Performance - Class A (AE materials)

Climb
➢ A jet aircraft’s maximum altitude on a transcontinental flight with full traffic load is limited by the altitude at
which low and high-speed buffet will occur
➢ Change-over / Cross-over is the altitude at which a specified IAS and Mach number represent the same TAS
value, ↑ IAS during a constant speed climb, change-over altitude ↓
➢ At the cross over altitude during a climb with a constant speed, a constant IAS / CAS is changed to a constant
MACH number
➢ Climb speed schedule: 280/0.74 = climb initially at constant IAS 280kts at constant Mach 0.74
➢ ↑ Altitude, ↓Thrust available, ↓ Excess thrust, ↓ Climb gradient
➢ Climbing at constant IAS and maximum climb thrust, density ↓ TAS needs to ↑, hence climb angle, climb
gradient and pitch altitude have to ↓ allowing the plane to accelerate to chase the target IAS/CAS
➢ Climbing at a constant IAS, as height increases, drag remains constant but the climb gradient ↓
➢ Altitude ↑ stall speed (IAS) constant, stall speed (TAS)↑ stall speed (MACH) ↑
➢ Approach climb requirement: Achieving minimum climb gradient in the event of a go-around with one
engine inoperative
➢ Climb gradient ↓ when: engine anti-icing on, wing anti-icing on, higher temperature, higher altitude
➢ Climbing with constant IAS, which operational speed limit is most likely to be reached? Maximum operating
Mach number
➢ Climbing at constant Mach number, TAS and IAS ↓, in order to maintain the lift value, AOA and CL have to
↑

Cruise
➢ ↑ altitude, lower the fuel flow, specific range (number of miles per unit of fuel) ↑
➢ Optimum altitude is the altitude which specific range is at maximum
➢ Optimum altitude ↑ with a decreasing headwind and decrease in mass
➢ When flying at optimum range altitude, over time the fuel consumption gradually ↓
➢ Fly considerably lower than the optimum altitude when at the lower altitude, either considerably less
headwind or considerably more tailwind can be expected
➢ Optimum altitude: ATC never allow you to fly at it continuously
➢ Optimum altitude and specific range ↑ during cruise because of the fuel consumption, mass ↓
➢ Aeroplane sometimes flies above or below the optimum altitude because optimum altitude increases
continuously during flight
➢ Below the optimum cruise altitude, the MACH number for long range cruise ↓ continuously with ↓ altitude
➢ (New stall speed / Old stall speed)2 = (New Mass / Old Mass)
➢ Stepped climb procedure is used on long range flight to ↑ range, remain as close to the optimum altitude or
to avoid severe turbulence
 ➢ Stepped climb: Executing a desired step climb at high altitude can be limited by buffet onset at g loads
larger than 1
➢ Performing a step climb based on economy can be limited by the 1.3g buffet onset requirements
➢ The speed range determined by the buffet onset boundary ↓ with a more forward CG (NOT with increased
temperature)
➢ Aerodynamics determines the maximum flight altitude in the Buffet Onset Boundary graph
➢ Aerodynamic ceiling is the altitude at which the speeds for low speed buffet and for high seed buffet are the
same
➢ Maximum altitude is limited by certified maximum altitude, pressurization limited maximum altitude and
the cruise buffet boundary
➢ Buffet Onset Boundary graph indicates the values of the MACH number at which low speed and MACH
buffet occur at various masses and altitudes
➢ The danger associated with low speed and high-speed buffet limits the manoeuvring load factor at high
altitudes
➢ Flying at an altitude where low and high buffet speeds are the same gives less manoeuvrability, as you will
be flying at aerodynamic limitation “coffin corner”
➢ As altitude increases, both the margins to the low speed and high-speed buffet ↓
➢ Cost index: A number denoting the ratio of the costs of crew and maintenance to the cost of fuel
➢ High cost index: Cost of fuel is low, hence don’t care about fuel consumption, pilots want to fly faster
➢ Long range cruise: Optimum long-range cruise altitude ↑ with lower mass and decreasing headwind
➢ Long range cruise: 1.37VMD = a specific range which is about 99% of maximum specific range and higher
cruise speed
➢ Long range cruise is slightly faster than the best range speed, this allows ↓sector time
➢ Below the optimum cruise altitude, the MACH number for long range cruise ↓ continuously with ↓ altitude
(long range cruise speed, constant IAS, density ↑, TAS ↓)
➢ Airplane normally flies with long range speed because of the lower cost
➢ Reason to fly at long range speed: efficient to fly slightly faster than with maximum range speed
➢ Maximum endurance speed is achieved in unaccelerated level flight with minimum fuel flow, it is always
lower than the speed for maximum specific range
➢ Fuel flow or consumption ∝ Mass
➢ Fuel flow or consumption ∝ temperature (with constant MACH, TAS↑ thrust↑)
➢ Fuel flow or consumption ∝ pressure ∝ density
➢ Fuel consumption in NAM/kg = range, the more forward the CG, the lower the range
➢ Specific Range (NAM/kg) = number of miles travel per 1 unit of fuel
➢ Maximum Range = Safe fuel available x Specific Range
➢ Maximum range speed = minimum specific fuel consumption
➢ With a lower mass, you will need lower thrust, even if specific fuel consumption remains constant, fuel flow
will ↓
➢ Minimum use of fuel = Max range cruise speed = 1.32 VMD
➢ Traffic load limit can be restricted by the desired range
➢ Speed ↑ thrust output ↑ as mass airflow ↑
➢ Altitude will NOT affect the shape of the drag vs IAS curve

En-route one engine inoperative

➢ With one engine inoperative, the best specific range ↓
➢ In case of an engine failure, best speed to descent is Vx
➢ In order to ensure the least rate of descent, the plane should fly at VMD = Vx Maximum Endurance Speed
➢ Engine failure above the one engine inoperative (OEI) service ceiling, in order to fly at the least rate of sink,
aircraft should fly at the best OEI rate of climb speed Vy
➢ When its above OEI ceiling, pick Vy as the answer
➢ In order to maintain the highest possible altitude with OEI, the pilot should fly at the speed corresponding
to the max value of the L/D ratio
➢ VMC = Minimum control speed with critical engine inoperative, it is lowest at high temperature, high
altitude and high humidity, because a smaller speed is needed to correct the asymmetric yaw
➢ Rate of deceleration depends on mass, mass lower, longer time to decelerate, engine thrust requirements
are lower
➢ Drift down procedure: Specifies requirements concerning the obstacle clearance after engine failure.
Applied after engine failure if the plane is above one engine out maximum altitude. Set max continuous
thrust on the engine then set optimum drift down speed (minimum glide angle speed) and maintain
original altitude
➢ Drift down requirements are based on the obstacle clearance during a descent to the new cruising altitude
if an engine has failed
➢ If level-off altitude is below the obstacle clearance altitude during a drift down, fuel jettisoning should be
started at the beginning of drift
➢ Equivalent gross weight at engine failure = the actual gross weight corrected for OAT higher than ISA + 10°C
➢ When determining the obstacle clearance during drift down, fuel dumping maybe taken into account
➢ Flight path considerations after one engine inoperative: Altitude, ambient air temperature, weight at the
time of the engine failure (NOT! Affected engine critical or not, weight change during the drift down)
➢ Factors affecting the level-off altitude during a drift down: outside air temperature and engine thrust (NOT!
Wind, distance to alternate airport)
➢ During drift down, if you believe you will not clear an obstacle, you must assess remaining fuel
requirements, then jettison fuel as soon as possible
Descent
➢ VMO Max operating speed → VNE Never Exceed Speed → VD Design Diving Speed
If decent at constant Mach, VMO will be exceeded first
➢ Descent at constant Mach number then constant IAS, the angle of descent ↑ (∵TAS↑) in the first part of
the descent and in the second part, the angle of descent remains the same
➢ Descent at constant Mach number, the margin to low speed buffet ↑ as TAS ↑, lift coefficient ↓
➢ Descending at the long-range cruise speed = constant IAS, MACH number ↓ because temperature ↑ and
TAS ↓
➢ In a glide, engines are off, speed for maximum endurance = speed for minimum power = speed for
maximum range (NOT! The speed for max lift/drag)

Approach & Landing

➢ The approach climb requirement is based on one engine out, flaps APPROACH (NOT landing!) and gear UP
➢ Screen height requirement for normal approach and landing: 50ft (36-59ft)
➢ With regard to the approach to landing climb requirements, fuel dumping may be necessary in emergency
situation
➢ Minimum speed must maintain in short final = 1.23VSR0 reference stall speed in landing configuration
➢ VREF is the speed defined by the regulators as a speed with a specific margin above the stalling speed
(According to EASA, VREF must not be less than 1.23VSR0 reference stalling speed in the landing configuration
and must be maintained down to 50ft height), VREF will remain constant regardless of turbulent conditions
➢ Ways to minimize the risk of hydroplaning: Make a “positive” landing, apply maximum reverse thrust and
brakes as quickly as possible
➢ Maximum tyre speed limits VLOF in terms of ground speed
➢ Friction coefficient 0.35 = Medium (0.4 Good, 0.3 Medium, 0.2 Poor, 9 Unreliable)

Landing Distance
➢ Landing on a wet runway, the landing distance available maybe less than 15% greater than the dry landing
distance if the flight manual gives specific data for a wet runway
➢ If the airworthiness documents do not specify a correction for landing on a wet runway, the landing
distance must be ↑ by 15% (Landing length ÷ Jet / Prop factor x 1.15 = Landing distance available)
➢ Turbo-jet: Required to land within 60% of landing distance available
➢ Turbo-prop: Required to land within 70% of landing distance available
➢ Calculate the landing field length (landing distance available) for Turbojet + wet condition: assume 1km
landing distance, landing field length = 1/0.6 x 1.15 = 1.91 => 92%
➢ LDA = 3000m, expect wet runway, calculate the landing distance required for a jet: 3000 x 0.6 ÷ 1.15 =
1565m
➢ For a turboprop class A, a 2200m long runway is expected to be wet, it must be ensured that the landing
mass of the plane allows a full stop landing on a dry runway within: 2200/1.15 x 0.7 = 1339m
➢ For aircraft powered by turbo-prop engines landing at an alternate, the landing distance required will be
the same as that required at a destination aerodrome

Landing Mass
➢ Maximum quick turnaround mass: Maximum mass corresponding to the minimum time you need to wait
before commencing another take-off
➢ Landing climb limit mass is not affected by headwind/ tailwind because it refers to the maximum mass that
will enable the plane to achieve the minimum required climb gradient in case of a missed approach, climb
gradient is relative to the air and is not affected by wind which is relative to the ground
➢ The maximum mass for landing could be limited by the climb requirements with one engine inoperative in
the approach configuration
➢ The mass of aircraft is heavier than its quick turnaround mass, the pilot has to wait for a certain time until
the plane can commence the next takeoff and preferably avoid rapid exit taxiways, so that the brakes can
be cool down before the next takeoff
Take-off
➢ Takeoff performance data is generally determined by the manufacturers by calculation, only a few values
are verified by flight tests
➢ Maximum crosswind for takeoff on a contaminated runway surface is 10kts

ACN & PCN

➢ Pavement classification number code:
Load capacity
Flexible F + 10% (allows more margin for ACN) / Rigid R + 5%
Subgrade category strength (A= high, D= ultra-low)
Maximum type pressure
Method: T technical evaluation / U physical testing by usage
➢ ACN may exceed PCN by up to 10%
➢ Runway slope has NO effect on tyre speed limitation, this is because the plane has to accelerate to lift off
speed regardless of runway slope (DON’T CONFUSE THIS WITH VMBE!)
➢ Maximum tyre speed depends on ground speed
➢ Before takeoff, temperature of the brakes is checked, this is because overheated brakes will not perform
adequately in the event of rejected takeoff
➢ The greater the depth of contamination, the takeoff mass will be limited, with a light plane, smaller
reduction of V1 is applied
➢ Drag caused by slush will increase until reaching the hydroplaning speed, then decrease
➢ Runway contamination: ↓V1 ↓VR Rotation speed
➢ Water equivalent depth = contaminant depth x specific gravity

Reduced takeoff thrust

➢ Reduced take-off thrust should NOT be used when anti-skid is not usable / runway is contaminated / wind
shear is reported on the take-off path (NOT runway is wet)

Abort takeoff
➢ In the event of engine failure below V1, first action to be taken by pilot is to reduce the engine thrust >>
Maximum manual brake >> Deploy speed brakes >> Thrust reverse
➢ Following an engine failure before V1, allowing a pilot reaction time of 2 second (recognition) an aircraft
must be capable to decelerate to a stop within the ASDA
➢ A pilot should decide to abort the take off (at the last resort) at V1 (not 2 seconds before V1)

Take-off Distances
➢ TORA = Take off Run Available
TODA = Takeoff Distance Available (TORA +
Clearway)
ASDA = Accelerate Stop Distance (TORA +
Stopway)
LDA = Landing Distance available (TORA –
Displaced threshold)
➢ Stopway: Area for abandoned take-off
Clearway: Area for plane to transit from lift-
off to the required screen height
➢ Advantage of balanced field length: Gives the
minimum required field length in the event of
engine failure, simplified the process of
calculations
➢ The balanced field concept provides only one single V1 value
➢ Balanced field length: One engine inoperative takeoff distance = rejected takeoff distance TODEF = ASD
➢ Regulations: Clearway < 50% TORA
➢ Take off run required with one engine inoperative is brake release point to midpoint between VLOF and 35ft
➢ Take off run required with all engines operating is 1.15% of the takeoff path
 ➢ Additional clearway, no stopway: Longer distance for the takeoff can therefore load more cargo, field-
length limited take-off mass ↑, with higher mass, V1↓ because no extra stopway and you need to stop
before end of the runway with heavier aircraft
➢ Additional stopway, no clearway: Longer distance for the takeoff can therefore load more cargo, field-
length limited take-off mass ↑, V1 ↑ because you have more space to stop and higher mass requires higher
speed for takeoff ***Assume this condition unless stated otherwise (no stopway) ***
➢ At the same mass if a higher V1 was used then TODR will ↓ (lift off faster with higher speed) and ASDR ↑
➢ Downslope: ↓Take off / Accelerate Stop distance, ↓V1 (downslope will ↑ the stopping segment), ↓VMBE
Maximum brake energy limited takeoff mass (downslope degrade stopping ability, brakes have to absorb
higher energy), ↑ Field Limited Take-off Mass ↓ Allowable Take-off Mass, BUT no impact on tyre speed
limited takeoff mass, VR and V2
➢ Upslope: VMBE allow ↑ in take-off mass
➢ ASD required must consider an aborted takeoff for both: engine failure and all engine cases

Speed
➢ V1 takeoff decision speed
➢ V1 ≥ VMCG, if V1 is found to be lower than
VMCG, takeoff is not permitted, if this
answer is not an option, V1 must be
increased to at least the value of VMCG
➢ V1 ≤ VR the speed at which rotation to the lift off angle of attack is initiated
➢ V1 ≤ VMBE Maximum brake energy speed
➢ VMCG ≤ VEF Critical engine failure < V1
➢ If not VMBE or VMCG limited, V1 would be limited by VR
➢ Maximum value of V1 if max tire speed and brake energy are not limiting = VR
➢ If lower V1 is selected: ↑Takeoff Roll and lift off occurs later, obstacle clearance ↓ climb performance
remains constant
➢ There is a single speed for V1 at the runway limited take-off mass for a balanced condition, the safety
margin with respect to the runway length is the greatest
➢ Wet V1 < Dry V1, lower V1 results in ↑ TODR and obstacle clearance is degraded
➢ V2 = takeoff safety/climb speed, speed at 35ft, speed which the aircraft is legally required to achieve on
reaching the screen height 35ft
➢ V2 speed ↓: Higher flap setting (V2 speed is a margin above the stall speed, flap ↓stall speed), ↓mass
➢ V2 should be greater than VMCA by 10% and may not be less than 1.08VSR reference stall speed for planes with
more than 3 engines and 1.13 VSR for planes for 2-3 engines
➢ ↑V2 speed will ↑ TODR (holding the aircraft on the ground until it reaches an increased VR so as to climb at
an increased V2) and the climb gradient
➢ V2MIN = Minimum takeoff safety speed, ↓when flap setting ↑ stall speed ↓ mass ↓ (these factors allow
takeoff at lower speed)
➢ V2MIN is limited by VMCA requirement with high thrust conditions (high pressure, low elevation, low
temperature, low mass, large flap setting)
➢ V2MIN is limited by VSR (reference stall speed) requirement with low thrust conditions
➢ VSR = reference stall speed and may not be less than 1-g stall speed
➢ Factors causing aircraft rotates earlier + at a faster rate: Stabilizer trim setting miscalculated, CG too aft
➢ VMCG is based on directional control being maintained by primary aerodynamic control ONLY, determined
without nose wheel steering and no crosswind
➢ Most important parameters of VMCG: Engine thrust and rudder deflection
 ➢ VMC ↓ with low thrust conditions (high temperature / density), less speed is required to balance the
asymmetric yaw
➢ VR ≥ 1.05 VMCA
➢ Straight flight cannot be maintained below VMCA, when the critical engine has failed
➢ Pilot decides to ↑ V2, need more distance to accelerate to V2, the 35ft screen height is located further
down along the runway
➢ VSTOP = Maximum abandonment speed = safely abandon the takeoff in the event of an engine failure or with
all engines operating
➢ Given a runway of restricted length, with oceanic views and high-pressure altitude, what, for a heavy
aircraft at a constant IAS, are the effects on performance? Long take-off, low climb angle but VMC (IAS) will
be reduced

Climb
➢ The takeoff runway performance requirements are
based on failure of critical engine or all engines
operating which ever gives the greater takeoff
distance
➢ Climb gradient = (Thrust – Drag) / Weight x 100%
➢ Minimum gross gradient = Rate of climb / TAS (1m =
3.28ft) (NOT! Groundspeed!)
➢ Gross Flight Path (plotted using average performance) > Net Flight Path (plotted using diminished gross
performance)
➢ Gross gradient is decreased by a factor of 0.8% for twin engine plane
➢ A reduction in a screen height is allowed for wet runways to ↓weight penalties
➢ Engine failure take-off run = the horizontal distance
along the take-off path from the start of the take-off
to a point equidistant between the point at which
VLOF is reached and the point at which the plane is
35ft above the take off surface
➢ Takeoff Run Required = MAX [ 1 engine inop
distance, 1.15% x all engines distance ]
➢ Engines are pressure limited at low temperature and
temperature limited at higher temperature
➢ After the failure of the critical engine and stabilising
the engine failure transient, which parameter must
be maintainable? Straight flight
➢ If a turn is commenced during the take off flight path, the load factor ↑, to generate the same amount of
lift, Angle of Attack must be higher, induced drag ↑ and the climb gradient ↓

Mass
➢ ↑Mass: ↑V1 and V2MIN (higher mass requires higher speed for takeoff), ↑Take off distance
➢ ↑ Temperature: ↓ Field Length Limited Takeoff Mass, ↓ Climb Limited Take-Off Mass
➢ ↑ Flaps: ↓Takeoff distance required, ↑ Field Length Limited Takeoff Mass, ↓ Climb / Obstacle limited
Take-Off Mass, ↓V2, ↑performance limited Take-Off Mass
➢ Climb limited takeoff mass: ↑ when density ↑, lower flap setting, ↓
temperature. Headwind / tailwind will NOT affect climb limited takeoff
mass
➢ If takeoff weight is higher than expected, TOD and ASD↑, calculated V2
being too slow, VLOF (speed at which the aircraft actually becomes
airborne) and VMU (minimum unstick speed) ↑
➢ V1, VR and V2 are calculated speed, pilots unlikely to notice anything if
these figures are inaccurate based on wrong takeoff weight
entered
➢ Concerning landing gear, which factors would limit the
take-off mass: rate of rotation of the wheel at lift off and
brake energy (NOT! Tyre pressure)
➢ Mass limited by TODA = Field length limited TOM
➢ Obstacle limited take-off mass should be determined on
the basis of a 35ft obstacle clearance with respect to the
“net take-off flight path”, a takeoff in the direction of an
obstacle is also permitted in tailwind condition
➢ Wind has been omitted on the left side of the chart, this is
because the climb limit performances are taken relative to the
air
➢ Work backwards: 58500 – 550 = 57950kg