operating in a cycle
and follows the equation of the state
which is pV = mRT.
 - is a measure of the molecular activity of a
substance.
 Thermometer – an instruments for
measuring temperature.
 Pyrometer – an instruments for measuring
temperatures of high temperature gases.
 Cryogenic Temperature – an instruments for
measuring temperatures of high temperature
gases.
 oC oF
K R
Boiling
100oC 212oF 373 K 672 R
Point

TC b TF d TK f TR h
a c e g
Freezing
0oC 32oF 273 K 492 R
Point

Absolute
-273oC -460oF 0K 0R
Pressure
 TF → TC: TF → TR: TK → TC:
𝒂 𝒄 𝒈 𝒄 𝒆 𝒂
= = =
𝒃 𝒅 𝒉 𝒅 𝒇 𝒃
𝑻𝑪 − 𝟎 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝑹 − 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻𝑪 − 𝟎
= = =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎 𝟐𝟏𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐 𝟔𝟕𝟐 − 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟕𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎
𝑻𝑪 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝑹 − 𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻𝑪
= = =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓 𝑻𝑹 = 𝑻𝑭 + 𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐
𝟗
TC → TF: TC → TF: TC → TF:
𝟗
𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑭 + 𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑹 − 𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟓
a. Relation between TF and TC:
𝟓 𝟗
𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟗 𝟓
b. Relation between TK and TC:
𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
c. Relation between TR and TF:
𝑻𝑹 = 𝑻𝑭 + 𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑹 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
d. Relation between ΔTF and ΔTC:
𝟓 𝟗
∆𝑻𝑪 = ∆𝑻𝑭 𝑻𝑭 = ∆𝑻𝑪
𝟗 𝟓

e. Relation between ΔTK and ΔTC:

∆𝑻𝑲 = ∆𝑻𝑪
f. Relation between ΔTR and ΔTF:
∆𝑻𝑲 = ∆𝑻𝑭

g. Relation between ΔTR and ΔTK:

∆𝑻𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟖∆𝑻𝑲 ∆𝑻𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓∆𝑻𝑹
 - is a measure of the force per unit area exerted
on the boundaries of a substance (or system).
𝑭 𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒈𝒉
𝒑= = = = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝜸𝒉
𝑨 𝑽/𝒉 𝑽
where:
p = pressure
F = force
A = area
ρ = density A p h
h = height F
g = gravity
 𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎 ± 𝒑𝒈
where: Above Atmospheric
pg = gauge pressure
patm = atmospheric pressure 𝒑𝒈
Atmospheric Pressure
1 atm = 0 kPag 𝒑𝒈 = 𝟎
𝒑𝒗𝒂𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔
= 101.325 kPaa
= 14.7 psi Below Atmospheric
= 29.92 in Hg 𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔
= 760 mm Hg
Absolute Zero 𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝟎
1 torr = 1/760 atm
1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
The following properties were defined:
 Temperature is a measure of the molecular activity of a
substance.
 Pressure is a measure of the force per unit area exerted on
the boundaries of a substance (or system).

The relationship between the

Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and
Rankine temperature scales was
described.
 Absolute zero = -460 °F or -273 °C
 Freezing point of water = 32 °F or 0 °C
 Boiling point of water = 212 °F or 100 °C
Conversions between the different scales
can be made using the following formulas.

𝟓 𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑹 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝟗
𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 ∆𝑻𝑭 = ∆𝑻𝑪
𝟗 𝟓
𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟗 𝟓
𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐 ∆𝑻𝑲 = ∆𝑻𝑪 ∆𝑻𝑪 = ∆𝑻𝑭
𝟓 𝟗
𝑻𝑹 = 𝑻𝑭 + 𝟒𝟔𝟎 ∆𝑻𝑹 = ∆𝑻𝑭 ∆𝑻𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟖∆𝑻𝑲
𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 ∆𝑻𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓∆𝑻𝑹
Relationships between absolute pressure,
gauge pressure, and vacuum can be
shown using the following formulas.
𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎 ± 𝒑𝒈

Converting between the different pressure

units can be done using the following
conversions.
1 atm = 0 kPag
= 101.325 kPaa 1 torr = 1/760 atm
= 14.7 psi 1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mm Hg
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the session, the students must be
able to:
 Define heat, latent heat, and sensible heat.
 Define enthalpy and entropy.
 Convert heat from one unit to another.
 Compute the amount of heat, enthalpy and
entropy.
 - is defined as the capacity of a system to perform
work or produce heat.

- is defined as the capacity of a system to perform

work or produce heat.
where:
𝒎𝒈𝒛 PE = potential energy
𝑷𝑬 =
𝒈𝒄 m = mass
z = elevation from reference level
 - is defined as the capacity of a system to
perform work or produce heat.

where:
𝟐
𝒎𝒗 KE = kinetic energy
𝑲𝑬 = m = mass
𝟐𝒈𝒄
v = velocity
- are forms of energy due to the rotation,
vibration, translation, and interactions
among the molecules of a substance.
where:
𝑼
𝒖= u = specific internal energy
𝒎 U = internal energy
m = mass
 - is the capacity of a system to perform work,
a system where pressure and volume are
permitted to expand performs work on its
surroundings.
where:
𝒑𝑽 pv = specific flow work
𝒑𝒗 = pV = flow work
𝒎
m = mass
 - is a property of a substance, like pressure,
temperature, and volume, but it cannot be
measured directly.

where:
h = specific enthalpy
𝒉 = 𝒖 + 𝒑𝑽 pV = flow work
u = internal energy
- is a form of energy, but it is energy in transit
and is not a property of a system.
- is a process done by or on a system, but a
system contains no work.
where:
W = work done
𝑾=𝑭∙𝒅 F = force applied
d = displacement
 - like work, is energy in transit that occurs at
the molecular level as a result of a
temperature difference.
where:
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻 Q = quantity of heat
m = mass
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄𝒗 ∆𝑻 ΔT = temperature difference = Tf - To
cp = specific heat at constant pressure
cv = specific heat at constant volume
 - is a property of a substance, as are pressure,
temperature, volume, and enthalpy.
- is sometimes referred to as a measure of the
inability to do work for a given heat transferred.
where:
ΔS = the change in entropy of a system during
∆𝑸 some process
∆𝑺 = ΔQ = the amount of heat transferred to or from
∆𝑻 the system during the process
ΔT = the absolute temperature at which the
heat was transferred
𝟏 𝒇𝒕 ∙ 𝒍𝒃𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑩𝒕𝒖 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓

𝟏 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟏𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑩𝒕𝒖 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇

𝟏 𝑩𝒕𝒖 = 𝟕𝟕𝟖. 𝟑 𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟐𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓

𝟏 𝒉𝒑 − 𝒉𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇

𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇
𝟏 𝑱 = 𝟕𝟕𝟖
𝑩𝒕𝒖
 𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟐𝟔𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝑾
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒉𝒓
𝑩𝒕𝒖 𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟑𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒌𝑾
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓
𝑩𝒕𝒖 𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇
𝟏 𝒌𝑾 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟏𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟕𝟑𝟕. 𝟔
𝒉𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒇𝒕 − 𝒍𝒃𝒇
𝟏 𝒉𝒑 = 𝟓𝟓𝟎. 𝟎
𝒔𝒆𝒄
Heat is described as energy in transit. This
transfer occurs on a molecular level as a
result of temperature differences.
• Latent heat - the amount of heat added
or removed to produce only a phase
change.
• Sensible heat - the heat added or
removed that causes a temperature
change.
The following properties were defined:
• Specific enthalpy (h) is defined as h = u
+ pv, where u is the specific internal
energy (Btu/lbm) of the system being
studied, P is the pressure of the system
(lbf/ft2), and v is the specific volume
(ft3/lbm) of the system.
• Entropy is sometimes referred to as a
measure of the inability to do work for a
given heat transferred.
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the session, the students must be
able to:
 State the laws of thermodynamics.
 Analyze an open system including all energy
transfer processes crossing the boundaries.
 Perform energy balances on all major
components in the system.
• The net heat put into a system is equal to
the change in internal energy of the
system plus the work done BY the
system.
Q = U + W final - initial)
• Conversely, the work done ON a system is
equal to the change in internal energy plus
the heat lost in the process.
Σ Energy Entering a System = Σ Energy Leaving a System
H1 + KE1 + PE1 + Q = H2 + KE2 + PE2 + W
H1 − H2 + KE1 − KE2 + PE1 − PE2 + Q = W
W = ∆H + ∆KE + ∆PE + Q H1, KE1, PE1, Q
1
W = ∆H = m h1 − h2 Turbine

W
2

H2, KE2, PE2

 SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR FIRST LAW
+Wout
+Qin
• Heat Q input is positive U
• Work BY a gas is positive -Win
• Work ON a gas is negative U

• Heat OUT is negative -Qout

Q = U + W final - initial)
 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW
OF THERMODYNAMICS
Example 1: In the figure, the
gas absorbs 400 J of heat and Wout =120 J
at the same time does 120 J
of work on the piston. What
is the change in internal
energy of the system? Qin
400 J
Apply First Law:

Q = U + W
 Example 1 (Cont.): Apply First Law

Q is positive: +400 J (Heat IN) Wout =120 J

W is positive: +120 J (Work OUT)
Q = U + W
Qin = 400 J
U = Q - W

U = Q - W
= (+400 J) - (+120 J)
ΔU = +280 J
= +280 J
 Example 1 (Cont.): Apply First Law

Energy is conserved: Wout =120 J

The 400 J of input thermal
energy is used to perform
120 J of external work,
increasing the internal Qin = 400 J
energy of the system by
280 J

The increase in
internal energy is: U = +280 J
 Possible
Hot Cold
Container Surroundings
Impossible

Fig. 3: Heat transfer from a hot container to the cold

surroundings is possible, however the reverse process
(although satisfying the first law) is impossible.
 Equivalent

Fig.: The violation of the Kelvin-Plank statement leads to

 HEAT ENGINES
A heat engine is any
Hot Res. TH device which through
Qhot
Wout a cyclic process:
• Absorbs heat Qhot
Engine
• Performs work Wout
Qcold
• Rejects heat Qcold
Cold Res. TC

Wout = QH - QC
 Hot Res. TH It is impossible to construct an
Qhot engine that, operating in a
Wout cycle, produces no effect other
Engine than the extraction of heat
from a reservoir and the
Qcold performance of an equivalent
amount of work.
Cold Res. TC
Not only can you not win (1st law);
you can’t even break even (2nd law)!
QH = Wnet + QC
Hot Res. TH
Wnet = QH − QC QH Wnet
Wnet QH − QC
ηth = = Engine
QH QH
QC
QC TC
ηth = 1 − =1−
QH TH Cold Res. TC
 Hot Res. TH Hot Res. TH
400 J 100 J 400 J
400 J
Engine Engine

300 J
Cold Res. TC Cold Res. TC

• A possible engine. • An IMPOSSIBLE

engine.
EFFICIENCY OF AN ENGINE
The efficiency 𝜼 of a heat
engine is the ratio of the
net work done W to the
heat input QH.

Wnet QH- QC
𝜼= =
QH QH
QC
𝜼=1-
QH
 EFFICIENCY EXAMPLE

An engine absorbs 800 J and

wastes 600 J every cycle. What
is the efficiency?
QC
η=1-
QH
600 J
η=1- η = 25%
800 J
Question: How many joules of work is done?
EFFICIENCY OF AN IDEAL ENGINE
(Carnot Engine)
For a perfect engine, the
quantities Q of heat gained
and lost are proportional to
the absolute temperatures T.
TH - T C
𝜼=
TH
TC
𝜼=1-
TH
Example 3: A steam engine absorbs 600 J of heat at
500 K and the exhaust temperature is 300 K. If the
actual efficiency is only half of the ideal efficiency, how
much work is done during each cycle?

TC Actual 𝜼 = 0.5 𝜼i = 20%

𝜼=1-
TH W
𝜼=
300 K QH
𝜼=1-
500 K W = 𝜼 QH = 0.20 (600 J)

𝜼 = 40% Work = 120 J

EFFICIENCY OF AN IDEAL ENGINE
(Carnot Engine)
For a perfect engine, the
Hot Res. TH
quantities Q of heat gained
QH W and lost are proportional to
Engine
the absolute temperatures T.

QC TH- TC
e=
Cold Res. TC TH
TC
e=1-
TH
Example 3: A steam engine absorbs 600 J of heat at
500 K and the exhaust temperature is 300 K. If the
actual efficiency is only half of the ideal efficiency,
how much work is done during each cycle?

TC Actual e = 0.5ei = 20%

e=1-
TH W
e=
300 K QH
e=1-
500 K W = eQH = 0.20 (600 J)

e = 40% Work = 120 J

 REFRIGERATORS

A refrigerator is an engine
operating in reverse:
Hot Res. TH
Work is done on gas
Qhot Win extracting heat from cold
reservoir and depositing
Engine heat into hot reservoir.

Qcold Win + Qcold = Qhot

Cold Res. TC
WIN = Qhot - Qcold
 SECOND LAW FOR REFRIGERATORS

It is impossible to construct a
Hot Res. TH refrigerator that absorbs heat
Qhot from a cold reservoir and
deposits equal heat to a hot
Engine
reservoir with W = 0.
Qcold
Cold Res. TC If this were possible, we could
establish perpetual motion!
 COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE

The COP (K) of a heat

Hot Res. TH engine is the ratio of the
QH HEAT Qc extracted to the
W net WORK done W.
Engine QH
QC
QC K= =
W QH- QC
Cold Res. TC
TH
For an IDEAL K=
refrigerator: TH- TC
 COP EXAMPLE

500 K A Carnot refrigerator operates

between 500 K and 400 K. It
Hot Res. TH extracts 800 J from a cold
reservoir during each cycle.
QH W What is C.O.P., W and QH ?
Eng
ine TC 400 K
800 J K= =
TH- TC 500 K - 400 K
Cold Res. TC
400 K C.O.P. (K) = 4.0
 COP EXAMPLE (Cont.)

Next we will find QH by

500 K assuming same K for actual
Hot Res. TH refrigerator (Carnot).
QH W QC
Eng K=
ine QH- QC
800 J 800 J
4.0 =
Cold Res. TC QH - 800 J
400 K
QH = 1000 J
 COP EXAMPLE (Cont.)

500 K Now, can you say how much

Hot Res. TH
work is done in each cycle?
1000 J W
Engine
Work = 1000 J - 800 J

800 J
Work = 200 J
Cold Res. TC
400 K
The First Law of Thermodynamics: The net
heat taken in by a system is equal to the
sum of the change in internal energy and
the work done by the system.
Q = U + W final - initial)
 Hot Res. TH The Second Law of Thermo: It is
impossible to construct an engine
Qhot
Wout that, operating in a cycle,
Engine produces no effect other than the
extraction of heat from a reservoir
Qcold and the performance of an
Cold Res. TC equivalent amount of work.

Not only can you not win (1st law);

you can’t even break even (2nd law)!
 The efficiency of a heat engine:

QC TC
e=1- Q e=1-
H TH

The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator:

QC QC TC
K  K
Win QH  QC TH  TC
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the session, the students must be
able to:
 Describe the types of thermodynamic
systems.
 Define the terms concerning thermodynamic
systems.
 Describe the terms concerning
thermodynamic processes.
 A system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen for
study.
 The mass or region outside the system is
called the surroundings.
 SURROUNDINGS
BOUNDARY

SYSTEM
(Isolated, closed,
open system)

Fig. 1: System, Surroundings, and Boundary

Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundaries of a system can be fixed or
movable. Mathematically, the boundary has
zero thickness, no mass, and no volume.
Closed system or control mass: consists of a
fixed amount of mass, and no mass can
cross its boundary. But, energy in the form
of heat or work, can cross the boundary, and
the volume of a closed system does not have
to be fixed.
Open system or control volume: is a properly
selected region in space. It usually encloses a
device that involves mass flow such as a
compressor. Both mass and energy can cross
the boundary of a control volume.
Important Note:
Some thermodynamics relations that are
applicable to closed and open systems are
different. Thus, it is extremely important to
recognize the type of system we have before
start analyzing it.
Isolated system: A closed system that
does not communicate with the
surroundings by any means.
Rigid system: A closed system that
communicates with the surroundings
by heat only.
 Adiabatic system: A closed or open
system that does not exchange
energy with the surroundings by heat.
Fig. 2: Closed system, mass Fig. 3: Control volume,
cannot cross the boundaries, mass and energy can
but energy can. cross the boundaries.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A system that is in equilibrium At the dead state, the useful

with its environment is said to work potential (exergy) of a
be at the dead state. system is zero.
Thermodynamic Process – is the path of the
succession of states through which the
system passes.

Cyclic Process – is a system in a given initial

state goes through a number of different changes
in state (going through various processes) and
finally returns to its initial values.