Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Leadership
Jean-Regis Nduwimana
BA., MA. PhD?
UNIVERSITE LUMIERE DE BUJUMBURA
Lectures in Communication & Leadership
Table of Contents
LECTURE 1: GENERAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP.........................................................................3
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................3
LECTURE 2: EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES ......................................................................................5
Introduction........................................................................................................................................................5
A. Great Man Theory (Classical Theory) Hackman and Johnson (2006) ..........5
B. The Personality Traits Theory .............................................................................................6
C. Behavioural Styles Theory..........................................................................................................7
D. Servanthood Leadership Theory ........................................................................................7
LECTURE 3: TEAM CONCEPT AS A LEADERSHIP TOOL .................................................................9
LECTURE 4: COMMITTEE SYSTEMS AS LEADERSHIP TOOL ..................................................... 12
LECTURE 5: THE CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE (EI) AND
INTELLIGENT QUOTIENT (IQ) IN LEADERSHIP APPLICATION ............................................... 17
LECTURE 6: TOTAL QUALITY LEADERSHIP AND TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
CONCEPTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
LECTURE 7: CHANGE TRIGGERS ............................................................................................................ 24
LECTURE 8: NEGOTIATION CONCEPTS .............................................................................................. 26
LECTURE 9: ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES AND CULTURE ................................................ 28
LECTURE 10: DELEGATION ...................................................................................................................... 31
LECTURE 11: DECISION MAKING .......................................................................................................... 33
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Introduction
Jesus’ model of leadership was emphasized as the cogent and effective model of
leadership – servant leadership. To become greater, one must serve. Interestingly,
different versions of the Bible put it differently emphasizing the weight of the principle
of servant leadership (c.f. KJV, NIV, NKJV, ELT, GNB, etc.). The understanding of this
philosophy is key so far as leadership is concern. It is primal and inconsequential.
Leadership is about servanthood/servantship; a concept contrary to what prevails in
the world.
Several definitions of leadership are offered by scholars and writers alike. One scholar
notes, “The first responsibility of a leader is to define reality – the last is to say thank
you – in-between the two the leader must become a servant and a debtor” (Max
Depree). Another writer has noted, “Leadership is using tasks to complete people”. The
essence of leadership is not only to lead but to create leaders.
The Holy Scripture is replete with instances where God used tasks to complete some
individuals. Below are some of the instances:
These scriptural instances provide key principles of leadership. Note the following:
“Leadership is helping people to feel good about themselves”. “The image of the
referee- pointing out only mistakes is a common phenomenon associated with many
leaders”.
Leadership is concerned with creating a vision. A vision is an idea that is futuristic and
goal minded. It is the role of the leader to create such a vision and lead his/her
followers to buy into that vision. Leaders must dream and this dream must be shared
with the other members of the group. People must be enabled to own the vision of the
group through participatory and democratic approaches. This creates a sense of
ownership and responsibility. People are tenaciously empowered to contribute their
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skills and expertise towards the realization of the dreams. Leadership thrives on
shared vision.
Leaders must be focused and never be satisfied with the status-quo. Leadership is
about creating alternatives by engaging creativity of the future. Leadership again asks
the question, “Where do we want to go from here, and with whom we are going?
1. Leadership of attention:
This is the ability of the leader to draw others to himself/herself so that people are able
to identify with him/her.
2. Management/leadership of meaning:
This is to make dreams apparent to people so that they can share and own your vision
(c.f. Nehemiah 2:18)
3. Management of trust:
4. Management of self:
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Introduction
Prior to 1900s, many leadership works were based on observation, commentary and
moralization. According to Hackman and Johnson (2006), the increasing use of
“scientific” procedures and techniques to measure human behaviour which blossomed
in the early 20th century, changed the way scholars looked at leadership. They argue
that over the past 100 years, four approaches to understanding and explaining
leadership evolved: (1) the traits approach, (2) the situational approach, (3) the
functional approach and (4) the transformational approach.
Early social scientists believed that leadership qualities were innate; an individual was
either born with the traits needed to be a leader, or he or she lacked the physiological
and psychological characteristics necessary for successful leadership. This approach is
known as the “traits approach”; it suggested that nature played a key role in
determining leadership potential. The idea that inherent leadership traits could be
identified served as the impetus for hundreds of research studies between 1900s and
the end of World War II. Since the 1940s, the popularity of the traits approach has
steadily declined. For the most part, present-day researchers no longer accept the
notion of the “born leader”.
There are historical leaders like Caesar, Alexander the Great, Mandela, Nkrumah,
Kenyatta, Haile Selassie, and others who have shaped the destiny of their people in
their generations. There is no doubt that some of the great people modelled as great
leaders.
In the turn of the 20th century, leaders were perceived to be superior individuals with
peculiar qualities from two main sources – either by inheritance (born with
leadership) or by social conditions precipitated by time and spatial circumstances.
Arising out of this historical context emerged the question, “Are leaders born or
made?” Responding to such a question was difficult since a number of factors come to
play in the choice of leaders. Whereas some leaders are born, one cannot conveniently
rule out the place of training and formation as necessary ingredients for effective and
successful leadership. This means that in either way, leaders are born but as well made.
Classical leadership revolves around a powerful leader or elite group, who derive
power largely from fear or respect. This command and control style represents a
pervasive stereotype of what leadership is about for many people.
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Emergent
By appointment
By election
By hereditary
This theory was to identify specific qualities of a leader that makes him/her different
from a follower. In 1948, Ralph N. Stogdill published a review of 124 studies that
examined traits and personal factors related to leadership and had appeared in print
between 1904 and 1947. Stodgill’s review uncovered a number of inconsistent findings
with earlier research. Leaders were found to be both young and old, tall and short,
heavy and thin, extroverted an introverted, and physically attractive as well as
physically unattractive.
Stogdill concluded that “A person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession
of some combination of traits, but the pattern of personal characteristics, activities and
goals of the followers” (Stogdill 1948 as cited in Hackman & Johnson 2006, p. 65). Thus
both personal traits and situational factors influenced leadership. In the article, Stogdill
classified the traits that make one a leader. They were as follows:
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1. The approach ignored the relationship between the leader and the followers.
The context was not also taken into consideration.
2. It focused on one culture, particularly Western culture overlooking other
cultural values and traits.
The behavioural style theory became acceptable in the organisational context. Whether
task oriented or people oriented styles, three key principles are worth noting:
JR Clinton describes a leader from the biblical perspective. This is how Clinton presents
his ideal Christian leader model:
A leader is a person
With God given capacity
And with God given responsibility
To influence a specific growth of God’s people
Towards God’s purpose for the group
At the core of Greenleaf’s message is that only leaders who are trusted will gain
followers in our time and only leaders who demonstrate that they have other people’s
interest at heart will be trusted. The process of change starts in here – in the servant,
not out there. Greenleaf defines servant leadership as “a management style grounded
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in the character of God as servant sovereign. Such a style flourishes in all institutions
from a commitment to care for persons while insisting on productivity”.
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Team work produces “synergy” – i.e. doing what an individual could not do or
accomplish (Ecclesiastes 4:9-13; I Corinthians 12:15-20; Mark 6:7-13). Dave Francis
and Don Young have defined teams as follows:
A good team should allow each member of to use their different God-given talents and
gifts. A team is not an option for hard work and does not make work any easier but
makes it possible. A team work is not an accident; it is a by-product of good leadership.
The power of a team to accomplish its mission is directly related to how the leader
selects and develops its members. Myron Rush defines a team as, two or more people
moving along a path interacting towards a common goal. The purpose of a team helps
people accomplish more than they could, working individually. A team allows people to
use their gifts, skills and talents more effectively.
1. They need to use skills and gifts and creativity to assist the effort of the team
2. The need to be accepted by the team members
3. The need of their personal goals to be compatible with the team’s goals.
4. The need to be allowed to represent others not on the team.
As leaders, we must be able to identify the needs of the group so that they can be
integrated into the group’s goals and values. In the team context, people bring needs
that could be psycho-socio-cultural orientations that may be different from the teams’.
These include time orientations, stereotyping, ego, prejudices, among others.
Diffusion of Responsibility
This is a social phenomenon which tends to occur in groups or teams of people above a
certain critical size when responsibilities are not explicitly assigned. This situation is
sometimes referred to as “by-stander” syndrome. To ensure that such situation is
avoided, a leader must assign roles to members of the group. The DoR also occurs
among group of peers (e.g. Mob psychology).
Group Think
This term always carry’s a negative connotation. Group think (GT) is a phenomenon
where people want to behave as members of a particular group by conforming to the
decisions of the group. This occurs when a group makes a faulty decision because a
group pressure leads to deterioration of mental efficiency. Groups affected by GT
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ignore alternatives and tend to take irrational actions that dehumanize other groups. A
GT is especially prevalent in a group where members share similar background, motif,
and when the group is insulated from outside opinions and when there are no clear
rules for decision making.
The term “Group Think” was coined by a social psychologist Irving Janis (1972) in a
book titled, “Victims of Group Think”. Irving (1972) defines GT as a psychological drive
for consensus at any cost that suppresses disagreements and prevents the appraisal of
alternatives in cohesive decision making groups.
a) They have great excessive optimism that encourages taking extreme risks
b) Believe in inherent morality because members believe in the rightness of their
course and therefore ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their
decisions
c) Stereotype views of outer groups – they have negative views of perceived
enemies
d) Collective rationalization – members discount warnings and do not reconsider
their assumptions
e) Direct pressure on dissenters – members are under pressure not to express
arguments against any of the group’s views
f) Self-censorship – doubts and deviations from the perceived group are not
expressed.
g) Self-appointed mind guards – members protect the group and the leaders from
information that is problematic or contradictory to the group’s cohesiveness,
view or decision.
1. The leader should avoid stating preferences and expectations at the outset.
2. Each member of the group should discuss with others within the committee in
respect of the preparation of the meeting.
3. The leader should make sure that a sizeable block of time is set aside to survey
warning signals from rivals’ intensions.
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Research has found that the greater the proportion of experts a team has, the more
likely it is to disintegrate into non-productive conflict or staleness. As teams become
more virtual (use to each other), the cooperation tend to decline unless the
organization had taken measures to establish collaborative culture.
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Meetings are tools of change. At meetings, decisions are made and new agendas are set
that affect the group. It is therefore important to understand.
Effective meetings
Ineffective meetings
1. Poor leadership
2. Unclear goals
3. Lack of commitment to assignment
4. Group recommendation often ignored
5. Waste of time
6. Domination
7. Lack of preparation
8. No action taken
9. Hidden agenda: some members come with personal axes to grind
Allow them to speak and contribute relevant ideas. However, do not allow them to
monopolize. Use polite and courteous language to silent members who go overboard.
Sometimes in a meeting, you have people who cannot express tacit and
straightforward ideas; for such people, try and fill-in the gap to summarize their
opinion.
Two categories are identified. Either they have no ideas (shy) inferiority complex or
their ideas concerning the issue at stake have been expressed
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4. Quibbler Members:
They concentrate on minor points/issues. In such a situation, the leader should direct
the question to the entire members. Under no circumstance should the leader treat
such input as irrelevant.
5. Persistent Questioners:
6. Objectors:
They are often quarrelsome. They keep objecting without recourse to alternative ideas
and suggestions. They are simply fond of raising objectives.
7. Dominating Types:
Tactfully try to hold back their contribution until others have had their say. Example:
“Susan, you usually have a lot of ideas to offer, but could you please hold back for a few
minutes . . .”
AGENDA
The following guideline for developing agenda is based on corporate policy making
meetings:
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Purpose:
Time for meeting: Know the time and season for discussion (time of the day for meeting). Ex
from 1-3 PM
Effective meetings:
Minute writing should be done within 24h or 14 days before the next meeting
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Words to use:
1. Briefly // As a leader don’t dominate, be brief or just re-brief those who didn’t
catch hat you have said
2. Slowing // Speak slowly, try to be much easier understood
3. Clearing // B clear in what you are saying
LEAD OF QUESTIONS
Avoid people to answer by yes or not. That is you want them to be open by open-
ended. How, what, who, & where. Those Q are no judgmental, require explaining, and
provoke thinking. They make people in meeting to be more thinkers.
0. Opening statement
1. Present (people physically there)
2. In attendance
Invited guest
Chief executive staff (Non member of the committee)
Those who cannot vote for example
3. Apologies
4. Absent without apology or with apology
5. Matters arising: (Most of case they are numbered)
6. Recording decisions. The meeting decided: …
Other technique:
Not use attribute minute. So and so say this and that…it used when a member of a
committee decide to be noted during the meeting.
Minute should always written in the 3rd person (it is the person who is writing the
minute on behalf of the committee)
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Neutrality: the minute should be written in neutral form. Reflecting what was decided.
The writer must take himself away from the rest.
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The traditional view is that “IQ” measures “G” which uses mathematical methods of
factor analysis.
In 1924, Charles Spearman developed “GG” which used mathematical methods of factor
analysis.
The concept has grown from observations of human development and brain injury
victims who demonstrated acute loss of a particular cognitive function such as ability
to think numerically or understand written language without showing any loss in other
cognitive areas.
Emotional Intelligence is the ability of a person to detect and manage emotional cares
and information in an organization.
What is Emotions?
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1. Self-awareness:
The leader must be aware of his/her own emotions, strengths, limitations,
capabilities and how they affect others.
2. Social management:
The leader must be able to sense how the group develop.
3. Self management:
Being result oriented and pursuing goals beyond what is required.
4. Relationship management:
These are social skills or all ability of a person to influence others.
Internal sources
Personality traits differ: some people are born calm, others are born emotional
depending on the day of the month and the time of the day.
External sources
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Emotional Competencies
A. Self Awareness
This is the ability to recognize and understand your mood, emotions and drives
as well as how they affect others.
o To become self confident
o To be realistic
o Self assessment
o Self duplicating sense of humour
B. Self Regulating
This is the ability to control all indirect disruptive impulses and moods
suspending judgements to think before acting.
C. Motivation
This is the passion to work for reasons that go beyond money and status; a
propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistency.
D. Empathy
This is the ability to understand the emotional make-up of other people; skills in
treating people according to their emotional reaction.
E. Social Skills
This is the proficiency in managing relationships and building networks- the
ability to find common ground in building rapport.
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In Total Quality Management, the product is the focal point for the organization
purpose and management.
Therefore strong bottom-up commitment is the pillar for all the rest. This requires that
the leader be always aware of the product
Organization
The central principle of TQM is that “mistakes may be made by people but most of
them are caused or at least allowed by faulty systems and processes.” TQM aims at
rectifying faulty systems. This suggests that the root cause of such mistakes can be
identified and corrected and the reputation can be enhanced by changing the process.
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1. Organization
TQM is mainly concerned with continuous improvement in all areas of work – from the
level of planning, decision making up to the workshop floor/team level. It is informed
by the belief that mistakes can be avoided and defects can be corrected.
2. Improvement
Improvement must deal with only results but more particularly with improving
capabilities to produce better services.
Note:
1. Demand generation
2. Technology – using technology to achieve effective results
3. Peoples capabilities – employing the right calibre of staff
4. Operations – knowing where to concentrate your activities
5. Supply generation
3. Leadership
Ethics
Integrity
Trust
Training
Team work
Communication
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Fishbone diagram
People Procedure
Policies Products
This is a problem analysis tool started by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, a Japanese who was a
quality control statistician. This diagram is commonly referred to as Ishikawa diagram.
The Fishbone diagram simply shows a process with certain events. It was first used in
the 1960s and is considered one of the seven basic tools of Quality Management.
Pareto chart
Histogram
The Check sheet
Control chart
The Scattergram
Fish bone
Flow chart
When there is the need to study a problem to determine the root cause
When you want to study all the possible reasons why a process is beginning to
have difficulties or breakdowns
When you need to identify an area for data collection
When you want to study why a process is not performing properly or
producing the desired results
1. Materials
2. Machines
3. Methods
4. Money power
5. Measurement (extra)
6. Mother nature (extra)
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The 4 P’s
1. Place
2. Procedure
3. People
4. Policies
1. Surroundings
2. Suppliers
3. Systems
4. Skills
1. Price
2. Promotion
3. People
4. Process
5. Place
6. Plant
7. Policies
8. Procedures
9. Product or service (extra)
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“A change leader sees changes as an opportunity. A change leader knows how to find
the right changes and how to make them effective both outside and inside. One cannot
manage change one can go ahead of it.”
Change leaders dream ahead of others. However the dream must be shared with the
group. Change leaders must be able to abandon today and yesterday. “Yesterday is no
more and today may not last forever”.
Every organization must be designed for change and to create change rather than react
to it. The centre of modern society, economy and community is not technology, nor
information nor productivity but it is the managed institutions as the organs of society
to produce results.
1. Say goodbye: people must let go the things and the way they traditionally do things
2. Shift into the neutral
3. Move forward: some people fail to get through the transition because they do not
forget the past and embrace the new challenge
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SINA
Spearhead:
Identity group:
How do we change the organization without changing its identity and core values?
Necessary:
Why is change needed now? These groups doubt everything. These members are much
older in age and experience in the organization.
Achieved:
What would we achieve when we make changes? What changes would change, change?
This group constitute the “die hard”. Although they constitute a minority group in
organizations, they have the potential to frustrate change initiatives.
Definition of SINA
SINA is an organization change dynamic tool employed to deal with change resistance
in organizations.
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Successful negotiators have positive attitude. They are able to view conflict as normal
and constructive.
1. Everyday negotiation:
This is casual in nature. It happens all the time and frequently.
2. Informal negotiation:
This type of negotiation does not need formal arrangement. Parties agree as and
when the occasion calls for it.
3. Formal negotiation:
As the name implies, formal negotiations are normally planned and follow a set
agenda and may as well require representatives such as lawyers. They may
continue for some days.
4. Facilitated negotiation:
This also referred to as “mediation”. This type requires a neutral party to help the
key parties to reach an agreement. The role of the third party is restricted to mainly
facilitating role. Thus the mediator empowers the key parties to reach an
agreement.
5. Critical negotiation:
This type often involves on outsider or intervener such as a pastor, policeman,
mentor, etc. This will include negotiations undertaken during war, national
emergencies or crisis. The element of intervention distinguishes between facilitated
and critical negotiation.
Research shows that about 50% of working time is used on negotiation. Negotiation is
confronting with another in order to come to terms or reach an agreement (Heritage
Desk Dictionary-Fisher, Ury, & Patton).
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Attitudes of Win-Win
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Introduction
At the heart of every organization are the core values that define it. Values are norms
(this is the way we do things here). They are perceived truths. They can also be
regarded as beliefs; the very things we hold dear; they are in essence moral principles.
Values again are ethics; they are motivating forces that compel us to act the way we do.
Values are the spirit and heart of an organization.
Value statements identify how an organization conducts itself and what systems or
values it wishes to operate under with both internal and external stakeholders.
Organizational values are the values that bring people together and therefore are
fundamental to the vision. Values of an organization are the basis and the motif for the
organization’s mission and existence.
ENVIRONMENT/CLIMATE
REPORTING
REWARD SYSTEM
RELATIONSHIP
GOALS
ACCOUNTABILTIY COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
CORE SYSTEM
VALUES
DECISION MAKING
SYSTEM NORMS
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coordinate their work to maximise the benefits of the divisions of labour? Who do
people look for to indicate that their problems of either structural in nature or human?
1. Strategic level (strategic plans) – the strategic level is concerned with policy
making and are not involved in the day to day affairs of the organization.
2. Operational level (tactical plans) – at this level, the operational manager are
directly involved in implementing the policies of the strategic level. The
interpret the policy direction of the board
3. Team level (production plans) – teams are the down level employees who are
grouped according to tasks. For instance in a manufacturing firm, a team could
be regarded as those packaging, labelling, producing, etc.
VISION
Features of a vision:
A vision should align itself with the organization’s culture and rationale. It should be
time bound when defined by specific objectives.
MISSION
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Features of a Mission
STRATEGIC PLAN
1. What do we do?
2. For whom do we do it
3. How do we excel?
TACTICAL PLAN
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What is delegation?
Good leaders use delegation to build the capacities of their followers by assigning them
proportionate responsibility and authority.
Improper delegation
Importance of Delegation
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1. Assigning responsibility
Clear descriptions of the duties
Specify the expected results
2. Granting authority
The right to issue valid instructions for others to follow
3. Creating accountability
The staff (delegate) must be obligated to the leader to achieving results
4. Delegate Wisely
Delegate the right person
Delegate the right portion of task
Delegate the right amount of authority for a given amount of
responsibility
5. Grant the appropriate level of authority
6. Provide the appropriate level of support
7. Monitor the delegation
8. Evaluate the delegation
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Managers make decisions all the time. Decisions are made concerning what actions to
take on disciplinary issues, employment, delegation, promotion and so on. Good
decision making does not just happen. It takes certain skills and expertise to select well
informed choices. In addition, decision making involves much effort and cognitive
action.
1. Knowledge
2. Experience
3. Skills
4. Discipline and foresight of a leader
5. Techniques
6. Right attitude
a. Strategic Decision
b. Tactical Decision
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Although important service volunteerism is, it has been excluded from the UN
accounting. In the 90’s a few have attempted to collect systematic data in the extent of
volunteerism economic value. A survey conducted in Europe in 1994 found an average
proportion rate in volunteerism across Europe continent to be 23%. Another survey
included 22 counties done by John Hopkins Institute in 1998, found that the volunteer
involvement was 28% equivalent to 10.5 m full time employees. It has been generally
very difficult to quantify volunteer contributions. Harambee is a part of quantity
volunteerism in Kenya.
1. A cheap labourer
2. An unqualified or inexperienced person
3. Volunteering is not a hobby but serious business
Who is a volunteer??
A man or woman who has responded to a call without being influenced or compelled
by others. A volunteer is a gentleman/Lady, a dignified person who is doing a dignified
job.
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REFERENCES
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