CURRICULUM, METHODS AND MATERIALS IN

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

JCE 326

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 PREFACE

The world of early childhood education is one of constant changes. Just as we professionals
make important transitions in our lives, so must we be prepared to help young children
transform. Early childhood education today will help prepare teachers to rightfully,
knowledgeably and confidently assume their role in educating young children of the 21st century.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance received from
colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who contributed in diverse ways
toward the production of this particular course book merit more than mere acknowledgement.
We wish to acknowledge all authors that were cited. We also wish to thank the Director and
Principal of Jackson College of Education for giving us the opportunity to unearth our writing
potential. Dad and Mum, we are indebted to you.

Finally, we are grateful to the entire staff of St. Louis College of Education for their
encouragement and prayers.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

UNIT 1: DESIGNING A KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM

Lesson 1:1 The Concept Of Curriculum

Lesson 1:2 Curriculum Principles and Process

Lesson 1: 3 Approaches to curriculum design

Lesson 1: 4 The role of the Professional in the curriculum process

Lesson 1:5 Principles of kindergarten curriculum

Lesson 1:6 The purpose of kindergarten curriculum

UNIT 2: THE KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM AND GOALS

Lesson 2:1The goals of early childhood curriculum

Lesson 2:2 The daily schedule

Lesson 2:3 Promoting Successful Transitions

Lesson 2:4 Identifying and selecting a good early childhood center

UNIT 3: KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM

Lesson 3.1 what is Child-Centered Education?

Lesson 3.2 Discovery method of teaching.

Lesson 3.3 Activity method of teaching

Lesson 3.4 Brainstorming method

Lesson 3.5 Project method

Lesson 3.6 Group method of teaching

Lesson 3.7 Cooperative strategy method of teaching

Lesson 3.8 Demonstration method of teaching

Lesson 3.9 Educational visit and field experience

Lesson 3.10 Field trip method of teaching

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Lesson 3.11 Educational videos and teaching from television

UNIT 4: THE MONTESSORI’S METHOD

Lesson 4:1 Montessori’s Educational system and Method

Lesson 4:2 Principles of the Montessori Teaching Process

Lesson 4:3 Montessori’s Principles in Practice

Lesson 4:4 Montessori’s idea on reading and writing

Lesson 4:5 Planning to teach with the Montessori Method: the role of the teacher

Lesson 4:6 Criticism of the Montessori Method

UNIT 5: PLAY IN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM

Lesson 5:1 Definition and Purposes of Play

Lesson 5:2 Kinds of Play

Lesson 5:3 The Role of the Professional in Play

Lesson 5.4 Observation and Assessment of Learning through Play

Lesson 5:5 Basic tips to keep children at play in safe environment.

UNIT 6: LEARNING CENTRES

Lesson 6:1 Definition and Purposes of Learning Centers

Lesson 6:2 What to consider in Setting up Learning Centers

Lesson 6:3 Designing Learning Centre Activities

Lesson 6:4 Guiding and Assessing Learning Centre Activities

REFERENCES

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 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE: CURRICULUM, METHODS AND
MATERIALS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION.

A hallmark of every efficient Early Childhood professional is the ease with which that individual
demonstrates the ability to use effectively a variety of developmentally appropriate strategies and
materials in the process of guiding pupils learning experiences. A modern E.C.E professional
should not teach but rather employ a system of unique actions to induce learning. This reflects
the fact that knowledge is not manufactured but discovered.

The intention of this course, Curriculum Methods and Materials is carefully designed to equip
trainees with the appropriate pre-requisite skills and materials to groom them carefully into
effective teachers and good methodologists in the field of Early Childhood Education.

Course objectives

Upon successful completion of this course you will be able to:

 Explain and use the concept Curriculum appropriately.

 Make use of variety of strategies appropriately.
 Create opportunities for children to learn through play.
 Deliver lesson in ways that meet the unique needs of pre-school children.
 Select and use teaching and learning materials efficiently.

There are 6 units in this course and each unit is broken down into lessons. You are advised not to
spend more than an hour on each lesson. We have included the summary of key issues and self-
assessment at the end of each lesson. We promise to make lesson interesting and fun. We wish
you all the best. Enjoy!

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UNIT 1:
DESIGNING AN EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION

Hello Student,

In every school, pupils follow planned or formal activities such as reading or writing in class.
They also follow unplanned or informal learning activities such as playing outside classroom,
teasing others, buying food during break periods or getting unto a bus to come to school or to go
home;

These are all activities that are not planned by the school but which nevertheless, influence
learning. This lesson discusses curriculum which refers to both planned and unplanned activities
in and around the school that influence learning.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you will be able to

1. explain the concept of curriculum.

2. explain at least three (3) principles of curriculum.
3. discuss at least three (3) approaches to curriculum design.
4. state and explain four (4) roles a teacher plays in the implementation of curriculum.

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 UNIT 1: LESSON 1

THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM

1.1.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are welcome to the first lesson of Unit 1. This lesson discusses “the concept
curriculum”. Under this concept curriculum we will be looking at the following

 What Curriculum is.

 Characteristics of the school Curriculum.
 Kinds of Curriculum

Let us first outline the lesson’s objectives.

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 explain Curriculum in your own words.

 state at least three (3) characteristics of the school Curriculum.
 identify at least four (4) kinds of curriculum.

Activity 1.1
You have been hearing the words school curriculum and extra-curricular activities severally.
How do you then understand the word “Curriculum”? Explain using your own words.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Let us read then…………

The term Curriculum has been given different definitions and meanings, some in a rather narrow
and others a broad context. What is drawn by the curriculum Research and Development

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Division (CRDD) in this country is an example of the narrow sense. The CRDD draws out the
content or subject matter of the subjects or area of study for basic schools in Ghana.

The root definition of curriculum is from a Latin word ‘curer’ meaning “Course”. The definition
of curriculum by other authors includes:

Kerr (1968) defines it as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school
whether it is carried on in groups or individually inside or outside the school.

Doll (1975) also sees it as all the learning experiences offered to students under the auspices or
direction of the school.

Kelly (1982) simply defines the concept as the total programmed of an educational institution.
Olivia (1982) cites by Adentwi (2000) defines curriculum as a planned or programmed of
experience which the learner encounters under the tutelage of the school.

In a broad sense, the term Curriculum can be defined simply as “a school’s plan for all the
learning experiences the learner is expected to engage in under the guidance of the school”.

In fact, both the narrow and broad ways by which the curriculum can be looked at are important,
but the broad meaning is more acceptable.

1.1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

 Curriculum, by nature, is an educational activity or at least related to education in
its fundamental form.
 Curriculum is made up of content (that is“what”), methodology (the “how”), time
frame (the“when”) and the rationale (the “why”).
 There are other important agents who contribute to or cause the creation, or the
revision of the curriculum.
 By its nature, curriculum is always meant to be positive activity. But it is also
possible for the experience of negative by-product of a school curriculum.
 The curriculum is a school originated activity but it can end up occurring outside
the school.

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1.1.2 KINDS OF CURRICULUM

The following are the various kinds of curriculum:

1. FORMAL CURRICULUM: This kind of curriculum entails activities for which the
timetable of the school allocates specific periods for teaching or practical work. They are
activities to be covered in the normal school hours. This dimension concerns those
experiences which are provided within the subject areas.
2. NON FORMAL CURRICULUM: This consists of activities that are planned by the
school which pupils take part in either at the school or outside the school. These activities
may not necessarily happen in class even though students may attend in groups.
Examples include games, scouting groups, cadet corps, clubs etc.
3. INFORMAL CURRICULUM: This type of curriculum involves activities which do not
necessarily appear on the timetable but which are very important. They also usually take
place outside the regular school time of teaching and learning .They occur for example
during the early hours before class, right after or on weekends, it refers to a created
environment in which pupils learn more or less unconsciously by exposure or by copying
the lifestyle of some teachers and peers or being clean as a result of living in a clean
environment.

Activity 1.2
List any three informal curriculum activities considering explanations given above.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

You can compare your answers with friends and continue to read on.

4. THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM: This type of curriculum refers to all the activities
which may not be planned by the school but which children learn unconsciously or
accidentally. For instance, children learn how to play social roles like leadership, how to
relate with the opposite sex, how to take collective decisions etc.

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 5. THE OFFICIAL CURRICULUM: This is made up of the national regional, district or
local statement of the goals and objectives of the school system. It includes the official
calendar, timetable, the syllabus and the descriptions of the prescribed content etc.
6. THE ACTUAL CURRICULUM: The actual curriculum is the practical or real learning
that occurs in the social as a result of the official curriculum after it has been affected by
practical conditions in a particular environment.

We hope you enjoyed reading.

1.1.4 Summary

A good definition of Curriculum should embody the following;

 That curriculum consists of all the experiences the learner has in the course of living.
 The fact that curriculum takes place both inside and outside the school.
 That curriculum consists of educational objectives, list of exercises etc. that have
educational values
 Curriculum is a subset of education.
 Curriculum consist of the content of courses or subjects.
 Methodology, the timetable, teaching and learning materials are all part of the
curriculum.
 Things that children learn unconsciously or accidentally example, children learn how to
play social roles like leadership etc. are all part of the curriculum (Hidden curriculum)

1.1.5 Progress Test

1. Explain into details what Curriculum is.

2. Mention any three characteristics of the school curriculum.
3. What is the difference between the following kinds of curriculum?
a. Non formal and informal curriculum.
b. Formal and the hidden curriculum.
c. The official and actual curriculum.

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 UNIT 1: LESSON 2

CURRICULUM PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS

1.2.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are welcome to Lesson 2 f unit 1. This lesson discusses Curriculum and
Process. Let’s first establish our objectives.

1.2.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 elaborate three (3) Principles of curriculum.

 outline the curriculum process.
 examine the curriculum design process.

Read on………

The general principles or axioms of a curriculum are often cited in the literature. These are:

1. Curriculum Change is inevitable and Desirable: Society is said to be dynamic not

static. The dynamic nature of the society calls for the constant change in the curriculum
in order to help solve the society’s problems. Furthermore, the curriculum content should
be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the time. The year 2000 Educational
Reform came about because the educational system that existed before it could not solve
the problem of our time. Hence the need for the changes.
2. Curriculum is the Product of Its Time: this principle advocates that a school
curriculum should not only reflect but is a product of its time. The curriculum designed
for schools must reflect the changing needs of the society.
3. Curriculum Reflects Concurrent Changes: Curriculum changes at an earlier period of
time can exist concurrently with a newer curriculum and change at a later period. In other
words, curriculum changes overlap with curriculum changes of later periods.
4. Curriculum brings about changes in people: This principle maintains that curriculum
change brings about change in people. People’s way of life and attitude change overtime

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 as a result of the curriculum. Teachers and pupils who are used to the old curriculum can
be led to change their attitude to be consistent with the demands of the new curriculum.
5. Curriculum Encourages Cooperative Endeavour: This principle of cooperative
endeavor in curriculum is affected as a result of the cooperative efforts on the part of
groups. Some of the groups are teachers, curriculum specialists, supervisors,
administrators, students, parents and other community representatives such as SMCs and
PTAs.
6. Curriculum Design is a Decision Making Process: This principle states that curriculum
development is mainly the process of making choices from among alternatives. This is
because knowledge is in constant flux and one cannot acquire all at a time. There is the
need to decide and adopt those that meet the needs of the society.
7. Curriculum is a comprehensive process: When something is said to be comprehensive
it is all embracing. Curriculum is comprehensive because of the fact that it takes so many
things into consideration before a final document is produced.
8. Curriculum is a continuous process: This principle states that curriculum development
never ends. New inputs are always being introduced into the curriculum to meet the
changing needs of the society.
9. Curriculum Ensures Systematic Development: This principle ensures that the
curriculum is designed in a manner that ensures the gradual and predictable growth of the
learner physically, mentally and socially. This makes curriculum development more
effective than trial and error.

1.2.2 THE CURRICULUM DESIGN PROCESS

In order to achieve the objectives of the curriculum of the school, the curriculum needs to be
carefully planned. In this plan, teachers and school administrators have to decide on the
following:

1. What they want children to be able to achieve – objectives

2. What to teach for children to achieve the objectives – content
3. The means by which they can get the children to achieve the objectives – methods
4. Determine whether the school is making progress towards the stated objectives –
Evaluation.

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The curriculum process is made up of three phases.

a. Phase 1: The Planning Stage: This is made up of the analysis, setting of objectives and
selection of contents.
b. Phase 2: The Implementation Stage: This deals with the selection methods.
c. Phase 3: The Evaluation Stage.

Now let us explain the processes.

A. Phase 1: planning stage

1. The Situational Analysis:

In developing a curriculum for a school, it is necessary to examine some issues about the
community from which the children come and the part such a community should play in the
school life of the children.

These include:

 The attitude of the people towards education.

 The aspirations of the parents concerning their children, i.e. what benefit they expect their
children to get from school education.
 The sizes of families and the effects this can have on the children’s education.
 The kinds of relationships between parents and their children.
 The nature of influences of the peer groups that children form.
 The influences of adult members of the community on the children.
 Other social issues like the absence of one’s parents etc.

Teachers must know these influences and the background of the children which are very
important because they have both good and bad effects in the education of children. The
teachers’ knowledge of these influences would enable him/her to take advantage of the situation
to either reduce or improve on the effects.

2. Setting of objectives to be achieved: Before the curriculum is drawn, teachers ask

themselves; what do we want the pupils to be able to do after going through the
curriculum activities? The objectives to be followed are of two main kinds. These are:

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Long term objectives: Which the pupils are expected to be able to do after completing the
whole process of schooling. E.g. to produce efficient disciplined teachers for the schools in
Ghana.

The short term objectives are statements of what the students are expected to be able to do at
the end of a course or a number of lessons. E.g. By the end of the lesson pupils will be able to
pass their examinations.

3. Selecting of Contents: Content in the process of curriculum does not only specify what
should be taught and the amount of knowledge in any subject that pupils are required to
cover but also necessary to state the depth in which they are expected to know. Contents
include skills, attitudes, concept and other values that have to be learned by the pupils. In
Ghana, the content or knowledge aspects of the basic schools are determined by the
CRDD nevertheless, teachers recommend for changes to be made if the need arises. The
content of curriculum should be what will be of interest to the pupils and should be
written at their level and ability. This is known as child centered curriculum.
B. Phase 2: Implementing Stage
4. Methods: This refers to the way by which the school gets the learner to learn from all the
experiences it offers. It includes:
a. The methods used to impact learning experiences i.e. the discussion methods, activity
methods etc.
b. The type of relationship between the teacher and the pupils should be encouraged. It is
now accepted that such a relationship should not be too formal. However, if it is too
cordial it could have adverse effect on learning.
c. The kinds of school administration methods that should be emphasized by the school.
This includes the kind of policy and plan the school has in discipline, punishment etc. the
teacher should also vary the methods employed since this will be more stimulating and
interesting to children.’

C. Phase 3: Evaluation Stage

5. Evaluation: The purpose of this stage is to find out how well the school programme has
succeeded. This is very important because when the amount of success or even failure is

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 known, the teacher can then decide on how to improve upon this. Evaluation will also
provide feedback for the curriculum planner to know what changes to make in the
curriculum. Evaluation should be a continuous process i.e. curriculum evaluation should
be done alongside curriculum implementation.

1.2.3 Summary

The general Principles of Curriculum include;

 due to the dynamic nature of society, curriculum change is inevitable and necessary.
 curriculum is the product of its time.
 curriculum effect change in people.
 curriculum design is a decision making process.

Curriculum exists in three phases:

 Phase 1: The planning Stage.

 Phase 2: The Implementation Stage.
 Phase 3: The Evaluation Stage.

Progress test

1. State and explain four principles of a curriculum.

2. Explain what goes into each of the following:
a. Situational Analysis
b. Selection of content
c. Evaluation

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 UNIT 1: LESSON 3

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN

Dear Student, this is Unit 1, Lesson 3 and you are welcome. The lesson discusses the various
approaches to curriculum design. The types of curriculum give us different designs. Let us
first outline the objectives.

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 explain the subject curriculum.

 mention at least two (2) subject that has the broad field curriculum.
 differentiate between the core curriculum and the Activity or Child-Centered
curriculum.

Types of curriculum used in Ghanaian basic schools. Types of curriculum used in Ghanaian
basic schools refer to the way in which the curriculum is designed or assigned. There are four
main types:

1.3.1 The subject curriculum

The subject type is the traditional approach in which knowledge of similar nature on
particular aspects of life is put together into a subject. E.g. geography, mathematics,
chemistry etc. under each subjects, the areas of study are established and people who
specialize in the subject develop appropriate ways of teaching the content.

Characteristics of subject Approach

 Each subject is taught separately within a prescribed time limit.

 The understanding of key concepts in each subject area (i.e mastery of each subject) is
main concern of the teacher.
 The teacher is the dominant figure in the teaching and learning process.
 Subject specialists determine the methods of teaching.
 Teaching is aimed primarily at increasing the learner’s knowledge of the subject.

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Merits of the Subject Curriculum

 By studying the organized bodies of subject matter, students can build their store of
knowledge most efficiently and economically.
 Textbooks and other teaching materials are generally organized by subjects so that
learning materials are clearly laid out.
 It makes reference to books on particular subject simple and accessible. For example,
Geography is divided into Map Reading, Physical Geography etc.
 In dealing with admission requirements, various institutions place emphasis on passes in
certain subject areas such as mathematics, science etc.
 To the teacher the subject curriculum tis more convenient and easier to handle in terms of
planning, organization and teaching than other curriculum designs. For example, the
broad field or integrated curriculum where he has to deal with so many subject at once.

Demerits of the Subject Curriculum

 There is lack of integration in the subject curriculum. In other words the nature of the
design tends to fragment knowledge
 Concepts and facts which the design emphasizes are learned in isolation since subjects
are in pure compartments with little opportunity to relate them to anything meaningful.
 It is detached from the concern of events of the real world. For example, such important
aspect of life such poverty, racism, war, pollution, conservation of resources, etc.
 It gives inadequate attention to the needs, interest and experience of the learner. Since
mastery of the subject is the central aim of the designed only learners whose experience
and interest coincide with the subject as presented tend to profit meaningfully from the
curriculum.

1.3.2 The Broad Field Curriculum

The broad field, also known as the integrated is now prominent in basic schools. The subjects
which used to be called Geography and History have now been put together/integrated under
social studies. The important things about this reclassification into social studies, cultural studies
etc. is that it has made it possible to include issues about culture such as festivals, naming
ceremony etc. which were neither under religion nor music in cultural studies.

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Other fields which have developed from this approach include integrated science. It has not yet
been possible to extend many broad fields subjects to the higher levels because WAEC has not
yet developed concise syllabus for these. Furthermore, higher syllabi would mean that tutors for
these integrated subjects need to be trained, but this has not yet been done.

Characteristics of the broad field curriculum

 It involves the combination of two or more subjects.

 Subject merged are related in one way or the other.
 The combination of subject into a single broad fields of study broadens the learner’s
knowledge.
 It is economical to use since it trains teachers for blocks of subject.
 It represents the a broad spectrum of ideas
 It does not lend itself to specialization.

Merits of the broad fields curriculum

 It broadens the scope of knowledge of the pupils and it is given a practical approach to
make it both meaningfully and useful.
 Text materials in broad fields are easily accessible.
 It is superior to other curriculum designs because it provides the general education
appropriate for everyday life.
 It makes for a greater integration of subject matter and encourages flexibility in the
choice of contact.

Demerits of the broad field curriculum

 Such knowledge is shallow in depth. In other words, it does not lend itself to the deeper
coverage of the subject centered approach and therefore students are in danger of
acquiring a superficial knowledge of many topics and no deep understanding of anything.
 There is dearth of personnel to implement the subject curriculum. They therefore tend to
emphasize their special areas to the detriments of the other components parts.

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1.3.3 The core curriculum
The word “core” refers to the most important aspect of something. Thus the core
curriculum pattern is one in which the practical useful items in the curricula of the usual
subjects are identified and taken as a core. Then the items are out together and taught.
The core may be interpreted in many ways depending on one’s decision of what the core
area is. E.g. one way is to identify broad problems in life and to choose extent from
certain subjects which would help the child to understand and deal with such broad
problems.
A group of subjects in primary, secondary and training institutions in Ghana have been
selected and classified as core as opposed to those which may be chosen as electives.

Characteristics of Core Curriculum

1. The subject matter for study is organize around broad current social problem areas, for
example making a living. The subject selected retain their identity but the content is
selected and taught with special reference to the unit or problem.
2. It is intended to make what is studied relevant to the learner’s personal life. In other
words it studies issues which are central to everyday living such as rules, beliefs, facts,
and method of thinking which are shared by the society of which the school forms a part.
3. It reflects the compulsory subjects which are to be studied by all at the various levels of
the educational system since such a body of knowledge is seen as a fundamental in the
learner’s development. In other words, it is the general education required of all learners.

Merits of Core Curriculum

 It aims at ensuring the overall growth of the child.

 The is an effort to relate the programmes of learning to the problems of life and
learner’s interest

Demerits of Core Curriculum

 The Core Curriculum does not offer significant and systematic body of knowledge.
 It is difficult for teachers to form a collaborative teaching due to difference in their
academic background.

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1.3.4 The Activity/Child -Centre/Experimental/Problem Solving Curriculum:

The work of Maria Montessori, John Dewey and other contemporary educators called a
lot attention to the importance of activity and experimental learning. This has led to
development of many methods to fulfill this end. The call for activity methods developed
as a result of the criticisms against the passive and rote manner in which the content was
often taught through the subject approach.

Thus it was accepted that by nature man learns through experience and therefore children
should also be taught through practical activity and experience. The activity curriculum is
therefore designed to involve children in activities which are within their interest with the
aim of getting them to learn some content through structured activities. They may
measure, draw, construct, dramatize etc. and as they do these they learn by participation
and discovery. In the activity curriculum, the design includes a series of activities
planned for pupils to acquire various levels of knowledge.

In Ghana, the activity types are commonly used in the kindergarten and nursery. E.g.
number work, pattern making, creative activity etc. can be found in KG timetables.

Characteristics of Activity Curriculum

 Learners’ need and interest determine the structure of the curriculum.

 The most important task of the teacher is to:
a) discover what the interest of the learners are
b) to help them select the most significant of these for study.
 Both the learners and teacher co-operate in planning the curriculum.
 The teacher’s task requires extensive planning. They must prepare in advance to help
learners decide what to do, how to do it, and how to evaluate the result.
 The design focuses on problem-solving procedures for learning. In their attempt to find
solutions to these problems” they achieve the learning which represents the major values
of this curriculum”.

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Merits of Activity Curriculum

 It makes learning experiences more related to life, real, meaningful and relevant to
the needs and interest of the learner.
 It provides for the individual differences of the learners. In other words, learners may
join a class or a group if its interests coincide with his. On the other hand he may
decide to pursue an individual project if his needs and interest are unique.
 There is active participation in the learning process.
 The problem-solving approach provides learners with the skills they need to cope
effectively with life outside school.
 Learners have the opportunity to perform activities in various subjects they learn. For
example, in Social Studies class children have the opportunity to observe, discuss,
gather information, record their findings or make field trips.

Demerits of Activities Curriculum

 The cost of supplying the required wealth of teaching and learning materials is
prohibitive.
 Existing textbooks and other teaching materials are not geared to meet the requirements
of this curriculum design.
 Our teacher education programmes are not sufficiently organized to prepare teachers to
function with the activity experiences design. However, there is effort being made in the
Early Childhood Education (ECE) programme offered in some Colleges.
 Since the design is unstructured it depends heavily on teacher-pupils interaction and
anything less than the highest teacher performance may reach in chaos.

1.3.5 Summary

The different types of curriculum give us the many designs we have. The subject Approach is
where knowledge of similar nature is put together into a subject. The Activity approach is the
one which is carefully designed to involve children in activities where they will develop or
learn concept in an interesting flexible and gradual manner. Broad field, Approach is the type

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 where subjects are combined and put under another subject.eg. Physics, chemistry, Biology is
combined as Integrated Science for Senior high School students. The core Approach which
refers to the practically useful items in the curriculum and the liberal studies has to do with
the curriculum that develops mind which is free to inquire, open and reflect on a lot of issues
about the world and vocational curriculum prepares individual directly in certain jobs.

1.3.6 Progress test

Discuss any two merits and demerits of:

i. Activity Curriculum
ii. Core Curriculum

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 UNTI 1: LESSON 4

THE ROLE OF THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROFESSIONAL IN THE

CURRICULUM PROCESS

1.4.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are welcome to Lesson 4 of Unit 1 where the role of the professional in
curriculum process will be discussed.

1.4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you will be able to:
 Examine at least three (3) Early Childhood Education Professionals role in the
curriculum process.

1. The EC professional is the one who has to create a healthy and ideal learning
environment for learning. The professional has to arrange the materials and also
apportion the time available in such a way that the learning would be better achieved.
2. The professional is an analyst. He has to analyze the situation of the school and see what
can be used in the environment to promote learning. He has to analyze the objectives of
the curriculum to see how well they suit the local society and how to act to get them
fulfilled.
3. The EC professional has to decide aspects of the curriculum to emphasize. This is
because the curriculum states a wide range of objectives and experiences to be offered
but the local environment may have its preferences. Apart from this, it may not be
possible to achieve all objectives to the maximum. Emphasis would therefore need to be
placed on some aspects of curriculum.

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 4. It is the duty of the EC professional to guide the children to learn and progress towards
the objective of the curriculum. In doing this, the EC professional should bear in mind
that children do not learn from only the experience offered them directly but also from
accidental experience.
5. As the process of learning goes on, the EC professional has to continuously evaluate it to
see what is being achieved and where there are shortcomings. The teacher assesses not
only the pupils’ performances through test and other feedback but also assesses the
content of the curriculum to determine how suitable it is for the students.
6. The EC professional has to act as an advisor for the curriculum change. Upon the
assessment of the situation in the country including the nature of pupils who enter school
etc. the EC professional may submit proposal to the Curriculum and Research
Development Division (CRDD) for possible curriculum changes.

1.4.2 Summary

The E.C.E. teacher’s roles in curriculum process include;

 Create a conducive environment to induce learning.

 Working towards the achievement of the stated curriculum objectives.
 Guiding children to make health choices.
 Adopt appropriate strategies to assist children’s progress.
 Assess the content of the curriculum of the curriculum to determine how suitable
it is for the pupils.

1.4.3 Progress test

1. Examine four early childhood education teacher’s roles in the curriculum.

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 UNIT 1: LESSON 5

PRINCIPLES OF THE KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM

1.5.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello Student. This is Lesson 5, Unit 1. The lesson will discuss the principles of the kindergarten
curriculum. We hope you enjoy it.

1.5.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 Identify three Principles of the kindergarten curriculum.

Read on…………………..

The curriculum defines what the students are to learn, the skills they are to master, the concepts
they are to develop and the values, attitudes, habits and feelings they are to acquire. Further, the
curriculum includes the day’s routine and activities including grouping practices, schedules,
classroom management and a physical and social learning environment. Each decision about the
curriculum is made in light of what is best for the particular children being served-of what is
developmentally and individually appropriate. The following principles, based both on first hand,
day-to-day experience and extensive studies into how children learn, are taken as fundamental:

1. Children learn in an integrated manner and for that matter, the curriculum designed for
children should also be integrated. Lessons should be planned around themes. Learning
centres could help children learn through chosen themes.
2. Children in early childhood education through primary grades should be engaged in
active rather than passive learning activities. The curriculum must be seen as more than a
programme purchased from a publisher.
3. Spontaneous play, either alone or with children, is a natural way for young children to
learn to deal with one another and to understand their environment: play should be valued
and included in programme plan.
4. Because children come to school with different knowledge, concepts, experiences, it is
important new learning is connected to something that is known and relevant.

26
In a quality early childhood programme, the philosophy is based on an attractive approach, an
approach that views children as active learners experiencing hands – on exploration of many
diverse materials, freedom of movement and spontaneous with teachers and classmates.

The children are provided the optimal environment for learning in their own individual manner
and at their own individual level of development. An integrated approach to curriculum
recognized that content areas in instruction are naturally interrelated, as they are in real life
experiences. In the resulting integrated curriculum, learning is regarded as a process rather than a
collection of facts.

1.5.2 Summary

The kindergarten curriculum is designed with the ultimate aim of developing the totality of each
individual. Emphasis is therefore placed on developing each child cognitively, socially,
physically and emotionally through a wide range of activities and materials. Children’s
experiences are woven around themes.

Progress test

1. Explain three principles of kindergarten curriculum.

27
 UNIT 1: LESSON 6

THE PURPOSE OF KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM

Hello Student, welcome to the last lesson of Unit 1. This lesson will look at the purpose of
kindergarten curriculum. First, our objective.

1.1.6 OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 explain four (4) purposes of the kindergarten curriculum.

Now let’s read.

Regardless of the approach or method used in the programme, the curriculum is the foundation.
The curriculum provides the basis for the answering of questions about what to teach and how to
teach by providing a master plan based on a philosophy on how children develop and learn.

In the absence of a curriculum, most early childhood educators would agree on the following set
of assumptions about curricular:

1. Curriculum is related to overall programme quality. It defines and clarifies so many other
issues including teacher behavior and question style, classroom organization, relationship
with families, directive teaching versus child centered, learning and so on. The dividing
line between effective programmes is that the staff of the latter has not made a decision
about the curriculum.
2. Curriculum must focus “the whole child” and integrate areas of development. In real life,
all aspect of children must be treated together and educated together. Only when this is
recognized and provided for in the curriculum that can bring true and competent develop.
3. Play serves many functions for young children. Among the most important is that it is the
primary mode of learning in early childhood Education. Children learn more effectively
through a concrete, play oriented approach to early childhood education.
4. The teacher must agree with the philosophy and practices of the curriculum and
understand its contents. The teachers’ philosophy of life, of human development, of
family dynamics and of education will be reflected in the programme. That is

28
 development of family dynamics and of education will be reflected in the programme that
is developed for children and in the interaction that takes place between and among
individual.
5. Children are active learners. Early childhood is really the only level of education that has
taken development principle seriously and developed criteria and procedures for active
learning.
6. Curriculum should be developmentally appropriate. Although, the quality of an early
childhood programme may be affected by many factors, a major determinant of
programme quality is the extent to which knowledge of child development is applied in
programme practices.
7. Curriculum should reflect the role of social and cultural context in children development
and learning. Early childhood teachers need to understand the influence of socio-cultural
context on learning, recognize children’s developing competence, and accept a variety of
ways for children to express their development achievement.

1.6.2 Summary

The kindergarten curriculum has the following purposes.

 It must take care of all the areas of development

 Play must be an integral part.
 Children must be made active learners.
 The curriculum must be developmentally appropriate.
 The curriculum must cater for individual differences and uniqueness.

1.6.3 Progress test

State and explain any four purposes of kindergarten curriculum.

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30
UNIT 2:
KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM AND GOALS

INTRODUCTION

Hello Student, I am sure you have heard of the saying that you can lead a horse to the river side
but you cannot force it to drink. In some regard, the same is true for children. You can send a
child to school but if the child is not ready to learn one cannot force him. Even though on one
hand we talk about children always being ready and eager to learn, on the other hand,
professionals understand that all children are not equally ready to learn. Consequently, with
today’s emphasis on early education, supporting children’s motivation to learn will help them to
develop positive dispositions towards learning through a well-designed curriculum with
achievable goals. This Unit will focus on the kindergarten curriculum and its goals in helping
children learn.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Explain at least four (4) goals of early childhood curriculum.

 Explain at least four (4) daily Schedules in an early childhood setting.
 Discuss any five (5) guidelines to consider in selecting a good kindergarten.
 Discuss any four (4) ways that teachers and parents can help children make transition
easy from home to school.

Keep in mind that you are not supposed to spend more than 1 hour on a lesson. We hope you will
enjoy reading.

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 UNIT 2: LESSON 1

GOALS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM

2.1.0 INTRODUCTION

You are warmly welcome to Unit 2, Lesson 2. This unit will deal with the goals of the
kindergarten curriculum. It will also emphasize the appropriate kindergarten goals in Early
Childhood Education. We hope you will have an interesting lesson.

2.1.1 OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 state and explain at least four goals of the Early Childhood Curriculum.

Now let us read on………………

Children learn best by exploring and thinking about all sorts of phenomena. As such children
need to be active in their learning, not just cognitive but also physically, socially and artistically.
Effective curriculum ensures those important concepts are taught through projects, every day
experiences, collaborative activities and active curriculum. Curriculum goals should be clearly
defined shared and understands by all adults. The curriculum and related teaching strategies are
designed to help learners achieve the following goals.

1. Literature: Literature generally has to do with poetry, verse and rhymes. Sometimes
children will use them chorally. Sometimes they will just listen to stories read or flannel
board representations. Stories may be taped and the child can listen as often as possible.
Sometimes dramatic play may take another form through creative role playing. Many
positive experiences with literature encourage young children to love and enjoy books
and stories as well as facilitate reading readiness.
2. Listening and speaking: The language activities we engage in are listening and speaking
and children are no exception. The listening that very young children do determine their
language patterns to a large extent. Children can learn very much by listening to how they
sound on a tape recorder.

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3. Handwriting and Spelling: Handwriting may be formally taught to very young children,
but many pre-writing activities can take place. For instance, children at this age may learn
to hold pencils and crayons, they also draw and trace. Their coordination becomes
increasingly fine as they practice with these writing instruments.
4. Grammar and Usage: Formal grammar is not taught in early childhood education
classrooms but usage is taught. The teacher can provide a desirable model for the
children to emulate.
5. Mathematics: Children hear and use measurement words in their everyday language.
Some examples are, little, big, taller, shorter, smaller, half, whole, etc. Measurement
concept building begins in the home and should be capitalized on in the same school. The
teacher should develop a list of measurement words and use them frequently in helping
the child to learn how language is used to compare objects.
6. Science: Science at this stage does not appear in a completely organized way to the child.
It may include observation, experimentation and use of imagination, discussion,
hypothesis making and reading. Teacher can lead children in simple experiments to help
them observe that there are plants, animals and inanimate objects in the environment. As
they progress in their observation, they learn to classify animals with four legs, feathers,
cool and warm to touch etc.
7. Art and Music: The aesthetic area of art can be reflected to all other aspects of
curriculum. It is another avenue of communication that helps children to become more
creative and express themselves more completely. Early childhood teachers must be
supportive in this area by encouraging children to be creative, to use a wide variety of art
media and acquire a keener awareness of the world and its wonders through art and music
experiences. Art activities include the use of clay, crayons, and collages of papers, cloth
or other materials. Musical activities should also include listening creative movement to
music, singing and acting or dramatizing songs.
8. Health and Physical Education: Physical education and health cannot be overlooked in
the curriculum for the young child. Physical education aids in physical development and
overall coordination. It also promotes the overall well-being of the child and helps in the
mastering of physical skills. Teachers need to stress cleanliness, good nutrition, the
necessity of sleep and exercise, appropriate clothing for the weather etc.

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Let us continue reading………….

2.1.3 APPROPRIATE EARLY CHILDHOOD GOALS

Before we carry on, lets us do this small activity.

Activity 2.1
Do you remember the E.C.E. goals discussed in Foundations and Principles? Good! State any
four of them.
I. ………………………………………………………………………………………
II. …………………………………………………………………………………….
III. …………………………………………………………………………………….
IV. …………………………………………………………………………………….

Now compare your answer below.

All programmes should have goals to guide activities and on which to base teaching
methodologies. Goals of individual kindergartens may vary but all programmes should have
certain essential goals, some of which are as follows:

1. Social and Interpersonal Skills: The main aim here is to help children learn how to get
along with other children and adults to develop good relationship with teachers. It is also
aimed at helping to learn to help and to develop caring attitudes.
2. Self-Help and Intrapersonal Skills: In helping children to acquire self-help and
interpersonal skills. Early childhood educators model for children how to take care of
their personal needs, such as dressing (tying, buttoning, zipping etc.) and knowing what
clothes to wear. The child should also acquire eating skills such as ability to use utensils,
napkins, cup or glass; setting table. Self-help skills also include the child’s ability to
acquire health skills like how to wash, bath and brush the teeth. Grooming skills should
also be taught at this (child’s ability to comb the hair and clean the nails).
3. Learning to Learn:
 Promoting self-helped skills to help children develop good self-image and high
self-esteem.

34
  Helping children learn about themselves, their family and their culture.
 Developing a sense of self-worth by providing experiences for success and
competence.
4. Academics:
 Teaching children to learn their names, addresses and phone numbers.
 Facilitating children’s learning of colours, sizes, shapes and positions such as
under, over, around, etc.
 Facilitating children’s learning of numbers and prewriting skills, shape
(identification, letter recognition, sounds and rhymes).
5. Thinking Skills:
 We can help pupils aquire thinking skills by providing environment and activities
that enable children to develop the skills essential for – classification, seriation,
reversibility and the knowledge of time and space. These form the basis for
logical – mathematical thinking.
 We can also give children the opportunity to respond to questions and situations
that require them to synthesize, analyze and evaluate.
6. Learning Readiness:
Early childhood professionals can facilitate readiness skills that are related to school
success, such as following directions, learning to work alone, listening to the teacher,
developing an attention span, learning to stay on a task until it is completed, staying in
one’s seat and controlling impulses.
7. Language and Literacy
 Providing opportunities for children to interact with adults and peers as a means
of developing oral language skills.
 Helping children to learn to converse with other children and adults.
 Introducing children to wide range of books.
 Helping children learn the letters of the alphabet.
8. Wellness and Healthy Living
Wellness and healthy living include:
 Providing experiences that enable children to learn the role of good nutritional
practices and habits in their overall development.

35
  Providing food preparation experiences.
 Introducing children to new foods, a balanced menu and essential nutrients.
9. Independence
 Helping children to become independent by encouraging them to do things for
themselves.
 Giving children reasonably free access to materials and equipment.
10. Music and Arts
 Using a variety of materials (e.g. Crayons, paints, clay, markers) to create original
work.
 Using different colours, surface textures and shape to create form and meaning.
 Singing a variety of simple songs.
 Responding to music of various tempos through movement.
 Engaging in dramatic play with others.

2.1.4 Summary

The goals of the kindergarten curriculum aims at helping the child learn the following:

 Literature
 Listening and speaking
 Handwriting and spelling
 Grammar and usage
 Science
 Arts and music
 Health and physical Education

In as much as the kindergarten curriculum hopes in achieving the above, the early childhood
programme also aims at helping the child to develop the following skills:

 Social and interpersonal skills

 Self-help and intrapersonal skills
 Learning to learn
 Academic
 Thinking skills

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  Learning readiness
 Language and literacy
 Wellness and health
 Independence music and Arts

2.1.5 Progress test

1. Discuss any four kindergarten curriculum goals.

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 UNIT 2: LESSON 2

THE DAILY SCHEDULE

2.2.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello Student, you are welcome to another lesson. Keep up the spirit. In this lesson we are going
to discuss some daily activities of early childhood education setting.

2.2.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 explain what daily schedules are.

 state and explain any four daily schedule in early childhood education

Now read on….

Daily schedules or time table as others may call it is a basic time-management tool consisting of
times at which possible tasks, events or actions are intended to take place. In other words, they
are series of things to be done or of events to occur at or during a particular time or period. The
school and for that matter the classroom teacher has a major responsibilities for making up a
daily schedule a reality by planning ahead of time.

The following descriptions illustrate what a typical nursery and kindergarten school day can be
like with emphasis on a whole-day programme.

1. Opening Activities: As children enter, the teacher greets children and make them feel
important, build a positive attitude towards school and provide opportunity to practice
language skills. They also provide the teacher an opportunity to check on each child’s
health and emotional status. Children usually do not arrive all at one time, so the first
arrivals need something to do while others are arriving.
Offering free selection of activities or letting children self-select from limited range of
activities (puzzles, markers to colour with etc.) will be appropriate. Some teachers further
organize this procedure by having children use an “assignment board” to help them make
choices, limit the available choices, and practice concept such as colours and shapes and

38
 recognition of their names. Initially, the teacher may stand beside the board when
children come and tell each child what the choices are. The teacher may hand children
their name tags and help them put them on the board. Later, children can find their own
tags and put them up. At the first stage of the school year, each child’s name tag can
include his or her picture or a symbol or shape the child has selected.
2. Group meeting/planning: After all the children arrive, they and the teacher plan
together and talk about the day ahead. This is also the time for making announcements,
sharing in groups for the children to think about what they plan to learn during the day.
3. Learning centers: After the group time, children are free to go to one of the various
learning centers, organized and designed to learn concepts.
4. Bathroom/hand washing: Before any activity in which food is handled, prepared or
eaten, children should be made to wash and dry their hands. Help them to take turns and
others wait for their turns.
5. Snack: After center activities, a snack is usually served. It should be nutritionally and
something the children can serve themselves.
6. Outdoor Activity/Play/Walk: Ideally, outside play should be a time for learning new
concepts and skills, not just a time to run aimlessly. Children can practice climbing,
jumping, swinging through and using body control. Teachers may incorporate walking
trips and other events into outdoor play.
7. Bathroom/toileting: Bathroom/toileting times offer opportunities to teach health, self-
help and interpersonal skills. Children should be allowed to use the bathroom whenever
necessary.
8. Lunch: lunch should be relaxing time and the meal should be served family style, with
professionals and children eating together. Children should be made to see their own
tables and decorate them with place mats and flowers. Children should be involved in
cleaning after meals and snacks.
9. Relaxation: After lunch, children should have a chance to relax, perhaps to the
accompaniment of stories, records and music. This is the appropriate time to teach
children breathing exercises and relaxation techniques.
10. Nap Time: Children who want to or need to should have the time to rest or sleep. Quiet
activities should be available for those who do not need to or cannot sleep on a particular

39
 day. Under no circumstance should children be beaten or forced to sleep or lie in a cot or
blank or mat if they cannot sleep or have outgrown their need for an afternoon nap.
11. Centers or Special Projects: Following nap time is a good time for center activities or
special projects. (Special projects can also be conducted in the morning such as cooking
something for snack lunch). Special projects might involve cooking, holiday activities,
collecting things, work projects, art activities and field trips.
12. Group Time: The day can end with a group meeting to review the day’s activities. This
meeting develops listening and attention skills, promotes oral communication, stresses
that learning is important and helps children evaluate their performance and behaviour.

Hope lesson was very interesting.

2.2.2 Summary

Daily schedules are things planned on the time table and the class teacher that needs to be done
and the time when it needs to be done. this include opening activities for the day, group planning,
washing of hands, taking snacks, outdoor activities, toileting. It may also include taking lunch,
relaxation and nap time. Teacher is supposed to plan these schedules with children.

2.2.3 Progress test

1. In your own words explain Daily schedules.

2. State and explain any four Daily schedules in early childhood program.

40
 UNIT 2: LESSON 3

PROMOTING SUCCESSFUL TRANSITIONS

2.3.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, in this lesson we shall look at another interesting topic on promoting successful
transitions for the child. Do you remember your first time at the kindergarten? If no, you
probably have seen a child crying his eyes out because he is in school for the first time. We are
going to look at how the parents as well as teachers can make this transition from home to school
a success. But first, our objectives.

2.3.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 explain what is meant by “transition”.

 discuss five ways parents and early childhood professionals can help children make easy
transition in school.

Let us carry on.

A transition is a passage from one learning stage, programme or experience to another. Young
children face many such transitions in their lives. You can help ensure that preschool children
make transition from home to kindergarten happy and rewarding experience. The transition from
home to nursery and kindergarten influence positively or negatively and children’s attitude
toward school and learning. Children with special needs who are making a transition from a
special programme to a mainstreamed classroom need extra attention and support. Parent and
preschools can help preschool children make transition easy and confidently in several ways
which includes;

1. Educate and prepare children ahead of time for any situation. For example, children and
teacher can visit the kindergarten programme the children will attend. Also, as time to
enter the kindergarten approaches, children can practice certain routines as they will do
them when they enter their new school or grade.

41
2. Alert parents to new and different standards, dressed, behaviours and parent-teacher
interactions. Early childhood professionals, in co-operation with kindergarten teachers,
should share curriculum materials with parents so they can be familiar with what their
children will learn.
3. Let parents know ahead of what their children will need in the new programme (e.g.
lunch bag, change of clothing).
4. Offer parents and children an opportunity to visit programmes. Children will better
understand the physical, curricular and affective climates of new programmes if they visit
in advance. Professionals can then incorporate methods into their own programme that
will help children adjust to new settings.
5. Co-operate with the staff of any programme the children will attend to work out a
“transitional plan”. Children should see their setting as an exciting place where they will
be happy and successful.
6. Additionally what happens to children before they come to school related experience,
children’s home lives, and school, classroom characteristics? Research demonstrates the
following in relation to these three areas:
a. Children who are socially adjusted have better transitions. For example. Pre-school
children whose parents initiate social opportunities for them are better adjusted socially.
b. Rejected children have difficulty with transitions.
c. Children whose parents expect them to do well in nursery and kindergarten do better than
children whose parents have low expectation for them.
d. Developmentally appropriate classroom and practices promote easier and smoother
transitions for children.
7. The nature, extent, creativity and effectiveness of transitional experiences for children,
parents and staff will be limited only by the commitment of all involved. If professionals
are interested in providing good, nursery, kindergarten and primary schools, then we will
include transitional experiences in the curricula of this entire programme.
8. Exchange class visits between preschool and kindergarten programmes. Class visit such
as these are an excellent way to have preschool children learn about the classrooms they
will attend as kindergarten. Having kindergarten children visit the preschool and tell the
preschoolers about kindergarten provides a sense of security and anticipation.

42
 9. Work with kindergarten teachers to make booklets about their programme. The booklets
can include photographs of children, letters from kindergarten children and preschoolers,
and pictures of kindergarten activities. These booklets can be placed in the reading
centers where preschool children can read about the programme they will attend.
10. Hold a “kindergarten day” for learners in which they attend kindergarten for a day. This
programme can include such things as riding the bus, having lunch, participating in
kindergarten activities.

2.3.2 Summary

It is a great ordeal when children are to make change in their lives especially from their old
environment to a new one. This is so because of the absence of their parents but both the parent
and professional in school have important role to play in making transition of a child from home
to school more easily through;

 Educating and preparing children ahead of time for any situation

 Alerting parents to new and different standards, dressed, behaviour and parent-teacher
interactions
 Letting parents know ahead of what their children will need in the new programme
 Offering parents and children an opportunity to visit programme.

This and many others discussed earlier.

2.3.4 Progress test

Discuss any five ways that parents and early childhood professionals can make smooth
transitions for children in school.

43
 UNIT 2: LESSON 4

IDENTIFYING AND SELECTING A GOOD EARLY CHILDHOOD CENTER

2.4.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello Student, finally, we have come to the end of another Unit. Welcome to Lesson 4 of Unit 2.
In this unit we shall look at what one can consider in selecting an ideal early childhood school
for the child.

2.4.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of lesson, you will be able to:

 Identify at least four things you can look for when choosing an ideal early childhood
center for a child.

Before that let’s see if you have any idea on that by doing this small activity.

Activity 2.2
List down any three things you will consider when selecting an early childhood school for a
child.
I. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
II. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
III. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Let us read.

Parents often wonder how to select a good early children program for their wards. They will ask
you for your suggestions and advice. You can use the following guidelines to help parents and
others arrive at an appropriate preschool decision. In addition you can use the guidelines to help
ensure that quality is part of the program.

44
1. What is the physical accommodation like? Is the facility pleasant, light, clean and airy? Is
it a physical setting you would want your ward to spend time in? (if not, children will not
want it either). Do the children seem happy and involved? Is television used as a
substitution for a good curriculum and quality professionals?
2. What kind of materials is available for play and learning? Are there variety and
abundance of materials? Are there materials that help children learn concept and think?
3. Is there a balance of activity and quiet play and of individual, small-group and group
activities? Child-directed and professional directed activities? Indoor and outdoor play?
4. Is the physical setting safe and healthy?
5. Does the school have a written philosophy, objective and curriculum? Does the program
philosophy agree with the parents’ personal philosophy of hoe children should be read
and educated? Are the philosophy and goals age appropriate for the children being
served?
6. Is there an emphasis on early literacy development? Do teachers read to children
throughout the day? A general rule of thumb is that teachers should read to children at
least twenty minutes a day. Are there books and other materials that support literacy
development? Another rule of thumb is that preschool children should be familiar with
twenty to one hundred books by the time they enter kindergarten.
7. Is there a written curriculum designed to help children learn skills for literacy, skills in
self-help; readiness for learning; and cognitive, language, physical, and social emotional
development?
8. Does the staff have written plans? Is there a smooth flow of activities, or do children wait
for long periods “getting ready” for another activity? Lack of planning indicates lack of
direction. Although a program whose staff does not plan is not necessarily a poor
program, planning is one indicator of good program.
9. What is the additional ratio? How much time do teachers spend with children one to one
or small groups? Do teachers take time to give children individual attention? Do children
have an opportunity to be independent and do things for themselves?
10. How is the teacher-pupil ratio in class? Are there too many children for a teacher and an
aide to handle?
11. How does the staff relate to children? Is the relationship loving and caring?

45
 12. How do staff members handle typical discipline problems, such as disputes between
children? Are positive guidance techniques used? Are indirect guidance techniques used
(e.g. through room arrangement, scheduling and appropriate activity planning)? Is there a
written discipline philosophy that agrees with the parents’ philosophy?
13. Are staff personnel sensitive to the gender and cultural needs and backgrounds of
children and families? Are the cultures of all children respected and supported?
14. Are there opportunities for outdoor activities?
15. How is lunch time handled? Are children allowed to talk when eating? Do staff members
eat with the children? Is lunch time a happy and learning time?
16. Is there a low turnover rate for teachers and staff? Programs that have high and constant
turnovers of staff are not providing the continuity of care and education children need.
17. What kind of education or training does the staff have? The staff should have training on
how to develop the curriculum and teach young children.
18. Is the director well trained? The director should have at least a bachelor’s degree in
childhood education or child development; can the director explain the program?
Describing a typical day can be helpful. Is she or he actively involved in the program?
19. How does the staff treat adults, including parents? Does the program address the need of
children’s families? As I have indicated previously, staff should provide for the needs of
the families as well as children.
20. Is the program affordable? If a program is so expensive for the family budget, parents
may be unhappy in the long run. Parents should inquire about scholarships, reduced fees,
fees adjusted to income level, fees paid in monthly installments and sibling discounts.
21. Are parents whose children enrolled in the program satisfied? One of the best ways to
learn about a program is to talk to other parents.
22. What are the provisions for emergency care and treatment?
23. What procedures are there for taking care of ill children?

It is therefore necessary that the curriculum planners and deliverers to base their work on
children/pupils readiness, interest and developmental needs.

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2.4.2 Summary

There is a saying that where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. Children are treasures
therefore where they will be should be our great concern. The environment in which children
learn has influence on them and develop them holistically that is physically, socially, cognitively
and emotionally. Both the inside and outside environment should be considered before choosing
a school for children.

2.4.3 Progress test

State and explain five things you will consider when choosing a kindergarten for your child.

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UNIT 3:
CHILD-CENTRED EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Hello Student, I am sure you have heard of child-centered education or learning. If not, get ready
to know more on this subject. Kindergarten programmes vary great deal. Some approaches place
more emphasis on the child’s social development and others on cognitive development. Some
experts in this field believes that the curriculum of many today’s kindergarten and preschool
programmes place too much emphasis on achievement and success, putting pressure on children
too early in their development. Fredrick Froebel gave the meaning of kindergarten as “a garden
for children”. Do you remember that under Foundations and Principles? To him children are like
growing plants therefore they require careful nurturing. This Unit will focus on how the
kindergarten curriculum and professional will develop the whole child’s abilities, aptitude,
experiences and interest in learning.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the child-centered education.

 Explain at least four (4) various methods of child-centered teaching and learning.

Keep in mind that you are not supposed to spend more than 1 hour on a lesson. We hope you will
enjoy reading.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 1

WHAT IS CHILD-CENTERED EDUCATION

3.1.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are indeed welcome to Lesson 1 of Unit 3. In this lesson, we are going to look
at the child-centered method of teaching and learning and its importance to the child. Let’s look
at the objectives first.

3.1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain what child-centered education is.

 explain child-centered method of teaching.
 explain at least three characteristics of child-centered learning.
 give at least three importance of child-centered learning.

Activity 3.1
Under Teaching Methods in ECE that was taught in year one, you learnt something about child-
centered strategies. In your own words explain child-centered learning.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Now read on…………………

3.1.2 What is child-centered education?

In child-centered education the learner is the center of reference for the organization of the
school curriculum, objectives of teaching and learning activities, and teaching methods. Child-
centered education concerns itself with determining the educational needs of learners
individually and collectively and the arranging conditions in the school and classroom so that

49
these needs may be met. It means that school exists for the pupils therefore the curriculum is
adjusted to favor the child. As compared to learners needs, personal preferences and immediate
interests of teachers are not of primary concern. In every aspect of teaching activity such as
motivating pupils, stimulating interests, guiding activity, providing equipment and supplies,
arranging learning materials, appraising outcomes, it is the learner who should be the center of
reference.

The child-centered education tries to do the following:

a. To acknowledge that, children’s needs should determine what they learn at school. This
means that all learning activities are to be planned to meet the needs of children/learners.
b. The children are to be trained in skills that are within the capabilities of their age of
development. That is, a 6-year-old child should not be trained in skills that are for an
8year old child. That is the knowledge of child psychology and child development should
be applied in the selection of methods, teaching and learning materials and the content to
be used so that they are not above or below the age and capabilities of the child/learner.
c. Selection of what is to be taught and the methods to be used should be appropriate to the
comprehension and experience of children. This means that, the previous knowledge or
what the child already knows about the topic should be considered and the next learning
step should be based on the previous knowledge.
d. The changing characteristics which bring about the differences among the children of the
various ages should be planned to cater for their differences. Children will perform
poorly if what they are being taught are above their ages and mental capabilities.
e. The strong motivational force that controls so much of children’s natural learning should
be made use of.

Child –centered education is neither sentimental nor child-controlled. It is simply a realistic

response to what we know about children, their development, their interests and characteristics.
It is therefore necessary that the curriculum planners and deliverers to base their work on the
learners readiness, interest and developmental needs.

We hope you are enjoying the lesson. Continue reading.

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3.1.3 CHILD-CENTERED METHODS

In child-centered methodology, the child is found at the center of the teaching and learning
process. The child is made to discover, explore, observe and find things out by themselves. This
is the most important means they learn about the world around them.

In a school where child- centered education is practiced, the classroom should have a lot of
playthings and children should have a good deal of choice over what they do at any particular
time, though this does not mean they do as they please. The children are free to move about their
classroom if they need to. There is quiet work going on in some rooms, but in others, there is a
buzz of activity. Most of the children are clearly enjoying themselves as they work on their own
in groups. No one is bored. The children are encouraged to think for themselves as express
themselves in various ways. Some are telling other groups about something they have just
discovered or explaining some difficulties that cropped in the assignment they were set. Some
are painting pictures or models.

In the school where child-centered education is practiced, learning goes on all the time. Some of
it directly from the teachers or through the activities and some of it from the classroom
surroundings. Children do not have to wait until the teacher can attend to them nor do they have
to sit still if they finish their work before their companions for there are materials to choose from
or other assignment they can undertake. The atmosphere is relaxed and friendly. A changing
variety of things is always on display to stimulate their natural curiosity. Materials are readily
available for them to experiment with and to exercise their imagination. Learning is essentially
active rather than passive.

3.1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD-CENTERED EDUCATION

- All instructional procedures are tailored to suit the needs and interest of the child. The
child is the focus of the instructional process.
- Learning is individualized, the child learns at his/her own pace and learning becomes
personal.
- The child becomes the most important factor on education.

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 - It recognizes and responds to the changing characteristics that distinguish children of
different ages.
- Content and methods and other learning activities are designed in such a way to make
the child understand what he/she learns.
- Children are trained in skills that are within the capability of their stage of development.
- Motivational strategies which enhance children natural learning are utilized.
- Learning activities should be meaningful and relevant to the child.

3.1.5 IMPORTANCE OF CHILD-CENTERED METHODS

 Children are never bored since there are different and interesting activities to perform
with a lot of play/learning materials.
 Children do interact with each other, they learn how to get on with one another, how to
act as leaders and make decisions.
 Child-centered learning or education implies that the atmosphere is relaxed and friendly
of children. School learning is therefore enjoyable.
 In child-centered methods of teaching, teachers respect the learners individually and
encourage them to develop their potentials. On their part, the children fell that what they
are doing is important and worthwhile and therefore gain a sense of satisfaction.

3.1.6 Summary

Child- Centered Education considers the child as the starting point for planning any meaningful
learning experiences. The child becomes the focus for organizing the school, the objective of
teaching, the learning activities and teaching methods. Some fore runners of child- centered
educators include; J.J Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori and Dewey.

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3.1.7 Progress test

1. What is child- centered education?

2. Identify four characteristics of child-centered education.
3. Mention two importance of child-centered education.

53
 UNIT 3: LESSON 2

THE VARIOOUS METHODS OF CHILD- CENTERED TEACHING -DISCOVERY

METHOD OF TEACHING

3.2.0 INTRODUCTION

You are welcome to Lesson 2, of Unit 3, we hope you are enjoying the lesson. In lesson 1, we
discussed the characteristics, importance and what child-centered education is. In this lesson, we
will be discussing the various methods of child-centered teaching. In this particular lesson, we
will discuss discovery method of teaching.

3.2.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain the nature of discovery method of teaching.

 identify the steps in the discovery learning method.

Now read on……

Discovery learning refers to those teaching situations in which pupils achieve the instructional
objective with limited or no guidance from the teacher. They are not presented with the subject
matter in its final form but rather pupils are to organize it themselves. There three main
characteristics of discovery learning:

 Pure discovery: children are given a topic or problem to work on and are then free o
explore the topic with minimum guidelines or suggestions by the teacher.

54
  Guided discovery: children are not given a topic but are also provided with materials to
work with and suggestions on procedures to follow, but they arrive at any conclusion
themselves.
 Guided learning: the teacher leads he children through a carefully planned sequence of
activities to arrive at the learning object, using either statements or questions.

Activity 3.2
Write down any two steps you will follow if you are to introduce discovery method of teaching.
I. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
II. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Now compare what you have written with ours.

The teacher should give instructional guidance before children begins workingwhich include:

2 define the problem to be investigated.

3 clarify the objective.
4 relate the problems of study to what is known or to some real life problem to heighten
interest.
5 consider any related factor.
6 propose hypothesis of the guesses of how the problem may be tackled.
7 collect information to test the guesses or suggested lines of attack.
8 evaluate and organize the data/information they have assembled.
9 interpret their findings.
10 draw conclusions.
11 suggest what may be done next.

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They can also be explained under the following:

i. the teacher may give the principle and the problem solutions-situation which we call
expository teaching.
ii. the teacher may give the principle which applies but not give the problem solution.
iii. the teacher may not give the principle but the problem solution.
iv. the teacher may give neither the principle which applies nor the solution to the
problem-a situation which we shall describe as unguided discovery. Between the
expository teaching in which the principle and the solution are both given and
unguided discovery, in which neither the principle nor solution is given, we have an
intermediate area often described as guided discovery. In the guided discovery, the
teacher assists in the recall and application of the relevant principle-in-this sense; he
gives the principle, but not the solution to the problem.

You will agree with us that learning these skills will take years. The early childhood professional
can begin to lay the foundation for achieving these valuable skills by providing the enabling
environments. These relate to four basic areas where his/her role is more of facilitating than
directly teaching. His facilitating roles include:

 Ensuring that lesson objectives:

a) clear to the children.
b) useful
c) achievable

 The methods used:

a) arouse interest and imagination
b) encourage activity participation and responding by pupils
c) encourage creative response
d) cater for individual difference

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  Teach art in a manner that:
a) helps the children learn how to learn.
b) permits children to choose different ways of working.
c) focuses children’s attention on materials from which they can make their
discoveries.

 The materials to be used in the learning experiences are:

a) readily available and in sufficient quantity
b) stimulating to the children.
c) well organized and tidily stored.

3.2.2 TEACHER’S ROLE IN THE DISCOVERY METHOD

i. Provide the necessary examples or diagrams and other learning materials.

ii. Set or ask adequate logical questions.
iii. Give the learner opportunity to discover through trial and error and analysis of his
result.

Provide necessary guidance-direct learner’s attention to relevant features in the

iv. Discovery situation.

v. Demonstrate carefully and give the learner the opportunity to analyze the
demonstration.

Advantages or Values of Discovery Method

 Discovery learning increases intellectual potency. The pupil acquires information in such
a way that is readily available in problem solving.
 Discovery learning increases intrinsic motivation, it strengthens the student’s tendency to
carry out his learning activities with autonomy self-reward or the reward of discovery
itself.

57
  Discovery learning teaches the pupil the techniques to discovery. Solving problems
through discovery develops a style of problem solving or inquiry that serves for and task
or almost any talk one may encounter. The pupil improves his techniques of enquiry by
engaging in enquiry.
 Discovery learning results in better retention of what is learned because the pupil has
organized his own information and knows where (in his own storage system to find the
information when he needs it).

Disadvantages of the Discovery Method

 Discovery learning has the potential to confuse learners if no initial framework is

available.
 It has limitations in practice when a school tries to make it the main way children learn
academic lessons.
 It is inefficient; it is too time consuming for all academic activities. There are not enough
hours in a school year for children to unearth everything on their own.
 Discovery learning can become a vehicle to reject the idea that there are important skills
and information that all children should learn.

3.2.3 Summary

In this lesson, we have looked at Discovery Method of teaching. We have noted that discovery
learning takes place when children are not presented with subject matter in the final form but
rather required to organize it themselves. We looked at the characteristics of discovery method
and we mentioned pure discovery, guided discovery and guided learning.

We concluded our discussion by looking at the role of the teacher in discovery method. We
noted that since acquiring skills in discovery learning will take time, the teacher should be a
facilitator. His/her facilitating role should be centered on setting of objectives, methods of
delivering the lesson i.e. pedagogy and the materials to be used.

58
3.2.4 Progress test

1. In your words explain the discovery method of teaching.

2. State and explain any two advantages and two disadvantages of the discovery method of
teaching.

59
 UNIT 3: LESSON 3

ACTIVITY METHOD OF TEACHING

3.3.0 INTRODUCTION

Children as well as adults are full of activities. Activity is a natural part of our being. Except
when they are ill or asleep, children can hardly keep still. You are most welcome to lesson 3 of
unit 3 where we will be discussing the Activity Method of teaching.

3.3.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain briefly in your own words what activity method is.

 identify at least two uses of the activity method in teaching.

Now read on………….

In this method, the pupils are engaged in activities during the lesson. The idea on which this
method is based is that children learn best by doing and enjoyment in activity. For just as the
child learns to walk by walking so does he in mental activities he learns to read by reading and to
count by counting. Activity method appeals to many of the child’s senses. The more channels of
learning used the more effective learning takes place. Activity does not only mean physical
movement. There are activities which involve no physical movement, and others which involve
no noise. Children are easier to control when they are absorbed in what they are doing. Activity
is not an end in itself but a means to learning.

Any activity to be done in a lesson must be well planned. This is because activity which is
unplanned is dangerous to a child’s stability. All activities in the schools should be carefully
directed activity leading to a definite goal. Activity should always be purposeful.

3.3.2 USES OF ACTIVITY

i. To develop a skill like reading, drawing, dancing etc.

ii. To discover new knowledge through investigation, experiments, exploring, etc.

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 iii. To apply knowledge learned to useful ends such as the care of animals, farming
sometimes a whole lesson or series of lessons may be taught almost entirely as
activity lesson. Practices and practical lessons fall under this. In other lessons, the
activity is used to support the teaching. That is the teaching done and the activity used
to express what has been learnt. The activity method can be found in other methods
like the project method.

ACTIVITY METHOD INVOLVES THE USE OF:

I. Teaching/learning aids or materials.

II. Class formation-that is the seating arrangement must be such to allow free movement.
III. Class activities-that is pupils to be engaged in dong activities.

3.3.3 Summary

We have learnt in this lesson that Activity Method is the type which intentionally impart
knowledge skills, experiences, values etc. to the learner by “doing” or through the performance
of action. It is also involves hands-on activities. The intention of this method is to help learners
acquire experiences quickly through doing. Also to make knowledge, skills or concept acquired
permanent.

3.3.4 Progress test

1. What is Activity Method of teaching?

2. Explain briefly how the activity could be used.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 4

BRAINSTORMING METHOD OF TEACHING

3.4.0 INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Lesson 4 of unit 3, where brainstorming will be discussed. As usual, let us first
outline our objectives.

3.4.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain briefly in your own words brainstorming method of the teaching.

 outline at least three guidelines in the use of brainstorming.

Activity 3.3
Teachers have been using brainstorming in your class frequently. In your own word explain
brainstorming.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Let’s see if you were right or close to it.

Now read on…

Brainstorming means generation or suggestion of ideas for a future activity very quickly before
considering some of them carefully. And in a classroom situation a teacher teaches a topic by use
of series of questions and later creates a verbal interaction among the students. The students
bring many ideas uncritically with comments and the final outcome is arrived at. For a successful
brainstorming exercise the following should be guidelines:

62
  The topic of the lesson must be at the level of the students to enable them to make
effective contributions.
 The size of the group should not be large, in a brainstorming exercise we expect
everybody to bring out his or her ideas and views about the topic. If the group is large,
only a few of the pupils will have the opportunity to contribute and it is mostly the clever
and extrovert students who will dominate the discussion and others will feel reluctant to
participate in the discussion. A group not more than ten students should be ideal for
brainstorming exercise.
 The intellectual ability of the students should be taken into account. This is important
because discussion involves intelligent exchange of ideas in a logical order, the teacher
helping them with the source of information about the topic.
 The time allocation is important. The brainstorming exercise should ideally be a double
period of at least 60 minutes.
 Availability of appropriate reading materials and other teaching and learning materials
are essential for the brainstorming exercise.

3.4.2 Advantages of Brainstorming

 It helps children with the ability to refine ideas and use every person’s input to develop
specific ideas.
 Creative thinking is encouraged. It gives birth to more ideas and pupils will bounce
ideas.
 All ideas are acceptable which eliminates fear of failure or ridicules.
 All members feel like being part of the input which are relevant and valued.
 One needs not to be genius before participating in ideas.

3.4.3 Disadvantages of Brainstorming

 The ideas behind brainstorming is that judgment is suspended and there are no bad ideas
which may be irrelevant and unrealistic.
 It does not inherently inspire creative or innovative behavior from pupils and can often
end up being full of repetition of ideas.

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3.4.4 Summary

In our discussion, we have learnt that brainstorming is when a teacher uses series of questions to
elicits and solicit ideas, views and facts from a topic or issue under study.

Guidelines that could help in effective use of brainstorming are;

- The topic must be at the level of the pupils

- Large class size will not make it effective
- Pupils’ level of intelligence should the considered
- Time is an important factor

3.4.5 Progress Test

1. Explain briefly the brainstorming approach.

2. Outline three guidelines that could help make brainstorming effective.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 5

PROJECT METHOD OF TEACHING

3.5.0 INTRODUCTION

As our pupils go through the school they quickly acquire an increasing amount of knowledge
and skills. The principles of sound education requires that we encourage them to use those
skills and knowledge to perform various tasks. They are equally to learn how to solve
problems and also use their initiative as well as learn how to learn. These are some of the
reasons why the project method was developed.

You are welcome to Lesson 5 of unit 3, where project method of teaching will be discussed.

3.5.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain what project method of teaching is

 mention two aims of the project method of teaching
 state three (3) advantages of the project method of teaching

In this method a theme is chosen and the children learn about it. It is the co-operative study
of a real life situation by the class or even whole school under the guidance of the teacher. It
was Dewey’s ideas which were developed by his followers.

In project method, a topic chosen embraces all or most of the subjects in the curriculum and
lasts for weeks and even for a term. For a example a class may develop a project on “OUR
SCHOOL” which would involve the study of all aspects of the economic, geographical,
historical, civic, racial and intellectual development of the town, in which the children dwell.
Other possible topics for project work are; our country, farming, the office, the cocoa
industry etc. the children are divided into small groups, each of which sets to work to study
some aspects of the topic. At the end of the project, each group presents its reports and the

65
 teacher attempts to bring together all the information thus produced, so that the results are
seen as a united whole.

3.5.2 AIMS OF PROJECT

i. To bring children into real contact with the activities of the school neighborhoods.
ii. To present children with real life problems which they solve by thinking and working
together.
iii. To develop further skills and new knowledge to school subjects while working at the
project.

Advantages or Values Of A Project

 It involves the pupils in purposeful way.

 It integrates the subjects of the curriculum.
 It provides realistic study in the pupil’s own environment and the subjects of the
curriculum are seen to be connected with real life outside the school.
 The children come into close contact with the problems of life which they may fail to do
by studying subjects in school.
 It develops the curiosity, initiative, enterprise and imaginative faculties of the pupil as
well as spirit of inquiry.
 It offers a valuable training in team work as children learn to plan and co-operate with
each other, which is good social training.
 It puts responsibility on the pupils and gives scope for their initiative and thereby trains
children in qualities of leadership.
 It makes learning clear because it supplies a concrete objective so that the children know
at the end if they have succeeded.
 It develops proficiency in the basic skills.
 It provides the pupils with a sense of achievement.

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The Disadvantage of Project Work

 The individual may be neglected by the emphasis on social activity.

 Some subjects of the curriculum will be neglected.
 It is very difficult to ensure systematic progress in school by this method. That is, it
disrupts the time table and the curriculum there is no certainty that all the children
will be interested of that all of them will take a full share in the work.

3.5.3 Requirement for a Successful Project Work

I. The project must be well planned by the teacher.

II. The children should know clearly what they have to do.
III. The teacher at the end of the project should write all the various contributions into a
whole.
IV. The project and each section of it must have a clearly defined purpose easily
understood.
V. It must awaken curiosity and create its demand for new information.
VI. It must contain problems which the children have to solve.
VII. The project must be workable – not merely pleasure giving or make believe.
VIII. The project must fully engage pupils’ lasting interest. The teachers’ task in a project
is simply to guide the children as they find need for is help thus the teacher is mainly
a consultant. He must assess the value of the project.

3.5.4 Summary

We have learned in our discussion that the project method was introduced to reduce the bookish
nature of classroom work that had little bearing on real life problems. The bookish nature of
classroom work made pupils passive members and contributed to indiscipline in our schools.
Project method trains learners to work on a task that they themselves have chosen and are
prepared to work on the challenges.

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3.5.5 Progress Test

Your pupils have selected a project they want to carry out for the term on the theme

“Important places in my community” what role would you have to play in making it a success?

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 6

THE GROUP METHOD

3.6.0 INTRODUCTION

It is said that two heads are better than one. We hope you have heard this severally. This lesson
is going to be based on that where group of learners come together to elaborate on a given task.
You are warmly welcome to Unit 3, Lesson 6. We hope you will be engaged to use this often in
your teaching and learning process.

3.6.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 explain into details the Group Teaching Method.

 state and explain two advantages and disadvantages of the Group Teaching Method

Now let’s read on………

Group method of teaching is a strategy that ensures pupils work together to supplement other
models. It is design to increase massive involvement of pupils is assigned class work. Usually it
involves group of learners formally working together on projects or assignments though it may
sometimes take place in formal classroom setting. When setting group work tasks, it can be
useful to consider learners availability, resources necessary and expected outcomes. Teaching
pupils to share their individual experiences by learning from each other. As we all know, there is
no individual who is useless, everybody has something.

Activity 3.4

List two most important things to do when you want to put pupils into groups for an assignment.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Good engagement and preparation towards group method include:

- Consider learner ability to engage in group work. Group work may prove more difficult
for some learners
- Clarify expectations and learning outcomes of group work with you and your learners.
This enables learner preparation and focus.
- Consider the learners formal timetable when deciding on the quantity of group work to
include. Remember the less free time your learners have, he harder it will be for them to
organize time when all group members are free.
- Consider group size. The group size can contribute greatly to group dynamics. A small
group may find it easier to gel, allowing for participation from more reserved learners.
However. A large group may allow for greater synergies as it incorporates a greater range
of strengths and perspectives. When planning group work, you can reflect on the size that
will best suit your outcome.

Group work facilities:

- Ensure your learners have access to facilities in which to conduct group work.

Teaching is more demanding than required for whole class teaching. Effective management of
group teaching therefore requires the following on the part of the
teacher.

a. Careful preparation and planning. Make advance preparation to ensure that all the
necessary objects and materials that will be needed for the group work are ready.

b. Put pupils into groups of at most five but not exceeding eight.
c. The tasks given to the pupils must be of appropriate level of difficulty- not too
different or too easy.
d. There should be suitable arrangement of furniture and sufficient space between
the groups. Ensure that it comprises of mixed ability pupils in each group.

70
 e. Assist groups to select leaders.
f. Guide pupils on how to use materials effectively and for each to benefit.
g. There should be smooth and orderly transition from one activity to another.
h. Clear instruction should be given so that the pupils know what they are supposed
to do as a group and as individuals.
i. The teacher should question the group and individuals to assess their performance
and by so doing to ensure that their discussions and activities are following the
right track.
j. The teacher’s presence also serves to ensure discipline.
k. The teacher to be available all the time so that the pupils can question and consult
him.
l. The teacher should take note of the following particular problems met by the
pupils in doing various tasks the individual pupil’s contributions to group work,
the quality pupil’s work each group contribution to the work of the class and the
direction in which activities are leading so that they may be followed up in the
near future.
m. Finally, each group should have a leader.

3.6.2 Organisation of Group Work

Effectiveness of group teaching depends mostly on the organization of effective group work.
This can be categorized into three major phases:
Planning stage: the teacher identifies the topic, collects and gathers appropriate teaching
material, tests them, prepares lesson plan/note and studies carefully the content of the lesson to
be taught in group.

Presentation stage: this is where the actual lesson takes place. The teacher puts pupils into
groups depending on goals and objectives. These groups are based on mixed ability, ability and
interest. Materials are distributed and instructions are given on how to use them and what is
expected from the group. Different tasks are assigned to each group. As pupils work in groups,
teacher moves around to groups to supervise and for more clarification if any.

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Post presentation: The teacher asks groups to present finding to the whole class. Pupils could
also be asked to move around the groups to appreciate and discuss what the various groups were
capable of doing. With the help of the leader, they collect all materials given to be kept.

3.6.3 Advantages of Group Teaching

 It ensures sharing of experiences and knowledge with group member.
 It promotes team spirit.
 It leads to rapid and satisfactory solution to problems.
 Pupils learn how to express themselves freely about their findings comfortably and
confidently.
 Children gradually acquire democratic training.
 Retention of learning materials increases
 It ensures active and massive participation of all learners.
 It instills in children we feeling and belongingness.

3.6.4 Disadvantages of Group teaching

 High stalks create increased chances for conflict and therefore there is the need for
conflict resolution skills.
 There is the burden of making the learners responsible for each other’s learning apart
from themselves.
 In mixed ability groupings, the low achieving learners tend to become passive and do not
focus on the task.
 Depending on the individual motivation and interest on a particular subject, that will
determine how well.
 Higher ability learners may not experience the challenge that they would with other
higher ability learners.

3.6.5 Summary
Effective group method of teaching help learners to collect relevant information, select and
analyses thereby making group members responsible. A well-coordinated task is achieved at the
end of the lesson. This method is very effective when planned very well. However, if learners

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are so young, it consumes a lot of time and controlling pupils who fight over the teaching
material could be difficult as well.

3.6.6 Progress Test

Discuss to a lay man the group method of teaching.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 7
COOPERATIVE TEACHING STRATEGY

3.7.0 INTRODUCTION
Welcome once again to another interesting topic under child-center method of teaching. This is
Unit 3, Lesson 7. This lesson will focus on the cooperative learning. We are very sure that you
will enjoy this lesson very well.

3.7.1 OBJECCTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 explain the cooperative teaching strategy
 state at least four characteristics of cooperative teaching strategy

Read on…….

Cooperative Learning is not assigning a report to a group of students where one student does all
the work and the others put their names on the product as well. Cooperation is much more than
being physically near other students, discussing materials with other students, helping other
students or sharing materials among students although each of these is important in cooperative
learning. Is a type of learning which is based on small group approach to teaching in which
children are hold accountable for both individual and group achievement. It takes many forms
within classroom.
There are four basic elements which must be included in order for small groups learning to be
really cooperative. The first is positive interdependence – students must perceive that they “sink
or swim together” this may be achieved through mutual goals (goal independence), division of
labour (task independence), dividing materials, and resources on information among group
members (resource independence). In order for a learning situation to be cooperative, students
must perceive that they are interdependent with other members of their learning group.
Secondly, cooperative learning requires face to face interaction among students. It is the
interaction patterns and the verbal interchange among student promoted by the positive
independence that affect education outcome.

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The third basic element of cooperative learning is individual accountability for mastering the
assigned material. Every group member is responsible for learning the assigned material.
Finally, cooperative learning requires that students appropriately use “inter-personal and small
group skills”. The students must be taught the social skills needed for collaboration and they
must be motivated to use them. Students must also be given the time and procedures for
analyzing how well their social skills to help all group members to achieve and maintain
effective working relationships within the group.

3.7.2 Features of Cooperative Teaching Strategy

1. Positive independence: within the classroom, competition is emphasized with the

resultant effect being that the children experience negative interdependence: thus,
competing with one another for educational resources and academics recognition. We
need to understand that competition encourages better children to board knowledge and
celebrates their successes at the expense of the children. Under cooperation learning,
(classroom) the children work together to ensure the success of each child.
2. Face to face interaction: children interact thereby assisting one another with learning
task and promote one another’s success.
3. Individual Accountability: each child is held accountable for his/her own academics
progress and task completion, apart from the accomplishment of the group a whole.
4. Development of social skills: they are offered a chance to develop the interpersonal
skills needed to succeed at school work and within the community. These skills include
effective communication, understanding and appreciation of other decision making,
problem solving, conflict resolution and compromise. Teachers are advised to teach and
monitor the use of these social skills.
5. Group evaluation: children need to evaluate and discuss how well they are meeting their
goals, the actions that helped their group and what action seem to hurt their group
interactions: these are done at class discussions and they are again given to the teacher as
the group’s report.

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 Activity 3.5
State any two advantages of cooperative learning.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
State any two disadvantages of cooperative learning.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

Let’s continue…….

3.7.3 Benefits of Cooperative teaching strategy

1. It reinforces skills.
2. It allows children decision making
3. It creates active learning environment.
4. It boosts children’s self- esteem.
5. It celebrates diverse learning styles.
6. It promotes children’s responsibilities.
7. It focuses on success for everyone.

3.7.4 Criticisms of Cooperative teaching strategy

It may create conflictomong learners which can diminish or install a group’s ability to work
together. This will raise a significant problem when group members are too young to have fully
formed conflict resolution skills.

1. Uneven workload and evaluation. Beyond personality conflict, cooperative learning can
also result in an uneven distribution of workload. More intelligent learners take over the
majority of the project for the sake of ease and speed rather than helping struggling ones.

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3.7.5 Summary
Cooperative teaching strategy changes learners' and teachers' roles in classrooms. The ownership
of teaching and learning is shared by groups of students, and is no longer the sole responsibility
of the teacher. The authority of setting goals, assessing learning, and facilitating learning is
shared by all. Students have more opportunities to actively participate in their learning, question
and challenge each other, share and discuss their ideas, and internalize their learning. Along with
improving academic learning, cooperative learning helps students engage in thoughtful discourse
and examine different perspectives, and it has been proven to increase students' self-esteem,
motivation, and empathy.
Some challenges of using cooperative learning include releasing the control of learning,
managing noise levels, resolving conflicts, and assessing student learning. Carefully structured
activities can help students learn the skills to work together successfully, and structured
discussion and reflection on group process can help avoid some problems.

3.7.6 Progress Test

In your own words, explain what cooperative teaching strategy is.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 8
.
DEMONSTRATION METHOD
3.8.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are welcome to another lesson. This lesson is focusing on the demonstration
method of teaching. It will also focus on the advantages and disadvantages of demonstration
teaching.

3.8.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss what a demonstration lesson is.

 give at least three guidelines for a demonstration lesson

Demonstration method is when a teacher shows his/her pupils how to do something or perform a
skill on their own. It is more applicable to subjects such as Creative Arts, Science, Physical
Education etc.

Activity 3.6

List three things you will do when performing a demonstration.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3.8.2 Guidelines for using demonstration

1. Preparation is essential the teacher must have everything necessary for the demonstration
2. Arrange them so that everyone can see them and you can reach them easily

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 3. Be sure everyone can see you and whatever visual you will use. Also be sure that
everyone can hear well.
4. Give an overview of the entire demonstration at the beginning. Use a picture, model or
real object to show what the finished product will be.
5. Write the main steps on the chalkboard or show a picture series of the steps before
beginning if you do not have chalkboard or large piece of paper that you can write the
main steps on, at least tell your pupils the main steps
6. Ask the pupils to tell you what was good and what can be better about the lesson.
Conducting the demonstration; keep the demonstration simple and short and show only one
procedure at a time. Involve the pupils in the demonstration by asking questions such as why is it
necessary to do it this way instead of another way? What happens if you do it this other way?
Have one of the pupils help with the demonstration or repeat the demonstration after you have
finished. Have each of the pupils repeat the procedure while you watch.

Advantages of Demonstration
 It shows exactly what needs to be done and in what order. It also shows how much time
it takes to do it.
 It shows procedure and processes which are hard to describe
 It gives a feeling of security.
 It ensures closer contact with concrete problem.
 It facilitates the acquisition of practical intellectual and communication skills
 It presents reality, not substitutes.
 It enables logical step by step presentation.
 It is attention-catching and encourages interest in the topic
 It develops the quality of observation.
 It makes it possible to ask questions
 It limits damage to equipment and material when students do practical work afterwards.
 The teacher is present (showmanship).

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Disadvantages of Demonstration
 Number of students is limited
 Keeps the students in a passive situation (except for observation)
 Offers little possibility of checking the learning process
 Does not allow for individual paces of learning
 High cost in personnel and time
 Difficulty in repeating the demonstration in order to acquire competence.

3.8.3 Summary
You have learnt that demonstration method is where a teacher shows pupils how to do something
or perform a skill. This is more applicable to Science, Creative Art and Physical Education.

3.8.4 Progress test

Explain with relevant examples “Demonstration Method of Teaching”.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 9
EDUCATIONAL VISITS AND FIELD EXPERIENCES

3.9.0 INTRODUCTION
Dear Student, we welcome you to lesson 9. We are going to discuss Educational Visits and Field
Experiences. We are also going to see how to organize the visit appropriately.

3.9.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 explain the concept of field visit.
 organize educational visits successfully.

Now read on………..

Educational visits simply mean taking pupils out of the classroom to observe and study
something they have learnt about in a lesson or at times about to learn. The educational visits can
be a few meters outside the classroom, in the locality or outside the locality. Educational visits
are organized to achieve the following objectives.
 They serve as confirmation of facts-materials discussed in class. Educational visits give
opportunity to the pupils to confirm the facts learnt. They serve as the follow up.
 The visits broaden the pupils’ outlook or general knowledge. That is through educational
visits pupils increase their knowledge and interest in a particular subject.
 Educational visits give pupils first hand information as they see things in their real form.
 Educational visits train children in observation. That is the visits serve as a means to
improving pupils power of observation and appreciation.
 The visits help to develop sociability among the pupils.
 Educational visits serve as a source of relaxation. The visits serve as a sort of recreation
activity and serve as a relief to pupils and their surplus energies are put to good use.

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Activity 3.7
Write down any two things you will do as a teacher in organizing educational visit in the
school’s library.
I. …………………………………………………………………………………………..
II. ………………………………………………………………………………………….

Now compare your answers.

3.9.2 Organization of educational visits

 Teacher should go over the proposed route or visit the place and note whether the
observations that may be made are relevant to what has been learnt or to be learnt.
 Permission is to be sought if the place of visit is under somebody’s care or it is somebody’s
department.
 Teacher should prepare questions which will direct the observation of pupils.
 Before conducting the pupils on the visit, the teacher should give preparatory talk
indicating in a general way things worthy of closest observation. He should assign the
question he wished his pupils should answer with the aid of observation made.
 The teacher and the pupils may hold a preliminary discussion of discoveries made during
the visit while testing. This discussion may be continued and completed in the classroom
another day.
 The pupils should not be given the opportunity to wander aimlessly.
 Equally important is the follow-up work in the classroom once the visit has been
completed. The follow-up work must be intimately related to the purpose of activity,
rigorous planned and brought to be rounded conclusion.

Assignments to give the class as a follow up after an educational visit

 Preparation of report and collating them. These can be done in groups.
 Holding discussion on features or things observed.
 Writing an essay – that is language work.
 Making sketcher drawing – that is art work.

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  Making models – craft
 Map work – geography

3.9.3 Summary

Educational visits simply mean taking pupils out of the classroom to observe and study
something they have learnt about in a lesson or at times about to learn. The educational visits can
be a few meters outside the classroom. How to organize educational visits may include:
 Teacher should go over the proposed route or visit the place and note whether the
observations that may be made are relevant to what has been learnt or to be learnt.
 Permission is to be sought if the place of visit is under somebody’s care or it is somebody’s
department.
 Teacher should prepare questions which will direct the observation of pupils.

3.9.3 Progress Test

Write down any three things to consider in organizing an educational visit for children in your class.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 10

FIELD TRIP METHOD

3.10.0 INTRODUCTION

You remember that once you went for an excursion to an interesting place for one reason or the
other. If not, you might have had a travelling experience. Sometimes pupils also have to be taken
outside the school premises to learn about many useful topics they learn in class. Not only are
they travelling for fun but more importantly for learning. Welcome to Unit 3, Lesson 10 which is
about field trips.

3.10.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain into details field trip method of teaching.

 discuss the three basic stages of field trip.

Now let’s read.

Field trips are undertaken in order to see practically what has been taught in theory, or to let the
pupils actually discover things by seeing, touching, feeling, smelling or even tasting them. In a
field trip, the teacher takes his pupils out of the classroom to the scene where what he wants the
pupils to learn about can be observed closely. He carefully takes note of the various aspects of
the topic he wants them to learn. They then go back to the classroom or assemble somewhere
else with the teacher to discuss what they have seen. During this after-trip class, learning is
consolidated and whatever follow-up work the pupils or the teacher suggest is discussed so that
everybody knows what the next step is going to be, and who is to do what, how and when.

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A field trip is usually confined to one single area of study, unlike an educational visit
which looks at many things at the same time. While an educational visit aims at broadening the
pupils' general experience and knowledge in various directions, the field trip deals with a
specific topic. If for example pupils go specifically to study the havoc of erosion in or around.
their village and towns they go on a field trip. If they travel to the parliament to study how bills
are presented to the parliament for approval, they go on a field trip. The field trip may take
pupils to the bush, to a factory, to an office or to the next town or even around the school
compound.

3.10.2 STAGES FOR FIELD TRIPS

1. Preparation stage
A field trip will be of little benefit to the pupils unless both the learners and the teachers are
well prepared for it. The teacher must first visit the place to familiarize himself/ herself with
the place so as to advise on what the pupils are to observe or study. More than one place can be
visited to make the pupils choose what interest them and what is at their level of skill.
After agreeing on where to go and what to study, the next is seeking permission from the head
teacher, parents and district director of education if the field trip is going to be outside the
classroom. Permission is equally sought if the place is under somebody's management.
The next step under the preparation stage is for the teacher to arouse the interest of the class by
telling them what are involved in the trip, and how these will relate to what they have been
studying. They are then helped to plan their activities .or the task that will be given to be
carried out in groups.

2. Activities During Field Trips(Field Work Activities)

In the first place, supervision is essential, so if the pupils are going to be scattered for instance,
each group must have its own leader. Before leaving the school for the field, see to it that
everybody is present under the leaders and that all required materials have been collected.
In the field, the pupils must know where to assemble before entering the field or leaving
the field. They must be told to reassemble again. As far as possible, the class should keep to the
plans prepared for the trip. The teacher, during the trip, must be alert to note any activities

85
which are not pursued fully enough and ensure the right amount of time and emphasis is being
given to each.
Activities by the pupils during the trip should include writing down answers to prepared
questions, measuring, sketching and drawing. They must also listen to the person or guide
showing them around. Take the final head-count to be sure that everybody has assembled before
returning to the school.

Activity 3.8
State any two reasons for classroom discussions after field trips.
I. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
II. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Let’s continue…….

3. Activities after the Trip (post Field Work/Activities)

This includes the various groups bringing their reports together and discussing them. The
discussion should include difficulties met and the questions unanswered by the trip as well as
suggestions to improve future trips. The pupils should identify what aspects of the trip was
interesting. Post field work include drawings, sketches, pictures, etc, for exhibition among
themselves.

Advantages or merits of field trips

 Provide a sound and concrete basis for conceptualization.
 Provide first-hand learning experiences.
 Makes learning more meaningful.
 Gives an opportunity for improving social relationships among pupils and between
pupils and teacher.
 Develop leadership qualities in children as well as train pupils to be followers in their
respective groups.
 Enhance cooperative learning.

86
  Train pupils to work on their own since they work on different assignments as given to
the group complete.
 Help pupils to learn the skill of locating and gathering information through interview,
questionnaire and opinion surveys and critical observation.
 Train pupils in writing, drawing of tables, etc.
 Train pupils to observe and discover new ideas..

Disadvantages of Field Trips

 They can be time consuming in terms of planning and organizing as well as in what is
learnt and could upset the school table as the trip can take the whole day.
 They can involve additional expenses in terms of transportation and feeding
arrangements this is especially in case the place for the trip is very far away.
 Lack of skills in organization by some teachers is a hindrance in making successful
field trips.
 Many people, more specifically parents, think they expose pupils to many hazards.

3.10.3 SUMMARY
Field trips could be made to several places of educational importance both within and outside the
community to experience the real natural phenomenon and to observe learning experience
outside the classroom. It encourages pupils to learn as unique individuals as well as groups. Field
trips are planned and organized for first hand information.

3.10.4 Progress test

1. Explain into details the three stages of field trip.

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 UNIT 3: LESSON 11

EDUCATIONAL VIDEOS AND TEACHING FROM TELEVISION

3.11.0 INTRODUCTION
Welcome dear student to the last unit of the child-centered method of teaching. This Unit as you
know is lengthy but is good you read, right? Good. At least you can have various teaching
methods that you can employ during lessons. This particular lesson will elaborate how videos
can be used during lessons and its relevance to the child.

3.11.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 explain at least four reasons why the use of television is important to the teaching and
learning of the child.

Activity 3.9
List any three things you will consider before using video or television to pupils in KG.
I. …………………………………………………………………………………………
II. ………………………………………………………………………………………..
III. ………………………………………………………………………………………….

Now let’s read carefully.

Teaching from television or educational videos has been proven to be an effective aid to teaching
all kinds of subjects. They are the most common methods of providing distance learning or open
learning to learners. They are excellent modes of education because of their vast potential. They
are being used in a big way in education in the developed as well as developing countries,
apparently students can learn from television at any time of the day. So far, the pattern of
television teaching has been an extension of the classroom.

88
As they are used in presenting lessons in Mathematics, English, and Science for students in the
junior high and senior high school and teacher training colleges in the country they are equally
used in the early childhood classes which makes teaching more ease for both the teacher and
pupils.

3.11.2 FOLLOW UP AFTER THE BROADCAST

The notes for some broadcasts make suggestions of things which the teacher and children may
do after the lesson. Even where those are not given, you should organize some activities such as
discussion, written work, drawing or dramatizing be mastered by systematic practice.

3.11.3 EFFECTIVELY USING VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM

Research has demonstrated that the most effective way to use video is as an enhancement to a
lesson, or unit of study. Video should be used as a facet of instruction along with other resource
materials available to you for teaching a particular topic. Teachers should prepare for the use of a
video in the classroom in the same way they do with other teaching aids or resources. Specific
learning objectives should be determined in advance, instructional sequences should be
developed and reinforcement activities planned.

However, using the most appropriate online educational video service provider is extremely
important so each teacher has the confidence in advance of the quality of the content and
instruction provided. Using the right online educational video service should help teachers or
parents to minimize lesson preparation time by enabling them to easily identify and select the
right video for the lesson, and draw upon the other resources provided by that service to enhance
the learning outcomes, and the quality and benefits of each lesson

Advantages of Educational Videos and Teaching from Television

1. It can supplement teaching.
2. The studio teacher has limitless resources both financial and technical more than the
classroom teacher.
3. The studio teacher is chosen because of his experience and ability as a teacher. This means
the lesson that comes on the air is handled by an expert in the field.
4. The studio teacher can reach for greater number of students than the classroom teacher can,
and thus television teaching may be an answer to a problem of shortage of trained teacher.

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 5. Television offers to schools a window of the world through which children can look and
enter into privacy of such places which they would have no access to.
6. The listening aspect trains children in habits of alertness, and helps them to discriminate
among sounds and learn to listen carefully.
7. Up-to-date material is given as against outmoded materials in textbooks.

Disadvantages of Educational videos and teaching from television

1. The children cannot make direct response to the studio teacher. Thus studio teacher does
not know the extent to which his teaching is being successful or not.
2. The teacher cannot control the lesson.

3.11.4 Summary
As educators, our aim is to get students energized and engaged in the hands-on learning process,
and video is clearly an instructional medium that is compelling and generates a much greater
amount of interest and enjoyment than the more traditional printed material. Using sight and
sound, video is the perfect medium for students who are auditory or visual learners. With the
added use of subtitles each child then has the choice to watch, listen to, or read each
presentation. Video stimulates and engages students creating interest and maintaining that
interest for longer periods of time, and it provides an innovative and effective means for
educators to address and deliver the required curriculum content.

3.11.5 Progress Test

Describe how to use videos in teaching a named topic in a particular lesso

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91
UNIT 4:
THE MONTESSORI METHOD

INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are warmly welcome to Unit 4 of the course curriculum methods and
materials. This unit discusses the Montessori Method of teaching. You studied Montessori in
first year under the course Foundations and Principles in Early Childhood Education. Let’s do a
brief revision on her.

Activity 4.1
1. Maria Montessori designed an educational system to aid in the development of ------------
-------------------------------------and ----------------------------------------------
2. In the Montessori classroom teachers are seen as-------------------------------------------
3. Her curriculum included three major types of activity and experience. These were---------
-------------------------------,---------------------------- and---------------------------------------

Compare your answers to that of your colleague and let us continue.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the Unit, you will be able to:
 identify three Principles of the Montessori Method.
 analyze three means by which Montessori Principles could be practiced.
 explain at least two (2) Montessori’s teaching processes. We trust that you will enjoy
going through these lessons

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 UNIT 4: LESSON 1
MONTESSORI’S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND METHOD

4.1.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, you are welcome to the first lesson of Unit 4 where we will discuss the educational
system of Montessori. We trust you can re-collect a brief life history of Montessori. She was
born in Italy and was the first female to receive a medical degree when she graduated from the
University of Rome in 1896. Stir up your interest to learn more.

4.1.1 Objectives
By the end of the lesson you will be able to:
 Give a summary of Montessori’s Educational System.

Let us read now.

Maria Montessori designed an educational system to aid children in the development of
intelligence and independence. She developed a method or approach to early childhood
education that emphasized training of the senses through a variety of experiences, exercises, and
materials.
Her curriculum included three major types of activity and experience. These were: practical,
sensory and formal skills and studies. In Montessori’s method, the teacher acts as a facilitator or
director of learning activities by using “didactic materials” (materials designed practical, sensory
and formal skills) in a prepared environment.
Maria Montessori’s theory of freedom in selecting activities changes the functions of the teacher
from the center of authority to that of an observer who provides the materials for the materials
for the children and then children and then retires into the background waiting for something to
happen. From what has been discussed above it can be concluded that children are left on their
own to explore the environment for answers to their questions.

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Maria Montessori developed a range of learning materials. She was of the view that the child
needed to work through the range of the learning materials before she can express her own ideas.
This encourages dexterity. As a child works with them she is able to work complex tasks. These
included activities to learn a particular skill. She stressed that each activity should only be used
for the purpose for which it was designed. She did not value imaginative play.
Maria Montessori’s theory of freedom in selecting activities changes the functions of the teacher.
Explain this in a short sentence. Your answer should be in the space provided below.
Maria Montessori based her theories on extensive observation of children, she believed that the
role of the adult is to” follow the child” to being eager in learning from birth. In learning from
birth. In the concluding remarks of Maria Montessori, she stressed that children from infancy
through age six develop mentally through their senses. Educators are encouraged to educate
children in the first two years of age to use their senses of touch, sight, hearing, smell and taste to
explore and manipulate materials in their immediate environment.

4.1.2 Summary
 Helping children use educational system that will aid the development of intelligence and
independence.
 Training children’s senses through a variety of experiences, exercises and materials.
 Giving children the freedom in selecting activities.
 The teacher is seen as a facilitator.
 Teachers must develop a wide range of learning material to assist children’s
understanding of concepts.

4.1.3 Progress Test

Mention four ideas Montessori shared under Educational system and Method.

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 UNIT 4: LESSON 2
PRICIPLES OF THE MONTESSORI METHOD

Dear Student, you are welcome to Lesson 2 of Unit 4. We will be discussing he principles of the
Montessori Method. Let us establish our objectives as usual.

4.2.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 Explain at least principles of Montessori’s method.
 Analyze at least three of these principles which could be used in the KG classroom.

Read on…………..

The following basic principles are a synthesis of Montessori ideas and practices. They fairly and
accurately represent how Montessori educators implement the Montessori Method in many kinds
of programmes.

4.2.2 RESPECT FOR THE CHILD

Respect for the child is the cornerstone on which all other Montessori principles rest. Because
each child is unique, education should be individualized. Although, we discussed earlier on that
today many children are viewed and treated as adults, we believe that children are not miniature
adults and should not be treated as such. Montessori was firm in her belief that a child’s life must
be recognized as separate and distinct from that of the adult, she attributed most of the
responsibility for restricting the education of young children to adults who impose their ideas
and dreams on children failing to distinguish between children’s and their own.
Educators and parents have respect for children in many ways. Helping children do things and
learn for themselves for example, encourage and promote independence. At the same time, it
also demonstrates basic respect for their needs as individuals to be independent and self-
regulated. When children have choices, they are able to develop their skills and abilities
necessary for effective learning, autonomy and positive self-esteem. These practices are so much

95
more respectful of children than always doing for them or insisting that they do things as adults
want them to.

4.2.3 THE ABSORBENT MIND

Montessori believes children are not educators by others. Rather, one must educate oneself. It
may be said that we acquire knowledge by using our minds, but the child absorbs knowledge
directly into his peachick life. Simple by continuing to live, the child learns to speak his native
tongue. This is the concept of the absorbent mind.
There are unconscious and conscious stages in the development of the absorbent mind
form birth to three years, the unconscious absorbent mind develops the sense used for seeing,
hearing, tasting, smelling and touching. The child literally absorbs everything.

From three to six years, the conscious absorbent mind" selects sensory impressions from the
environment and further develops the senses. In this phase, children are selective in that they
refine what they know. For example, children in the unconscious stage merely see and absorb an
array of colors without distinguish, match, and grade colors, Montessori challenged the teachers
to think through the concept of the absorbent mind.

Montessori wanted us to understand that children cannot help but learn simply by living,
children learn from their environment. Children are born to learn and they are remarkable
learning systems. Children learn because they .are thinking beings. What they learn depends
greatly on the people in their environment, what those people say and do, and they react. In
addition, available experiences and materials also help determine the type and quality of
learning- and thus the type and quality of the individual.
Early childhood professionals are reemphasizing the idea that children are born .into the
world learning and with constant readiness ability to learn.

4.2.4 SENSITIVE PERIODS

Montessori believed there are sensitive periods when children are more susceptible to certain
behaviours and can learn specific skills more easily.

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A sensitive period refers to a special sensibility which a creature acquires in its infantile state,
while it is still in a process of evolution. It is a transient disposition and limited to the acquisition
of a particular trait. Once this trait or characteristics has been acquired the special sensibility
disappears.
A child learns to adjust himself and make acquisitions in his sensitive periods. These are
like a beam that lights interiorly or a battery that furnishes energy. It is this sensibility which
enables a child to come in contact with the external world in a particularly intense manner. At
such a time, everything is easy and life is full of enthusiasm. Every effort marks an increase in
power. Only where the goal has been obtained do fatigue and the weight of indifference come
on.
When one of these psychic passions is exhausted, another area is enkindled. Childhood
thus passes from conquest to conquest in a constant rhythm that constitutes its joy and
happiness.
The secret of using sensitive periods in teaching ts to recognize them when they occur,
while all children experiences the same sensitive periods (e.g sensitive period for writing) the
sequence and timing vary for each child. Therefore it becomes the role of the directress (as
Montessori teachers are often called) or the parent to detect times of sensitivity and provide the
setting for optimum fulfillment. Observation thus becomes crucial for teachers and parents.
Indeed, many educators believe that information gained by observation of children's
achievement and behaviour is more accurate than that acquired through the use of tests.
The sensitive period for many learning occur early in life, during the time of rapid
physical, language and cognitive growth. Experiences necessary for optimum development must
be provided at this time. Through observation and practice for example, Montessori was
convinced the sensitive period for development of language was a year or too earlier than
originally thought.
Once the sensibility for learning a particular skill occurs, it does not arise again with the
same intensity. For example, children will never learn languages as well as when the special
sensitivity for language learning occurs. Montessori said "the child grows up speaking parents
tongue, yet to grown up the learning of the language is a very great intellectual achievement".
Teachers must do three things; recognize that there are sensitive periods, learn to detect them and

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capitalize on them by providing the optimum learning setting to foster children's development.
Much of what early childhood professionals mean by/readiness is contained in Montessori's
concept of sensitive periods.

4.2.5 THE PREPARED ENVIRONMENT

Montessori believed children learn best in a prepared environment, which can be any setting-
classroom, a room at home, nursery, or playground. The purpose of the prepared environment is
to make children independent of adults. It is a place in which children can do "things for
themselves". The ideal classrooms Montessori described are really what educators advocate
when they talk about child-centered education and active learning. In many respects, Montessori
was the precursor of many practices in use today.

Following their introduction to the prepared environment, children can come and go according to
their desires and needs, deciding for themselves which materials to work with. Montessori
removed the typical school desk from the classroom and replaced them with tables and chairs at
which children could work individually or in small groups, In modem Montessori classroom,
much of a child work is done on the floor. Montessori saw no reason for a teacher's desk, since
the teacher should be involved with the children where they are doing their work. She also
introduced child sized furniture, lowered chalkboards, and outside areas in which children could
take part, at will, in gardening and other outdoor activities.
Her concept of classroom was a place in which children could do things for themselves,
play with materials placed there for specific purposes, and "educate themselves" she developed
a classroom free of many of the inhibiting elements in some of today's classrooms. Freedom is
essential characteristic of the prepared environment. Since children are free, within the
environment, to explore materials of their own choosing, they absorb what they find there.

4.2.6 AUTOEDUCATION
Montessori referred to the concept that children are capable of educating themselves as
"autoeducation" (also known as self-education). Children who are actively involved in a
prepared environment and exercising freedom of choice literally educate themselves. The role

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freedom plays in self-education is crucial. This freedom is not only an external sign of
liberty, but a means of education. If by an awkward movement a child upsets a chair, which falls
noisily to the floor, he will have an evident proof of his own incapacity, the same movement if
it taken place amidst stationary benches would have passed unnoticed by him. Thus the child
has some means by which he can correct himself, and having done so, will have before him the
actual proof of the power he has gained: the little tables and chairs remain firm and silent each
in its own place. It is plainly seen that the child has learned to command his movements"
Our universal perception of the teaching-learning act is that the teachers teach and
children learn a view that overlooks that everyone learns a great deal through one's own efforts.
Through the principle of autoeducation, Montessori focuses our attention on this human
capacity.
The act of teaching includes preparing the environment so that children, by participating in it,
educate themselves. Think of the things you learned by yourself and the conditions or
circumstances under which you learned them. Your reflections will remind you of the self-
satisfaction that accompanies self-learning and the power it has to generate further involvement.
Obviously, it is sometimes quicker more efficient and more economical to be told or
shown what to do and how to do it. Teachers and parents need to understand, however that
autoeducation should have a more dominant role in education than we have been willing to give
it. In this sense, education should become more child-centered and less teacher-centered.

4.2.7 Summary
Montessori’s principles emphasized on the following:
1. Each child is unique and that education of the child should be individualized (Respect
for the child).
2. Children are born to learn and they are remarkable learning systems (the absorbent
mind).
3. Children at certain point I time are more susceptible to certain behaviours and can learn
specific skills more easily.

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4.2.8 Progress test
Explain the following principles:
A. respect for the child
B. the absorbent mind
C. sensitive period
D. prepared environment

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 UNIT 4: LESSON 3

MONTESSORI'S PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE

4.3.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello Student, this is Unit 4, Lesson 3. You are warmly welcome. This lesson discusses
Montessori’s Principle in Practice. In other words, it focuses on how to apply the principles in
the classroom. Let us outline our objectives.

4.3.1 OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 apply Montessori’s principles in the treatment and handling of children.

Read on….

1. Train the child/pupil to be independent. Appealing to the senses of the young child rather
than the intellect is a vital approach.

2. The process of education should be adapted to the mental development of the child but
not to the strict curriculum or the teacher’s, scheme of work. To Montessori, education
implies arousing the interest of the child. It is the help given to the child to facilitate
mental development. By the psychological method, it is implied that there should be
perfect freedom. This freedom is however characterized by obedience of the laws of
development of nature. A well-kept school is the one with disciplined children.
3. Need for repetition, Montessori called the time when the child delights in repeating
actions the sensitive period. Here the child may work for the enjoyment of working but
not for reward. For example, letters may be cut out in sand paper and pasted on cars. In
this case, the roughness of the sand paper provides a control for the accuracy of the
movements. Children repeating this action can even close their eyes to do the same thing.
The phonetic sounds of the letters are taught at the same time as the tracing of the forms.

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Analysis of sounds of spoken word could then follow. Control of the pen should be attached
indirectly with a crayon when the child traces the outline of an inset. The crayon should be of
different colours and the children are to make their own selection in making upward strokes. The
children could then be taught not to pass outside the contour. After repeating this over and over it
is natural that some traces could be outside the enclosing boundary until perfection is reached.
When the stage of perfection is reached, the children who are unaware of the
initial preparatory stage are filled with joy on realizing that they are able to write. She said when
a five year old picked a piece of chalk and succeeded in drawing and writing the name of what
she drew-a cup she burst into a joyous act and cried out “I can write”. Through encouragement,
she wrote more and more words. According to Montessori, the average time that lapsed between
the preparatory exercise and the first written work was for the children of the four years, a month
to a month and a half, with, children of five years, the period was much shorter-in about a month;
most children of age reached perfection.

4.3.2 SUMMARY
Montessori’s principles could be applied in the following situations.
1. Training children to be independent.
2. Teachers and other caregivers should use the mental development of children as mirror in
educating children.
3. When teaching children there is the need for repetition to aid absorption of what is
taught.

4.3.3 PROGRESS TEST

Identify three ways of applying Montessori’s principles in the classroom.

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 UNIT 4: LESSON 4

MONTESSORI’S IDEA ON READING AND WRITING

4.4.0 INTRODUCTION

Dear Student, let us now turn our attention to Lesson4 of Unit 4. In this lesson we will discuss
into details Montessori’s method for teaching reading and writing. Let us set our objectives and
then continue.

4.4.1 OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain at least two Montessori’s approaches of teaching reading and writing.

Now let us read.

According to Montessori, the same procedure used for teaching of writing is to be

adopted for reading. In writing the exercises include word building with sand paper
script characters representing the sounds of the spoken word. Reading demands
production of sounds characters representing the symbols and the fusion of the sounds
into words. Montessori says just as writing is from the something more than mere
copying of pot-hooks and headlines, reading is not mere barking at print: but their
recognition of the meanings. "Reading is the interpretation of an idea from the written
sign" and again until the child reads a transmission of ideas from the written words,
he does not read. Production of sounds is depended to a large extent on the maturity
of the child. At the initial stages, a child aged between one and two and a half may
not be able to make certain sounds especially when they are consonants.
Teaching of writing precedes the teaching of reading according to Montessori Method. The

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muscular sense is more easily developed than the intellect, which calls for a much longer
course of instruction. Writing could afford more pleasure to the child than reading
which is more of a mental task . In writing, we regard the individual who is writing.
Montessori developed teaching of writing from teaching a feeble minded girl to sew.
She did this by first introducing the girl to weaving of kindergarten mats. The
exercise in movement of hands enabled the girl to sew. Teaching of movement of
hands was the preparatory exercises. Effective writing must be derived and practiced
independently before writing actually commence. Since children are already
used to geometric insets, by running their fingers round the contours; Montessori
decided to get pupils to trace with the finger the various shapes.

Research establishing the relationship between reading and writing indicates that
the two should be taught simultaneously. Other children begin learning about
language at birth. Toddlers can make marks on paper and intend them to be messages.
They can also recognize a great deal of environmental print in context. For example,
toddlers can pick their favorite books from a shelf holding many books or selected box of
cereals from the cupboard. Some can write letters of the alphabet. Children are
not blank slates. They are active learners seeking to make sense of written as well
spoken language.

Reading by definition, means gaining meaning from print. A reader tries to make
sense of print and predicts what the print will say, uses cues from the print to confirm
or reject the prediction and move on if that prediction is confirmed. If it is rejected,
then the reader must recycle through the prediction confirming or rejecting again but
this time using more or different cues. A reader matches the meaning to what is known
about the topic. If what is known matches correctly then the one goes on: if it does
not match again, the one must reread (Goodman 1996, Goodman and Burke 1980.)
then the information is integrated into what the learner knows and the cycle is
repeated. At this stage, children use sound letter relationships to provide information
as we read.

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4.4.2 SUMMARY
Montessori views reading as the interpretation of an idea from the written sign and until the
child reads a transmission of ideas from the written words, he/she does not read. She therefore
believes that the same procedure used for teaching reading is to be adopted for writing.
However, reading should be learnt first before writing.

4.4.3 PROGRESS TEST

I. Discuss Montessori’s idea on teaching reading and writing.

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 UNIT 4: LESSON 5

PLANNING TO TEACH WITH MONTESSORI METHOD:

THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Dear Student, welcome to Lesson 5 of Unit 4. In this lesson we will continue our discussions on
the role of the early childhood professional on the Montessori’s Method of teaching. Enjoy
reading but first our objective.

4.5.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 State and explain at least three roles of the early childhood professional in the
Montessori’s Method of teaching children.

First try your hand this activity.

Activity 4.2
Outline any three roles you will play as an early childhood professional in the classroom.
i. …………………………………………………………………………………………..
ii. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
iii. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Now let us read.

Montessori believed that “it is necessary for the teacher to guide the child without letting him
feel her presence too much, so that she may always be ready to supply the desired help but may
never be the obstacle between the child and his experience”.
The Montessori teacher should demonstrate certain behaviors to implement the principles of
child-centered approach as follows:

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1. Prepare the learning environment by ensuring that the learning materials are provided in an
orderly format and that the materials provide for the appropriate experiences for all the
children.
2. Introduce learning materials support children’s learning. The teacher introduces learning
materials after observing each child. Presentation of materials is done in a manner so that
children’s interest are maintained so that they are intrigued and captivated by
demonstration. Enthusiasm is important in the presentation of materials as it is in all the
dimensions of teaching. Children also learn from other children providing
indirect and direct exposure to various activities, and from hands-on exploration and
experiences with the activities they choose to engage in on a daily basis. The teacher's
concern should be how to build on what each child already knows, how to keep the
children's interest, how to maintain consistency in the environment. Respect each child and
model ongoing respect for all children and their work.
3. Encourage children to learn by providing freedom for them in the prepared
environment.
4. Observe children so as to prepare the best possible environment, recognizing
sensitive periods and diverting inappropriate behaviour to meaningful tasks.
5. Make children the center of learning. As Montessori ask "the teacher's task is
not to talk, but to prepare and arrange a series for cultural activity in a special
environment made from the child.
6. Make the child the center of learning. The teacher is to provide materials and observe
children as they work. There should be little interferences.
7. Provide opportunities for children to learn in an environment of freedom. Teachers should
avoid restricting children as all activities.
8. Teachers should use encouragement as the main tool to stimulate learning. Teachers should
use rewards and other positive reinforcements to build in children positive attitude to learn.
9. Providing a prepared environment with materials for children to learn. To Montessori, the
early childhood class should be full of stimulating and self-learning materials both in and
out of the class. The environment and materials need to be safe.

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 10. Respect each child and show this in all ways for children to see. Teachers need to show and
accord children with all the necessary respect. They are to serve as role models for children
to emulate good behavior.
11. Involve a conscious introduction and demonstration of the use of learning materials.

4.5.2 SUMMARY

Montessori believes that the teacher is to guide the children without letting them feel too much
of his/her presence. She is supposed to prepare and arrange series of activities in a special
environment. The teacher is to serve as a directress, prepare the learning environment, and build
on what each child already knows and keeps their interest she should respect each other,
encourage children’s learning by providing freedom in a prepared environment. She also
stresses that children should be the center of learning.

4.5.3 PROGRES TEST

Discuss any four roles a teacher will play in a typical Montessori’s class.

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 UNIT 4: LESSSON 6

CRITICISM OF THE MONTESSORI METHODS

Hello and welcome to the last lesson of this Unit. You will recollect that in this unit, we have
discussed a lot about Montessori and her Principles and Methods in early childhood education.
In as much as people welcomed her ideas and contributions she made towards the child’s
education, others also criticized some of her ideas. Let’s look at few of these criticisms but first
our objectives.

4.6.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
 describe any three criticisms by others on Montessori’s Methods.

Now read on …....

The Montessori system is not without critics. One criticism deals with the didactive nature of the
materials and the programme. Critics say her system teaches a narrow spectrum of activities in
which concepts are learned in a prescribed method using a prescribed set of materials.

Critics also claim the Montessori classroom does not provide for socialization. They cite
the lack of group play, games and other activities normally present in traditional in kindergarten
programme. This accusation, of course is not true for a Montessori setting than for any other
classrooms. No method or teacher can stop social interaction unless the teacher is a dictator or
the children are afraid of her, which could happen in any classroom. Many Montessori activities
happen in any classroom. Many Montessori activities promote and offer opportunities for task
sharing, co-operation, collaboration, and helping, also outdoor time and lunch time (where
children eat in pairs three or small group) afford ample opportunity for social interaction.

A related criticism is that children do not have opportunities to participate in dramatic,

make-believe and pretending. Montessori felt that children two and one and-half to six years of

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age were not mature enough to handle the demands put on them by make -believe world, so she
did not provide for it in her system. This does not however resolve the question of the
appropriateness of these activities for young children.

The charge is frequently heard that Montessori schools represent an elitist or middle class
system. This claim likely stems from the fact that most Montessori schools are private or
operated by individuals for profit or by parochial schools system. Whereas this seems to be the
case, the Montessori programme is now used in many day care and public school programmes.
One reason some parents and teachers feel the Montessori programme is rigid is that its
ideas and methodologies are so detailed. Another reason is that they have nothing to compare
this system with other than the free-play programmes they are more accustomed to. When
parents and teachers compare the Montessori system, which organizes the environment and
Montessori setting as rigid. Parents and teachers need to focus instead on the results of the
system.

4.6.2 SUMMARY
Critics claim that Montessori’s Method have the following lapses.
 It teaches a narrow spectrum of activities.
 The classroom does not promote socialization.
 Children do not have opportunities to participate in dramatic, make-believe and
pretending.
 The Montessori schools represent not for the poor but the elite or middle class system.

4.6.3 PROGRESS TEST

Discuss any three criticisms on Montessori’s method of teaching.

We hope you have learnt something new in this Lesson about Maria Montessori. Thanks for
reading.

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UNIT 5:
PLAY IN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION

Hello, you are welcome to Unit 5 of this course. In this unit, we will discuss the nature, types of
play, purposes of play and safety measures at play in early childhood curriculum. We will also
elaborate on the early childhood professional’s role in promoting play.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain in your own words what play is.

 outline at least three purposes of play.
 describe at least four kinds of play of children.
 examine three roles of the early childhood professional in promoting play.

Wish you the best as you go through this unit.

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 UNIT 5: LESSON 1

PLAY AND ITS PURPOSE TO THE CHILD

5.1.0 INTRODUCTION

You are warmly welcome to Lesson 1 of Unit 5 in this lesson we will look at play and the
purposes of it to the child. Let us first establish our objectives.

5.1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 describe what play is considering its attributes.

 identify at least four purposes of play.

Let’s read on.

5.1.2 PLAY

Play is very important in children’s learning. It is one of the social characteristics of the child. It
is an activity which is concern with the the whole of the child’s being not with just one small part
of him/her and not to deny him/her the right to live and grow ( Cassam,1973). Children usually
play with other children at home and at school. Because children learn a lot through play, most
nursery activities are organized in the form of play.

During free play, children develop physically, socially, emotionally and mentally.

Physically: children gain motor control. This is where they gain confidence in body movement.
The smaller muscles eye and hand co-ordination are equally developed.

Socially and emotionally: children learn to get along with others. Trust in each other is enhanced.
They show their feelings and sentiments as well. They also learn how to play with the older ones.

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Mentally: children at play do concentrate, solve their own problems and develop the habit of
working independently and with groups. Children learn language as they interact together.

The inventive nature of play makes it creative. It is also a way children assimilate and integrate
their life experiences.

Play is described with its unique attributes. Catherine Garvery (1977) identified five attributes
which are acceptable as characteristics of play.

 Play is enjoyable i.e. play is something players want to do.

 Play has no other goal than enjoyment i.e. it is intrinsically rewarding.
 Play is freely or voluntarily entered into.
 Play is active.
 Play is related to other activities e.g. play relates to real life activities like cooking.

Activity 5.1

Write down any two activities that can be organized in the form of play.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Continue reading on.

5.1.3 The purposes of play

Children learn many things through play. Play activities are essential for their
development across all developmental domains-physical, social, emotional, cognitive and
linguistic. Play enables children to do the following:

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1. Learn concepts: play is the integrator of the curriculum. Basic skills and concepts in
mathematics, sciences and language art, in addition to social studies can all be learned as
children play with materials and ideas. Art and music and movement education are perhaps even
easier to adapt to a play approach because these subjects provide children opportunities to
explore material, place and arrangement without rigid standards and criteria. Children learn as
the move between work and play. Some researchers claimed that meaningful learning occurs
mainly in play situations or in situations where children transform non-play situations into play
(Von Aufshnaiter &Schwedes 1989). Balancing play with work therefore becomes an important
framework for developing curriculum and learning environments for children. Play enables
children to develop and expression of new ideas and development of concentration.
2. Practice Language Processes: Literacy development involves a child’s active engagement in
co-operation with peers; it builds on what the child already knows with the support and
guidance of others. Play provides this setting. During observation of children at play especially
in free choice, co-operative play periods, one can note the functional uses of literacy that
children incorporate into their play themes. When the environment is
appropriately prepared with literacy materials in play areas, children have been observed
to engage in attempted and conceptual reading and writing in collaboration with other
youngsters.
3. Master life situations: Play enables children learn self-control, co-operation with other
children and understand the need of rules in order to master life situations. The children express
fears on actual experiences in a safe environment and take risks. The children express sense of
the world. Through play, children are prepared for adult occupation. Play enables children to
experiment beyond the real level of their development without dangerous consequences.
4. Development of Physical Skills: Play helps children develop the large muscles. The
children have this development when they pull a wagon, lift blocks, dig a hole with a
shovel, climb on a jungle gym, throw beanbag. In addition, children develop the small
muscles by using paint brush, crayons and scissors, handling manipulative toys like cars,
trucks and puzzles, by doing finger plays and by undergoing activities in connection with
dressing-buttoning and lacing shoes. Through play they explore their immediate physical
environment. Thus play enables children to exercise their competences.

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5.Development of Social Skills: children play to develop social skills such as care for
others, be creative and imaginative, sharing of things with others, communication with
others. Through play children are able to express their happiness. The play provides
contexts in which children learn how to compromise, learn to be flexible in demand and resolve
conflict. They learn leadership skill.
6. Learning is made more interesting through play. Children usually play with other children at
home and at school. They learn a lot through play and because of the fun element in play,
learning becomes interesting.
7. Play makes learning active. Children learn better when learning involves “doing”. Most play
activities are hands-on which makes learning active.

5.1.3 Summary
 Play is one of the social characteristics of every child.
 Its characteristics or attributes include the following: play is enjoyable, it is freely and
voluntarily entered into, it is active and related to other activities.
 The purpose of play include: the development of physical skills, practice of language,
preparing children for adult life and making learning interesting.

5.1.4 Progress Test

1. Describe any two attributes of play.
2. Explain any four purposes of play.

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 UNIT 5: LESSON 2

KINDS OF PLAY
5.2.0 INTRODUCTION

You are warmly welcome to lesson 2, Unit 5. This lesson will discuss the various kinds of play.
Specifically the kinds of play engaged in by young children.

5.2.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;
 mention at least three kinds of play engaged in by young children.
 describe the characteristics of any three kinds of children’s play.

Read on…….

5.2.2 SOCIAL PLAY

Much of children's play occurs with or in the presence of other children, social play occurs
when children play with others in groups. Mildred Partens (children's play researcher) developed
the most comprehensive description and classification of the types of
children's social play. They are as follows:
 Unoccupied Play: The child does not play with anything or anyone, the child merely
stands or sits without doing anything observable. He watches anything of momentary
interest.

 Onlookers' play: The child spends most of the time watching other children
play. The center of interest is others play.
 Solitary play: The child although involves in play he plays alone, seemingly unaware
of other children. The child may play with the toys different from those used by
nearby children and makes no effort to get close to them. This type of play is seen
being exhibited by 1-2 year olds children.

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  Parallel Play: the child plays independently but among the other children, playing
with toys and other materials similar to those of the other children, but not necessarily
playing with them play beside rather than with the others, the parallel player does not
try to influence the other children's play. This type of play is by 3 to 4 year old
children.
 Associative Play: children interact with each other perhaps by asking questions or
sharing materials. They tend to exclude others in this and limit play to two or three
others.
 Cooperative play: children actively play together, often as a result of organization of
the teacher. They share equipment and respond to each other's play. This type of play
is by 4-6 year old children.
Social play supports many important functions. First, it provides the means for children to
interact with others and learn many social skills. Play provides a context in which children learn
how to compromise (e.g. you will be the mother and I the child). These resolve conflicts and
continue the process of learning who they are. Children learn what skill they have such as those
relating to leadership. Secondly, social play provides a vehicle for practicing language and
developing literacy skills. Children have others with whom to practice language and learn from.
Thirdly, play helps children learn impulse control, they realize they cannot always do whatever
they want, and lastly, in giving a child other children with whom to· interact, social play negates
isolation and helps children learn how to have the social interactions so vital to successful living.

5.2.3 COGNITIVE PLAY

Froebel, Montessori and Piaget recognized the cognitive value of play through his gift and
occupation with concrete materials as a direct link to knowledge and development. Piaget’s
theory influences contemporary thinking about the cognitive basis for play. From a Piagetian
perspective, play is literally cognitive development. Piaget describes four stages of play through
which children progress as they develop: functional play, symbolic play, playing games with
rules, constructive plays.
Functional Play: in this type of play, children practice physical and language skills that allow
them to explore the immediate environment and lay a foundation for the next stage.

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Very young children are especially fond of repeating movements for the pleasure of it. They
engage in sensory impression for the joy of experiencing the functioning of their bodies.
Repetition of language also is common at this level.
Symbolic Play: The second stage is symbolic play, which Piaget also referred to as “let’s
pretend” stage of play. During this stage, children freely display their creative and physical
abilities and social awareness in a number of ways for example, by pretending to be something
else, such as animals. Symbolic play also occurs when children pretend that one object is another
– that is a building is a car for example – and may also entail pretending to be another person’s –
mummy, daddy, or care giver. As toddlers and preschoolers grow older, their symbolic play
becomes more elaborate and involving.
Playing games with rules: This involves the setting of rules and procedures of games. It
usually starts during school age, e.g. in running, children may divide themselves by saying
Mercy go and stand there, John stand here, then they are put to run in competition to see who
runs faster.
Constructive play: Paget’s fourth stage develops from symbolic play and represents children’s
adaptation to problems and their creative acts. Constructive play is characterized by children
engaging in play activities to construct their knowledge of the world. They first manipulate play
materials and then use these materials to create and build things (a sand castle, a block building,
a grocery store) and experiment with the way things go together they play with some bricks,
drawing and playing with sand and other natural materials.

5.3.4 INFORMAL OR FREE PLAY

Free play is one of the most important activities in a preschool, sufficient time should be given
each day for children to play freely with materials and one another. Play is spontaneous and it
gives the children a chance to choose activities themselves. During free play, children are able to
adapt their impressions and adjust their experiences to their own understanding. They get a sense
of freedom, chances to be at the center and to control and have influences on their surroundings.
This is also a golden chance for children to discover that they can do something by themselves.
The expected learning outcomes are socialization, emotional development, self-control and
exclamation to a school setting.

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Teachers should provide plenty of playing materials to stimulate children’s free play.
Participation of the teachers in children’s free play is another effective way to stimulate
them.Observation alone is not adequate. For instance, if children are performing a role-play on a
hospital, the teacher may be one of the patients to be treated during the play. In her concept
regarding “practical life experience” Maria Montessori explains out that a child of three years
has an urge to imitate or do the same thing they see/learn from their environment. For instance,
they will imitate mother cooking, like to wash plates, clothes or nurse a baby. According to
Montessori for those children there is no difference between work and play. To a child, sweeping
the floor, washing plates and ironing clothes are also enjoyable as much as playing with
construction blocks.
When working, we aspire for an end result. Also for the child, during free play, each action aims
at an end result, therefore, the child through play learns to work towards a result. As mentioned
earlier, it is also through free play that children are exposed to practical life experience that gives
them a feeling of independence. They learn to concentrate and attain self-confidence. In a quality
programme of free play, both indoors and outdoors, teachers are active participants, sometimes,
they observe, sometimes, they play with children, sometimes, they help the children but never
intrude or impose.

5.3.5 SOCIO·DRAMATIC (PRETEND) PLAY

Dramatic play allows children to participate variously in a wide range of activities associated
with family living, society, and their other cultural heritage. Dramatic play is generally of two
kinds: Socio-dramatic" and fantasy". Sociodramatic play usually involves everyday realistic
activities and events, whereas fantasy play typically involves fairy tale and superhero play.
Dramatic play centers often include areas such as housekeeping, in dress-up, occupations, dolls,
school and other situations that follow children's interests.
In Socio-dramatic play children have an opportunity to express themselves, assume different
roles, and interact with peers. Socio-drarnatic play centers, thus acts as a nonsexist and
multicultural area where all children are equal. Teachers can learn a great deal about children by
watching and listening to their dramatic play. For example, one teacher heard a child remark to
the doll he was feeding that "you better eat all of this because it's all we have in the house" after

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investigation, the teacher linked the family with social service agency that held them obtain food
and assistance.
Teachers must assume a proactive role in organizing and changing play areas. They must
see the stage for dramatic play and participate with children. They must also encourage those
who "hang back" and are reluctant to play and involves those who may be particularly popular
with the other children. Surprisingly because of their background and environment, some
children have to be taught how to play. In other words, as in areas of early childhood education,
teachers must deal with the children's dramatic play in an individual and holistic way.

5.3.6 OUTDOOR PLAY

Children's play outside is just important as that inside. Unfortunately many consider outdoor
play relatively unimportant and needed only as an opportunity for children to let off steam and
get rid of excess energy. Children do need to relieve stress and tension through play, and outdoor
activities provide this opportunity, however teachers should plan for what children will do and
what equipment will be available. Outdoor play is not a chance for children to run wild.
Outdoor environments and activities promote large and small-muscle development and body co-
ordination as well as language development, social interaction and creativity. Teachers should
plan for a particular child or group of children to move through positively higher skill levels of
running, climbing and throwing. The outdoor area is a learning environment, and as such, the
playground should be designed according to learning objectives.
Many teachers also enjoy bringing the indoor learning environment outdoor, using easels, on
dramatic play props to further enhance learning opportunities. In addition, taking a group of
children outdoor for story or music time, sitting in a shade of a tree, brings a fresh perspective to
daily group activities. As with indoor activities, provisions for outdoor play involve planning,
supervising and helping children be responsible for their behaviour.

5.3.7 ROUGH AND TUMBLE PLAY

Children, to a greater or lesser degree, engage in rough and tumble. One theory of play says that
children play because they are biologically programmed to do so, (that is, it is part of children
and

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(adults) generic heritage to engage in play activities, indeed, there is a parallel in children's
rough-and tumble play and behaviours in the animal kingdom for example-run-and chase
activities and pretend fighting. Rough- and -tumble play activities enable children to learn how
to lead and follow, develop physical skills, interact with the children in different ways, and grow
in their abilities to interact.

5.3.8 Summary
 Children engage in many kinds of play both at school and at home.
 Type of social play engaged in by children are unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker
play, parallel play and cooperative play.
 Apart from social play, children engage in other kinds such as cognitive, informal or free
play, socio-dramatic, outdoor etc.

5.3.9 Progress test

1. Describe the following types of social play;
-solitary play
-onlooker play
-parallel play

2. Describe the following;

-cognitive play
- informal or free play

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 UNIT 5: LESSON 3

THE ROLE OF THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROFESSIONAL IN PLAY

5.3.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello, welcome to Lesson 3. In lesson 2, we discussed the kinds of children’s play. In this lesson
we are going to take a look at the role of the early childhood professional in children’s play.

5.3.1 OBJECTIVE

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss roles of the early childhood professional in children’s play.

Now let’s discuss…………….

The teacher’s main task is to enrich the quality of children’s play. The following responsibilities
are for supporting a quality play curriculum.
1. Planning: the teacher is to implement the curriculum through play and integrate
specific learning activities with play to achieve specific learning outcome. Play
activities should match children's developmental needs and be free of gender and
cultural stereotypes. Professionals have to be clear about curriculum concepts and
ideas they want children to learn through play.
2. Time: teacher must provide children with long uninterrupted time especially
socio-dramatic and constructive play. The teacher should also provide time for
learning through play. Include it in the schedule as a legitimate activity
on the timetable for the day.
3. Space: children need adequate space to play effectively. The school should ideally
create at least 25-30 sqft per child as his/her playground. Cramped space

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 encourages aggression and decreases social play. Both indoor and outdoor
environment t encourage play and supports its role in learning.
4. Play materials: provide home-living and theme-related props, dress-up clothes,
dolls and trunks to promote social interaction and group dramatic play.Equipment
and materials that are appropriate to children's developmental level should be
provided.
5. Interruption of lesson by adults and teachers: Educate assistants and parents about
how to promote learning through play and how they should stay off children’s
play. They are to sit next to them, be silent and watch them as they play.
6. Monitoring and Guidance: teachers are to move around and observe children in
different activities. This should be done to ascertain whether materials are enough
or not. Again, they are able to understand what each child is capable of and
understand them better.
7. Experiences: teachers should ensure that children’s use past experiences as they
play. Community field trips and classroom visit from individual involved in many
occupation and hobbies stimulate rich episode of pretend play. Relating fairy
tales, folktales to children, reading stories to them encourages fantasy play.
8. Evaluation: at the end of children’s play, especially free play the teacher should
display whatever each child did at the creative corner. This encourages creativity
in them and increase self -confidence. Question children about their play, discuss
what children did during play and "debrief' children about what they have learnt
through play.

Providing a safe and healthy environment is an important part of an early childhood

professional's responsibility and applies to the playground as well as to the inside facilities,
outdoor areas should be safe for children to play in.

Activity 5.2
Write down one activity you have been performing or organizing in class to promote play.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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5.3.2 Summary

we learned from the discussion that, early childhood professional can promote play by
integrating learning activities with play through planning, providing time, space, materials,
educating adults on children’s play monitoring and guidance as well as evaluation children’s
play.

5.3.3 Progress Test

1. Identify any four roles of the teacher in promoting play.

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 UNIT 5: LESSON 4
OBSERVATION AND ASSESSING OF LEARNING THROUGH PLAY

5.4.0 INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Unit 5, Lesson 4. This lesson is going to elaborate on observation and Assessment
of learning through play.

5.4.1 OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain at least three reasons why an early childhood professional needs to observe and
assess children as they play.

Activity 5.3

You read on the role of the teacher in children’s play which included observation. As a
reminder, state one reason why a teacher should observe children as they play.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

5.4.2 OBSERVATION

Observation on children’ play is informal method of evaluation. It can also be a primary method
of gaining insight into the various facets of children’s development. It is done at different times
and under different contexts. Through observation, teachers can understand the meaning play
has for children. As you observe, reflect on the stages of development and types of play. Careful
observation can help you determine if a child is having real difficulty with an activity and needs
help, or if the child is momentarily stuck and will be able to resolve the problem alone.
Observation gives clues to a child's level of thinking. Teachers may be able to discover if toys or

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materials are beyond a particular child's ability or if a situation doesn't provide enough
stimulation for thinking, socialization or expanding motor skills.
As you observe children's play, you also act as a supervisor, you should be available to
recognize children, offer feedback, or give support with a nod or a smile, occasionally, it may be
appropriate to make comments to support their play or keep it in "bounds" you stopped carefully
at the interest, "Keep the blocks here" etc
while observing and supervising children play, you should continually evaluate it because
play is a primary learning mode for children. Observing them as they play is a means of
assessing their social, intellectual, emotional, and physical skills and growth some examples of
questions to focus on the observation are.
 Are children showing progress in relating with one another?
 Are they expressing joy, anger, jealousy or fear in their play in ways that allow them to
cope more effectively with their feelings?
 Do they run, skip, climb and move with greater ability?
 Are they using language effectively?
 How do they solve problems?
 What new concepts do they seem to be exhibiting through their play?

The quality of play is also assessed. Some questions to ask.

 Does the play seem rich in ideas?
 Is the play flexible and fluid?
 Do shy children find ways of entering into dramatic plays?
 Do aggressive children share ideas and cooperate in play?
 Can children sustain play episodes for longer periods of time?
 Do the play themes become more varied and complex?
Progress and growth in and through play vary for each child. To validate and assess
growth through play, you can use a formal observation device such as the Trans
disciplinary Play-
Based Assessment (Linder 1993) or you can keep charts for each child, noting growth in
different curricular areas on attainments of different skills.

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5.4.3 Development of assessment and plans
The starting point for individual learning plan is the child. This means that practitioners begin the
process of drawing up an individual learning plan or plan by assessing the child's development
interests and needs.

5.4.4 Ways of assessing children

Activity 5.4
List any four observational techniques or tools in assessing children.
i. …………………………………………………………………………………
ii. …………………………………………………………………………………
iii. …………………………………………………………………………………
iv. …………………………………………………………………………………

Let’s see if you had it right.

There are several methods that can be used to assess children's development; ideally
a range of methods should be used to gain a full picture of the child although this in
'practice rarely happens as most settings find it hard to release one member of staff to
carry out observations. It may include the use of anecdotal records, check list, rating scale. It will
also involve time sampling, event sampling and running records It is also important to look at
children in a range of situations i.e. in group situations as well as when they are playing alone or
with other children.

5.4.5 Factors affecting viability and reliability of assessments

It is very hard for practitioners who are closely involved with children to be
completely objective when observing and assessing them. This is known as observer
bias. The danger in observer bias is that the observer tends to home in onbehaviours
or skills that confirm their current view of the child. One way of limiting observer

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bias is by setting clear aims for observations e,g. noting down every time a child
interacts with an adult to get a picture of a 'child's interactions with adults.
It is also important when completing checklists or tick charts which require adults to
ask children to do certain tasks to remember that children may not always "perform"
well if they think that they are being watched or tested. Many skilled practitioners
therefore try to incorporate these types of assessments into planned play
opportunities, e.g. putting out some buttons for children to play with and then asking
them if they would like to count how many there are.

5.4.6 Use of assessment

Once a practitioner has completed some observations, it is impotent to develop an overall
picture of the child’s development. What strengths and interests has the child shown? Are there
any areas where the child has specific developmental needs? It is also good practice for early
year's settings to involve parents in the process. Parents see their children in different contexts
and will be able to provide additional information. it is also important to find out what parents
feel are the priorities for their child e.g. a parent of a Toddler may want to concentrate on
feeding skills.

5.4.7 Summary
You have learnt that observation and assessment is very necessary as children play. This
includes the teacher gaining more insight in the development of children and understanding their
world. The teacher will be able to help the weak ones, provide the necessary play tools and
materials and also gives a progressive report on the children especially with their social and
moral development. The teacher can do these through the use of anecdotal records, check list,
rating scale. It will also involve time sampling, event sampling and running records.

5.4.8 Progress Test

1. Explain how the teacher can use the following to observe and assess children as they
play.
a) Check list
b) Anecdotal records

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 UNIT 5: LESSON 5
BASIC TIPS TO KEEP CHILDREN AT SAFE ENVIRONMENT AT PLAY

5.5.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello! We welcome you to lesson 5 of Unit 5. In this lesson, we will discuss with you some
basic tips the teacher can ensure to make children safe in and around the school environment.

5.5.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 examine any five safety tips to keep children safe.
 explain at least two importance for keeping the environment safe.

Now let us read carefully.

Children love to play outdoors. It is a wonderful place to test one's physical abilities and to just
have fun. Keeping children safe outdoors requires some special precautions. Here are some tips
for keeping children in your child care program safe outdoors.

5.5.2 General Outdoor Safety Tips for Child Care

 Never leave children alone outside
 Teach children not to play near the street
 Explain that children must ask for help if toys roll into the street or driveway
 Check the outdoor play area routinely. Remove trash, sharp branches, tools, lawn
equipment, and animal faeces
5.5.3 Safe Set-up of the Outdoor Environment
 Be sure all outdoor play areas are fenced, especially near a street, parking lot, pond, well,
or railroad track
 Surround electrical appliances in the play area, such as air conditioners, with fences so
children cannot reach them
 Remove gas grills from outdoor play areas

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  Keep gates closed and install childproof latches
 Lock storage sheds, barns, and garages

Ensuring that the playground area is safe requires careful planning and monitoring. Remember
that infants and toddlers (ages 0 - 2), preschool-age children (ages 3 – 5), and school-age
children (ages 5 – 12) have different developmental needs and abilities, and may have different
developmental needs. Different age groups may need different playground equipment in areas
separated by fences to ensure that playgrounds are safe and fun for everyone. Here are some
guidelines to assess playground safety.

 Regularly inspect surface and playground equipment for broken, worn, or missing parts.
Remove, repair, or replace items immediately.
 Cover sand boxes when not in use so animals won’t use them as a litter box.
 Provide some shade in the play space, either from natural sources like trees or from a
tent, awning, or other shelter.
 Place metal playground equipment, such as platforms and slides, in the shade to prevent
burns. A slide that faces north will receive the least direct sunlight.
 Place equipment that has moving parts, such as swings, on the outside of the play area.
 Teach children to stay away from the front and back of the swing area.

Keep outdoor play equipment at least 6 feet away from pavement, fences, trees, buildings,
walkways, and other play equipment.
Provide guardrails or barriers for platforms or ramps over 30 inches high.
Cover all protruding bolts or screws with plastic safety caps.
Close S-hooks completely on swings.
Never attach any ropes or cords to play equipment.
Safely anchor to the ground permanent outdoor equipment such as swing sets or climbers

5.5.4 Tips for Playground Surfacing

To reduce the risk of injuries from falls, make sure all play equipment has soft surfacing
underneath it. Materials such as sand, pea gravel, rubber mulch, and wood chips are soft enough

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to absorb falls. Grass and dirt are not soft enough to absorb the shock of a fall. Do not install
loose-fill surfacing over hard surfaces such as concrete or asphalt.
Surface materials should be a minimum of 6 inches deep for equipment less than 4 feet high and
9 inches deep for equipment up to 8 feet in height. The material should extend at least 6 feet
beyond all sides of edge of stationary equipment. For swings, surfacing should extend in back
and in front, two times the height of the suspension bar. The surfacing will also compact,
displace, and settle, and should be periodically refilled to maintain at least a 9-inch depth.

5.5.5 Summary
The playing ground is a great place to take kids to promote active play and give them a chance to
be social. The teacher is to ensure that children use age-appropriate playground equipment. If
there are any hazards in a school’s playground, then more caution should be taken.

Progress test
Discuss any five safety tips a teacher needs to know when handling children.

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UNIT 6:

LEARNING CENTERS

INTRODUCTION

Welcome my dear student to the last unit of this course. This unit will open your mind to the
ideal early childhood classroom where all kinds of teaching and learning materials are available.
These materials make it possible to offer a variety of activities that can be completed by learners
in teams or individuals. The discussion will give details on what learning centers are, its purpose,
how to set the learning centers as well as how to evaluate the centers.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain what learning centers are.

 discuss at least four reasons for learning centers in ECE classroom.
 state at least four things to consider in setting learning centers in ECE classrooms.

Enjoy reading!

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 UNIT 6: LESSON 1

DEFINITION AND PURPOSES OF LEARNING CENTERS

6.1.0 INTRODUCTION

You are warmly welcome to the first lesson of Unit Six. We will look at what learning centers
are and their purposes in the early childhood class.

6.1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of mastering this lesson, you will be able to:

 explain what learning centers are.

 State and explain any four purposes of learning centers in ECE.

Let us start reading.

6.1.2 What is a learning center?

The learning center is also known as learning corners or activity areas. It is a self-contained
section of the classroom in which learners engage in independent and self-directed learning
activities.

It can also be seen as a space set aside in the classroom that allows easy access to a variety of
learning materials in an interesting and productive manner. Learning centers are usually designed
to offer a variety of material designs and media through which learners can work by themselves
or with others to operationalize the information they are learning in the classroom. They are
designed to enhance the learning concepts, skills, themes or topics. This learning can take place
the course of presenting important concept or as initial introduction to materials in the text.
Learning centers can have any number of designs, each limited only by the teacher creativities
and imaginations. The teacher should feel free to work with learners in creating a center.

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Learning center is defined as an area of the classroom containing materials selected by the
teacher to facilitate the teaching-learning process in which small groups of children generally
from one to six in number may work independently. The activities and materials are usually
multi-levels. The activities may include games, objects, worksheets, pictures and puzzles.

Activity 6.1
List any two reasons why you think it is important for a teacher to have a learning center in and
outside the classroom.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6.1.3 THE PURPOSE OF LEARNING CENTRES

In an early childhood classroom, the environment is designed to nurture the total development of
young children. Classroom activities provide opportunities for children to participate
individually in teams and in small groups. Included are both teacher-directed and child-directed
activities. Centers are special components, allowing children to participate in play activities
which are self-directed. In centers, there are opportunities to interact with different children. In
centers, the child works individually or with a partner, helping him/her to become more
independent or learn to work cooperatively.

When playing in centers young children do the following.

 Foster independent decision making. Children may remain quiet and work at private places.
 Make choices, developing self- confidence in their problem solving abilities.
 Expand their oral language, combining words with their activity.
 Enhance their creative abilities; determine the direction of their play and selecting
materials.
 Develop healthy social relationship and friendship as they work with others.
 Understand others as they try out roles and participate in play sequence.
 Develop responsibility as they build with and care for the materials they are using.

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  Learn how to make plans and carry them to completion, developing persistence in a task.
 Move into more advanced play as they develop growth, sequencing and working
cooperatively with others in the episodes.
 Develop longer attention spans as they increase the length of time they work in centers and
participate in activities which interest then. Develop their understanding of symbols as they
use concrete items in their play and move to imaginative representations
 Enhance their self-image as they learn that they can influence their world as they
participate in the centers.
 Experience integrated learning as they use all areas of the curriculum in meaningful ways.
 The whole set-up becomes more child- initiative more than teacher- initiative.Teacher-
directed activities such as circle time can proceed into center time which is child
directed.

Alternating teacher-directed and child-directed activities provide variation

while helping children learn to control their own behavior. They can focus better on the
teacher-directed activity since they know that it will be followed by center time when
they can choose the activity. Centers also provide an opportunity to rotate active and
quiet periods during the day. For example, follow a quiet time, such as listening to a
story, with the children actively working centers.

6.1.4 Summary

The learning center is also known as learning corners or activity areas. It is a self-contained
section of the classroom in which learners engage in independent and self-directed learning
activities. It can also be seen as a space set aside in the classroom that allows easy access to a
variety of learning materials in an interesting and productive manner.

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Some purposes of learning centers include:

 Develop healthy social relationship and friendship as they work with others.
 Understand others as they try out roles and participate in play sequence.
 Develop responsibility as they build with and care for the materials they are using.
 Learn how to make plans and carry them to completion, developing persistence in a task.
 Move into more advanced play as they develop growth, sequencing and working
cooperatively with others in the episodes.

6.1.5 Progress Test

State and explain any five reasons for establishing activity areas in your classroom.

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 UNIT 6: LESSON 2
WHAT TO CONSIDER IN SETTING UP LEARNING CENTRES

6.2.0 INTRODUCTION

Hello Student, we hope you are enjoying this lesson. We are going to consider the things
that should come to play when setting up the centers for learning and playing.

6.2.1 OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 State and explain into details four considerations a professional should put in place
before putting up the centers which will serve the purpose of learning and play as
well.

Activity 6.2

Write down any three things you consider as a professional in setting up a learning center or
activity area.

i. ………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. ………………………………………………………………………………………
iii. ……………………………………………………………………………………...

Now read on…………………………..

Indoor space is often organized into learning centers In setting up learning centers one must
consider the goals of the programme, the number, ages, abilities and interest of the children
and the size and shape of the room. Let’s take them one after the other.

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 6.2.2 Factors to consider in setting up learning centres

The goals of the programme; the goal of the programme will determine the priorities for
the inclusion or exclusion of specific learning centers. If the programme goals put a high
emphasis on academic skills, their language, mathematics and science centers receive top
priorities. If social skills are highly prized then dramatic play, building and construction
which require co-operation and project which require team-work would have high priority. ,

The number of children in the class, the size of the room and the length of time.
children will be there should be considered together for these factors have interactive
effects.

In a small room with a fairly large number of children there will need to be enough centers
and materials provided that all children may be kept busy but not so much that the
children are falling over each other and the materials. If it is a long day, more choices will
need to be provided than if there is a short day remembering that we need to consider
these aspects in an interactive way, let us consider each one separately.

When there are fewer children in a class, the centers may be fewer in number but will
need to be changed frequently as the children appear to lose interest and are ready for
new experiences. For a large class, more centers will need to be provided, but change
may not need to be as frequent since not every child will have had an opportunity to work
in each center as often.

The number of center depends to a large degree on the physical characteristics of the
room in which the class is held - size, shape, location of doors, built in furniture, and
windows in a small room or one in which doors, build-ins, and windows take up much
space, one should avoid a too-crowded, cluttered appearance and choose a few well-
equipped centers, changing materials as interest wanes. A crowded cluttered room with
many attractions tends to be confusing and overly-stimulating and may result in
undesirable behaviour.

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The length of the school day needs to be considered, for a longer time in school means
more opportunity to choose more different kinds of activity.

The materials to be placed in the center. A language center which includes writing
materials, tape recorders and alphabet letters would be inappropriate for most groups of three
year olds for example. Not that they need motto development, language skills, but that for this
age, skills related to language are more appropriately developed in dramatic play centers where
they will engage in conversation. At manipulative material centers they practice perceptual -
motor skills and the art centers they will learn to handle implements similar to writing
materials. Looking at picture books and having an adult read to them leads to the three year-
olds appreciation of books also.

On the other hand, a dramatic play area which includes toys housekeeping materials and
doors, may well be inappropriate for a seven - to - eight -year old who are ready for real cooking
experiences and are beginning to grow out of doll play. Setting up a store which involves buying
and selling, making change, communicative skill and recording transactions would be
appropriate for these older young children.

Over and above there should be an aesthetic appeal. The centers should be attractive
in the literal sense of the word; that is, children should be drawn to them both by nature
of the materials in the centers and the way they are arranged. In effect, the centers
should by it appearance, say to the child "come, play, explore, discover" Each center
should provide a variety of related materials displayed in a manner which is neither
cluttered nor barren. The materials should provide a range of difficulty from those
which are simple enough for the youngest child to use successfully to that complex
enough to challenge the most mature.

6.2.3 SUMMARY

In setting up the ECE learning or activity center, the following must be considered:

 The ages of children to use the center.

 The space and size available in and out of the classroom.

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  The time allotted for activities.
 The goals of the early childhood programme.
 The materials and resources available.
 The aesthetic appeal i.e. how beautiful and attractive one wants the place to be.

6.2.4 Progress test

Discuss any reason why a professional should consider the following when setting up
learning centers.

a) Age
b) Space
c) Availability of materials

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 UNIT 6: LESSON 3
DESIGNING LEARNING CENTER ACTIVITIES

6.3.0 INTRODUCTION

Once again you are welcome to Unit 6, Lesson 3. This lesson will take you through how
to design the learning center activities. It will also discuss how to establish boundaries
of the center.

6.3.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain how one can design a learning center.

 Explain to establish boundaries in the learning center.

Now let’s begin….

All programmes for children happen either inside a home, in playing ground or a
designated place school block or outdoor. Wherever the space is located, it has a piece
of furniture, equipment and other materials arranged orderly to meet the schedules for
the day. Learning centers can include art, manipulative, dramatic place, sensory
experiences, blocks, music, science, mathematics, computers, books, language art,
woodworking, cooking and a variety of other areas that fit the unique interest, needs and
characteristics of a group of children and teachers.

Understanding the background of the children in her class helps the teacher as she
constructs traditional centers and determines the props that will be included. In centers,
children learn while participating actively, observing and interacting with others. She
selects materials and props to meet the range of developmental levels of the children.
By including real objects and realistic toys, young' children can select the appropriate
tools that meet their needs in symbolic play. Include open-ended materials in each
center for the young children who are ready for more abstract representation in their
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play. Scraps of wood, small boxes and pieces of fabrics inspire a child's use of
imaginative play.

From the above, the school needs to create the following;

Safety and Health: environment solely created for the purpose of learning and play
should be safe. E.g. equipment provided should be in good repairs, windows in good
guards, radiators covered and dangerous substances like cleaning products locked away.

Activities interactions and schedules. The environment should support children’s

development. The authorities need to provide interactive experiences that are
challenging and safe for the different age groups. Such areas include; where children
would sit quietly reading or viewing at books or pictures, climb, have snacks and meals,
where clay and other medium like paper mache will be available for creativity. There
should also be areas for cooking, construction and building area, scientific and
experimental findings or projects works as well as farming would be carried out. The
teacher needs to support this by arranging furniture to create small areas or protected
places for few children to work or play together. The schedules should stipulate time for
arrival at school, playing time, eating time and leaving the school for home.

The living environment. The room should be well ventilated and comfortable. Seats
should be soft so as not to cause pains when children sit for some time. The floor should
be well decorated with woolen carpet preferably and the walls too should have the
display of children’s art works which needs to change occasionally. It should again
have charts, pictures, posters. Music equipment. Important materials, items and
equipment found in the dramatic play area include wooden crates, work gloves, baskets,
fruits both real and artificial ones. Children should have their properties protected. The
materials could be in a cubby type piece of furniture or shelves or dish pans as personal
storage bins. Also, things that are used together are kept near each other. The storage
display of most materials should encourage independent use by the children. It should
be open shelves and at the children’s height.

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There should be a room where teachers and attendants will keep their belongings.
Separate dressing and cloakroom should be given to both teachers and children. There
should be space for information and resources for parents. A designated bulletin board
for notices and books for parents are fixed for them to take advantage of them to digest.
There are others that your lecturer will discuss with you. The learning area set up
depends so much on the interest of children.

Let’s continue reading…

6.3.2 ESTABLISHING BOUNDARIES OF CENTRES

Establish centers with clearly define spaces. The children may be able to identify the centers
and determine where it begins and ends. A clear visual identification of the center helps
children know where to go, what the boundaries of the space are and activities that go on
within the center.

When determining the boundaries look at the space from the child eye level. Sit on the floor
or crawl around the space to see what they will see' and construct boundaries that are
appropriate for the children's size. Young children who are two and halve to three feet tall do
not need walls that touch the ceiling to separate the centers space. Folding screen, book-cases
or other dividers only need to be slightly above the children line of vision to communicate
where the center stop. Other advantage of low boundaries is that the teacher can easily observe
what is happening in all the centers.

If boundaries do not exist children wander in and out or run aimlessly between the centers by
establishing clear borders, children learn to manage their own behaviour and remain focus
on a task in the center. Dividers also help eliminate visual distraction that can cause children
to loss their concentration as they see others moving around the room.

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6.3.3 Summary

In setting up learning centers, the following areas will be recommended.

 A space to do messy, creative art activities

 A soft, comfortable space with reading materials.
 A space which is bigger enough to accommodate more than a child.
 A room where enough children can play together.
 A place where children will store personal belongings like bags, extra cloth, and lunch
box, creative works etc.
 A place set for conferencing or meetings.
 There should be good lighting conditions
 Moderately low noise environment.
 The center should have a room temperature conveniently good enough for human
habitation.
 The traffic pattern in the center should be adequately marked.

6.3.4 Progress Test

1. Explain why the teacher should demarcate learning centers.

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 UNIT 6: LESSON 4

GUIDING AND ASSESSING LEARNING CENTRE ACTIVITIES

6.4.0 INTRODUCTION
Dear Student, you have done well for going through this course from Unit 1 to 6. Unfortunately
this is the last lesson for the course. This lesson is about the guiding and assessing learning
centers.

6.4.1 OBJECTIVE
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 Explain at least four guiding principles for children in the learning center.

Activity 6.2
State any two precautions a teacher needs to take at the Learning/Activity Centres
i……………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Now let’s begin…..

Learning center activities emphasize exploration and discovery by the children. The children are
seen messing around with materials properly displayed, arranged and exposed for their use. The
environment created for the children are well-stocked with materials and the needed support is
readily available for use by both children and others. It is established that children learn by doing
in the space arrange so that the children actively explore. It’s on this and many other reasons that
the early childhood professional needs to guide children against any kind of accident. The
following should guide professionals at the learning centers.

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 1. The teacher needs to know the fabrics of building code, fire emergency. There should be
a clear “Emergency Exit” route posted and should be known by all teachers as well as
children.
2. A well-functioning fire extinguisher and smoke detector should be installed in each room.
3. Carpeting drapes and other furnishing should be treated with fire retardant.
4. Wall and other surfaces should be painted with lead-free paints.
5. Detergents used for cleaning should be kept under lock.
6. Electricity outlets should be covered and should be kept out of reach of children.
7. Shape edges are to be eliminated from furniture and built-in storage units.
8. Light weight equipment should be backed against a wall or other stead surfaces to
prevent it from falling during vigorous display.
9. The environment as indicated earlier should developmentally appropriate, safe and
secure, comfortable, aesthetically pleasing and appropriately stimulating.
10. The environment must encourage exploration which should ensure safety and hygiene.
11. The outdoor environment should provide for the children space for excelling large
muscles, providing opportunities for enhancing socialization, cognitive and language
development, sensory exploration, creative expression and an appreciation of nature.
12. The other structures which are fixed on the playground should be firm and strong. These
fixtures include, swings, slides, merry-goes around, sand boxes and others.

Apart from the above, indoor environment needs to be assessed. It may include:
Materials and equipment to be used should be durable and be capable to be stored. The children
are liable to make independent choices when they are to learn at the center. Provision of healthy
facilities, toileting and cubbies for coats and boots should be available to children. This will help
them acquire self-help skills. Children should have opportunity to select and direct their own
activities therefore the center should be set to offer variety of activities choices. Doorway and
parting should be unobstructed to avoid interferes with ongoing play that could cause anger and
frustration. Arrangement of seat, tables and chairs are settled near center where tabletop
activities are carried out. Tables should be placed in Art and manipulative areas. Other centers
meant for woodworking, music or cooking may be brought into the classroom on less frequent
schedules or could be rotated to other areas for specific purposes. Corners in the classroom

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should be varied and changeable. They should not be too crowded. The rules for each playing
corner should be clear. Tidy up at the end of the play time.

6.4.2 Summary
Safety should be an overriding, primary concern in the setting up on environment for children.
There is the need to ensure proper safety so that parents as well as children will feel secure when
in school. We need to re-emphasize that learning environment and centers are created to reflect
the school’s philosophy and curriculum. How safe and secure the environment speaks to anyone
who enters the school. Authorities need to maintain healthy environment and danger.

6.4.3 Progress test

Examine any four guidelines that the school needs to know to maintain safety.

Thank you for being part of this course. Wish you luck in your exams
and teaching.

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REFERENCES
Afful-Broni, A. and Ziggah, R.S. (2006). Introduction to curriculum development in Ghana.
Accra: Yamens Press Limited

Blakemore, C. (2001). What makes a developmentally appropriate early childhood

curriculum? RSA. Lecture

Morrisoin, G. S. (2001). Early Childhood education Today (8th edition). New York: Prentice
Hall.

Norton, D. E. (1997). The Effective Teaching of Language Arts. New York: Prentice Hall

Posner, G.J. and Rudnistyi, A.N. (2001). Course design. A guide to curriculum development
for teacher (6th edition). London: Longman

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