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BOOK No 11
Innovative
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Product &
Substation System
Business Business

Power Systems
for Industry

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations

LEC Support Programme

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Power Systems
for Industry
Welcome to the handbook "Power Sys-
tems for Industry". It is an extract from the
ABB Industrial Manual, published by the
Automation Segment in Sweden. This
extract includes the Industrial Power Sys-
tems part.
The reprint has been made by courtesy
of the A - segment in Sweden in order to
increase the mutual understanding be-
tween the two segments.
We hope you will find the booklet useful
in your work.
The authors welcome any idea you may
have to improve the quality of this booklet
as well as the other ones.

Best of luck!

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations LEC Support Programme
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach

INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEMS

Contents
page
1 Industrial Power System (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach 1
2 Low Voltage Distribution 12
3 Medium Voltage Distribution 57
4 Transformers 68
5 High Voltage Switchgear 77
6 Fault Control 90
7 Industrial Power System Control 104
8 Industrial Cogeneration of Power and Heat 114
9 Standby and Uninterrubted Power Supply (UPS) 126
10 Prefabricated and Mobile Substations 139
11 Bibliography 147

INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM (IPS)

DESIGN - AN OVERALL APPROACH

Contents
page
1 General 1
2 Safety 3

General
The electrical power system of an industrial
plant represents only 5-10 % of the total capital
investment. This is perhaps the main reason
why it is sometimes difficult for the IPS electri-
cal design engineer to convince project man-
agement that an economical and reliable power
system requires a great deal of careful analysis
and planning, perhaps more than for some of
the more expensive parts of the project. The
manufacturing process is always of primary
concern to project management, and electrical
supply being ”only” a support function - be-
comes a “necessary evil”. However, it is the
responsibility of the IPS designer to communi-
cate the fact that the manufacturing function or
process will not be more reliable than the elec-
trical system supplying power to it.
The conceptual design phase is often the
most crucial in the chain of events leading to a
new, expanded, or modernised electrical power
system, as well as of a co-generation project.
Conceptual design studies produce the criteria

5.1 1 97-03-05, 13.14

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach

for the best single line architecture, the best
voltage levels, the most efficient system earth-
ing and optimal fault protection consistent with
long-range safety, reliability, flexibility,
maintainability and lowest lifetime costs.
The achievement of a sound IPS design helps
assure a “first-time quality” system, while avoid-
ing the agony of failure that costly corrections
of unforeseen flaws might otherwise require.
There are no international industry stand-
ards, guidelines, or customer specifications for
IPS conceptual design studies. There are - with
few exceptions - no college courses or engi-
neering handbooks to help guide interested
engineers in such assignments.
Fig. 1 suggests a procedure for IPS design
execution. In the absence of applicable litera-
ture, course curriculum or training courses, this
procedure is offered as a basic framework for
conducting and evaluating or assisting in audits
of IPS design.

Plant Layout Safety

Initial conditions Power company supply Simplicity
Production Capacity Maintainabily
Flexibility
Reliability
Economy
LOAD AND SUPPLY
PLANNING

SELECTING SELECTING SHORT CIRCUIT

VOLTAGES SYSTEM NETWORK AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

CALCULATE VOLTAGE
VARIATIONS

SELECT SYSTEM
EARTHING

SELECT SURGE
PROTECTION

RELAY PROTECTION
AND SELECTIVITY

POWER FACTOR Fig 1 Conceptual Design

CORRECTION of an Industrial Power
Specification and procurement System

5.1 2 97-03-05, 13.14

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
This guideline demonstrates how the various
parts of the design process are intimately inter-
connected. This procedure does not deal with
the selection of hardware itself, but rather with
those qualities a system should have, and those
planning activities that lead to the successful
specification of hardware and subsequent pro-
curement.
It should be noted that the approach de-
scribed and the categories chosen in the follow-
ing represent just one of many possible ways of
representing a complex undertaking.
IPS design mastery cannot be gained simply
from a lifetime of working in an engineering
office where project engineering production is
the primary criterion of performance. Only
long-term, hands-on experience under proper
guidance, in addition to selected graduate
courses can bring about the development of a
seasoned conceptual system designer.
Safety
From the designer’s point of view safety con-
sists of two main areas:
1) Safety codes and regulations, (such as
ISO 9000 Quality Standards)
In most countries power systems are required
by law to follow applicable safety codes or
wiring regulations. This guarantees some de-
gree of safety through the quality of the equip-
ment and workmanship thus stipulated. Also,
the International Electrotechnical Commission
and national bodies provide recommendations
that further ensure that the power system will
conform with a certain class of safety. (It should
be remembered that Quality Assurance can be
no better than the specifications used in the
project.)
However, the final test of safety to person-
nel, plant and environment will come after the
system is commissioned and when electricians
and operating staff take over the daily running
of the system. Simple, readable operating in-
structions are needed, together with a thorough
knowledge of how all the equipment will be-
have, both under normal and abnormal condi-
tions. There is no place for guesswork and inde-
cision in emergency situations where the health
and lives of personnel can be endangered. This
is when the designer’s ability to envisage the
operational phases will truly show up.
5.1 3 97-03-05, 13.14
2) Risk analysis, ergonomics and subjective
feeling of risk.
So far, risk analysis has had its application
mostly in larger systems of more complex na-
ture (e.g. nuclear power stations or large power
systems).
Risk analysis has much in common with
reliability analysis and is based on statistical
data concerning various types of equipment
failure and accidents. Such data is still not
easily available, especially because health risks
in electrical plant are low compared to other
industrial hazards, and since there has been
little urgency expressed regarding the need to
collect such data on an international basis.
It may, therefore, still take some time before
risk analysis of industrial electrical systems
and equipment will be commonplace, and be-
fore ergonomics (man-machine theory) will be
generally applied to improve electrical opera-
tor safety. One area that is often overlooked in
personnel safety is that there may be little
correlation between the statistical probability
of a certain type of injury and the subjective or
psychological risk experienced by the opera-
tors (for example the fear of health hazards
from electromagnetic non-ionising fields). This
may admittedly lead manufacturers to improve
aspects of their equipment, but they would be
measures that only marginally improve ”real
world” safety.
Simplicity
A simple single-line diagram and a plot of the
physical and mechanical layout of equipment
will assist operational safety because the risk of
making mistakes during commissioning, op-
eration and maintenance is reduced when things
are easy to find and overview both in docu-
ments and in the form of hardware. It is there-
fore important to make electrical systems and
plant as simple as possible.
This requirement is somewhat in contrast to
needs for reserve capacity and redundant feed-
ers, which tend to make networks more com-
plex. A balance has to be reached which re-
quires the IPS designer to have a full under-
standing of what actually goes on in an electri-
cal operation and maintenance department.
Expandability - Flexibility
For future growth of the power system to be
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
included in planning, it is necessary to know
something about possible future expansion and
increased production capacity. Where such plans
do not exist, it will be helpful to clarify how
much expandability the system has and where
the bottlenecks to growth may lie, and to inform
the project team about it.
Maintainability
In order to make a power system and its equip-
ment easy to maintain, it is important that the
maintenance programme be kept in mind al-
ready at the planning stage.
If continuous round-the clock operation of
all or parts of the process is required, the net-
work must have reserve feeders or separate
supply to these components. Otherwise, provi-
sions for maintenance of live equipment must
be made. In order to answer these questions, it
will be helpful to clarify when and for how long
the process equipment itself will require main-
tenance downtime.
The importance of a rigorous maintenance
programme and a meticulous spare parts policy
in order to maintain high continuity of opera-
tion is well known. Various reliability surveys
conducted for industrial plants provide plenty
of evidence for this. Inadequate or improper
electrical maintenance is a significant factor in
all in-plant outages. And yet the owner will be
prepared to have work going on round the clock
to remedy the failure once it occurs. The para-
dox is obvious and well known, and demon-
strates the need to draw attention to preventive
maintenance as a major factor in power supply
reliability.
Reliability - Availability
The technique of reliability analysis is well
known and widely used for large power sys-
tems and might be considered a well estab-
lished analytical tool.
However, until recently, reliability analysis
has not been applied widely to IPS planning for
the simple reason that statistical failure data for
medium and low voltage components have not
been readily available.
With the advent of the IEEE “Report on
Reliability for Industrial Plants,” such statistics
have become available on American equip-
ment used under American conditions, but for
international applications elsewhere there is
5.1 4 97-03-05, 13.15
still much to be done. Some large international
industrial users have collected their own statis-
tical failure data, but this is generally not avail-
able to outsiders.
Total economy
It is well known that good economics for an IPS
is not only a question of the lowest purchase
price of equipment. Total life-cycle cost of a
power system depends on equipment purchase
price and quality, construction and installation
costs, operating costs including losses, outage
costs, repair costs, useful lifetime of the equip-
ment and administrative costs. A particular
manufacturer’s likelihood of surviving into the
future and being able to supply spare parts is
also an important consideration in the procure-
ment evaluation. This holistic economic view
has been termed “terotechnology”, but is not
always applied where IPS planning and design
takes place.
Planning activities
Even if engineering judgement is also required
in what follows, precise calculation and analy-
sis are more of a priority than in the previous
”qualities” discussed.
Fig. 1 describes how the conceptual design
work may proceed. At an early stage all four
of the first activities are normally carried out
simultaneously. This is a highly iterative proc-
ess for a new project, where equipment layout,
production capacity and the power company
supply points represent initial conditions.
Fig. 1 is by no means a strict guideline, but
rather a reminder of how the activities are
dependent on each other. Therefore, the feed-
back loops and the number of adjustments that
have to be made to the IPS design will vary
from one project to another. The work will also
depend on how much and how often the initial
conditions are changed (which in some projects
constitute continual ”harassment” of the elec-
trical discipline).
The diagram in Fig. 1 illustrates the necessity
for a central IPS engineering body to be in
charge of the overall view and make sure that
nothing is forgotten. The diagram represents an
ideal situation where all considerations and
analyses have been attended to before the elec-
trical equipment is finally specified and pur-
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
chased. In reality, the specifications and equip-
ment data sheets, and the purchase of hardware,
have sometimes been completed while some
system analysis is still going on. This may not
always work out well, and there is a great risk
that costly changes may come, or that some
important requirements will have to be ne-
glected as a consequence.
Load and supply planning
Some of the fundamental questions which de-
termine network architecture and layout con-
cerning the planned production capacity are:
• How many kW / kVA are required?
• Where are the major load points located on
•
the plot plan?
What types of load (motors, furnaces, etc.)?
• How much power is required at stage 1, 2, 3,
etc., of the process?
The answers to these questions cannot be abso-
lute at an early stage, but assumptions for
different alternatives must be made to prepare
for the power company negotiations.
Whether to consider in-plant or co-generation
will depend on:
• What tariff will the power company use?
• What outage frequency and power quality
can the power company provide at the point
of supply?
• What will be the cost of process shutdown?
• Must part of the process keep running during
power company outage?
• Will primary energy be available at low cost
(e.g. process steam or gas)?
• What plans does the power company have
for future expansion, with additional lines
into the area that could improve availability?
Discussions with the power company will
also concern the following:
• Present and future supply voltage and short-
circuit levels. These will determine what
voltage disturbances and harmonics there
will be due to the starting of motors, arc
furnaces, variable speed drives, etc., both
within the plant itself and from feedback into
the supply power system. This will also
determine if and how much of the plant will
have to be shut down to allow for motor
restart/re-acceleration after return of supply
voltage following short outages.
5.1 5 97-03-05, 13.15
• All relay and overcurrent protection should
function for both maximum and minimum
available short-circuit current. During the
relay co-ordination study it usually becomes
apparent that available short-circuit current
from small in-plant generators is very lim-
ited. This should be kept in mind when se-
lecting both generator and relay protection,
which preferably should operate in a selec-
tive manner even in emergency conditions.
Choice of system network - single-line diagram
One of the main criteria, as mentioned under
“Simplicity”, is: Do not make the network
more complex than necessary!
• The simpler the single-line diagram is, the
easier it is for the operator to avoid mistakes
during switching operations. The more com-
plex the system is, the larger will be the
requirement for interlocking and automatic
control with corresponding investment cost.
Also, from a service point of view, a simple
radial system will provide less risk of ”back”
voltage and therefore is safer to maintain.
”Simple” usually also means lower initial
cost.
• A well planned maintenance programme
and a scrupulous spare parts policy will have
so much influence on reliability that it may
outweigh a very simple network diagram
with restricted redundancy. See also
“Maintainability”.
• The simpler the network, the easier it will be
to visualise and carry out quick and accurate
system estimates for load flow, short circuit
and voltage dips on motor starting by hand
rather than by computer. The priority of
certain loads will, of necessity, require
standby supply. The more alternative ways
of supplying each load or load centre, the
more complex the network will become.
Some questions which should be asked about
the system network are these:
• What might future expansion look like and
how will it affect the network?
• What kind of system network would the
plant operation engineers prefer?
• How much overload can be expected at each
load centre? (Transformer fan cooling is a
cheap short-time reserve, but there are high
losses).
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
With these questions in mind, the selection of
the network may proceed along the following
lines:
In order to simplify the discussion it is neces-
sary to use a block diagram representation for a
collection of hardware which can naturally be
lumped together, such as shown in Fig. 2. Each
small section of single-line diagram is repre-
sented by a box as shown. Figs. 3 and 4 then
illustrate the two types of systems discussed,
the radial and the loop system.
Fig. 2 Functional blocks and description of
IPS components
The terms used are as follows:
Main or primary substation
Depending on the size of the loads, there may
be one or several main substations. As in Fig. 2,
this usually consists of three separate functions
in the single-line diagram: Incoming switchgear,
5.1 6 97-03-05, 13.15
main transformer and main distribution
switchgear.
Receiving or incoming switchgear
In the 66-145 kV range this switchgear is usu-
ally in the form of an outdoor switchyard. If
space is limited or pollution is a problem, GIS
SF6 metal-enclosed gear is used. Normally one
or two incoming lines from the power company
will supply the industry. The example in Fig. 2
with a single busbar for this function is only one
of many possible arrangements, but more than
one busbar is seldom chosen since the overall
reliability does not improve much with more
complex arrangements. (This is normally dif-
ferent for larger power company substations)
Main transformer
The size may vary according to load levels, but
maximum sizes of 40-50 MVA seem usual for
this type of substation. The size will primarily
be determined by the available short-circuit
level on the low voltage side, as well as the
limitations and cost of the distribution
switchgear and associated protection. Trans-
former capacity is usually duplicated to give
back-up reserve in case of failure. Through
extra fan cooling one transformer may be able
to handle all or part of the substation load
during a period of limited supply or mainte-
nance work.
Main distribution switchgear
The voltage of this kind of switchgear may be
6-36 kV. The hardware is usually of indoor type
in a separate building or in an operating room
which is part of the plant building. Large indus-
tries have one or two switchgear assemblies per
substation, and they may or may not be in the
same physical location. Double bus switchgear
of the duplex type may also be used for this
important function, where one of the buses
carry all high priority loads.
Secondary or sub-distribution switchgear
These switchgear assemblies are usually simi-
lar to the main distribution switchgear and carry
the same voltage. Single bus is mostly used,
with the addition of sectionalising in order to
segregate high priority loads. The secondary
distribution switchgear may wholly or partially
be a high voltage motor control centre.
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach

Radially fed secondary substation

This type of substation consists of 0.5-2.5 MVA,
dry or oil-insulated transformers with low volt-
age switchgear. Using dry transformers, the
substation may be located inside the manufac-
turing process building on the shop floor. Due
to fire regulations, oil-filled transformers are
placed in concrete “boxes”, normally outdoors.
As the substation is radially fed, it may not have
any high voltage equipment at all. In some
cases two transformers provide back-up for
each other with sectionalised low voltage
switchgear where high priority loads are con-
nected to one of the sections. Automatic change-
over may provide continuous operation with a
short break if one of the incoming feeders or
one transformer experiences a failure.

Loop-fed secondary substations

Differing from radial substations, these have
high-voltage switchgear consisting of load break
switches with current-limiting fuses or circuit
breakers for transformer protection. The sub-
station may have 1-4 transformers, usually with
segregated low voltage switchgear for each
transformer. The high voltage switchgear is Fig. 3 Radial distribution
sometimes called a “ring main unit” in coun-
tries with British electrical influence.

Fig. 4 Loop distribution

5.1 7 97-03-05, 13.15

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach

Fig. 3 illustrates the radial system. The diagram Reduced or vital operation may be maintained
does not show the electrical paths, only the with standby generation or from a separate
functional blocks and their position. The sys- power company supply. When part of the power
tem is the simplest type possible and allows for company supply fails, a preset load-shedding
great flexibility and expandability. The radially procedure may automatically leave only high
fed secondary substations may be located close priority loads connected. For emergency op-
to the load centres, thereby saving losses and eration only such equipment as is necessary for
keeping the expensive low voltage network to personnel safety and preventing catastrophic
a minimum. failure of the process equipment is maintained.
The primary substation may be the same for
the loop system in Fig. 4 as for the radial
system. The loop system concerns only the
feeding of the secondary substations from the
secondary distribution switchgear. The rings or
loops are normally open in the middle so that in
case of failure only one half of the loop will
experience outage until the faulted section is
isolated and supply can continue.
The radial and loop systems are often mixed
to utilise the combined advantages of both.
The network layout will be influenced strongly
by requirements to maintain limited power sup-
ply in case of power company supply failure.
The operation of the plant may be divided into
three categories.
1. Normal operation
2. Reduced or vital operation
3. Emergency operation Fig. 6 System with three levels of local genera-
tion

Single-line diagrams for “typical” industries

are represented by the examples in Figs. 5 and
6. Fig. 5 shows a typical simple system without
any stringent requirement for redundancy or
reduced operation. In case of power company
failure on both incoming lines, the whole plant
is down. This may be acceptable if the process
does not require gradual shutdown. The system
in Fig. 5 is purely radial, except from the
reserve feeders between adjacent secondary
distribution switchgear assemblies. A some-
what more advanced system in Fig. 6 has two
stages of local generation, first a larger co-
generator for reduced operation, and secondly
two small emergency generators.

Fig. 5 System without internal generation
Choice of voltage(s)
The size of the industrial process, i.e., the
power requirement, will determine whether one
or several voltage levels are necessary. A small
industry may well manage with only low volt-

5.1 8 97-03-05, 13.16

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
age, while a larger one could require 3 - 4
voltage levels. The choice of network and
voltages are so closely linked that for all prac-
tical purposes they can be regarded as a single
integrated procedure.
Depending on the country and the standards
it is influenced by, there are a great variety of
voltages available which, when selected, may
determine and limit the number of manufactur-
ers that can submit competitive offers for the
equipment. Selection of voltages is, therefore,
the most vital consideration for the designer in
preselecting the supplier(s) of hardware.
Therefore, in selecting voltage levels, it
should be recognised that limitations to inter-
national trade may be imposed on a project.
The following main voltage areas may be
identified:
• Low voltage 400-1000 V
There may be one or two voltage levels
below 1000 V. Usually, lighting and general
purpose loads such as heating and air condi-
tioning will have a separate voltage, usually
a 400/230 V system where both single-phase
and three-phase loads are connected. If there
is a large number of motors above 50 kW,
they may require a somewhat higher voltage
level of 500, 600 or 690 V. Almost without
exception, low voltage systems are radially
fed from the secondary substations discussed
before. It is important to recognise that no
manufacturing distinction is made in IEC
between low voltage switchgear and motor
controlgear as is done in ANSI standards.
• Special motor voltage 3-11 kV
The decision as to which voltage is right for
large motors and generators depends both on
the cost of the motor itself, cable and bus
duct, as well as the cost of the starting
method and switchgear involved. For cer-
tain smaller motors the starter may cost more
than the motor itself.
For very large motors, it is worth while
looking at the motor-transformer unit prin-
ciple, i.e., a separate transformer for each
motor that will give a smooth start with
minimum disturbance along with lower cost
for the motor-starter-transformer combina-
tion. If the plant distribution voltage is dif-
ferent from the motor voltage, this may well
be a preferred solution.
5.1 9 97-03-05, 13.16
• Distribution voltage 6-36 kV
The distribution voltage will depend on the
total power demand by the plant, as well as
on the short-circuit level required to handle
disturbances and harmonics.
Short-circuit study - stability analysis
The calculation of available short-circuit cur-
rents in the network is the basis for selection of
switchgear, cables, relays and protection co-
ordination study. Further, the short-circuit level
at each point in the network will determine
voltage variations during starting of motors,
welding machines, furnaces, or other intermit-
tent loads. The stronger the system is, the less
disturbances there will be. What the optimum
short-circuit level will be is thus an economic-
technical judgement limited by available appa-
ratus and acceptable voltage variations.
Some reminders:
• Quick and simple hand calculations may be
carried out using only power company sys-
tem, large generator and transformer reac-
tance, ignoring all other impedances. This
will give a good first estimate of the short-
circuit level, and motor and small generator
contribution may be added as the system
layout takes shape. A number of good PC-
operated computer programs are available
to-day for modelling the system, and for
gradually adding new information as design
progesses.
• Transformer reactance (size of the trans-
former) and current-limiting reactors, to-
gether with sectionalising, are the main tools
in manipulating the short-circuit level.
• Be aware that IEC 909 does not represent the
full international story regarding short-cir-
cuit calculations. Unfortunately, IEC 363
also stipulates rules for calculation in marine
systems. The IEC technical committees have
not been able to agree on one common set of
rules for both land and sea. Also be aware
that ANSI standards are different from those
of IEC since the method of rating circuit
breakers is different.
The smallest available short-circuit level may
be critical for protective relaying and selectiv-
ity to function during periods of reduced opera-
tion, e.g., during emergency or standby opera-
tion with only local generation source connected.
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
When a short circuit occurs in the power sys-
tem, voltage drops will occur throughout the
system. Similarly, during short power com-
pany outages (auto-reclosing) the power sys-
tem can experience a period of severe distur-
bance.
When the short circuit is removed and volt-
age is restored, synchronous machines may
have fallen out of step, or induction motors may
have lost speed to such an extent that there is not
enough strength to re-accelerate all of them
simultaneously. A transient stability study will
give the answers to what happens during such
disturbances. This is achieved through the use
of a computer program, and the outcome shows
what measures will have to be adopted in terms
of protective relaying, load shedding, restart
sequence, etc. A type of automatic load shed-
ding that is often forgotten is inherent in the
large number of voltage-held contactors present
in nearly every industrial plant. Contactors
drop out at approximately 65% of rated voltage
if no steps are taken to delay the drop-out.
Calculations of Voltage Variations - Load
Flow Study
Where a power system is relatively complex,
with a number of alternate feeding paths for
each load centre, a load flow study by computer
will be necessary. Sometimes this study is a
prerequisite for the short-circuit study. It pro-
vides data for the sizing of cables and bus, and
determines the resulting voltage drop due to
steady-state loads with high power factor. When
a simple radial system is used, load-flow calcu-
lations may easily be carried out by hand,
although a PC may be helpful in cutting down
the work. Apart from the above steady-state
conditions, there are some loads which at times
will require high reactive currents. The most
common type is the starting of motors. With the
aid of the reactance diagram arrived at during
the short-circuit study, very fast and simple
offhand estimates of the voltage drops due to
starting may be carried out assuming a com-
pletely reactive circuit at the instant of start. For
more comprehensive answers giving the sys-
tem performance during the entire run-up pe-
riod, a dynamic study is required.
If the network requires reinforcement, or if
reduction of starting current is achieved by
some reduced voltage starting method, the
10
5.1 10
economy of each alternative will decide which
one to select. At the same time, the available
starting torque of the motor should be checked
against the load torque to allow the motor to
accelerate to full speed before becoming over-
heated. The relay protection requirements of
the motor are thus considered at this time to
allow for a co-ordinated and integrated drive
package.
Loads with fast-varying power demand, such
as welding equipment and arc furnaces are
often placed separately in the network (on sepa-
rate transformers) to allow for minimum distur-
bances. Static converters create more complex
problems as they require both varying reactive
current at the power frequency and, in addition,
create harmonic frequencies. Combinations of
filters and switched capacitors are used to im-
prove the voltage quality.
Choice of system earthing
The main purposes of connecting the system´s
neutral point directly to earth or through some
impedance is to:
a) produce a current or voltage during an earth
fault with a magnitude sufficient for selective
tripping or alarm signal
b) limit the earth fault current to keep personnel
hazard and material damage to a minimum
c) limit overvoltages that may occur during
earth faults on a completely unearthed system
The selection of system earthing is, therefore,
closely linked to the choice of protective relay-
ing and voltage surge protection. Without go-
ing into the merits of the various methods of
system earthing, the following points should be
kept in mind:
• Ifable,transformer neutral points are not avail-
there will be an extra cost for special
earthing transformers to establish artificial
neutral points.
• Generators often have special earthing re-
quirements which may deviate from the rest
of the system. Low voltage systems up to
400 V are mostly solidly earthed, while 690
V systems more frequently are unearthed,
or, high-resistance-earthed to allow for de-
layed disconnection of the faulty circuit un-
til such time in the plant process as is con-
venient to repair it. Internationally, high
impedance or Petersen coil (resonant) earth-
97-03-05, 13.16
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Industrial Power system (IPS) Design - an Overall Approach
ing is common in medium and high voltage
(3-100 kV) systems, although each country
has developed some degree of individual
practice.
• The power company will be responsible for
system earthing on the supply voltage side.
Voltage surge protection
The most common harmful overvoltages in an
industrial power system stem from:
• Lightning surges on power company lines or
overhead lines within the plant itself.
• Switching overvoltages.
• Intermittent or arcing earth faults in un-
earthed systems.
Those components specifically vulnerable to
overvoltages are the low BIL and high-invest-
ment parts; primarily motors. For the first two
types of overvoltages the use of surge capaci-
tors at the terminals of each large motor should
be considered to protect the turn-turn insulation
against surges with steep front, and lightning
arresters to protect the total winding insulation
against the amplitude of the surge voltage.
Which of these methods or what combination
of them should be used will depend on the size
of the motor, its voltage rating and the degree to
which the network is exposed to lightning and
switching voltages. Dry type transformers also
have a low BIL and may need lightning arrest-
ers. Arcing or sputtering earth faults in un-
earthed systems may build up harmful
overvoltages in the system´s equivalent capaci-
tance. This may be avoided by earthing the
system through a relatively high resistance.
Protective relaying and co-ordination
study
The sophistication and complexity of relay and
fault protection equipment necessary for each
part of the power system will depend on the
investment in the object protected, and the
degree of availability and personnel safety of-
fered by the protection. The aim is to discon-
nect selectively the faulty part of the system as
fast as possible to minimise damage. The choice
of overcurrent relays, fuses, direct-acting trip
devices, overload relays, differential relays,
overvoltage and undervoltage relays, frequency
11
5.1 11
relays, earth fault relays, etc., is an elaborate
procedure closely related to the choice of sys-
tem network, system earthing and short-circuit
and stability analysis. This is covered in rather
more detail in the section ”Fault control”.
Instrument transformers and their ratios and
burdens must also be considered, as well as the
setting ranges of the relays. It will be necessary
to carry out a protective co-ordination study for
all series-connected overcurrent devices. With
the inverse characteristics of fuses, overcurrent
and overload relays, direct acting trips, etc., it
will only be possible to demonstrate on time-
current log-log paper the degree of selectivity
obtained. On the same graph, such data as
maximum and minimum short-circuit level,
starting currents of motors (including starting
time) and l2t curves for cable and transformer
withstand ability may be plotted for a total view
of the protective function. Co-ordination with
the power company´s protective relaying will
be directed by agreement as to how the two
power systems should interact with each other
during heavy disturbances.
Power factor correction
What power factor is considered acceptable
will depend on two cost assessments:
First, to what extent does the power company
tariff penalise the use of reactive power?
Secondly, how much can be saved in cable
sizes, transformer capacity and loss reduction
through the installation of capacitor banks?
The optimum location of the capacitors in the
system network will have to be calculated too.
The closer to the load the capacitor is located,
the more effective the compensation will be,
but there is also a higher cost per compensated
kvar. Do not forget to include the price for
switching equipment, if applicable.
In choosing between large synchronous and
induction motors, it should be remembered that
synchronous motors may be over-compensated
to improve a poor plant power factor. Induction
motors have no such facility. Fast varying var
requirements may require more sophisticated
compensation, such as thyristor-switched ca-
pacitors or synchronous condensers. The prob-
lem here is the voltage disturbances caused by
the varying load, rather than the price of kvar
used. This is covered in rather more detail in
Chapter 6 ”Reactive power compensation”.
97-03-05, 13.16
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR AND
CONTROLGEAR ASSEMBLIES
LV ASSEMBLIES
Contents
1 General
2 Requirements
3 Sizing faktor
4 Plant design
5 Apparatus and combination of apparatus
6 Selection of short-circuit protective device (SCPD)
7 Selection of overload protection
8 Microprocessor-baserad control technique for low-voltage distribution systems
9 Sizing of devices and cables
10 Project planning
11 Information to be provided on an LV ASSAMBLY
General
Introduction
In an industrial low-voltage distribution sys-
tem the loads consist of motors and electrical
devices in some producing processes, see sin-
gle-line diagram Fig. 2, p. ? below and the
section Sizing factors, p. ?.
Larger industries have their own receiving
substations, from where medium-voltage (6-36
kV) power is distributed.
Each sector has an incoming medium-volt-
age switchgear and controlgear assembly with
a circuit-breaker, see Medium-voltage distri-
bution in Chapter 5.4 on p. ?, which feeds a
transformer of up to 3.15 MVA, see Distribu-
tion transformers, p. ?.
The most common secondary voltages (low
voltages) are 400, 500 or 690 V.
See the section Voltage levels, p. ?.
12
5.2 12
page
12
17
25
27
32
43
48
50
51
51
53
The transformer is mostly placed near the low-
voltage switchgear and controlgear assem-
bly located in a locked operating room to which
only skilled persons have access. The abbrevia-
tion LV ASSEMBLY/IES is hereafter used for
a ”Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear
assemblies”.
The LV ASSEMBLY can be divided up into
main distribution and sub-distribution.
The main distribution LV ASSEMBLY is
then placed in a locked operating room and the
sub-distribution LV ASSEMBLY can be lo-
cated close to process objects. In many countries
it is common that not only the main distribution
LV ASSEMBLIES but also the sub-distribution
LV ASSEMBLIES are placed in operating
rooms. See the section Plant design, p. ?.
The main incoming unit in an LV ASSEM-
97-03-05, 13.17
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Fig 20, Typical LV-ASSEMBLY
BLY is normally a circuit breaker cubicle. The
circuit breaker should be sized to trip at the
maximum short-circuit currents, and to
continously carry the total current load. The
circuit breaker is supplied with a short-circuit
protective device (SCPD) and overload protec-
tion, which break the circuit in the event of a
short circuit or an abnormally high load cur-
rent. Circuit breakers are described under the
section Circuit breakers, p. ?.
To achieve a very short breaking time if an
arc arises, it is recommended that the LV AS-
SEMBLY be supplied with arc monitors. The
co-ordinat system is described in the section
with the same name on p. ?.
The rated short-time withstand current of
an LV ASSEMBLY is normally in the range
between 20 kA and 100 kA. (Unless otherwise
13
5.2 13
stated by the manufacturer the time is 1 s.)
The rated current (load current) of an LV
ASSEMBLY is normally between 800 A and
6000 A.
The rated voltage of an LV ASSEMBLY does
not exceed 1000 V AC.
Main distribution - Load Center, LC
The breaker that is directly connected to the
secondary side of the transformer, feeds the
main busbar in the LV ASSEMBLY.
Outgoing units are connected to this busbar:
• for sub-distribution
• for resistive loads
• for motors and motor drives
• for other types of loads
See the section Sizing factors, p. ?.
97-03-05, 13.18
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

Sub-distribution: • Soft starters for heavy motor start

• LV ASSEMBLIES with outgoing units for
motor drives, Motor Control Center, MCC.
• Earthing switches for short circuit and earth-
ing of the busbars related to maintenance on
• LV ASSEMBLIES with outgoing units for
distribution.
disconnected part of the plant.
In the section Apparatus and combination of
• Multibox-type LV ASSEMBLIES with out-
going units for lighting panels, fan motors,
apparatus, p. ?, more information can be found
on the above devices.
ventilation equipment, heating equipment,
pump motors, etc. Power factor control
The loads in a process industry mainly consist
Examples of outgoing units: of motors, which work with magnetic fields
• Switch (mechanical) + fuses needing current. This current is reactive and is
• Circuit breakers (normally as incoming unit,
see above).
not transformed into energy, or useful work.To
compensate this, it is appropriate to connect an
• Moulded case circuit breakers, MCCBs automatically power factor control device to
• Disconnectors the LV ASSEMBLY. The equipment consists
• Fuse-switches, Switch-fuses of capacitors which are switched on and off by
• Distribution boards with D-type fuses or
with miniature circuit breakers, MCBs.
contactors, guided by an electronic reactive
power control unit that measures the power
• Motor starters (the most common outgoing
units in an MCC).
factor, cos j. Fig. 3 below shows the principle
applied.
• Current
motors
converters for speed adjusted DC Power factor control is described in more
detail in Chapter 6, Reactive power compensa-
• Frequency
AC motors.
converters for rev/min adjusted tion (power factor control) on pp.?-?.

Fig 21. Single-line diagram

14

5.2 14 97-03-05, 13.18

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Fig. 3 Principle of power factor control
Design and construction
The LV ASSEMBLY is designed in the form
of cubicles (floor-standing) containing mo-
dularised incoming and outgoing units. See
Fig. 1 above.
There is a separate compartment for wiring
(cables), for busbars and for functional units
(incoming and outgoing). See more about sepa-
ration in the section Protection against electric
shock, p. ?.
The cubicles are mostly manufactured from
steel sheet (1.5-2.5 mm gauge), treated or
painted.
The most common dimensions (including
cable compartment) are:
Width 600-1200 mm
Depth 300-800 mm
Height 1800-2300 mm.
Cable compartment
The cable compartment is generally separated
from the apparatus compartment (functional
units) and from the busbar compartment and
has its own door.
Busbars
The busbars are made of copper or copper-
coated aluminium and separated from func-
tional units and from the cable compartment by
barriers or partitions. See the section Protec-
tion against electric shock, p. ?.
15
5.2 15
The main busbars (primary system) are assem-
bled horizontally, and are connected in each
cubicle to vertically assembled busbars (sec-
ondary system).
Functional units (in most cases outgoing
units) are connected to the vertical busbars.
The primary busbar system has a rated current
in the range 800 A to 6000 A and the rated
current of the secondary busbar system is be-
tween 300 and 2000 A.
Besides the horizontal and vertical busbars -
the phase conductors (L1,L2,L3) - there is also
a neutral conductor (N), a protective conductor
(PE) or a combined neutral and protective con-
ductor (PEN).
The neutral conductor (N) is insulated, while
the protective conductor (PE) or the combined
neutral and protective conductor (PEN) is
mounted with good contact to the cubicle. See
the section Types of distribution system, p. ?.
Degree of protection, IP CODE (IEC 529)
The enclosure protects against:
• Unintentional contact with hazardous live
parts
• Ingress of water or moisture
• Ingress of solid foreign objects and dust
The classifying of the degrees of protection is
described in International Standard Publication
IEC 529. The degree of protection provided by
an enclosure is indicated by the IP Code (IP is
an abbreviation for International Protection).
In the code IP 21C, for instance, the first
numeral indicates the degree of protection
against solid foreign objects, the second nu-
meral the degree of protection against water
and the additional letter the degree of protec-
tion against access to hazardous parts. Fig. 4
below gives a brief description of the IP Code
elements.
The sections Enclosure and degree of pro-
tection, p. ?, and Environmental aspects, p. ?,
give more information on requirements for
protection.
Incoming and outgoing units
The incoming and outgoing units in an LV
ASSEMBLY are built as complete functional
units. They contain all the necessary apparatus,
components and connections. All this is assem-
bled in a modularised mechanical unit.
97-03-05, 13.19
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Fig. 4. Degree of protection (IP Code)
To provide a high degree of protection against
unintentional contact with hazardous live parts
in adjacent functional units, and protection
against the passage of solid foreign bodies from
one unit to an adjacent unit, each unit is built as
a separate, screened compartment with its own
door. See the section Protection against elec-
tric shock, p. ?.
The units can be designed as:
• Fixed parts
• Removable parts
• Withdrawable parts
Fixed parts
The fixed parts are fastened by bolts to the
secondary busbar system (the vertical busbars).
This means that the unit cannot be removed,
drawn out or installed in the LV ASSEMBLY
without the busbar system being disconnected.
16
5.2 16
Removable and withdrawable parts
Removable and withdrawable parts can be
safely removed or installed in the LV ASSEM-
BLY without the busbar system needing to be
disconnected. This allows removal or installa-
tion of an unit while other units in the LV
ASSEMBLY are live.
To make this possible, the removable and
withdrawable parts are connected by plugging
in to the secondary busbar system. The differ-
ence between removable and withdrawable parts
is that the withdrawable parts have plug-in
contacts on the cable connection side (outgoing
side) as well, and have fixed ”Connected”,
”Test” and ”Disconnected” positions. In the
”Test” position the main circuit is discon-
nected while the auxiliary circuit is live. In the
”Disconnected” position both the main circuit
and the auxiliary circuit are disconnected.
97-03-05, 13.19
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Multibox-type LV ASSEMBLIES
Multibox-type LV ASSEMBLIES are built with
separate boxes for incoming and outgoing units.
The boxes are designed for wall mounting.
The boxes are modularised and designed for
standard apparatus up to a rated current of 800
A. The degree of protection is usually IP 43 or
IP 65. See the section Degree of protection, p.
?. The boxes are generally made of treated or
painted sheet steel.
The busbars are made of copper or alu-
minium and are available for rated current up to
800 A. The busbars can be placed in a separate
row of boxes or built in to the same box as the
devices.
The apparatus is internally connected with
cables or with copper bars. Plug-in connection
of the apparatus is also available, a safe and
quick system that eliminates subsequent ad-
justment of bolts and simplifies assembly.
Boxes can also have covers of plastics. The
material should be polycarbonate, which has
good impact resistance, resistance to ageing
and is recyclable. The most usual degree of
protection for this type of box is IP 54 or IP 65.
Apparatus commonly found in boxes:
• Switch + fuses
• Switches
Blade fuses
• Moulded case circuit breakers, MCCBs
• Distribution boards with D-type fuses or
• with miniature circuit breakers, MCBs
Fig. 5 Multi-box type LV ASSEMBLY
17
5.2 17
Requirements
Introduction
Many electrical accidents take place when
working with live LV ASSEMBLIES. Most of
these accidents occur in plants with an operat-
ing voltage below 1000 V. A large proportion
are arc accidents (short-circuit phase to phase
or phase to earth), with operators suffering
serious burn wounds, and/or major material
destruction causing expensive shutdown. The
main reasons for arc accidents are:
• uninsulated tools
• changing of fuses
• voltage testing
• falling metal objects
• uninsulated wire ends
• overheating
The accidents thus often happen when an elec-
trician is working with a live LV ASSEMBLY.
The requirements of an LV ASSEMBLY is that
it should be properly designed and well main-
tained, so that risks of overheating, short cir-
cuits and arcing inside an LV ASSEMBLY are
eliminated as far as possible.
The requirements are documented in several
international standards. See Bibliography:
Applicable IEC standards, p. ?. See also the
section Standardisation in Chapter 14.1 , p. ?.
The main standard for low-voltage switchgear
and control gear assemblies, LV ASSEM-
BLIES, is the International Standard Publica-
tion IEC 439-1, ”Requirements for Type-
Tested and Partially Type-Tested Assem-
blies”
Service conditions
LV ASSEMBLIES are normally designed spe-
cifically for indoor installation, except for
multibox-type LV ASSEMBLIES, which can
also be installed outdoors.
Normal service conditions
The ambient air temperature does not exceed
+40oC and its average over a period of 24 h does
not exceed + 35oC.
The lower limit of the ambient air tempera-
ture is -5oC for indoor installations.
For outdoor installations the lower limit of
the ambient air temperature is -25oC in a tem-
perate climate and -50oC in an arctic climate.
97-03-05, 13.20
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
The air is clean and its relative humidity does
not exceed 50% at a maximum temperature
of +40oC for indoor installations. For outdoor
installations, the relative humidity may tempo-
rarily be as high as 100% at a maximum tem-
perature of +25oC.
The standard degree of pollution for indus-
trial applications is degree 3, which means:
Conductive pollution occurs, or dry, non-con-
ductive pollution occurs which becomes con-
ductive due to condensation.
The altitude of the site of installation does
not exceed 2000 m.
(More information is given in the section Clear-
ances, creepage distances and insulating dis-
tances, p. ?.)
Special service conditions
The user is to inform the manufacturer if excep-
tional service conditions exist.
See more about special service conditions in
the section Environmental aspects, p, ?.
Conditions during transport, storage and
erection.
Unless otherwise specified, the following tem-
perature range applies during transport and
storage: between -25oC and +55oC and, for
short periods not exceeding 24 h, up to +70oC.
Equipment subjected to these extreme tem-
peratures without being operated, provided that
it does not suffer irreversible damage, is then to
operate normally in the specified conditions.
Design and construction
Mechanical design
General
The LV ASSEMBLIES are to be constructed
only of materials capable of withstanding the
mechanical, electrical and thermal stresses, as
well as the effects of humidity, which are likely
to be encountered in normal service.
Clearances, creepage distances and
insulating distances
Determination of clearances distances, creep-
ing distances and insulating distances in LV
ASSEMBLIES is normally based on the Im-
pulse voltage rating.
The rated impulse withstand voltage is the
peak value of an impulse voltage of prescribed
18
5.2 18
form and polarity which the circuit of an LV
ASSEMBLY is capable of withstanding with-
out failure under specified conditions of test
and to which the values of clearances are re-
ferred.
Before sizing of minimum clearances and
creepage distances the following must be de-
termined:
a) Material group (7.1.2.3.5 in IEC 439-1)
b) Polution degree (6.1.2.3 in IEC 439-1)
(the standard polution degree is degree 3)
c) Rated impulse withstand voltage (table G.1
or G.2 in IEC 439-1)
d) Rated insulation voltage (4.1.2 in IEC
439-1)
e) Altitude (6.1.3 and table 13 in IEC 439-1)
f) Test voltages (table 13 in IEC 439-1)
g) Homogeneous (uniform) or non-homogene-
ous (non-uniform) field (2.9.15 and 16 in
IEC 439-1)
h) Rated operational voltage (4.1.1 in IEC
439-1)
j) Overvoltage category (table G.1 or G.2 in
IEC 439-1
k) AC r.m.s. star or delta (table G.1 or.2 in IEC
439-1, distribution system with or without a
neutral point)
After this determination, minimum clearances
and creepage distances can be sized according
to tables 14, 15 and 16 in IEC 439-1.
Example: a) = II; b) = 3; c) = 8 kV; d) = max.
690 V; e) = sea level; f) = 9.8 kVAC peak and
DC f) = 7 kV AC r.m.s.; g) = non-homogene-
ous; h) = max. 690 V; j) = III; k) = AC r.m.s. star
or delta, all live parts insulated from earth (no
neutral point).
Result: Minimum clearance = 8 mm and
Minimum creepage distance = 9 mm
Apparatuses forming part of the LV ASSEM-
BLY are to have distances complying with the
requirements of their relevant specifications
(IEC standard), and this is to be maintained
during normal sevice conditions.
When arranging apparatuses within the LV
ASSEMBLY, the specified creepage distances
and clearances or impulse withstand voltages
are to be complied with, taking into account the
relevant service conditions.
For bare live conductors and terminations
97-03-05, 13.20
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
(e.g. busbars, connections between apparatus,
cable lugs), the creepage distances and the
clearances or impulse withstand voltages are,
at the least, to comply with those specified for
the apparatus with which they are directly asso-
ciated.
The insulation of withdrawable parts is, at
the least, to comply with the requirements for
disconnectors (IEC 947-3).
Terminals for external conductors
The terminals are to be such that the exter-
nal conductors may be connected by a means
(screws, connectors, etc.) which ensures that
the necessary contact pressure corresponding
to the current rating and the short-circuit strength
of the apparatus and the circuit is maintained.
The available wiring space is to permit proper
connection of the external conductors of the
indicated material and, in the case of multicore
cables, spreading of the cores.
The conductors must not be subjected to
stresses which reduce their normal life.
Terminals for neutral conductors are to al-
low connection of copper conductors having a
current-carrying capacity:
– equal to half the current-carrying capacity
of the phase conductor, with a minimum of
10 mm2 if the size of the phase conductor
exceeds 10 mm2.
– equal to the full current-carrying capacity
of the phase conductor if the size of the latter
is less than or equal to 10 mm2.
Note: For certain applications in which the
current in the neutral conductor may reach high
values, for example large fluorescent installa-
tions, a neutral conductor having the same
current-carrying capacity as the phase conduc-
tors may be necessary.
Temperature rise limits (IEC 439-1)
Part of LV ASSEMBLIES
Built-in components
19
5.2 19
If connecting facilities for incoming and outgo-
ing neutral (N), protective (PE) and
combined neutral and protective (PEN) con-
ductors are provided, they are to be arranged in
the vicinity of the associated phase conductor
terminals.
Enclosure and degree of protection (IEC
529)
The classification system for the degree of
protection, the IP system, is described in the
section Degree of protection, p. ?.
The degree of protection of an enclosed LV
ASSEMBLY is to be at least IP 2X after instal-
lation.
In locations with high humidity and tem-
peratures varying within wide limits, and in
locations with heavy pollution of the air by
dust, smoke, corrosive or radioactive particles,
suitable arrangements (ventilation and/or inter-
nal heating, drain holes, etc,) must be made to
prevent harmful corrosion and condensation
within the ASSEMBLY. See more about spe-
cial service conditions in the section Environ-
mental aspects, p. ?.
Temperature rise
The temperature rise in an LV ASSEMBLY
must not be allowed to damage apparatus, com-
ponents, devices, wires, connections, termi-
nals, etc.
In service, normal live parts are not permit-
ted to have a temperature that causes overheat-
ing with the risk of internal arcing accidents.
External surfaces are not permitted to be so
hot that skin contact is made impossible.
The table below shows the highest tempera-
ture rise allowed for different parts of the LV
ASSEMBLY.
Temperature rise (oK over the
ambient temp.)
In accordance with the relevant
requirements for individual com-
ponents, if any, or , in accordance
with the manufacturer´s instruc-
tions, taking into consideration
the temperature inside the LV
ASSEMBLY
97-03-05, 13.20
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Terminals for external insulated conductors
Busbars and conductors, plug-in contacts
of removable or withdrawable parts
connected to busbars
Manual operating means:
– of metal
– of insulating material
Accessible external enclosures and
covers:
– metal surfaces
– insulating surfaces
Discrete arrangements of plug and socket-type
connection
Protection against electric shock
The LV ASSEMBLY is to be so designed and
manufactured that the risk of unintentional con-
tact -direct contact- with live parts - is elimi-
nated as far as possible and any exposed con-
ductive part is not, through a fault, to become a
dangerous live part -indirect contact.
Protecting against Direct contact created by
enclosures and barriers.
All external surfaces are to conform to a degree
of protection against direct contact of at least IP
2X or IP XXB.
All barriers and enclosures are to be firmly
secured in place. They are to have sufficient
stability and durability to resist the strains and
stresses likely to occur in normal service with-
out reducing clearances.
Removal, opening or withdrawal must ne-
cessitate the use of key or tool.
All live parts which can unintentionally be
touched after the door has been opened must be
20
5.2 20
70oK
Limited by:
1). mechanical strength of their
conducting material;
2.) possible effect on adjacent
equipment;
3.) permissible temperature limit
of the insulating materials in con-
tact with the conductor;
4.) the effect of the temperature of
the conductor on the apparatus
connected to it
5.) for plug-in contacts, the nature
and surface treatment of the con-
tact material
15oK
25oK
30oK
40oK
Determined by the limit for those
components of the related equip-
ment of which they form part
disconnected before the door can be opened
(for example by interlocking the door with a
disconnector).
The LV ASSEMBLY is to have internal
separation by barriers or partitions.
By dividing LV ASSEMBLIES by means of
partitions or barriers (metallic or non-metallic)
into separate compartments or barriered sub-
sections the following conditions can be at-
tained:
– protection against contact with live parts
belonging to adjacent functional units.
The degree of protection is to be at least IP
2X or IPXXB.
– limitation of the probability of initiating arc
faults
Note: The effects of an arc can be reduced by use of
means limiting the magnitude and duration of the short-
circuit current. See the section Arc guard system, p. ?
97-03-05, 13.21
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
– protection against the passage of solid for-
eign bodies from one unit of an LV ASSEM-
BLY to an adjacent unit. The degree of
protection is to be at least IP 2X.
The following are typical forms of separation
(IEC 439-1):
Form 1 No separation
Form 2 Separation of busbars from the func-
tional units.
Form 3a Separation of busbars from the func-
tional units and separation of all
functional units, but not of their
terminals, from one another. The
terminals for external conductors
need not be separated from the
busbars.
Form 3b Separation of busbars from the
functional units and separation of
all functional units from one another.
Separation of the terminals for ex-
ternal conductors from the functional
units, but not from each other.
Form 4 Separation of busbars from the func-
tional units and separation of all
functional units from one another,
including the terminals for external
conductors which are an integral part
of the functional unit.
Protection against Indirect contact by using
protective circuits
A protective circuit in an LV ASSEMBLY
consists of either a separate protective conduc-
tor or conductive structural parts or both. It
provides the following:
– protection against the consequences of faults
within the LV ASSEMBLY
– protection against the consequences of faults
in external circuits supplied through the LV
ASSEMBLY.
Constructional precautions are to be taken to
ensure electrical continuity between the ex-
posed conductive parts of the LV ASSEMBLY
and between these parts and the protective
circuits of the installation. Types of system
earthing are described in the section Types of
distribution system, p. ?.
The main requirements are:
1. It should not be possible to break the
protective circuit. For example, when a
part in the LV ASSEMBLY is removed.
21
5.2 21
2. The protective circuit may not include
switches.
3. Terminals for incoming protective con-
ductors are to be bare and normally be
designed for copper conductors.
4. A separate terminal of adequate size is
to be provided for the outgoing protec-
tive conductor(s) of each circuit.
5. If the protective conductor is an insu-
lated single-core cable it is to be green-
yellow (twin-coloured). See the section
Identification, p. ?.
The cross-section of protective conductors (PE)
in an LV ASSEMBLY is to be determined in
one of the following ways:
a) The cross-sectional area of the protective
conductor is to be not less than the appropriate
value shown below:
Cross-sectional area of the protective con-
ductor (IEC 439-1)
Cross-sectional area of Minimum cross-
phase conductors sectional area of
the corresponding
S protective conduc-
tor Sp
mm2 mm2
S</= 16 S
16<S</= 35 16
35<S</= 400 S/2
400<S</= 800 200
S> 800 S/4
b) The cross-sectional area of the protective
conductor is to be calculated with the aid of the
formula: Sp= √I2t / k
where:
-Sp is the cross-sectional area, in
square millimetres
-I is the value (r.m.s.) of AC fault
current for a fault of negligible im-
pedance which can flow through
the protective device, in amperes
-t is the operating time of the discon-
necting device
-k is the factor dependent on the ma-
terial of the protective conductor, the
insulation and other parts, and the
initial and final temperature
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Requirements related to accessibility in
service by authorised personnel
The LV ASSEMBLY must be designed in such
a way that its accessibility when the LV AS-
SEMBLY is in service and under voltage is as
high as possible, with very low likelihood of
accidents.
Accessibility is of three types:
1. Accessibility for inspection and similar
operations, e.g. replacement of fuse-links
2. Accessibility for maintenance, e.g. chang-
ing of contacts in a contactor
3. Accessibility for extension under voltage,
e.g. extension of the LV ASSEMBLY with
additional functional units
Short-circuit protection and short-circuit
withstand strength
LV ASSEMBLIES are to be so constructed as
to be capable of withstanding the thermal and
dynamic stresses resulting from short-circuit
currents up to rated values.
LV ASSEMBLIES are to be protected against
short-circuit currents by means of, for example,
circuit-breakers, fuses or combinations of both,
which may either be incorporated in the LV
ASSEMBLY or arranged outside it.
Short-circuit rating
The manufacturer is to state the short-circuit
strength in one or more of the following ways:
a) The rated short-time withstand current to-
gether with the associated time, if different
from 1 s and the rated peak withstand current.
Note: For times up to a maximum of 3 s the re-
lationship between the short-time withstand current
and the associated time is given by the for-mula:
I2t=constant, provided that the peak value does not
exceed the rated peak withstand current.
b) The rated conditional short-circuit current
c) The rated fused short-circuit current
For items b) and c) the manufacturer is to indi-
cate the characteristics (current rating, break-
ing capacity, cut-off current, I2t, etc.) of the
short-circuit protective devices necessary for
the protection of the LV ASSEMBLY.
Relationship between peak and r.m.s. values
of short-circuit current
The value of peak short-circuit current (peak
value of the first loop of the short-circuit cur-
22
5.2 22
rent including DC component) for determining
the electrodynamic stresses is to be obtained by
multiplying the r.m.s. value of the short-circuit
current by the factor n.
Standard values for the factor n and the
corresponding power factor are given in the
table below.
Peak withstand current factor n (IEC 439-1)
R.M.S. value of
short-circuit current P.F. n
I >/= 5 kA 0.7 1.5
5 kA < I </= 10 kA 0.5 1.7
10 kA < I </= 20 kA 0.3 2
20 kA < I </= 50 kA 0.25 2.1
50 kA < I 0.2 2.2
Arcing inside an LV ASSEMBLY, Internal
arcing tests
It is desirable that the highest possible degree
of protection for personnel should be provided
in case of a fault leading to arcing inside an
LV ASSEMBLY, although the prime objective
should be to avoid such arcs by suitable design
or to limit their duration.
The tripping time should be less than 0.1 s
(100 ms).
An incoming circuit breaker which has a
fast-working short-circuit protective device as
well as arc guards with detectors in each cubicle
is recommended. See the section Arc guard
system, p. ?.
It is recommended that internal arcing tests
be carried out in accordance with a relevant test
method.The purpose of internal arcing tests is
to verify that the enclosure of the LV ASSEM-
BLY provides the necessary protection for per-
sons in front of or in the vicinity of the LV
ASSEMBLY in the event of internal arcing.
The testing is intended to verify that the
enclosure withstands the pressure and the tem-
perature arising from internal arcing with short-
circuit current and thus provides the necessary
protection against injury by radiation from the
arc, glowing particles, ejected hot gases or
flying parts.
The requirements differ, depending on
whether accessibility to the vicinity of the LV
ASSEMBLY is restricted or not.
The recommended test method can also be used
to verify the performance of partitions.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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It should further be observed that the intended
protection against internal arcing faults is only
obtained if the doors of the LV ASSEMBLY
are properly closed and if the LV ASSEMBLY
has been installed according to the
manufacturer´s instructions.
The recommended arcing tests are not in-
tended to give any guidance on service avail-
ability after an arcing fault. Because of the
extensive material damage caused by free arcs
of short-circuit currents during normal tripping
times, it is not possible to put an LV ASSEM-
BLY back into service immediately after an
arcing fault.
Co-ordination
It is very important that the short-circuit pro-
tective devices in a plant (distribution system)
be co-ordinated. See the section Choice of
short-circuit protective device, SCPD, p. ?.
Where there are considerable demands of con-
tinuous service, the short-circuit protective de-
vices and their settings are co-ordinated so that
a short circuit is disconnected by a breaker or a
fuse without disturbing any other circuits, i.e.,
selectivity. See more about selectivity in the
section Selectivity plan, p. ?.
Unprotected conductor
Within a section in an LV ASSEMBLY, the
conductors (including distribution busbars)
between the main busbars and the supply side
of functional units, as well as components in-
cluded in these units, may be rated on the basis
of the reduced short-circuit stresses occurring
on the load side of the respective short-circuit
protective device within each unit, provided
that these conductors are arranged so that under
normal operating conditions, an internal short
circuit between phases and/or between phases
and earth is only a remote possibility. Such
conductors are preferably of solid, rigid manu-
facture. Insulated flexible conductors may be
used provided that they are securely fastened.
Switching devices and components instal-
led in LV ASSEMBLIES
Selection of switching devices and
components
Switching devices and components incorpo-
rated in LV ASSEMBLIES, as well as co-
ordination of switching devices and compo-
23
5.2 23
nents, for example co-ordination of motor start-
ers with short-circuit protective devices, are to
comply with the relevant IEC standards.
Installation
Switching devices and components are to be
installed in accordance with the instructions of
their manufacturer (position of use, clearances
to be observed for electric arcs or for the re-
moval of the arc chute, etc.)
The apparatus, functional units mounted on
the same support (mounting plate, mounting
frame) and the terminals for external conduc-
tors are to be so arranged as to be accessible for
mounting, wiring, maintenance and replace-
ment. In particular, it is recommended that the
terminals be situated at least 0.2 m above the
base of floor-mounted LV ASSEMBLIES and,
moreover, be so placed that the cables can be
easily connected to them.
In general, for floor-mounted LV ASSEM-
BLIES, indicating instruments which need to
be read by the operator should not be located
higher than 2 m above the base of the LV
ASSEMBLY.
Operating devices such as handles,
pushbuttons, etc., should be located at such a
height that they can easily be operated; this
means in general that their centreline should
not be higher than 2 m above the base of the LV
ASSEMBLY.
Actuators for emergency switching devices
should be accessible within a zone between 0.8
m and 1.6 m above servicing level.
The switching devices and components are
to be installed and wired in the LV ASSEM-
BLY in such a manner that its proper function-
ing is not impaired by interaction.
More specified requirements are stated in the
standard mentioned.
Fixed, removable and withdrawable parts
The three types of functional units are de-
scribed above in the section Incoming and
outgoing units, p. ?.
Markings
Inside the LV ASSEMBLY, it must be possible
to identify individual circuits and their protec-
tive devices (switching devices and compo-
nents).
Items of equipment in the LV ASSEMBLY
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
are to be designated, and the designations must
be identical with those in the wiring diagrams
which may be supplied together with the LV
ASSEMBLY, and are to be in accordance with
the International standard publication IEC 750.
Identification
Where appropriate, the identification of the
conductors of main and auxiliary circuits is to
be in accordance with international standard
publications IEC 445 and IEC 446. The protec-
tive conductor (PE) is to be readily distinguish-
able by shape, location, marking or colour. If
identification by colour is used, it must be green
and yellow (twin-coloured). When the protec-
tive conductor is an insulated single-core cable,
this colour identification is to be used, prefer-
ably throughout its whole length.
Any neutral (N) conductor in the main circuit
should be readily distinguishable by shape,
location, marking or colour. If identification by
colour is used, it is recommended that a light
blue colour be selected.
Any combined neutral and protective con-
ductor (PEN) is, like the PE conductor and the
N conductor, to be readily distinguishable by
shape, location, marking or colour. When the
PEN conductor is an insulated single-core ca-
ble it is recommended that a green and yellow
(twin-coloured) scheme be selected, preferably
throughout the whole length, with a light blue
marking at the connection points (the end
points).
The terminals for external protective con-
ductors (PE) are to be marked with the earth
sign as per international standard publication
IEC 445 This symbol is not required where the
external protective conductor is intended to be
connected to an internal protective conductor
which is clearly identified with the colours
green and yellow.
Electrical connections inside an LV ASS-
EMBLY: bars and insulated conductors
General
The connections of current-carrying parts are
not to suffer deterioration as a result of normal
temperature rise, ageing of the insulating mate-
rials or vibrations occurring in normal opera-
tion. In particular, the effects of thermal expan-
sion and of electrolytic action in the case of
dissimilar metals, and the reaction of the mate-
24
5.2 24
rials to the temperatures reached, are all to be
taken into consideration.
Connections between current-carrying parts
are to be established by means that ensure a
sufficient and durable contact pressure.
Electronic equipment supply circuits
and electronic equipment incorporated
in LV ASSEMBLIES
General
When electronic equipment is incorporated in
LV ASSEMBLIES it is important to take into
consideration the interference factor, or elec-
tromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
There are several sources of interference that
must be taken into account to ensure interfer-
ence-free operation. They come under the fol-
lowing headings:
•ThisConducted interference
group has a very wide frequency range and
can be subdivided into the following groups:
a) Low-frequency interference
b) Medium-frequency interference
c) High-frequency interference
In addition to conducted interference, electron-
ics can be affected by:
• Electrostatic discharges (ESD)
• Radio interference
• Low-frequency magnetic fields
• Input voltage variations
• Overvoltages
• Waveform
• Temporary
frequency
variations in voltage and
The requirements are stated in the standard
mentioned.
It is recommended that Chapter 13.9
Electronic and magnetic disturbances be read.
Test specifications (8 in IEC 439-1)
General
The tests to verify the characteristics of an LV
ASSEMBLY include :
• Type tests
• Routine tests
Type tests (8.2 in IEC 439-1)
Type tests are intended to verify compliance
with the requirements laid down for a given
type of LV ASSEMBLY.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Type tests will be carried out on a sample of
such an LV ASSEMBLY or on such parts of
LV ASSEMBLIES manufactured to the same
or similar design.
Type tests include:
a) verification of temperature-rise limits
b) verification of dielectric properties
c) verification of short-circuit withstand
strength
d) verification of the effectiveness of the
protective circuit
e) verification of clearances and creepage
distances
f) verification of mechanical operation
g) verification of the degree of protection
(IP Code)
These tests may be carried out in any order and/
or on different samples of the same type.
If modifications are made to the components
of the LV ASSEMBLY, new type tests have to
be carried out only insofar as such modifica-
tions are likely to adversely affect the results of
these tests.
The type tests are described in detail in the
above standard.
Routine tests (8.3 in IEC 439-1)
Routine tests are intended to detect faults in
materials and workmanship. They are carried
out on every new (delivered) LV ASSEMBLY
after its assembly or on each transport unit. A
further routine test at the place of installation is
not required.
LV ASSEMBLIES which are assembled
from standardised components outside the
works of the manufacturer of these compo-
nents, by the exclusive use of parts and acces-
sories specified by the manufacturer for this
purpose, are to be routine-tested by the firm
which has assembled the LV ASSEMBLY.
Routine tests include:
a) inspection of the LV ASSEMBLY including
wiring and, if necessary, an electricalope-
ration test
b) dielectric test
c) checking of protective measures and of
the electrical continuity of the protective
circuit
These tests may be carried out in any order.
25
5.2 25
Note: The performance of the routine tests at the
manufacturer´s works does not relieve the firm install-
ing the LV ASSEMBLY of the obligation of checking
it after transport and installation.
Summary
It is very important that there be a dialogue
between the manufacturer and the user so that
the LV ASSEMBLY meets the customer´s (the
user´s) expectations.
Sizing factors
Different types of loads
It is very important to clearly specify the type of
load when planning. Motor data alone is not
sufficient information to determine what motor
starter is needed. For correct sizing, more infor-
mation about the type of machine that the motor
will drive is necessary. The following points
are to be considered.
Motor load
The driven machine generates requirements for
starting method, starting time, starting current,
utilisation category (AC category), required
lifetime, etc. The starting current, for example,
can cause problems when a circuit breaker is
chosen as short-circuit protective device. Even
with theoretically correct sizing, problems can
occur, for example, when the motor is over-
sized, since the connection current is propor-
tional to the size of the motor.
See Chapter 4.4 Motor starting systems.
Distribution transformers
For optimum setting of the protection the start-
ing current must also be considered here. In
unfavourable conditions it can be over 30 x In,
which requires a time-lag on the short-circuit
protective device. Another important point is
the load of the transformer. The transformer
can temporarily cope with an overload. The
protective breaker does not need to be over-
sized to manage this, but the protection must
cover the transformer´s whole field of applica-
tion.
See Chapter 5.4 Transformers, Distribution
transformers, p. ?.
Furnaces
Large current peaks can occur, depending on
97-03-05, 13.22
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
the type of furnace. An arc furnace generates
complicated overtones.
Power electronics for rev/min-adjusted
drives (Current converter, frequency
converter, soft starter)
Generating of overtones is common in all appli-
cations with power electronics that can disturb
sensitive equipment. This imposes special re-
quirements on the earth fault equipment in a
non-direct-earthed circuit. More problems can
occur when a thyristor and a frequency con-
verter are in the same system.
This type of equipment is more frequently
seen in modern LV ASSEMBLIES and the
temperature rise becomes an important sizing
factor.
See Chapter 4 Electric drive systems, p. ?.
Lighting
Fluorescent tube fittings also generate over-
tones that can be disturbing in a system. These
also consume reactive power and might need
power factor correction. See the section Termi-
nals for external conductors (sizing of the neu-
tral (N) conductor) under Mechanical design
on p. ?.
Capacitor banks
Power factor correction and the need for filters
in distribution systems are described in Chapter
6 Reactive power compensation, p. ?.
Capacitor inputs and outputs require special
connection devices. In general, they must be
over-sized by 30 % and the possibility of re-
ignition during the breaking sequence must be
minimised. Re-ignition generates overvoltages
which can damage the capacitors and other
devices.
Environmental aspects
As mentioned above, LV ASSEMBLIES are
usually designed for indoor location in normal
service conditions. See the section Service con-
ditions, p. ?.
In some industrial environments, however,
there is a high level of corrosive gas, which can
have an adverse effect on the functions of the
components and devices. The most sensitive
parts are the contact surfaces, where it is impos-
sible to maintain a very high contact pressure
26
5.2 26
(gas-tight joints). Contacts in breakers, contac-
tors, switches, etc., plug-in contacts for main
circuits and auxiliary circuits and plug-in con-
tacts for electronics are examples of contact
surfaces that are not protected against corrosive
gases.
In hostile environments special measures
must be adopted to prevent corrosion and the
subsequent rise in resistance. The consequences
for main current paths (busbars, busbar connec-
tions, breaking contacts, fuses, plug-in contacts,
etc.) can be high temperature rise, flashover and
arcing, with damage to material, long periods
of downtime (loss of production) and worst
of all, serious injuries to operators, etc.
Where electronics is concerned, the attack
on contact surfaces could lead to temporary or
permanent interruption in control circuits; in-
terruptions that lead to operational disturbances
and loss of production.
Which gases are the ”villains”?
In industrial environments the most common
aggressive gases are sulphur hydrogen (H2S),
chlorine (Cl2), nitrogen (NO2) and sulphur di-
oxides (SO2). All of these gases are separately
corrosive, but combined, they lead to even
faster degradation.
• SO occurs in the petrochemical, pulp and
2
paper, and metal-producing industries.
SO 2 attacks all metals except precious
metals such as gold, silver and platinum.
• NO2 occurs when burning oil, petrol and
coal (fossil fuels).
NO2 is aggressive towards copper and brass
and, together with SO2, increases the degra-
dation of many materials. (Together with
reactive chlorine even gold can be affected.)
• H2S occurs in the pulp and paper and chemi-
cal industries.
H2S attacks all copper based metals. In dry
environments even silver can suffer dam-
age.
• Cl2 occurs in bleaching plants, in pulp and
paper industries and in the production of
PVC.
Reactive chlorine, Cl2, affects most metals,
even in low concentrations. In combination
with other pollutants its effects are aggra-
vated.
• Cl, chlorides, mostly arise from seawater.
They attack most metals.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
• Grime, smoke and dust attract other kinds
of pollution and moisture, increasing the
rate of corrosion.
• Moisture (together with pollution) acceler-
ates corrosion.
(Note. To avoid static electricity discharges
that interfere with electronics, the relative hu-
midity should not be less than 30 %.)
If the proportion of pollution in the air is
too high, 1-100 m/m3, steps must be taken
to decrease the risk of corrosion in and on the
LV ASSEMBLY. Location of the LV ASSEM-
BLY in the same operating rooms as air treat-
ment equipment (ventilation systems) is com-
mon in the heavy process industries (pulp,
paper, petrochemical and steel industries).
In such harsh environments surface coating
of copper and/or aluminium bars with tin, or in
some cases silver, is recommended.
The trend towards dividing the LV ASSEM-
BLY into main distribution (Load Centre, LC)
and sub-distribution (Motor Control Centres,
MCC), has the consequence that the MCCs are
located as close as possible to the process
equipment and are exposed to aggressive gases,
which can be removed in the operating room
through filtering in the air treatment equipment
(see above). See the sections Introduction, p. ?,
and Plant design, p. ?.The surfaces of the enclo-
sures for these MCCs should be treated to resist
corrosion.
Built-in devices and components must be
chosen with the best contact material possible.
For more information on corrosion it is recom-
mended that”Corrosion of electronics” a hand-
book based on experiences from a Nordic Re-
search Project (Bulletin No 102, Swedish Cor-
rosion Institute, August 1991) be read. See also
Chapter 3.5Industrial Environments, p. ?.
Apart from air pollution, the location and
surroundings of the LV ASSEMBLY can in-
volve problems, e.g. vibrations and humidity
and large differences in temperature between
night and day (leading to condensation). It is,
as mentioned earlier, vital that the manufac-
turer obtain information from the user regard-
ing all factors that affect the design of the
LV ASSEMBLY.
Special service conditions
Where any of the following special service
conditions exist, the particular requirements
27
5.2 27
that apply are to be complied with, or else
special agreements are to be reached between
user and manufacturer. The user should in-
form the manufacturer if such exceptional
service conditions exist.
Such special service conditions are, for
example:
1. Values for temperature, relative humidity
and/or altitude that differ from normal ser-
vice conditions.
2. Applications where variations in tempera-
ture and/or air pressure take place at such
speed that exceptional condensation is lia-
ble to collect inside the LV ASSEMBLY.
3. Heavy pollution of the air by dust, smoke,
corrosive or radioactive particles, fumes
or salt.
4. Exposure to strong electric or magnetic
fields.
5. Exposure to extreme temperatures, for ex-
ample radiation from sun or furnaces.
6. Attack from fungi, vermin, rodents, etc.
7. Installation in locations where fire or explo-
sion hazards exist.
8. Exposure to severe vibrations and impacts.
9. Installation in such a manner that the cur-
rent-carrying capacity or breaking capac-
ity is affected, for example equipment built
into machines or recessed into walls.
10. Appropriate measures to counteract elec-
trical or radiated interference need to be
taken into account.
Plant design
Introduction
The planning of an industrial system involves a
great deal of money, both in direct investments
and future running costs. However, a system-
atic approach and an overall view of the prob-
lems are often lacking.
Designing an industrial low-voltage distri-
bution network requires experience, extensive
knowledge, intuition and analytical ability.
How should one start to design and size an
industrial system, what considerations need to
be examined and what are the most important
issues to be addressed? These problems are not
new and most of the design technique has been
available for decades.
However, over the last few years new tech-
nology has been developed that offers fresh
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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opportunities in plant design. Further, mainte-
nance costs can now often be reduced.
The power system represents some 10-15 %
of the capital costs for a major industrial project.
There are several ways to plan an LV ASSEM-
BLY design, but two main principles apply:
1) Place the transformer next to the LV AS-
SEMBLY and collect all units and devices in
a single LV ASSEMBLY located in a locked
operating room.
2) Split the LV ASSEMBLY equipment up
into main distribution Load Centre (LC) and
sub-distribution Motor Control Centres
(MCCs).
See the section General, Introduction, p, ? and
the single-line diagram in Fig. 2, p, ?.
The load centre (LC) is direct fed from the
transformer and is normally designed for high
currents. It distributes the current to sub-distri-
bution MCCs (which can be placed near the
process).
Sub-distribution units (distribution switch-
gear and MCCs) are most often fed via cable
from units in the load centre. The cable area and
length (impedance) determine how much of the
short-circuit current is limited at the sub-distri-
bution point. This limitation makes it possible
to design sub-distribution for the reduced short-
circuit current. It also provides the possibility
to use circuit breakers with a lower tripping
value in the outgoing feeder units. See the
section Short-circuit levels, p, ?.
A common arrangement is to place the trans-
former near the LV ASSEMBLY and collect all
units and devices in this LV ASSEMBLY. This
design gives a good overview of the distribu-
tion system, which is located in a locked oper-
ating room.
See above in the section Introduction, p. ?.
The operating room is cleaned and ventilated
to protect the electrical equipment against cor-
rosion. See the section Environmental aspects,
p. ?.
This kind of design normally implies long
cables and high short-circuit currents in the
LV ASSEMBLY. High short-circuit currents
make it necessary to select more advanced
apparatus.
The possibility of moving the LV ASSEM-
BLIES (distribution LV ASSEMBLIES or
28
5.2 28
MCCs) out closer to the process equipment
has always existed. However, this arrange-
ment has not been viewed with favour in the
past due to the adverse effects of the surround-
ings (see the section Environmental aspects,
p. ?) on the bars, fuses, circuit breakers, mov-
able contacts (e.g. plug-in contacts) and elec-
tronics. In recent years, though, equipment has
been developed to protect the electrical parts
when they are located close to the process.
This distribution system (with the distribu-
tion LV ASSEMBLY or the MCC located close
to the process equipment) results in lower short-
circuit currents in the LV ASSEMBLY con-
cerned. This design results in lower investment
costs for the LV ASSEMBLY and lower costs
for installation (e.g. cable costs) and for venti-
lation equipment.
Voltage levels
The size of the process, i.e., the power required,
determines to a certain extent if one or several
voltage levels are needed. Selection of voltage
level cannot be made until after the circuit
system has been settled on. For major indus-
tries with a considerable number of large mo-
tors it may be more advantageous economi-
cally to select two main voltage levels, 400 V
and 690 V. If a main voltage of 690 V is used,
a voltage of 10 kV can normally be used as
motor voltage for high voltage drives. For an
AC system with a nominal voltage of 120 to
1000 V and with the appropriate equipment, the
values shown in the table below apply.
Three-phase 4-wire or 3-wire system (IEC 38)
Three-phase, four-wire Single-phase,
or three-wire systems three-wire
systems
Nominal voltage Nominal
(V) voltage (V)
– 120/240
230/4001) –
277/4802) –
400/6901) –
1000 –
Under normal system conditions it is recom-
mended that the voltage at the supply terminals
should not differ from the nominal voltage by
more than +/- 10 %
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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1)
The nominal voltage of existing 220/380 V and
240/415 V systems is to evolve towards the recom-
mended value of 230/400 V. The transition period
should be as short as possible and should not
exceed 20 years aftter the issue of the IEC stand-
ard publication (= year 2003).
During this period, as a first step, the electricity
supply authorities of countries having 220/380 V
systems should bring the voltage within the range
230/400 V +6 %, -10 % and those of countries
having 240/415 V systems should bring the voltage
within the range 230/400 V +10 %, - 6 %. At the end
of this transition period the tolerance of 230/400 V
+/- 10 % should have been achieved; after this a
reduction of this range will be considered. All the
above considerations also apply to the present
380/660 V value with respect to the recommended
value 400/690 V.
2)
Not to be utilised together with 230/400 V or 400/
690 V.
As can be seen, the table includes single-
phase circuits connected to three-phase, four-
wire systems.
The lower value states the voltages between
phase and the neutral conductor (N conductor)
and the higher value states the voltage between
phases.
Three-phase systems with a voltage of 400/
690 V are intended only for heavy industrial
applications or similar. Some industries have
an internal distribution system using a main
voltage of 500 V.
Short-circuit levels - Rated current and
Short-circuit current
The transformer data and wiring give the nec-
essary information on the principal data needed
for the LV ASSEMBLY. The most important
data are:
• Main voltage and frequency
• Rated current
• Short-circuit level
• Connection

Example of calculation of rated current and short-circuit current

Transformer data: 2 MVA, 10,000/400 V (10/0.4 kV), uk= 6.25 %
Rated current, In= 2,000,000/400 x 3= 2890 A
Short-circuit current, Ik= 2,000,000 x 100/400 x 3 x 6.25= 46 kA

Ik depending on transformer and cable, U= 400 V

Pn uk Ik Ik limited by the cable impedance

Cable Cable Cable
25 mm2 95 mm2 240 mm2
Cu Cu Al
Length m Length m Length m
kVA % kA 25 100 25 100 25 100
1000 5.00 29 8 3 14 5 19 10
1250 5.00 36 8 3 15 5 20 10
1600 6.25 37 8 3 16 5 22 11
2000 6.25 46 9 3 16 5 23 11
2500 6.25 58 9 3 18 6 27 11

Ik= Short-circuit current

Pn= Rated power
uk= Short-circuit voltage in %

Diversity factor ship of the maximum sum, at any one time, of

The rated diversity factor of an LV ASSEM- the assumed currents of all the main circuits
BLY or part of an LV ASSEMBLY having involved, to the sum of the rated currents of all
several main circuits (e.g. a section or a sub- the main circuits of the LV ASSEMBLY or the
section) is the ratio obtained from the relation- selected part of the LV ASSEMBLY.

29

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Standard rated (recommended) diversity Directly earthed system, TN system, (TN-C

factors (IEC 439-1): and TN-S)
Number of main circuits Diversity factor Figs. 6 and 7 (figur 24 and 25, p. 332)
2 and 3 0.9
4 and 5 0.8
6 to 9 inclusive 0.7
10 (and above) 0.6

Types of distribution system; TN, IT,

and TT systems (IEC 364-3)
The following characteristics of the distribu-
tion system are to be assessed:

• types of live conductor

• types of system earthing Not-directly-earthed systems, IT systems
These have all live parts isolated from earth or
Types of live conductor systems: one point connected to earth through a high
AC systems DC systems impedance, the exposed conductive parts of the
Single-phase 2-wire 2-wire electrical installation being earthed independ-
Single phase 3-wire 3-wire ently or collectively or connected to the system
Two-phase 3-wire earthing. Not-directly-earthed systems are only
Two-phase 5-wire utilised in industrial establishments and are to
Three-phase 3-wire (3 phase conductors have an earth fault protection.device that indi-
+ PEN conductor) cates earth faults. An earth fault protective
Three-phase 4-wire (3 phase conductors device of this kind can be arranged through zero
+ PE conductor + N conductor) point equipment.

Types of system earthing

Directly earthed systems, TN systems
These have one point directly earthed, the ex-
posed conductive parts of the installation being
connected to that point by protective conduc-
tors (PE).
Three types of TN system are considered
according to the arrangement of neutral and
protective conductors, as follows:
Fig. 8 Not-directly-earthed system, IT sys-
TN-S system: in which, throughout the tem
system, a separate protec-
tive conductor (PE) is used; TT system s have one point directly earthed,
the exposed conductive parts of the installation
TN-C-S system: in which neutral and protec- being connected to earth electrodes electrically
tive functions are combined independent of the earth electrodes of the
in a single conductor (PEN) power system.
in a part of the system; Note: TT systems are to be used very restrictively.

TN-C system: in which neutral and protec- Demands on availability

tive functions are combined
in a single conductor (PEN)
throughout the system.
Maintenance work should be kept in mind
during the projecting/planning period. If con-
tinuous operation is required, the system must
be designed so that bypass links and standby
supply possibilities are ensured so that neces-

30

5.2 30 97-03-05, 13.24

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
sary inspections of those components that re-
quire the circuit being broken can be carried
out. See also the section Requirements related
to accessibility in service by authorised per-
sonnel, p. 13 ?.
Selectivity (p. 332 in the Swedish edition)
Selectivity refers to disconnecting only part of
the equipment that is affected by the fault.
Selectivity is brought about by co-ordinating
different current and time curves, and/or with
time functions.
More detailed information on selectivity
is provided in the section Selectivity plan, p, ?.
(p. 315).
Connection to the LV ASSEMBLY
Connection of incoming supply conductors from
the transformer to the LV ASSEMBLY can be
effected in one of the following ways:
1. By incoming circuit breaker
2. By incoming disconnector
3. By switch and fuses
4. By direct connection from the transformer
to the main busbars in the LV ASSEMBLY
1. By incoming circuit breaker
An incoming circuit breaker is the best and
most dependable (in many countries a demand)
solution for connection to LV ASSEMBLIES.
Having a circuit breaker allows quick dis-
connection in the event of faults. See the sec-
tion Circuit breakers, p.?. If work is needed
on the LV ASSEMBLY it is then easy to dis-
connect and selectivity can be accomplished
through time functions in the breaker´s protec-
tive device.
Circuit breakers normally have overload
protection, delayed and instant shortcircuit
protection, earth-fault protection and under-
voltage protection.
The circuit breaker can be remotely control-
led by a motor-operated apparatus. Measuring,
automatic making/breaking of contacts and
reconnection are possible.
If the LV ASSEMBLY is supplied with arc
guards connected to the circuit breaker on
the low-voltage side of the transformer, a
fast tripping time is obtained even when arc
faults occur giving limited fault currents in
the LV ASSEMBLY. See the section Arc
guards, p. ? 39.
31
5.2 31
2. By incoming disconnector
With a normal disconnector as incoming de-
vice, making or breaking cannot/should not be
carried out using the disconnector. See the
section Disconnectors, p. ? 29. A disconnector
on its own normally has no breaking/making
capacity and should therefore be operated only
when not under voltage.
With a switch-disconnector, voltage can be
switched on and off, but making and breaking
of a high-current load is not recommended.
A switch-disconnector can be supplied with
auxiliary contacts and an interlocking magnet,
which prevents incorrect manoeuvring.
The disconnector allows switching off so
as to carry out work on the LV ASSEMBLY,
(see the section Disconnection for work pur-
poses, p. ? 27) but no protection functions
can be accomplished through automatic dis-
connection.
A disconnector is often used as an inexpen-
sive solution, or when there already is an effec-
tive protective device in the supply system.
Sometimes disconnectos are used by selectiv-
ity reasons, i.e., when a chain of selectivity
cannot be built up without an incoming circuit
breaker tripping. This is a bad argument since
selectivity can often be achieved by means of
time characteristics. The breaking and protec-
tion functions must be located in the supply
system.
3. By switch and fuses
Breaking and protection against overloads and
short circuits can be achieved by using switches
and fuses in the incoming unit.
The units can hardly be rated for more than
800 A (largest fuse) and only occur in small LV
ASSEMBLIES and multibox-type LV ASSEM-
BLIES.
If only switches are used, the protection
function is lost, but breaking is naturally still
possible.
4. By direct connection from the transformer
to the main busbars in the LV ASSEMBLY
The breaking and protection functions have to
be located in the supply line
(on the primary side of the transformer, a me-
dium-voltage circuit breaker with protective
devices is necessary).
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Disconnection for work purposes The first two are not to be recommended.
Disconnection of a plant part for work purposes The safest, most up-to-date and most used
should be executed such that power supply is method is to fit earthing switches in the incom-
prevented from all directions. Fully adequate ing circuit breaker cubicle in an LV ASSEM-
safety devices should be used. BLY (often both before and after the circuit
Where the power supply is from several breaker).
directions, or where there are no electrical The earthing switch can be operated from the
switches, special care needs to be taken to front of the cubicle with door closed.
prevent errors. The primary side of the earthing switch is
connected to the phases and the secondary side
To ensure that the necessary level of security is is short-circuited and connected to the protec-
achieved, disconnection is required using one tive earth bar (PE).
of the following methods: The earthing switch is to be interlocked with
1. Disconnection of a voltage not exceeding the circuit breaker via auxiliary contacts and
1000 V AC : can further be interlocked with a blocking mag-
1.1 Use of disconnector or switch-discon- net to prevent incorrect operation.
nector with visible breaking points See the single-line diagram below.
1.2 Use of switch-disconnector without vis-
ible breaking points, provided with reli-
able position indications.
1.3 Use of ”safety switch”
1.4 By removing fuse-links
1.5 Use of other electrical switches than un-
der items 1.1 and 1.2 in combination with
earthing for work purposes behind closed
cubicle front or similar.
It is presupposed that:
– interlocking between electrical switch
and earthing device is so arranged that it is not
possible to perform earthing before the electri-
cal switch has broken the circuit
in all phases.
– earthing can be carried out without risk
of injury to operators, etc., even if it is per-
formed on live parts. Earthing device with earthing switches
See the following section Earthing for Fig. 9 ?
work purposes.
1.6 Use of withdrawable units in disconnected
position (see the section Incoming and
outgoing units, p. ? 6) Apparatus and combination
1.7 Other ways than those under items 1.1 to of apparatus
1.6; methods that can be easily checked
visually. Disconnectors (IEC 947-3)
A disconnector is a mechanical switching de-
Earthing for work purposes vice which, in the open position, complies with
Earthing of an LV ASSEMBLY when working the requirements specified for the isolating
in it, or close to it, is a precautionary measure to function (isolating distance).
make sure that no accident will occur. A disconnector is capable of opening and
There are three methods: closing a circuit when either negligible current
1. Earthing device with earthing cable is broken or made, or when no significant
2. Earthing device with earthing lance change in the voltage across the terminals of
3. Earthing device with earthing switch each of the poles of the disconnector occurs.

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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It is also capable of carrying currents under
normal circuit conditions and carrying for a
specified time currents under abnormal condi-
tions such those of short-circuit.
A disconnector normally has no breaking/
making capacity and should only be operated
when under no voltage.
Switches (IEC 947-3)
A mechanical switch is a switching device
capable of making, carrying and breaking cur-
rents under normal circuit conditions, which
may include specified operating overload con-
ditions, and also carrying for a specified time
currents under specified abnormal circuit con-
ditions such as those of short-circuit.
Note: A switch may be capable of making but not
breaking short-circuit currents.
Utilisation categories
(The utilisation categories define the intended
applications.)
AC 21 Switching of resistive loads including
moderate overloads
AC 22 Switching of mixed resistive and in-
ductive loads, including moderate over-
loads
AC 23 Switching of motor loads or highly
inductive loads
The requirements of switch tripping and break-
ing capacity are related to which of the three
utilisation categories the switch comes under.
A switch should always be protected by an
overcurrent/overload protective device (fuse).
In the data for the switch, the maximum rated
current for the pre-connected fuse, related to
the prospective short-circuit current in the ac-
tual circuit, should be mentioned.
The fuse is normally connected after the
switch because it is considered that the design
is such that a short circuit will not occur in the
fuse-combination unit (switch+fuses). Any fault
is expected to take place after the combination.
The requirement of short-circuit safety is
related to the prospective short-circuit current
of the actual circuit and the maximum stated
fuse size for the switch.
If a fault occurs, this combination will pro-
vide protection so that switching can be per-
formed without, for example, contact welding
occurring, or if the fault occurs during running,
33
5.2 33
contact separation of main contacts will be
prevented. It should be possible in all cases to
perform operations with satisfactory safety.
If the switch is to be used as a switch-
disconnector when working on a part of a
plant the switch must be chosen to conform
with Utilisation Category AC 21 (see Utilisa-
tion categories above and the section Discon-
nection for work purposes, p. ? 27).
Switches can normally be supplied with aux-
iliary contacts for indicating of on/off position.
Fuses (IEC 269)
A fuse is a device that, by the fusing of one or
more of its specifically designed and propor-
tioned components, opens the circuit in which
it is inserted by breaking the current when this
exceeds a given value for a sufficient time. The
fuse comprises all the parts that form the com-
plete device.
The fuse represents a weakness in the wire
system, and contains a meltable wire called a
fuse-element. The fuse-element is designed and
sized to melt when the current exceeds a certain
value, and consequently the circuit is broken.
In most fuses the wire is enclosed in a fuse-
link made of porcelain and filled with quartz
sand. The quartz sand makes it easier to switch
off the arc inside the fuse-link at the moment
of tripping. The most common material in the
fuse-element is silver for low currents and
a thin silver-plated copper strip for higher
currents. The temperature rise in the fuse-
element is proportional to the square of the
rated current. The higher the current, the quicker
the temperature rise. When the fuse-element
melts and the metallic connection breaks, an
arc ignites over the breaking gap. The heat of
the arc melts and turns the fuse-element into
gas. When the impedance becomes too high
through the arc, the energy is no longer enough
to maintain the arc and this is extinguished.
The breaking sequence when the fuse blows
can be divided into two phases, the melting
time and the arcing time. The total breaking
time for the fuse is thus the sum of these two
times.
Fuses can be divided up according to two
different principles, those of mechanical de-
sign: D-type fuses (diazed fuses) and blade-
fuses, and those with a disconnection function:
gG and aM fuses.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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gG fuses have a disconnection characteristic

which ranges from 1.6 times the rated current as
stamped on the fuse up to current-limiting char-
acteristics at very high fault currents.

aM fuses have no thermal protective function.

Their breaking characteristic does not start un-
til at 6.3 times the rated current as stamped on
the fuse. At higher currents, on the other hand,
the aM fuses have a steeper breaking character-
istic, which makes it easier to size the apparatus
behind them.
The rated current for blade-fuses is from
6 A up to 800 A with rated voltage = 690 V. Current limiting diagram, Fig. 11 ?
The rated current for D-type fuses is from
2 A up to 100 A with rated voltage = 500 V. I2t diagram
A longer type of fuse-link exists for 690 V The I2t value is a measure of how much energy
rated voltage. the fuse lets through for different fault currents.
This diagram is thus of great significance when
Melting-time diagram sizing, for example, apparatus, cables and se-
For melting times above 100 ms the arcing lectivity calculations involved in the circuit.
time has a very little significance, since this
time is relatively short. For a melting time
below 100 ms the arcing time assumes greater
significance.

Melting-time diagram Fig. 10 ? I2t diagram, Fig. 12 ?

Contactors (mechanical) (IEC 947-4-1)

Current-limiting diagram
In the case of very high currents through the
fuse, any fault current present will be limited.
This means that the circuit will be broken
before the fault current reaches its highest value.
A contactor is a mechanical switching device
having only one position of rest, operated other-
wise than by hand, capable of making, carrying
and breaking currents under normal circuit con-
ditions including operating overload conditions.

34

5.2 34 97-03-05, 13.25

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

Note: Contactors combined with suitable relays and Other advantages of some contactor relays are
which are intended to provide short-circuit protection fast mounting on profile bars and high-speed
must also satisfy the relevent conditions specified for
circuit-breakers (IEC 947-2). plug-in connection.

Brief description and requirements There are two types of contactors:

The contactor must be able to withstand a short
circuit if it is combined with a suitable short-
circuit protective device. The contactor does not
need to be able to break short-circuit currents.
The contactor is normally operated by an
electro-magnet but some pneumatic controlling
devices also exist. A contactor cannot be oper-
ated manually.
Contactor features include a high operating
frequency, a long life, and the possibility of
remote control and of automatic operation via a
pilot switch or a sensor.
• Contactors for main circuits
• Contactor relays for auxiliary circuits.
This type of contactor is not described in
this book.
The normal rated current range for contactors
is from 9 A up to a maximum of 800 A (for
motors, the power range 4 kW to 450 kW).
Recommended utilisation categories
(The utilisation categories define the intended
application.)
The rated current for a contactor depends on
how the contactor is to be used.

Standard utilisation categories for contactors and motor starters

Type of current Utilisation Typical
categories applications

AC AC-1 Non-inductive or slightly inductive loads, resistance furnaces

AC-2 Slip-ring motors: starting, switching off
AC-3 Squirrel-cage motors: starting, switching off motors
during running
AC-4 Squirrel-cage motors: starting, rheostatic braking,
inching, reversing

DC DC-1 Non-inductive or slightly inductive loads,

resistance furnaces
DC-3 Shunt motors: starting, rheostatic braking, inching, reversing
Dynamic braking of DC motors
DC-5 Series motors: starting, rheostatic braking, inching, reversing
Dynamic braking of DC motors

General
For a contactor to work well, there are require-
ments of correct auxiliary circuit design and that
the tolerance level of the operating voltage is not
exceeded. The contactor is the most hard-work-
ing power switch in an auxiliary circuit, with its
whole chain of conditions and demands. An
incorrectly designed auxiliary circuit can result
in a total breakdown.
A contactor can normally be operated much
faster than the time de-ionising of the extin-
guishing segments takes. When faults occur in
the auxiliary circuit (rebounds, unreliable con-
tact-making or any other type of disturbance)
the operating frequency can be so high that it
results in flashovers due to ionised gas or abnor-
mal contact wear. In most cases where a break-
down occurs, such faults are the cause. It is very
rare that the fault is in the switchgear itself.
The contactor must always be combined with
a short-circuit protective device, normally fuses,
and for motor drives, overload protection as
well. MCCBs may also be used as short-circuit
and overload protective devices. See below the
section Selection of short-circuit protective de-
vice (SCPD), p. ? 41.

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Service and maintenance
Normal service includes checking the wear on
the main contacts, and replacement when the
wear level is such that the spring force for a
switched-on contactor has reached the limit
value which is fixed for each contactor type.
The expected contact life is related to the
type of drive/lifetime curve and this should be
borne in mind when sizing the equipment.
The contactor is usually fitted with a number
of auxiliary contacts.
Overload relays (IEC 255-8)
An overload relay is an overcurrent relay or
release intended for protection against over-
load. An overcurrent relay or release is a relay or
release which causes a mechanical switching
device to open with or without time-lag when
the current in the relay or release exceeds a
predetermined value.
An overload relay is mostly used in combi-
nation with a contactor in starters. See the
sections Motor starters, p, ? 36 and Selection of
overload protective device, p. ? 47.
Thermal overload relays (bi-metallic relays)
A thermal overload relay is an inverse time-lag
overload relay or release depending for its
operation (including its time delay) on the ther-
mal action of the current flowing in the relay or
release.
The most common overload relays are ther-
mal overload relays, which are simple, robust
and cheap. They are either direct-fed or fed via
a current transformer. The relays should be
adjusted to the motor´s rated current (for star-
delta starters = rated current /÷3), and are nor-
mally temperature-compensated from - 20oC
to + 65oC. This means that the relays can work
in the most usual ambient temperatures without
any special calibration.
Modern overload relays are often fitted with
protection against phase failure. Should there be
a phase failure, the relay then trips the contactor
before the motor´s two ”healthy” phases be-
come overheated.
Overload relays normally have two tripping
characteristics. Normal relays have a possible
starting time of 8-10 s when the relay is cold. For
a hot relay the possible starting time is reduced
to about a third. Relays for heavy-duty starting
have a possible starting time of approx. 15-20 s
36
5.2 36
with a cold relay, and here too there is a reduc-
tion to about a third for a hot relay.
Electronic overload relays
The use of electronic overload relays is becom-
ing increasingly common. They are expensive,
but normally have a wide range of applications
with several functions that are not available
with mechanical overload relays. An electronic
relay requires a current transformer.
Among their functions the following can be
mentioned:
• Overload protection
• Re-start protection
Phase failure protection
• of starts per hour) (counting the number
• Symmetry protection
The relays are microprocessor-based (see also
the section Microprocessor-based control
technique for low-voltage systems, p. ? 49)
and sample values, ”draw curves” and compare
actual values with reference values. When these
diverge, the relay will give a signal, or trip.
The big difference between the electronic over-
load relay and the thermal overload relay is
the possibility the former has of varying the
tripping time and setting the alarm before trip-
ping.
Circuit breakers
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching de-
vice, capable of making and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions and also mak-
ing, carrying for a specified time and breaking
currents under specified abnormal circuit con-
ditions such as those of short-circuit.
Circuit breakers normally have both short-
circuit protective devices and overload protec-
tive devices. Undervoltage protective devices
are usual.
(See the section Fault control, undervoltage
protection, p. ?)
The following types of circuit breaker are
standard:
• Air circuit breakers, ACBs (IEC 947-2)
An ACB is a circuit breaker in which the
contacts open and close in air at atmospheric
pressure
• Moulded case circuit breakers, MCCBs
(IEC 947-2)
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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An MCCB is a circuit breaker having a support-
ing housing of moulded insulating material
forming an integral part of the circuit breaker
• Miniature circuit breakers, MCBs (IEC 898)
An MCB is a circuit breaker intended for
protection against overcurrents in wiring
installations in buildings and in similar ap-
plications; they are designed for use by in-
expert people and do not need being main-
tained
ACB
ACBs are available for rated currents from 630
A to 6300 A, but the range most frequently used
is 1250 A - 3200 A. Until recently all ACBs
were of non-current-limiting type with break-
ing capacity up to 85 kA. Now there are also
current-limiting ACBs with tripping times </=
10 ms for current up to 2500 A. With tripping
times of 10 ms for such high currents, however,
the trip overvoltage that is generated has to be
watched out for. There is now concentration on
the development of built-in protective devices.
Today more sophisticated, microprocessor-
based devices for protection with communicat-
ing ability to a monitoring system are available
at much lower costs than those of a separate
relay protection.
The main field of application for ACBs is
as incoming circuit breakers in an LV ASSEM-
BLY and as motor starters for large motors.
MCCB
MCCBs are available for rated currents from
1 A to 3200 A, but the range most frequently
used is 10-630 A, and for incoming breakers up
to 1600 A. Current-limiting and non-current-
limiting breakers are available from most sup-
pliers. The non-current-limiting breaker is of-
ten available in more designs with different
levels of breaking capacity. Development is
moving towards a better current-limiting ca-
pacity. In the MCCB field too there are protec-
tive devices based on electronics that are be-
coming more and more sophisticated.
The overload protective devices in MCCBs
are mainly used for protection of cables and
conductors, but there are breakers in the lower
current area where the overload protective de-
vice is designed for motor protection and with
the extra functions that this application needs.
37
5.2 37
MCB
MCBs are available for rated currents up to
125 A, but 63 A is usually the highest value.
There are various designs, depending on
breaking capacity and characteristics. See Fig.
14, p. ? 35 (below).
MCBs are mainly used in auxiliary circuits
and in distribution boards (instead of fuses).
Differences between ACBs and MCCBs
Being subject to the same design standard it is
not surprising that the differences between
ACBs and MCCBs are becoming finer. Where
they exist it can be said that the main difference
lies in the possibility to add accessories and
opportunities for service and maintenance. In
this respect MCCBs have limitations compared
to ACBs.
Further, there are better possibilities of de-
laying the short-circuit protection in an ACB,
as an ACB can withstand a higher short-circuit
current for a longer time than an MCCB. This
is shown by the rated short-time withstand
current, the 1-second value, (see the section
Short-circuit protection, p. ? 41), which is
much higher for ACBs than for MCCBs.
Current-limiting circuit breakers
One often refers to current-limiting and non-
current-limiting circuit breakers, see Fig. 13 ?,
p. ? 35 (below). All MCCBs and MCBs are
more or less current-limiting, since the current
forces that arise upon a short circuit press the
contacts apart. This usually results in an arc,
and thus an impedance which limits the current
allowed through.
A current-limiting circuit breaker is a breaker
which is able to extinguish an arc before the
current passes through neutral for the first time
after a short circuit has occurred. This gives
extremely short break times.
Non-current-limiting circuit breakers have
to wait for the current to pass through neutral
before they extinguish the arc generated. This
means that the break time is around 20 millisec-
onds.
It should be observed that current-limiting
breakers need a theoretical short-circuit current
of 20-30 kA to work correctly.
Breaking capacity
Breaking capacities for circuit breakers are
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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described in the section Selection of short- Motor starters (IEC 947-4-1)

circuit protective device, p. ? 41. See also Chapter 4.4 Motor starting systems
(p. 140-164).
Utilisation categories A motor starter is a combination of all the
Category A: Circuit breakers not specifically switching means necessary to start and stop a
intended for selectivity motor in combination with suitable overload
Category B: Circuit breakers specifically in- protection, a manual externally-operated switch-
tended for selectivity ing device and a short-circuit protective device,
mounted and wired in a dedicated enclosure.
The switching and short-circuit protective
Strömbegränsande Ej strömbegränsande devices may be a fuse combination, a switch
I I
kA kA
with fuses or a circuit breaker with or without
50 50
an isolating function.
Note: 1. A dedicated enclosure is an enclosure
20 20 specifically designed and sized for its application,
in which all tests are conducted.
2. The manually-operated switching device
and the short-circuit protective device may be a
5 ms single device and may incorporate the overload
13 ms protection as well.

General: The most common outgoing units in

a Motor Control Center, MCC, are motor start-
ers. The main parts in a motor starter are:
I1 I2 Termisk utlösning Contactor for on/off switching of the motor
T
}

(s) K
current (see the section Contactors, p. ? 31)
B
K Short-circuit protective device, SCPD,
C K switch+fuses or circuit breaker, often an
D
MCCB (see the sections Switches, p. ? 29,
Circuit breakers, p. ? 34 and Selection of
103 SCPD, p. ? 41)
Thermal overload relay, in some cases an
electronic overload relay
(see the section Overload relays, p. ? 33)
102 The rated current for motor starters is limited to
a maximum of 700 A (400 kW output for
motors).

101
K

L U

B C D
100
1 3 5 10 ×In
}

Momentan utlösning
I3 I4

Figs. 13 and 14, Current-limiting diagram

and non-current-limiting diagram, Thermal
and instantaneous tripping of different
MCB types. Fig. 15 Motor starter
38

5.2 38 97-03-05, 13.27

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

1 9 5

I> I> I>

4 2 4 2 4 2

3 3

6
8

4 2 4 2

3 3

Fig. 16 Typical variants of motor starters,

circuit diagrams.

Utilisation categories Type 2 co-ordination requires that, under short-

Recommended utilisation categories for motor
starters are the same as for contactors, see p. ?
32.
Co-ordination with short-circuit protective
devices
Types of co-ordination:
(Conditions after a short-circuit test carried
out with bolted short-circuited outgoing termi-
nals.)
Type 1 co-ordination requires that, under short-
circuit conditions, the contactor or starter should
cause no danger to persons or installation and
may not be suitable for further service without
repair and replacement of parts.
circuit conditions, the contactor or starter should
cause no danger to persons or installation and
must be suitable for further use. The risk of
contact welding is recognized, in which case
the manufacturer is to indicate the measures to
be taken with regard to the maintenance of the
equipment.
Important:After an actual short circuit the
location of the fault must always be pin-pointed
and the motor starter examined and repaired
before re-starting.
See also the section Inspection of condition, p.
? 45.

39

5.2 39 97-03-05, 13.27

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

Main types of motor starters: Note: In star connection, the current in the line
1. Direct-on-line starter and the torque of the motor are about one-third of
This is a starter which connects the line the corresponding values for delta connection.
Therefore, star-delta starters are used when the
voltage across the motor terminals in one inrush current due to starting is to be limited, or
step. when the driven machine requires a limited torque
Direct-on-line starters are designed to start for starting.
and accelerate a motor to normal speed, to
provide means for the protection of the 4. Pole changing starter
motor and its associated circuits against This is a starter for motors with multiple
operating overloads, and to switch off the speeds. These motors could have two
supply from the motor. windings, with a different number of poles
This also applies to reversing starters. for different speeds, or a switchable winding
so that that the number of poles is divided
2. Reversing starter into halves upon switch-over, a so-called
This is a starter designed to cause the motor Dahlander connection. Pole-changing start-
to reverse the direction of rotation by revers- ers for Dahlander-connected motors have
ing the motor´s primary connections while an extra contactor for the switch-over from
the motor is running. See also above under high speed to low speed or vice-versa.
direct-on-line starters, second paragraph.
3. Star-delta starter 5. Two-step auto-transformer starters
This is a starter for a three-phase induction This is a starter designed to start and accel-
motor such that in the starting position the erate an AC induction motor from rest with
stator windings are connected in star and in reduced torque to normal speed, to provide
the final running position they are connected means for the protection of the motor and its
in delta. Star-delta starters are designed to associated circuits against operating over-
start a three-phase motor in star connection, loads, and to switch off the supply from the
to ensure continuous operation in delta con- motor.
nection, to provide means for the protection Auto-transformer starters are normally not
of the motor and its associated circuits against intended for inching duty or reversing mo-
operating overloads, and to switch off the tors rapidly and therefore Utilisation Cat-
supply from the motor. egory 4 does not apply.
Star-delta starters are not normally designed
for reversing motors rapidly and therefore
Utilisation Category 4 does not apply.
I L 0.8 tap I T 0.5 tap I L 0.65 tap
IR
6
Current /rated operational current I e

6
Current /rated operational current I e

ID 5 IT 0.8 tap

5 IT
4 0.65 tap

4
3

3
2 IL 0.5 tap
IY Synchronous speed
2
1
Synchronous speed
1
0.8 1 Speed/rated speed

0.8 1 Speed/rated speed

Torque/rated torque

Torque/rated torque

CM D CM R
1 1
Synchronous speed 0.65 tap Synchronous speed
CM Y CM T

CR CR

0.8 1 Speed/rated speed 0.8 1 Speed/rated speed

Fig. 17 Typical curves of currents and tor- Fig. 18 Typical curves of currents and tor-
ques during a star-delta start. ques during an auto-transformer start.

40

5.2 40 97-03-05, 13.27

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Note: In the starting position, the current in
the line and the torque of the motor related
to motor starting with rated voltage are reduced
approximately as the square of the ratio: starting
voltage/rated voltage. Therefore, auto-transformer
starters are used when the inrush current due to
the starting operation is to be limited, or when
the driven machine requires a limited torque
for starting.
Accessories
Motor starters can be supplied with various
accessories such as:
• indicating lamps
• on and off pushbuttons
• auxiliary relay for remote control
• switch for choice of remote control and
local control
• ammeter
• remote reset by thermal overload relay
Soft starters
A soft starter is a starter which is supplied with
six anti-parallel-connected thyristors. The
thyristors´ ignition angle is controlled by a
microprocessor that increases the voltage to the
motor during starting. There is a scale on the
soft starter where the starting time can be ad-
justed so as to achieve a soft start. The soft
starter makes it possible to control the voltage
to match the actual need, so that power losses
are minimised and smoother, more sparing
operation is obtained, with longer life as a
result.
Soft starters are becoming increasingly usual
in process industries and for motor sizes of 160
kW and above.
Torque
DoL
Star/Delta
Softstart
Speed
Fig. 19. Starting torque with different starting
methods.
41
5.2 41
Voltage
DoL Star/Delta Softstart
100%
60%
58%
Adjust-
able
starting
ramp
10%
Fig. 20. Motor voltage when starting with dif-
ferent starting methods.
Current limiters
Current limiters are used as complementary
short-circuit protective devices for smaller
motors (max. approx. 22 kW, max. rated cur-
rent approx. 50 A).
A current limiter, based on polymeric mate-
rial, acts as a conductor at rated currents but
becomes high resistive if a short circuit occurs.
Consequently, the fault current is limited. A
current limiter is connected in series with a
breaker (mostly an MCB) and will limit the
fault current to a value under the breaking
capacity of the breaker. The breaking capacity
of the circuit breaker is thus enhanced.
Using conventional technology, it is not on-
ly the short-circuit protective devices, SCPDs,
that have to be upgraded, but also any auxiliary
equipment, such as contactors, due to higher
let-through energies (I2t). The busbar system
and cables often need to be upgraded too. Using
a current limiter, the fault levels are reduced to
a much lower level, e.g. 6 kA instead of 50 kA,
and subsequently the let-through energies in-
volved will be linked to the limited fault level.
There are current limiters for use in MCC
(Motor Control Centre) applications with mo-
tor starters up to 690 V, 63 A, and others for
distribution applications with standard MCBs
(miniature circuit breakers). In order to ensure
good interaction between breakers and the cur-
rent limiter, only breakers specified in official
co-ordination tables should be used.
Arc guard system
General
Very short disconnection times are the best way
of limiting the risk of injury to personnel and
damage to equipment due to arcing faults.
97-03-05, 13.27
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

A combination of an arc guard system and high-

speed circuit breakers provides the best means Q2
of ensuring a minimum of damage and injury.
Cleaning and repair times become shorter, op-
erating reliability and equipment availability F11 Q3
increases, and downtime is dramatically de-
creased. Potential breakdowns are very largely D
avoided, production losses are drastically cut
and there are clear savings in costs.

Fig. 22 Arc monitor with detectors, circuit

2
diagram
kA S ➂

Steel
➁ Fire
Cable
Fire
➀ circuit breaker used, but the entire process is
0 35 ms 100 ms 200 ms 400 ms
Fig. 21 Arc duration and resulting damage
Description
The watchful eye (the detector) of the arc guard
system detects any large increase in light inten-
sity. The detector transfers light from the arc
through a state-of-the-art solid-state electron-
ics package (an arc monitor). Within an interval
of one to two milliseconds, the system sends a
trip signal to the disconnecting circuit breaker
(upstream) located in the LV ASSEMBLY,
bypassing delays caused by selective features
of relaying schemes. This protects both equip-
ment and personnel.
Operational features
The arc monitor delivers the trip signal in
approximately 1 to 2 milliseconds. The actual
disconnection time depends on the type of
500 ms over in less than 50 milliseconds if an LV
ASSEMBLY has been provided with an arc
guard system.
Current sensing unit
The detectors can also be sensitive to other
forms of intense light, such as camera flashes,
lightning, direct sunlight, switching arcs in
circuit breakers and other large apparatuses. By
combining the arc monitor with a current sens-
ing unit set at just over the normal operating
level, a current-dependent condition is intro-
duced which prevents triggering from irrel-
evant light sources. This prevents spurious trip-
ping of the LV ASSEMBLY, causing nuisance
power outages.

The system includes: T3

• Arc monitor with detectors (normally one
detector in each cubicle in an LV ASSEM-
F12

BLY)
• Current sensing unit Q2
• Breaker fault unit
F11 Q3
All communication between the detectors, arc
monitor, current sensing unit and the breaker
fault unit is through fibre optics. Fibre optics D
eliminate the risk of interference from extreme
high electromagnetic fields, especially during
an arcing fault. Fig. 23 Arc monitor with detectors and current
sensing unit, circuit diagram.

42

5.2 42 97-03-05, 13.27

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Breaker fault unit
The breaker fault unit provides a safeguard
against failures in downstream circuit breakers
(on the low-voltage side of the transformer
where the circuit breaker is mounted in the LV
ASSEMBLY). In installations with access to
the main upstream circuit breakers (on the
medium-voltage side of the transformer) the
addition of a breaker fault unit can be utilised.
This ensures protection if the downstream
branch circuit breaker does not function. If the
downstream breaker fails to disconnect the
supply within the set time, the breaker fault unit
will override and trip the main upstream breaker
(on the medium-voltage side).
Q1
F13
T3
F12
Q2
F11 Q3
D An analysis of short-circuit currents that
Fig. 24 Arc monitor with detectors, current
sensing unit and circuit breaker, circuit dia-
gram.
LV ASSEMBLY protection
An LV ASSEMBLY protection system is based
on the ABB arc guard system, or equivalent,
operating in conjunction with an arc monitor.
At least one detector is to be included for each
compartment of the LV ASSEMBLY.
In the LV AssemblY, optical detectors are to
be located in each vertical busbar section, in-
cluding detectors in the main horizontal busbar
compartments, in each circuit breaker compart-
ment and in the compartments where the con-
nections for outgoing cables are to be moni-
tored. Detectors are also to be located to moni-
tor the main busbar, breakers, and connections
to outgoing cables. All detectors are to be
43
5.2 43
arranged to give maximum coverage to the
compartment in which they are located. Addi-
tional detectors are to be added as required to
obtain complete coverage. Tripping should be
arranged so that all internal feeders connected
to a faulty section of main busbar are discon-
nected. To cover the situation when feeder
circuits act as incoming or outgoing circuits,
the current measuring input for each section of
main busbar is to be operated from current
transformers.
Selection of short-circuit
protective device (SCPD)
Introduction
Short-circuit protection is a question of select-
ing between fuses and circuit breakers. Both
types of protection are still highly applicable in
plants and described below is what application
they work best in.
Sizing of circuit breakers or fuses requires
somewhat different input data in order to make
a fair comparison. Circuit breakers are more
dependent on voltage and short-circuit power
than fuses are. This means, in turn, that there are
a great many circuit breaker variants. See Chap-
ter 4.4, Motor starting systems, p. ?...........
occur in main distribution and sub-distribution
systems has always been important as an instru-
ment to check selectivity and trip conditions,
for example. With circuit breakers in the plant,
the analysis will also have a considerable effect
on the cost level.
Unfortunately, this analysis mostly concerns
the highest short-circuit current occurring, even
though the lowest short-circuit current is at
least as important to know for various fault
cases, so that tripping of the circuit occurs
within a few seconds.
A simple definition of the best-working short-
circuit protective device is that it should not trip
at overcurrents (starting currents) occurring in
service, but that it should for the lowest short-
circuit current in the plant.
The relationship between operating current
and switching currents occurring in the appli-
cation determines the selection of tripping level:
For Utilisation Category AC21 (resistive
load) the relationship is Imax to In = 1
97-03-05, 13.28
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
For Utilisation Category AC22 (distribu-
tion) the relationship is Imax to In = 2.5 -3
For Utilisation Category AC23 (three-
phase induction motor) the relationship
is Imax to In = 7
Transformator 10/0,4 kV
800 kVA
I = 23 kA
k
Stum kortslutning i centralen
ger 5,7 kA.
Ett fas–jordfel ger 3,3 kA.
Med hänsyn taget till dämpning
av felljusbåge 30 % är lägsta
kortslutningsströmmen 2,3 kA.
Driftström
inkl. startström 2,3 kA
Fas–jord
3,3 kA
➀
Figs. 25 and 26 Example of short-circuit cat-
egory AC 22.
According to the fuse´s tripping curve, the
tripping time is 0.5 seconds at a fault current of
2.3 kA. The plant´s rated current is 250 A and
starting currents in service for Utilisation Cat-
egory AC22 are stated at 2.5-3 times the rated
current.
The area (1) between the lowest calculated
value and the operating current value is also to
be considered as a fault area. It is impossible to
predict what current will result from a fault. In
the case of a fault with higher absorption of
a fault arc, for example a 1000 A fault current,
the same fuse would have a tripping time of
about 20 seconds, with the obvious risk of fire
breaking out in cabling and equipment.
In other words, there is nothing to ensure that
there will be no damage to cables and equip-
5.2 44
ment in the event of a short circuit, even if the
fuse is sized to trip the circuit within a few
seconds.
In order to always have the best short-circuit
protective device, selection must be based on
the need of short-circuit current, i.e., the switch-
ing current occurring in the circuit, and the
tripping level should be chosen accordingly.
A rule of thumb for this, representing a ”safe
level”, can be given for Utilisation Category:
AC21: Tripping level 2 x In
AC22
AC22: Tripping level 5 x In
AC23: Tripping level 10 x In
Säkring 250 A
The calculated values should be checked in
relation to these levels and any relationship
between the requirement level and the results
4 × 240 mm2 Al-kabel
200 meter from the calculation should be assessed. When
studying this and starting to evaluate different
Undercentral
250 A short-circuit protection alternatives, differences
between fuses and circuit breakers are soon
observed. With these differences established
and set in their right context in the plant, good
progress has been made in pursuit of the best
possible solution; a solution that takes into
Fas–fas
5,7 kA
account costs due to unplanned production
downtime in relation to the investment in elec-
trical equipment.
Special terminology
Before making any direct comparisons between
different short-circuit protective devices, a
number of terms need be clarified.
Cascade connection
Cascade connection is the term used when a
breaker with a high tripping capacity backs
up a breaker with a lower tripping capacity.
This is a very useful economic alternative
if limited selectivity can be accepted, since
both breakers in the chain trip for currents
exceeding the breaking capacity of the lower
breaker. The most common application is when
an MCCB backs up a number of MCBs in a
distribution board. (MCCBs and MCBs are
described under the section Circuit breakers,
p. ? 34.)
Note that accurate sizing necessitates joint
testing of apparatus. It is very difficult to achieve
the required function by combining different
devices merely on the basis of catalogue data.
44
97-03-05, 13.28
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
a which value it was that was stamped on the
b differentiate between ACB and MCCB, which
c F
Fig. 27 Cascade con-
nection
M M M
Breaking capacity
Breaking capacity describes the breaker´s ca-
pacity to trip short-circuit currents. It is impor-
tant to know how the breaking capacity is
defined in order to impose the right require-
ments on the apparatus. An IEC standard clearly
specifies how the test must be conducted when
the breaking capacity is to be verified. There is
some difference here between the old standard,
IEC 157-1, and the new one, IEC 947-2 (see the
section Circuit breakers, p. ? 34), but the test
procedures are virtually identical. In both cases
two different values for breaking capacity are
verified by two different test series. After the
first of the test series, a limited function is
accepted for the breaker and this value is termed
the P1 value, as stated in IEC 157-1, and the ICU
value, as in IEC 947-2. After the second test
series the breaker is still to retain its full func-
tion and this value is termed P2 in IEC 157-1
and ICS in IEC 947-2. These values are of course
at a lower level than the values P1 and ICU.
Test of short-circuit breaking capacity, test sequence
Standard Test sequence
IEC 947-2:
ICU O-CO
ICS O-CO-CO
IEC 157-1:
Cat. P1 O-CO
Cat. P2 O-CO-CO
O = one break
CO = one make, automatically followed by one break
45
5.2 45
The difference in the new standard is that it is
now required that the two values (ICU and ICS)
be presented on the breaker´s rating plate. This
was not the case previously, which resulted in
problems since not all suppliers clearly stated
plate.
It is worth noting that the standard does not
means that an ACB too is only able to withstand
a few short circuits at its maximum breaking
capacity. The difference is that the ACB´s de-
sign makes it quite easy to replace arc contacts
and quenching chambers, which extends the
lifetime of the ACB. In practice, however, it
is extremely unlikely that the same breaker
will be repeatedly exposed to fully developed
short circuits.
A fuse has, in principle, unlimited breaking
capacity.
Thermal trip conditions
There is another description of a breaker´s
performance where it is important to know
the background.
According to IEC 947-2 the breaker´s ther-
mal overload protective device should be cali-
brated at +30o C unless otherwise stated. How-
ever, the calibrating temperature is more usu-
ally +40oC or +45oC. The standard for circuit
breakers, IEC 947-2, has wider tolerances than
the standard for motor starters, IEC 947-4-1.
The MCCB is quite simply primarily de-
signed for the protection of cables and normally
does not have the kind of overload protection
required to safeguard motors.
An example of how the calibration tempera-
ture can play an important part is an MCB
Requirements after test
Limited function
Full function
Limited function
Full function
97-03-05, 13.28
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

installed in a car engine heating distribution
board located outdoors. This breaker may be
calibrated at +20oC, whereas the ambient tem-
perature might be -20oC. This naturally means
that the breaker will not perform as intended.
× Ie
1,40
IEC 947-2
1,30
current-limiting circuit breakers. See the sec-
tion Circuit breakers, current-limiting circuit
breakers, p. ? 35.
The goal is to have the same low level of let-
through energy (I2t) for circuit breakers as for
fuses at high short-circuit currents.
Ip
(kA)

1,20 IEC 947-4

100
1,05
1,00
Effektbrytare
–10 –5 0 10 20 30 40 °C 160 A gG
Omgivningstemperatur 160 A aM
100 A aM
Fig. 28 Thermal trip conditions Ambient tem- 10
perature

Co-ordination type
Types of co-ordination for motor starters are
described in the section Motor starters, p. ? 36.
104 105
Let-through energy (I2t) and let-through I (A)
current peak
Let-through energy and current peak are two
important magnitudes that give us reason to
examine the differences between fuses and I2t-värde, A2s
107
circuit breakers. 8
6 I2t 660 V
4 I2t 500 V
Fuses I2t 380 V
The breaking procedure for fuses depends en- 2
tirely on the size of the short-circuit current. 106
The higher the current, the shorter the breaking 8
6
time is.This means that the let-through energy 4
(I2t) is relatively independent of the short-
circuit current at high levels of fault current 2

(see the graphs below). Note that the short- 105

8
circuit current must be at a relatively high level 6
for the fuse to be able to limit the current peak 4
(see the section Fuses,current-limiting diagram,
2
p. ? 31).
104
8
Circuit breakers 6
The circuit breaker´s short-circuit protective 4

device, on the other hand, trips at approxi- 2

mately the same time, whatever the size of the
103
short-circuit current. This means that the let- 63 125 250 400 630 Märkström, A
through energy (I2t) will increase with higher
short-circuit currents. This is counteracted by Figs. 29 and 30 I2t curves and current limiting

46

5.2 46 97-03-05, 13.28

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Let-through energy (I2t) and current peak are
important data for fuses and circuit breakers,
since they are of importance to the sizing
of other components in the circuit, not for-
getting cable sizing (see the section Cable siz-
ing, p. ?...........).
Condition monitoring
The problem is to find out what the breaker has
been exposed to and what condition it is in.
Such checking is very much a question of
subjective judgement and requires some expe-
rience. A visual inspection of this kind should
be included in a periodic inspection control
plan, as well as after a breaker has tripped for a
short circuit.
In the regular inspection the breaker should
also be operated a few times. Furthermore, the
trip test button that is to be found on most
MCCBs today should be tested.
A more objective assessment of condition
can be made, after a trip, by measuring the
contact resistance over the main contacts, as
well as the insulation resistance to earth. Tables
of acceptable values are available. It is also
important to remember that the breaker that can
carry its rated current can also cope with trip-
ping for a short circuit. It is the characteristics
of the thermal overload protective device that
may be adversely affected.
Dependable disconnection
Not all experts approve of using the same
device for breaking short-circuit current and
employing it as a disconnector when carrying
out work on equipment (see the section Discon-
nection for work purposes, p. ? 27). Technical
solutions that ensure dependable disconnection
have been developed, for example taking out
and turning round the thermal overload relay in
a breaker and using it as an disconnector.
In heavy industry, withdrawable units (see
the section Incoming and outgoing units, p. ? 6)
are used in LV ASSEMBLIES. The units are
located in a disconnected position - a reliable
solution.
For those who do not wish to choose with-
drawable units there are today several
switchgear alternatives. Plug-in MCCB types
can, for example, be used as disconnectors
when isolated or withdrawn.
47
5.2 47
Comparison of fuses and circuit breakers
as short-circuit protection
The comparison is based upon three basic con-
ditions:
1. The short-circuit protective device is not to
trip if the rotor is locked in the motor. Overload
currents up to that level are to be taken care of
by the thermal overload protective device.
2. The motor starter is not to trip during normal
starting of the motor.
3. The contactor in a motor starter is to have a
higher making and breaking capacity, than the
tripping value of the short-circuit protective
device, so that the contactor is able to break the
fault current when the therrmal overload pro-
tective device gives an overload signal.
Fuses
It has been described above how fuses should
be sized so as to fulfil the first two require-
ments. It is the third requirement that causes
problems, since the fuse performance in the
overlapping area is rather difficult to control.
With short-circuit currents that are too low, the
breaking times for the fuse are too long. Often
the contactor has to withstand and interrupt
fault currents which the fuse should really have
dealt with.
The current-time curves given for fuses do
not provide much help as they only describe the
melting time for the fuses. The total breaking
time is often far too long to protect the contactor
effectively. Often the fuse will not blow fast
enough, or in the worst case not blow at all if,
for example, there is an attempt to switch on a
contactor when there is an insulation fault in
a motor.
This is more than the contactor can handle
and causes damage to the contacts and often
results in contact welding. The contactor is
often given the blame for defective operation
but in reality it is the short-circuit protective
device that did not work correctly.
Circuit breakers
With a circuit breaker as the short-circuit pro-
tective device, the first requirement above is, in
theory, easy to fulfil. The breaker has a very
steep characteristic in the short-circuit range,
and it is therefore easy to adjust to match the
97-03-05, 13.29
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

motor´s starting current. On the other hand,
only a very short current over the tripping value
is needed for the breaker to react. Once it has
started to move there is no return, and the
breaker will trip. The very short current peak,
which inevitably occurs when starting a motor,
is quite sufficient to trip the breaker. This
means that this peak determines sizing of the
setting of the short-circuit protective device.
Since it is much easier here to predict a
breaker´s operation than that of a fuse, it is also
easier to choose a contactor with sufficient
performance to fulfil the three requirements
mentioned earlier.
As a general rule it can be said that it is much
easier to size with circuit breakers as the
short-circuit protection at these limited
short-circuit currents.
Difficulties with circuit breakers arise in com-
binations with equipment in a motor starter.
These combinations have to be protected against
a bolted short circuit (no arc) directly on the
outgoing side of the combination. The reason
T
(s)
102
Termiskt
relä
101
MCCB
100 A aM
100
160 A gG
Motor
10-1
for the difficulties is that the breaker lets through
more energy the higher the short-circuit cur-
rents become. Apparatuses and devices after
the breaker have to be selected so that they can
cope with the amount of energy involved.
The next general rule is that sizing is easy
with fuses when there are fully developed,
direct short circuits.
The problem of the fuse´s long breaking time
in the case of limited short-circuit currents is
most critical for larger motors (> 70 kW. How-
ever, it may be solved to some extent with aM
fuses. See the section Fuses, p. ? 30 and Chap-
ter 4.4 Motor starting systems., p. ?
The graph below shows the problems and
also the possibilities in selecting a short-circuit
protective device in a motor starter.
When it comes to pure distribution, the ad-
vantageous properties of the circuit breaker can
be fully utilised. The weaknesses of circuit
breakers at high short-circuit currents are far
less marked in pure distribution than in the
protection of motor starters, since no co-ordi-
nation is required with other components.
In the United Kingdom and Italy, for exam-
ple, fuses are very seldom used in pure distribu-
tion. On the other hand, there are still fuses in
around 50 % of all motor starters. The reason is
not lack of technology; it is often due to over-
sizing of other components in trying to achieve
sizing equivalent to that of fuses at higher
short-circuit currents.This has in its turn re-
sulted in higher initial costs.
Nowadays, there are more, improved cur-
rent-limiting breakers available, allowing con-
tactors to be better utilised. If the voltage is
limited to 500 V and the short-circuit current to
50 kA, the differences today are small com-
pared with fuses as short-circuit protection.
Recent price development, too, has made the
MCCB more attractive for motor starter appli-
cations.

Selection of overload protection

10-2 See also Chapter 4.4 Motor starting systems
Introduction
102 103 104 It is primarily in the selection of short-circuit
I (A) protection that a comparison between fuse and
Fig. 31 Current-time curves. Comparison- circuit breaker assumes most importance. Irre-
Fuses/MCCBs spective of the choice of short-circuit protec-

48

5.2 48 97-03-05, 13.29

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
tion, perfectly adequate overload protection is
obtained for the cable. The question is whether
the protection is enough to protect the object
in question. To protect a motor from overload,
the fuse´s thermal characteristic is obviously
not enough. Further, the suitability of the inte-
gral thermal protective device present in most
MCCBs as overload protection for a motor
should also be questioned.
Development is moving towards more strin-
gent demands regarding plant availability. In
connection with this, demands for adequate
protective devices of different kinds are in-
creasing. Therefore, selecting an overload pro-
tection with worse capacity than traditional
thermal overload relays (see the section Over-
load relays, p. ? 33) cannot be correct. Conse-
quently, both fuse and MCCB should be sup-
plemented with the best possible overload pro-
tection feature for the motor. The object, i.e.,
the motor and the machine the motor is to drive,
determines the nature of the required protective
functions.
Different types of overload protective de-
vices
Standard protective device in MCCBs
The thermal relay built into all MCCBs is
designed to protect cables. It does this job better
than a fuse, which means that in most cases the
cable can be better utilised if a circuit breaker
has been selected. However, as mentioned pre-
viously, the let-through energy (I2t) upon short
circuit for cables < 25 mm2 must be checked.
Manually controlled direct-on-line starters
and various types of combination starters (see
the section Motor starters, p. ? 36) that have
been developed in recent years contain thermal
overload protective devices that fulfil the
IEC standard for contactors and motor starters
(IEC 947-4-1).
One or more of the following functions are,
however, often missing:
• Signal contacts that differentiate between
overload and short circuit.
• Temperature compensation.
• Phase fault protection.
• Possibility of automatic resetting (and
thereby remotely controlled resetting via
electrical interlocking).
49
5.2 49
Conventional thermal overload relays
The simplest and still the most common over-
load protective device is the thermal overload
relay. See the section Overload relays, p. ? 33.
This is a good solution at a good price
which gives enough protection for most mo-
tors.
Electronic overload relays
Vital continuous drives often require functions
that are not available with thermal overload
relays. A current-transformer-fed electronic
overload relay is then a good alternative. See
the sections Overload relays, p. ? 33 and Micro-
processor-based control technique for low-volt-
age distribution systems, p. ? 49.
Electronic overload relays with communica-
tion possibilities
To ensure maximum availability of a plant,
preventive maintenance is important.
It is then required that various protection
functions provide an alarm for impending and
incipient faults. These could include measuring
of temperature at different points, operating
hours and the number of makes and breaks.
All this can be measured and stored in a moni-
toring system. See the sections Overload re-
lays, p. ? 33 and Microprocessor-based control
technique for low-voltage distribution systems,
p. ? 49.
Temperature measurement
It is not the overload itself that is damaging to
the motor; it is the elevated temperature that the
overload causes. So long as all that is required
is to measure the current to avoid damage to
the motor, there is optimum protection as the
current characteristics of the protection are just
above the current characteristics of the motor
during inrush, start and continuous operation.
However, in the case of abnormal temperature
conditions in the LV ASSEMBLY or at the site
of the motor, current measuring gives only a
poor indication of how severely the motor is
loaded.
To obtain complete protection, temperature
measurement of the motor´s windings is neces-
sary. An increasing number of motor starters
can accept signals from, for example, a ther-
mistor (built into the windings of the motor)
for tripping or warning.
97-03-05, 13.29
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Microprocessor-based control
technique for low-voltage
distribution systems
General
It is not only the supply to the motors but also
the protection and control functions that are
attended to by an LV ASSEMBLY.
Normally, these protection and control func-
tions are realised by combining apparatus with
the right functions and data, where the choice of
apparatus depends on both motor data and the
application. The apparatus should usually be
connected in a certain manner to obtain the
required operation for the motor drive.
With the help of microprocessor technology
such electrical installations can today be built
up in a much easier way.
All monitoring and control, for example
of motor drives, is concentrated to a common
master operation centre. Information that needs
to be known about a motor in the plant can be
read on a display, for example current level,
fault messages, operating hours, maintenance
period and a great deal more. This information
can also be found on control and indication
panels on the LV ASSEMBLY.
The large number of monitoring functions,
and the possibility of getting warnings at pro-
grammed-in measuring levels, results in more
efficient process monitoring.
The warning signals make it possible to take
steps in time and breakdowns can thus be
avoided.
At the same time as control and monitoring
functions are being improved and extended, the
actual design of the electrical plant is being
simplified. Point-to-point conductors are being
replaced with bus connections, which reduces
the number of cables needed.
Some of the advantages of this technique are:
• Improved
monitoring and controlling
• More reliable
Improved motor protection
• Extended protection
system processing
• Simpler plant design functions
• Quicker and more efficient plant
• construction
• More effective maintenance
• Easier and faster troubleshooting
50
5.2 50
All this helps lead to more efficient production
through optimum use of the electrical plant.
System principles
There are three types of electronic microproc-
essor-based systems for Motor Control Cen-
tres, MCCs, on the market.
1. Systems with motor protection functions
(electronic overload relay)
2. Communication systems that have bus
communication between MCC and master
process control system
3. Systems that include both motor protec-
tion and bus communication with master
process control system, for example ABB´s
INSUM.
Describtion of type 3 above (ABB´s INSUM
system)
All conventional components are replaced by a
microprocessor-based device. This consists of
measuring and control units that have all func-
tions for protection, controlling, monitoring,
measuring and operating of, for example, a
motor drive. Each unit collects, processes and
stores measured values and transmits control
signals to the motor starter.
A current transformer ensures galvanic sepa-
ration between main circuits and auxiliary cir-
cuits and provides a suitable measuring level.
In an operating and indicating unit the bus
connection is able to handle up to 32 measuring
and control devices, communicating with a
master process control system.
The functions that are monitored in a motor
drive are:
• Overload
• Phase failure
• Locked rotor in the motor
• Underload
• Earth fault
• Undervoltagerise
Temperature
•
There are also units for controlling and moni-
toring circuit breakers.
Together with the master process control
system, for example the ABB Master system,
controlling and monitoring of the electrical
plant can be integrated in the production proc-
ess. The operator and the plant electrician are
97-03-05, 13.29
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
thus equipped with an effective tool to control
and run the process.
All necessary functions for process control,
drive equipment, motor control, machine con-
trol, instrumentation, drive optimisation, qual-
ity control, etc., can be included.
ABB
Master
BAG
INSUM
Start- Max 32 stycken
kopplare
MSG
INSUM
M Lokal
manöverlåda
T.ex.
Nödstopp
Fig. 32 The INSUM system
Sizing of devices and cables
For direct outgoing units (motor starters, for
example) this is largely a question of selectivity
and cable sizing. This requires, as input data,
the calculated short-circuit current at the differ-
ent locations where the short-circuit protective
device is to be installed, and the short-circuit
current for various fault cases at the item to be
protected, With circuit breakers, the require-
ments made regarding the condition of the
breaker after a bolted short circuit (short circuit
without arc) in the LV ASSEMBLY must also
be determined. Further, co-ordination tables
from the supplier of the circuit breaker are
needed in developing selectivity plans.
See more about selectivity under the section
Selectivity, p. 26 ?..........
Cable sizing is described in detail in Chapter
10 Cables, Cable sizing, p. ?..........
For sizing of motor starters, the supplier
should be able to supply complete co-ordina-
tion and sizing tables. One should avoid com-
bining a motor starter on one´s own. Correct
sizing requires careful joint testing of the com-
ponents (i.e., the complete starter, see the sec-
tion Motor starters, p. ? 36).
For combination starters, the requirements
made of the device´s function after a bolted
5.2 51
short circuit (short circuit without arc) must
be determined. See the section Motor starters,
p. ? 36.
In the suppliers´ tables a certain type of
motor is used as the point of departure. A 4-pole
motor of a well-known make is usually chosen.
An important feature where motor makes differ
is the power factor, cos j, during start-up. The
current peak generated during the start is en-
tirely dependent on the P.F. or cos j. Modern,
high-efficiency motors have a lower P.F. and
this results in a higher switching current surge
when starting. This current surge determines
Luftbrytare sizing in setting the short-circuit protective
Megamax
device in the circuit breaker.
Corresponding problems can arise when
changing to circuit breakers in an existing plant
where the motors are often over-sized. Unfor-
tunately, the short-circuit protective device can-
not be set with too broad a margin, since this
directly affects the maximum cable length,
which is also dependent on the short-circuit
protective device setting.
The manufacturer can provide information
on which power factor has been calculate with
for different motor outputs. This information
must be checked against all actual motors in the
plant. In the sizing tables there are recom-
mended settings for the short-circuit protective
device. With help of these figues the cables can
then be sized. See Chapter 10 Cables, as men-
tioned above.
Note that when calculating the nominal set-
ting of the circuit breaker, a possible voltage
variation of +/- 10 % needs to be taken into
account, as well as a tolerance of +/- 20 % in
the short-circuit protective device.
With regard to the maximum settings, based
upon defined tripping with a certain cable, a
30 % voltage drop in any arc that occurs can
be reckoned on, and a tolerance of +/- 20 %
in the breaker´s set value.
Project planning
Planning steps
Aspects affecting the design and the selection
of components for the LV ASSEMBLY have
been described earlier.
This section constitutes a summary and a
check list for planning steps in logical se-
quence.
51
97-03-05, 13.30
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution
Step 1: Determination of plant design
See the section Plant design, p. ? 22.
Alternative 1 Place the transformer next
to the LV ASSEMBLY and
gather all incoming and out-
going units in a common
switchgear assembly located
Alternative 2
in an operating room.
Divide the LV ASSEMBLY
into a main distribution Load
Centre (LC) located in an
locked operating room, and
sub-distribution Motor Con-
trol Centres (MCCs), placed
close to the process equip-
ment.
Step 2: Determination of rated data for the
switchgear - rated current, rated voltage,
rated short-time current
See the section Plant design, p. ? 22.
Data for the feeding trans-
former and the sum of the load
currents, taking into conside-
ration the diversity factor (see
the section Diversity factor,
p. ? 24), form the basis for
the rated data of the LV AS-
SEMBLY. Future extensions
and any requirements regard-
ing maximum temperature rise
should also be considered.
Step 3: Determination of system earthing
See the section Types of distribution system,
p. ? 25.
• Directly earthed
• Not directly earthed
• Three-phase 3-wire
• Three-phase 4-wire
Step 4: Determination of degree of protec-
tion, IP Code and environmental adaptation
See the section Service conditions, p. ? 8.
• IPIP 21, normal design Jag
• againstextra
41, protection
direct contact with live parts
• IPAnother
54, waterproof design
• adaptationIP Code and environmental
52
5.2 52
Step 5: Determination of incoming supply
from the transformer
See the section Connection to the LV ASSEM-
BLY, p. ? 26.
• Via circuit breaker
• Via disconnector
• Direct connection
Via switch + fuses or MCCB
•
Step 6: Determination of short-circuit pro-
tective device for the outgoing units
See the section Selection of short-circuit pro-
tective device (SCPD), p. ? 41.
Alternative 1 Switch + fuses
Alternative 2 MCCB
The requirements of selectiv-
ity must be closely considered.
Step 7: Determination of the design of outgo-
ing units
See the section Switching devices and compo-
nents installed in LV ASSEMBLIES, p. ? 15.
Alternative 1 Fixed groups
Alternative 2 Removable
groups
Alternative 3 Withdrawable
groups
Step 8: Determination of utilisation category
See the sections Contactors, p. ? 31, Motor
starters, p. ? 36 and Selection of short-circuit
protection device (SCPD), p. ? 41.
Step 9: Determination of power factor con-
trol, where necessary
See the section Power factor control, p. ? 4.
Step 10: Control of power losses
Resistances in conductors,
connections, apparatus (coils,
for example) and resistors
give rise to power losses and
temperature rise.
A number of guidelines
• If the diversity factor is in accordance with
the standard values, see under the section
Diversity factor, p. ? 24 (see also Step 2
above), there is usually no need for special
consideration.
97-03-05, 13.30
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

• Ifstandard
the diversity factor is higher than the
values, the LV ASSEMBLY
ence and submits a preliminary tender to the
user - the client. The latter makes his own
should be fitted with a fewer number of adjustments and thereafter a final tender can be
”separated” groups (the space in the cubic- arrived at.
le thus not fully utilised). The rated Clients and consultants having PCs can be
currents for groups and for the equipped given access to the program.
cubicle could also be increased in relation to
the operational currents.
• For enclosure class IP 21the power losses Information to be provided
of the horizontal busbars need not be on an LV ASSEMBLY
considered.
Documentation (5 in IEC 439-1)
• For enhanced enclosure class IP 41 the rated
current must be reduced by 10-30 %. The documentation constitutes an important
feature of an LV ASSEMBLY delivery.
• For enclosure class IP 54 the rated current
is reduced by 30 % for horizontal busbars. It can be divided up into the following groups:
• When sizing the ventilation system for the
operating room, a power loss of 1 kW
1. Catalogues, pamphlets,
brochures and other printed
for a normally equipped cubicle can be used sales matter
as a guideline. 2. Test reports
3. Instructions on installation
Planning tools (p. ? 350) and maintenance
Large manufacturers of LV ASSEMBLIES all 4. Customer documentation
have some type of computerised system for for the delivery in question
project planning and producing tenders and
documentation. 1. Catalogues, pamphlets, brochures and
The following are usual features: other printed sales matter
• Preparing a questionnaire A catalogue supplies tech-
• Preliminary tender, designing documenta-
tion for buildings
nical information on data,
dimensions, functions, stan-
• Making changes dards, etc. Pamphlets, bro-
• Final tender chures and other sales matter
• Ordering are intended to stimulate in-
• Documentation terest. They may contain a
• Providing input data for the creation of manu-
facturing documents.
certain amount of technical
data but the information in the
catalogue is what counts
The complete switchgear and controlgear stand- when planning.
ard is stored in the system, including all stand-
ardised units, enclosures, accessories, etc. 2. Test reports
Input particulars include primary data for A type test report is required.
motors, loads and feeding transformer. The The tests can be performed
system creates a ”proposal” for a complete LV in the manufacturer´s own
ASSEMBLY, including price and the follow- laboratory, with or without
ing documents: witnesses, or in another inde-
pendent test facility. See the
• Single-line diagram section Test specifications,
• Front and floor layout, drilling plans p. ? 17.
• Circuit diagrams
• List of name-plates 3. Instructions and manuals
• List of apparatus There are a number of prod-
The proposal is scrutinised by the planner, who uct-related instructions that
then makes adjustments based on his experi- concern mounting, assembly,

53

5.2 53 97-03-05, 13.31

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

service and maintenance, etc.

Instructions often form part of
complete customer documen-
tation, together with cata-
logues and order—related
documentation, e.g. circuit
diagrams, lists of apparatus,
etc.
4. Customer documentation
Customer documentation normally contains:
• General assembly drawing (with dimensions
for the LV ASSEMBLY, cubicles, units, etc.)
• Front layout
• List of apparatus
Possible additional inclusions:
• Wiring tables (cubicle level)
• List of name-plates
• Erection plans
• and maintenance
Instructions and manuals for installation

• Circuit diagrams
• Single-line
diagrams)
diagrams (and/or overview

54

5.2 54 97-03-05, 13.31

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

Bibliography
Applicable IEC standards
As mentioned in the introductory section, p. ? 2, the International Standard Publication IEC 439-
1, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies, Part 1: Requirements for Type-
Tested (TTA) and Partially Type-Tested (PTTA) Assemblies is the main standard for LV
ASSEMBLIES. The object of the standard is to establish requirements. The standard has eight main
divisions:
1. General, 1.1: Scope and object, 1.2: Normative references (=applicable IEC standards, see
list below)
2. Definitions
3. Classification of ASSEMBLIES
4. Electrical characteristics of ASSEMBLIES (rated voltage, rated current,etc.)
5. Information to be provided on the ASSEMBLY
6. Service conditions
7. Design and construction
8. Test specifications

List of applicable IEC standards

Name Number
Coding of indicating devices and actuators
by colours and supplementary means IEC 73: 1991

Degree of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code) IEC 529: 1989

Electrical installations of buildings IEC 364
Assessment of general characteristics. IEC 3643:1977
Protection for safety; Protection against electric shock. IEC 364-4-41
Choice of protective measures against electric shock
in relation to external influences. IEC 364-4-481
Selection and erection of electrical equipment;
Earthing arrangements and protective conductors. IEC 364-5-54
Graphical symbols for use on equipment.
Index, survey and compilation of the single sheets. IEC 417: 1973
High-voltage test techniques IEC 60
IEC standard voltages IEC 38: 1983

Identification of equipment terminals and of terminations of certain

designated conductors, including general rules for an alphanumeric system. IEC 445: 1988
Identification of conductors by colours or numerals. IEC 446: 1989
Insulation co-ordination, Part 1: Terms, definitions, principles and rules. IEC 71-1: 1976
Insulation co-ordination for equipment within low-voltage systems,
Part 1: Basic principles and requirements. IEC 664-1: 1992

55

5.2 55 97-03-05, 13.31

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Low voltage distribution

International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) IEC 50

Switchgear, controlgear and fuses IEC 50 (441): 1984
Insulators IEC 50 (471): 1984
Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, Operation IEC 50 (604): 1984
Item designation in electrotechnology. IEC 750: 1983
Low-voltage fuses IEC 269
Low-voltage controlgear; Semiconductor contactors
(solid state contactors) IEC 158-2: 1982
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear IEC 947
General rules IEC 947-1: 1988
Circuit breakers IEC 947-2: 1989
Switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and
fuse-combination units. IEC 947-3: 1990
Contactors and motor starters;
Electromechanical contactors and motor starters. IEC 947-4-1: 1990
Method for determining the comparative and
the proof-tracking indices of solid insulating materials
under moist conditions. IEC 112: 1979

Method of temperature-rise assessment by extrapolation for

partially type-tested assemblies (PTTA) of low-voltage
switchgear and controlgear. EC 890: 1987
Miniature Circuit Breakers, MCBs;
Circuit breakers for overcurrent protection for household
and similar installations. IEC 898
(Amendment No. 1-3): 1990
Semiconductor convertors;
Semiconductor self-commutated convertors IEC 146-2: 1974
Standard directions of movement for actuators which control
the operation of electrical apparatus. IEC 447: 1974

Surge arresters;
Non-linear resistor-type gapped surge arresters
for AC systems. IEC 99-1: 1991

Thermal electrical relays, Overload relays IEC 255-8: 1990

Literature:
”Corrosion of electronics”, A Handbook based on
Experiences from a Nordic Research Project
Authors: Jan Henriksen, Risto Hienonen, Torbjörn Imrell,
Christofer Leygraf, Lena Sjögren Bulletin No. 102
Swedish Corrosion
Institute, August 1991

56

5.2 56 97-03-05, 13.31

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
MEDIUM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
Contents
1 Design
2 Switchgear
3 Equipment items
4 Charactristics of various circuit breakers
5 Measuring transformers and relay protection
6 Condition monitoring
Design
Medium-voltage switchgear for industry is
nearly always of in-house design. Under IEC
298, temperatures in switchgear rooms may
range from -5 to +35°C (+40°C peak value)
and the air in them may have a maximum 24-
hour average moisture content of 95% and
must be free from pollutants such as dust,
smoke, corrosive or explosive gases, etc.
Environmental aspects
Environmental problems are liable to arise in
many industries, e.g. the dust often released
into the atmosphere by the cement industry,
smelters, etc. Switchgear rooms have to be
ventilated in such a way as to prevent dust
making its way in and affecting the operation of
switchgear. It is, of course, important that the
filters that have in many cases to be used in
ventilation ducts be cleaned at regular inter-
vals.
Other types of environmental problems arise
where there are air pollutants that have chemi-
cal effects on switchgear. Sulphur, for exam-
ple, is capable of reacting with copper and
silver to form sulphides. A coating of sulphur
on contact surfaces may lead to increased
resistances, higher temperatures and eventu-
ally to overheating and damage. Industries li-
able to create explosive atmospheres have to
avoid using certain kinds of equipment capable
of generating even tiny sparks (auxiliary con-
tacts, motors, microswitches, etc.). Very severe
requirements therefore have to be imposed for
57
5.3 57
page
57
58
61
63
65
66
switchgear in such cases.
Moisture is also a serious problem in switchgear.
Condensation on insulation surfaces, particu-
larly in combination with dust, nearly always
leads to flashover and consequent damage.
Cubicles in operation usually develop suffi-
cient heat to prevent condensation, but there is
great risk of condensation in cubicles not oper-
ating (standby cubicles) if air humidity is high
and the temperature falls. In cases where there
is risk of condensation, each cubicle should be
provided with a heating element, the switching
on and off of which needs to be controlled by a
hydrometer if condensation is to be prevented.
A simpler but completely reliable alternative
control system for the heating element is to
arrange for it to be disconnected when the
connection equipment is in operation, so that
when the latter switches off, the heat element
comes on automatically.
Location
Switchgear in industry may be housed in sepa-
rate buildings but is often located in special
operating rooms within industrial buildings.
As there are so many different kinds of indus-
try, the range of possible environments is far
too great to be able to give any general indica-
tions about the design of industrial switchgear.
Where it is in special operating rooms, how-
ever, there are a number of points that have to
be catered for, such as pressure relief and per-
sonnel evacuation.
97-03-05, 13.31
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
Operating rooms, construction requirements
Pressure relief
Switchgear should be arc-tested to IEC 298
standard. Arcing results in large amounts of
gas that have to be discharged to prevent seri-
ous pressure damage to the switchgear. This
gas has to be removed from the operating area
and led out into the open air to prevent anyone
being harmed by its toxic components.
The pressure created by an arcing fault may
amount to several tonnes per square metre and
can be calculated approximately by means of
the empirical formula
2xNxUxIxt
P= V time does not exceed 0.15 s (e.g. by means of
where P = positive pressure in atmg
N = number of arcs
U =arc voltage in kV
I = arc current in kA
t = time in seconds before cubicle pressure
relief vents open
V = volume in m3
The following criteria are used for evaluating
an arcing test:
• Do doors, enclosure parts, etc., that are closed
and locked in the intended manner remain
closed after the test?
• Do parts of the metalclad switchgear capa-
ble of harming persons become loose?
• Have holes been caused in freely accessible
external parts of the enclosure by burn-
through?
• Do cotton indicators positioned vertically
30 cm in front of the switchgear ignite (dis-
regarding those ignited by burning paint or
flakes)?
• Do cotton indicators positioned horizontally
over the operating area ignite (same paren-
thesis)?
• Do the earth current paths remain opera-
tional after the test?
In industry it is not unusual for switchgear to be
situated far from any outside wall, which means
that the pressure relief ducts may be very long,
requiring verification that pressure stresses in
the switchgear do not exceed the values ob-
tained in type tests. Special computer programs
58
5.3 58
for calculating these pressure stresses are avail-
able from ABB.
Low ceilings may sometimes make it impos-
sible for gases due to arcing to be discharged
upwards sufficiently quickly, in which case it
may even be necessary to reduce the short-
circuit current in order to cope with potential
pressure increases caused by arcing.
Escape routes
In principle, no-one should ever be more than
5 m from an exit. This means that if the
switchgear room is longer than 5 m there has to
be an exit at each end. However, if the switchgear
meets the arcing requirements and the tripping
arcing monitors), it is possible to have an exit at
only one end of switchgear rooms up to 10 m
long. The width of the operating area should be
such that there is always a clear escape route at
least 0.5 m wide even when cubicle doors are
open.
Immediately outside the doors of switchgear
rooms there must be a level area of at least 2 x
1.5 m in the same plane as the switchgear floor.
If the exit is directly onto open ground, there
may be a certain difference in height, but pref-
erably not more than 250 mm. These require-
ments relate, of course, to the need for it to be
possible to evacuate the room and look after
injured persons immediately after an accident.
Switchgear housed in industrial buildings
may sometimes cause problems. The switchgear
room may be well below ground level or high
up in a building. In new buildings, this matter
should always be resolved at the design stage,
but where switchgear has to be installed in
existing buildings, evacuation requirements
often cause problems.
The running of pipes, cables, etc., through
switchgear rooms should be avoided.
Switchgear
General, standards
All medium-voltage switchgear is governed by
international standard IEC 298 and the voltage
levels mostly used for industrial applications
are 7.2 and 12 kV, which means test voltages of
60 and 75 kV peak voltage and 20 and 28 kV
AC voltage, respectively.
Short-circuit currents and operating currents
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution

are very high, partly because of the rather low Such arrangements provide the continuous pos-
voltages used, but mainly because most indus- sibility of supply via another path if a fault
tries have large power requirements. Operating occurs anywhere. Double busbars may be placed
currents of up to about 4000 A are not unusual, side by side in the same cubicle, or in what is
which corresponds to the data of ABB’s Safesix known as a duplex arrangement, i.e., two rows
switchgear. of cubicles (see Fig. 48), or in a single row of
cubicles with sectioning switches and different
Composition incoming supplies (see Fig. 49).
One of the most characteristic features of in-
dustrial switchgear is the requirement for high
operational availability, particularly in the case
of process industries.
Industrial switchgear is therefore often de-
signed so that there are alternative incoming
supplies. This involves various kinds of double
busbar arrangements (see Fig. 46).

Fig. 48 Safesix in duplex form

Systems with double busbars in the same cubi-

cle or variants of such systems are now in
decline. Having two busbar systems in the
same cubicle increases not only the risk of both
systems being affected by faults but also the
risks to personnel who have to work on one
system while the other is energised.
Duplex systems have therefore become more
Fig. 46 Double busbars usual, despite their somewhat higher cost. The
safest is the duplex front-to-front, which in-
volves two rows of cubicles installed facing
one another (see Fig. 48). This means that the
Strömbegränsande Ej strömbegränsande two busbar systems are several metres apart
and a fault on one side will not affect the other.
I I Anyone working on one busbar is also a safe
kA kA distance from the other. Front-to-front arrange-
ments are also relatively economical on space,
50 50 since they require only one operating area.
Duplex back-to-back arrangements involve two
operating areas and a consequently larger
switchgear room. The fact that back-to-back
20 20 arrangements make it impossible to see the A
and B sides at the same time also increases
somewhat the risk of incorrect action.
In some situations it may be more economi-
cal to place all the cubicles in one row with
sectioning switches between them, in which
case each busbar has its own incoming supply
5 ms and it is possible, for example, to use two
Fig. 47 13 ms incoming supplies to cater for a number of

59

5.3 59 97-03-05, 13.32

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
different supply possibilities (see Fig. 49). Cer-
tain industries also prefer to have each busbar
system in a different room to further reduce the
risk of loss of supply.
Cooling
High currents are usual in industrial applica-
tions, which means that particular attention
usually needs to be paid to cooling. IEC 298
permits temperature rises to a maximum of
50°C for bolted connections between bare cop-
per busbars in air. The temperature permitted in
the case of silver-coated contact surfaces is
75°C. The permitted temperature rise for plug-
in contacts is 65°C for silvered copper contacts
and 35°C for unsilvered contacts.
The current that a given busbar system can
carry depends partly on the materials and sur-
face treatment of joints and contacts and partly
on what cooling can be provided. Forced cool-
ing by fans means that higher currents can be
used, but this does, of course, depend on the fan
system always functioning. It is therefore usual
in most cases to try to manage with natural
ventilation. Properly thought-out design can
achieve automatic air circulation and conse-
quently good cooling even without fans. Spe-
Fig. 49
Double incoming
supply with
sectioning breakers.
60
5.3 60
cial measures such as painting of busbars may
also result in increased radiation, allowing
higher currents without exceeding standard tem-
perature values. If rectangular busbars are used,
every possible endeavour should be made to
position them edgewise, as this provides opti-
mum cooling.
Cubicle types
There is, in principle, an infinite variety of
switchgear for industrial applications. A small
engineering establishment may have switchgear
consisting of a few individual cubicles of very
simple design with one incoming supply breaker
and a few outgoing load isolating cubicles (Fig.
50). At the other end of the scale, switchgear for
oil platforms, nuclear power stations, paper
mills or rolling mills sometimes involves very
complicated equipment incorporating isolating
cubicles, load isolating cubicles, metering cu-
bicles, breaker cubicles, contactor cubicles,
etc. IEC 298 divides metal-enclosed indoor
switchgear into three main categories:
• Metalclad switchgear
• Compartmented switchgear
• Cubicle switchgear
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Metalclad switchgear has its components in
separate cells with intermediate walls made of
metal (see Fig. 51).
Fig. 51 Safesix type metalclad switchgear.
Compartmented switchgear also has all its
components in separate cells but now the inter-
mediate walls are made of non-metallic materi-
als.
Cubicle switchgear is any switchgear which is
not classifiable as metalclad or compartmented,
e.g. it may have the breaker and the cables in the
same space. Personnel safety is, of course, at a
considerably lower level, since cubicle
switchgear has no automatic protection against
energised cables harming anyone drawing out
the breakers.
Earthing for work
Some kind of integrated earthing for work is a
common feature of all three types of cubicle.
The safest kind is an earthing switch with
making capacity for the full short-circuit cur-
rent for the earthing of cables and, in most
cases, the busbar as well. The earthing switch
should always be interlocked so that it cannot
be operated against voltage. Mechanical inter-
locking is the first choice but is not always
possible for earthing switches in incoming sup-
ply cubicles. If energisation checks are desired
before earthing, ABB’s Safesix type switchgear
61
5.3 61
can be provided with capacitive voltage indica-
tors built into the insulators of the earthing
switch, in which case the cubicle front incorpo-
rates a warning device to show whether the
phases are live or not.
Equipment items
General, various operating situations
All kinds of operating situations occur in indus-
try. Power supply may be from subordinate
transformers within the industrial area in cases
where the switching on or off of power is only
required extremely rarely. Another possibility
is the connection and disconnection of a bank of
capacitors for controlling reactive power
offtake, with switching taking place several
times a day. Different equipment is also used
depending on whether operation is to be con-
tinuous with stringent requirements for
uninterruptible power supply or whether inter-
ruptions can be tolerated without unduly ex-
pensive consequences.
The appropriateness of each piece of equip-
ment depends on the type of load. Achieving an
optimum solution requires a clear picture of the
types of currents and voltages that will occur,
how often switching will take place, what inter-
ruptions of operation are acceptable, etc. Only
on the basis of this kind of information is it
possible to decide on the most suitable equip-
ment.
Disconnectors
A disconnector may be a separate piece of
equipment or simply a mechanism for connect-
ing/disconnerting, for example, a cirquit
breaker. A disconnector has neither breaking
nor making capacity and may only be operated
when there is no current in the conducting path,
so it always has to be interlocked so as to be
only operable in the de-energised state. It also
has to withstand not only its rated current con-
tinuously without dangerous temperature rise
but also a short-circuit current characterised by
the impulse current (peak value at the begin-
ning) and short-time current (r.m.s. value dur-
ing short circuits, usually 1 second).
A disconnector involves more stringent re-
quirements for insulation across open separa-
tion points than the separation point of a breaker
does. In principle, flashovers should be to earth
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
rather than across the separation distance. A
separation distance should preferably also be
visible, unlike a breaking distance. If the con-
tact position indication is satisfactory, how-
ever, there is no need for the separation distance
to be visible.
Switch disconnectors
Switch disconnectors are used for disconnec-
tion and connection of operating currents. They
can be switched against a specified short-cir-
cuit current and can also carry the short-circuit
current for a certain time in the closed position.
They can break the load current, i.e., their rated
current, usually 400 or 630 A, but cannot break
short-circuit currents. The short-circuit protec-
tion used in some cases consists of built-
in fuses that break short-circuit currents. To
avoid that just one phase is broken by a single-
phase fault, these fuses are provided with a
striker pin that trips the opening mechanism
of the switch disconnector. Switch disconnec-
tors are usually operated by means of a spring
operating device tensioned manually or by
motor.
Fuses are often used as short-circuit protec-
tion in conjunction with load disconnectors and
contactors. Each fuse consists of two contacts
associated with one or more fusible conductors
made of silver or copper. These fusible conduc-
tors are surrounded by an extinguishing me-
dium consisting of quartz sand of suitable grain
size. The fusible conductors and the extin-
guishing medium are enclosed in an insulating
cartridge body. To ensure controlled melting of
the fusible conductor, it is usually provided
with weak points in the form of punched holes.
Each fuse may be provided with a warning
device. The cartridges are fitted to load
disconnectors or contactors. When a high fault
current passes through the fuse, the fusible
conductor becomes hot and melts.
A fuse creates a fault current limit that may,
for example, be useful in the dimensioning of
cables.
Contactors
Operating situations sometimes occur in indus-
try in which operating currents at medium-
voltage level have to be connected and discon-
nected several times an hour, e.g. for the switch-
ing of motors, capacitor banks, furnaces etc.
62
5.3 62
The mechanical life of the motorised spring
operating devices incorporated in all circuit
breakers is limited to 10,000-20,000 switching
operations. This means, for example, that the
service life of a drive that has to be switched
three times per hour on a two-shift basis will be
only 1 to 2 years, which is not a particularly
economical solution.
The connecting equipment for this kind of
drive should not be a circuit breaker but a high-
voltage contactor, which is mainly available in
vacuum or SF6 versions. Vacuum contactors
usually have longer service life (several million
switching operations) but have the disadvan-
tage that in certain positions they are liable to
generate overvoltages that may, for example,
damage motors that lack suitable protection.
Contactors are available for 3.6, 7.2 and 12
kV, operating currents are usually 400 or 630 A
and breaking currents between 5 and 10 kA. As
their breaking capacity is limited, they are often
provided with built-in fuses as protection against
short-circuit currents. It is also possible to use
relay protection to block the contactor and a
circuit breaker to take care of short-circuit
currents.
Contactors thus have the great advantage of
very long mechanical life, partly because the
movable contact is operated by means of a
solenoid and not by a spring operating device.
The result is an operating device with few
moving parts that copes with a very large number
of switching operations (over a million).
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers are the most common type of
switch in industry. They can make and break
the full short-circuit current and are provided
with a motorised spring operating device.
They may have an operating sequence known
as rapid auto reclosing which is particularly
important in industries in which periods of
interruption are very expensive. This means
that a temporary fault will make the breaker
switch off but then immediately switch back
on. If the fault has by then disappeared, the
process will continue as usual, but if the fault
persists, the breaker switches off again.
IEC 56 defines various test cycles for break-
ers, but the one most commonly used is 0-0,35-
CO-3 min-CO.
A point to be particularly noted for industrial
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
applications is that switching operations may
be very frequent, as in the case of breakers for
capacitor banks, certain motor applications, arc
furnaces, etc. Breaker selection therefore in-
volves looking not only at optimum service life
but also at servicing and maintenance costs.
The various types of breaker available each
have their advantages and disadvantages. When
assessing possible breakers, it is therefore im-
portant to consider all parameters. The breakers
most commonly used are of the vacuum and SF6
types. A great many minimum-oil breakers,
magnetic air breakers and compressed air break-
ers are also still operating but are no longer used
in new installations except in very special cases,
e.g. for generators.
Vacuum breakers
There are several differences between vacuum
and other types of breaker. One is that vacuum
breakers contain from the outset no gas that
could be conducting. The parting of the metal
contacts during breaking causes an arc that
burns in metal vapour from the contacts. The
hot base points of the arc give off sufficient
vapour for the arc to persist even when the
contacts are rather far apart. When the current
passes through zero, vapour ceases momentar-
ily to be given off and existing vapour con-
denses on available surfaces. If vapour devel-
opment is not resumed, the breaking operation
is complete.
SF6 breakers using the puffer principlec
(ABB’s type HPA breaker, see Fig. 52)
When the breaker is in the closed position,
current flows via the normal current contacts.
Fig. 52 SF6 breaker using the puffer principle, ABB type HPA.
63
5.3 63
The opening pulse makes the cylinder move
downwards, the upper normal current contacts
open and the current is commutated to the
arcing contacts. At the same time, the gas in
the cylinder is compressed. As the opening
operation continues, the arc is drawn out be-
tween the arcing contacts.
The compression of the gas in the puffer is
increased by the heat of the are itself. At current
zero the compressed, cool, gas mixes with the
hot gas in the former are region, preventing
reignition and completing the interruption.
SF6 breakers without mechanical compres-
sion, known as self-blasters, are also available.
(ABB HA)
Characteristics of various
circuit breakers
Industry involves many different operating situ-
ations for which different kinds of breaker are
more or less suitable, depending on the types
of current and voltage that occur.
Breaking short-circuit currents
The breaking of short-circuit currents subjects
breakers to great stresses, both mechanical (elec-
trical forces, pressure development in poles)
and thermal. As breakers are put through com-
prehensive type tests involving a variety of
short-circuit currents, these stresses are nor-
mally no great problem. Where an installation
incorporates a number of parallel turbogenera-
tors with switchgear installed very close to
them, as on oil platforms, it is possible for there
to be a very high DC component at the begin-
ning of a fault. As all breakers need a zero
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
crossing to enable them to break, the associated
arcing times may be long and result in exces-
sive stresses.
Connecting capacitive currents
Capacitive currents (no-load line, cable or ca-
pacitor bank) have to be broken without
restriking and this is usually coped with by all
modern breakers. Connecting individual ca-
pacitor banks is likewise no problem, although
the connecting current peaks during the con-
nection of parallel banks may sometimes cause
problems. Minimum-oil breakers are more sen-
sitive in this respect than SF6 and vacuum
breakers, so damping reactors are often used in
conjunction with them. Certain breakers, e.g.
type HPA, are available with synchronised
closing, which largely eliminates the connect-
ing current and the distortions it might cause
to the mains supply.
Breaking small inductive currents
Industries often use high-voltage motors of
various sizes. This frequently creates a need to
break small inductive currents, which may in-
volve special problems.
All breakers have a tendency to “chop” the
current off before the natural zero crossing. If
this happens during the disconnection of an
inductive load, the energy that is in the inductor
at the time is released and then oscillates be-
tween the parallel capacitance and the induct-
ance of the load. This may result in high
overvoltages. The high chopping level (20-
30 A) of compressed air breakers has caused
many problems. The chopping level of mini-
mum-oil and SF6 breakers depends on the par-
allel capacitance. This means that a higher
capacitance results in higher chopping levels
but also more “spare” for the energy released,
which means that the overvoltage level be-
comes largely independent of the capacitance
and depends only on the inductance. Mini-
mum-oil and SF6 breakers are approximately
similar in this respect, with chopping levels
of 2-3 A. These “chopping overvoltages” are
fairly low-frequency, so they represent no great
danger to motors, etc.
The chopping level of vacuum breakers,
which is 2-5 A with the most commonly used
contact materials, is rather independent of the
parallel capacitance. This means that high
64
5.3 64
overvoltages may be generated where there are
small leakage capacitances (e.g. very short ca-
ble between breaker and load), but such
overvoltages are fairly low-frequency (a few
Hz) and can be taken care of by surge diverters,
if installed.
Considerably more serious is another phe-
nomenon, known as voltage escalation, which
only occurs with vacuum breakers. The “prob-
lem” is that they are too good at breaking high-
frequency currents, so if they restrike (which
happens when the contacts do not part suffi-
ciently the first time the current passes through
zero), the high-frequency current is broken
after restriking at the first zero crossing. The
voltage rises between the contacts, a further
restrike occurs, and so on.
Hundreds of restrikes of constantly increas-
ing amplitude over a few milliseconds have
sometimes been observed. Depending on the
characteristics of the circuit connected, this
may result in very high overvoltages, but above
all in very large and steep voltage jumps dis-
tributed unevenly over the load. If the latter is,
for example, a motor, 90% of the sharp voltage
rise takes place across the first winding turn and
destroys its insulation. In such cases, vacuum
breakers have to be fitted with special forms of
protection, like RC-links.
Electrical endurance
Some industrial applications involve a high
breaking frequency, i.e., many switching opera-
tions per day, which calls for breakers that pro-
vide the installation concerned with optimum
economy. Generally speaking, vacuum break-
ers may be said to have the longest electrical life,
with up to about 100 full short-circuit interrup-
tions. SF6 breakers have the second longest life
in this respect and minimum-oil breakers come
third. The number of rated current breaks (load
breaks) performed by breakers is considerably
higher, often up to about their mechanical life,
10,000-20,000 connections in the case of
vacuum and SF6 breakers. Operating situations
where breaking has to take place several times
an hour are not suitable for circuit breakers but
require the use of contactors.
Maintenance
The various types of breakers differ radically in
their maintenance requirements, as illustrated
97-03-05, 13.33
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
by the following description of major over-
hauls after a large number of operations:
• Minimum-oil breakers: Overhauls involv-
ing the replacement of oil, contacts and
possibly some breaking chamber parts have
to take place more frequently than in the case
of other types of breaker, but they are very
easy to carry out, can be undertaken by the
user’s personnel in a normal room and should
take not more than 4-5 hours after simple
training. An overhaul interval of 6-10 years
may normally be adopted.
• Vaccum breakers and SF, breakers need a
minimum of maintenance. The electrical en-
durance is very high. In case of mal function
the poles have to be exchanged. The me-
diavisions are normally to be inspected eve-
ry 5000 operations. SF6 gas may be refilled
in use of a pressare alarm.
From the operational availability point of view,
continuous monitoring of the breaking medium
is very important. No breaker can break par-
ticularly high currents if the breaking medium
is replaced by air, although it should be noted
that an SF6 breaker of the buffer type can break
the rated current and small short-circuit cur-
rents even when the positive pressure has com-
pletely disappeared, provided that the poles
mainly contain SF6 gas.
The maintenance costs of SF6 and vacuum
breakers are generally regarded as lower, which
compensates for their usually higher purchase
price as compared with minimum-oil breakers.
Measuring transformers and
relay protection
An important aspect of medium-voltage
switchgear is the various kinds of measuring
transformers used for obtaining necessary in-
formation about currents and voltages, not only
for charging purposes but also for detecting
abnormal states.
Measuring transformers convert currents and
voltages from very high values (kA, kV) to
values that can be used for driving relay protec-
tion, meters, etc. (V and A).
Current transformers (IEC 185)
The current transformers used in medium-volt-
age switchgear are mainly of the type with
65
5.3 65
moulded case insulation. They are usually in-
stalled in such a way as to act also as supporting
insulators for busbars and contacts.
These current transformers are designed ac-
cording to IEC 185 and may be provided with
various types of core. Measuring cores have
great accuracy at normal operating current but
low saturation limits. Relay cores have to reg-
ister fault currents and therefore have a high
saturation limit but relatively low accuracy. A
current transformer may contain several cores,
usually two or three.
The following considerations apply when
selecting current transformers:
1. At least the same insulation level is required
as for the rest of the switchgear.
2. The relevant rated current has to be adopted.
For certain types of current transformer there
is the possibility of changing the rated cur-
rent by primary changeover, e.g. when the
load increases.
3. The short-circuit current, i.e., the maximum
current the transformer can cope with for 1
second, also has to be tested at peak current,
which causes mechanical stresses. The peak
current is normally 2.5 times the short-cir-
cuit current. Caution is required if primary
changeover of the current transformer is
possible, as series connection results in lower
short-circuit strength than parallel connec-
tion of the primary windings.
4. The rated burden is stated in VA (volt-
amperes) and represents the load which the
secondary side of the transformer can cope
with. It may be for driving an ammeter or a
relay but it is also necessary to allow for line
losses, particularly if the relays are situated
in a separate control room.
5. The overcurrent factor (ALF, accuracy limit
factor) denotes the overcurrent as a multiple
of the primary rated current up to which
accuracy is maintained.
Voltage transformers (IEC 186)
Voltage transformers for medium-voltage
switchgear are always of the magnetic type and
insulated with cast resin. Single-phase versions
are normally used, although two-phase are also
available. As in the case of current transform-
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
ers, there are different accuracy classes de-
pending on whether the transformer is to be
used for measurement or for relay protection.
Here again the choice of transformer is based
on insulation level, rated burden, accuracy, etc.
See also the chapter on measuring trans-
formers in ABB’s Electric Power Manual,
pages 219-230.
Relay protection
There has been discussion over the years as to
whether relay protection should be situated in
the switchgear or in a separate relay cubicle. Its
location used to be partly based on how safe to
personnel the switchgear was considered, but
most switchgear is now regarded as so safe that
relay protection can normally be installed in
switchgear cubicles. The fact that relay protec-
tion for busbar faults has been speeded up has
also reduced the risk of harm arising from
faults.
Efficiency test
It is always necessary to perform an efficiency
test by using the measuring transformer to
check that the earth fault protection actually
works at the intended primary value. This is
particularly important in cases involving what
is known as summated current connection
whereby three single-phase transformers are
connected to one neutral and the relay protec-
tion is provided with power supply.
Earth fault protection usually takes the form
of cable current transformers. Optimum pro-
tection is achieved by placing them round the
outgoing cable. Their cores are normally made
of silicon alloy sheet metal, although in some
cases this may be replaced by mumetal, which
has very little phase angle error. Cable current
transformers are normally openable, i.e., the
core can be opened to make it easy to fit round
a cable, although this procedure cannot be ap-
plied to transformers that have mumetal cores,
which lose their characteristics when they are
divided.
Switchgear relay boxes have to include space
for terminal blocks, meters, switches, warning
lamps, relays etc. In cases where there is con-
siderable integrated relay protection, this some-
times has to be moved to a control room be-
cause of insufficient space.
66
5.3 66
Condition monitoring
One of the essentials for good operational avail-
ability is to always have good knowledge of the
state of the installation. The possibility of con-
tinuously monitoring temperature changes on
contacts and busbars provides a way to avoid
ever being exposed to incidents due to over-
heating. Being able also to check continuously
that the content of the breaking poles is correct
means that there is no need to risk incidents due
to leakage.
Condition monitoring is thus an important
factor in industrial applications, many of which
involve very high standstill costs. It may be
used not only to reduce the risk of unscheduled
downtime, but also to achieve better planning
of maintenance work and hence lower mainte-
nance costs.
ABB offers the Safe Guard condition moni-
toring system for the switchgear and the circuit
breakers.
Breaking media of circuit breaker
For vacuum breakers there is at present no
method for continuous monitoring of negative
pressure during normal operation, although SF6
breakers are easy to monitor by means of pres-
sure monitors that give an alarm if the pressure
in the poles falls below a certain level.
Operating devices
The Safe Guard system has an optical mea-
suring arrangement for the circuit breaker to
measure the contact velocity during each clos-
ing and opening operation and the closing and
opening times. Any unduly high or low value
trigger alarms. The mechanical system is thus
monitored and any imminent fault may also
be detected, since data from up to 32 events
can be stored.
Contact wear
The breaker monitor also records the wear from
each breaking operation. A large number of
experiments have recorded electrical life as a
function of the breaking current. The breaker
monitor then measures the level of the breaking
current and generates the value that corresponds
to the inverse of the number of possible breaks.
This value shows the amount of wear on arcing
contacts and other wearing parts of the break-
ing poles. An alarm may then be set to operate
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Medium Voltage Distribution
at a certain level, e.g. at 80% of their electri-
cal life. This makes it possible to achieve opti-
mum utilisation of the electrical life of the
breaker and to plan maintenance work in good
time, resulting in more efficient use of the
installation.
Temperature monitoring
Switchgear overheating is a universally known
possibility, perhaps particularly in industries
that release corrosive gases into the atmos-
phere. Here again it is of course extremely
important to be able to detect abnormal tem-
perature rises in good time so as to be able to
deal with faults before they become incidents.
The two methods so far developed for indicat-
ing temperatures on high-voltage equipment
are thermovision measurement and tempera-
ture indicators that change colour.
Thermovision measures the temperature of
a busbar at the exact time of measurement. The
next measurement may perhaps be a year later
and nothing may be known about what happens
Fig. 53 Temperature monitoring system.
• = measuring points
67
5.3 67
in between. As thermovision measurement nec-
essarily involves visual contact with high volt-
age, personnel safety is not best served by this
method.
Temperature indicators are affixed at ex-
posed points and can be read from the cubicle
front. Their colour shows the temperature, which
can therefore be checked on each visit to the
switchgear room.
None of these methods provides continuous
temperature monitoring, nor do they trigger
alarms to signal incipient overheating.
ABB has therefore developed a new moni-
toring system whereby the temperature on high-
voltage equipment can be continuously moni-
tored and recorded (see Fig. 53).
This makes it possible not only to prevent
unscheduled stoppages due to overheating but
also to use the installation more efficiently by
controlling power offtake due to temporary
overloads.
97-03-05, 13.34
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
TRANSFORMERS
Contents
1 Standard specification
2 Three-phase connections and nation of phase displacement
3 Short-cicuit impedance and voltage drop
4 Parallel connecition of transformers
5 Agering considerations and emergency service
6 Inrush current
7 Capitalisation of losses
8 Installation considerations
Standard specifications
Some general terms and concepts
A power transformer is a transformer in-
tended for transmission of power - at least 5
kVA three-phase or 1 kVA single-phase. Such
transformers are specified and tested according
to Power Transformer Standards. There are
other standards for smaller transformers, for
certain special transformers for protection and
safety, and for instrument transformers (meas-
uring transformers).
A distribution transformer is the last link in
the chain of step-down transformers. It steps
down from local distribution high voltage (6,
10, 20 kV) to consumer low voltage (not above
1 kV). According to European tradition, distri-
bution transformers are three-phase units. In
the American tradition, single-phase distribu-
tion transformers are common.
The usual range of rated power is from 30-
100 kVA to 1 000-2 000 kVA. Standards have
set a limit at 3150 kVA.
Distribution transformers are either oil-insu-
lated or of dry type.
Oil-immersed and dry-type transformers.
Large power transformers are oil-immersed
and provided with some kind of oil preserva-
tion system. The more common system em-
ploys a ”conservator” (expansion vessel) with
68
5.4 68
page
68
69
71
73
74
75
75
76
a desiccant breather or with a membrane for
prevention of contact with the atmosphere.
Another system, in American practice, has a
cushion or ”blanket” of nitrogen gas above the
oil in a hermetically sealed or controlled-pres-
sure tank.
There is also a type of distribution transfor-
mer of European design with corrugated tanks
(cooling fins), completely filled with oil and
hermetically sealed. The corrugations take up the
volume expansion elastically (although one
must be alert to possible overloading capability).
Liquid-immersed transformers with non-
flammable liquid (earlier: chlorinated biphe-
nyls - many trade-names exist) were marketed
aggressively in the past, but have been banned
nowadays for environmental reasons. Alterna-
tive liquids have been proposed, but have had
little market penetration as yet.
Dry-type transformers are generally avail-
able in the distribution transformer range of
voltage and power rating. Two different prac-
tices are followed: bare windings with air ducts
for insulation, and encapsulated (resin-cast)
windings. The types differ mainly in terms of
immunity against moisture and pollution.
Items to be specified. Power transformer stand-
ards contain lists of items - in addition to the
97-03-05, 13.35
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
rated electrical quantities - that have to be
specified for a customised transformer - such as
cooling system and oil preservation system
(self-cooling, or forced cooling with fans and/
or oil pumps), insulation levels, tappings and
tap-changer, desired value or range of short-
circuit impedance, etc.
At medium system voltages the insulation
levels are fixed in relation to the system voltages,
but at higher voltages there are alternative op-
tions.
Recommended lists of auxiliary equipment
for protection and supervision are given in
national standards for certain categories of trans-
formers, and in manufacturers’ catalogues.
The term regulating transformer has a differ-
ent meaning in different countries. It is some-
times used for any transformer provided with a
tap-changer for adjustment of its ratio - in
contrast to a fixed ratio transformer. Otherwise
the word is used specially for a separate booster
unit (inserted for voltage correction in a weak
system - having a variable ratio close to unity),
or for a transformer which is to deliver second-
ary voltage over a wide range from nearly zero
up to a maximum value (e.g. testing equip-
ment). Special process transformers for fur-
naces or electrolysis, delivering very high sec-
ondary current, may consist of a set of two units
- one wide-range, high voltage regulating trans-
former and another fixed-ratio, step-down trans-
former fed from the regulating unit.
The tapping range of a transformer is usual-
ly expressed as a rated voltage, plus-minus
a number of equal tapping steps (e.g. 120 kV
± 9 x 1.5%). According to older practices, the
numbers may either indicate the specified range
of variation of service voltage on the winding in
question (regardless whether the winding is
tapped or not) or, instead, the range of variation
of turns available on the winding. In interna-
tional standardisation a comprehensive treat-
ment of transformers with considerable tapping
range has not existed until quite recently. It is
important to establish what the name-plate in-
formation on older transformers really means!
In actual service, the voltages will vary more or
less on both sides of the transformer, but only
one of the windings is tapped. There is not a free
choice whether the high voltage winding or the
69
5.4 69
low voltage winding is to carry the taps. In the
European tradition, the taps and the on-load
tap-changer are usually fitted on the high volt-
age side. In America it has traditionally been
the other way round.
It may be that the untapped winding faces the
system having the widest variation of service
voltage, and the tapped winding runs with nearly
constant voltage. This means that the volts-per-
turn will vary when tappings are changed (vari-
able flux regulation).
The latest IEC Standard, Publ. 76-1 (1993-
03) and national standards in conformity there-
with prescribe that the notation of tapping range
is to be related to the variation of turns in the
tapped winding, but it is also recommended
that a full table should be provided on the name-
plate, indicating for every numbered tapping
the maximum service voltages on both the
tapped and the untapped winding. This table
also deals with optional truncation of ultra high
voltages or extremely high currents towards the
ends of the tapping range. This is elaborated in
Chapters 5 ??? and 7 ???, and Annex B of IEC
Publ. 76-1.
Tap-changers. As the term indicates, an on-
load tap-changer is capable of changing the
ratio of the transformer without interruption of
service. The off-load tap-changer is a simpler
device that must not be operated unless the
transformer is disconnected.
The extent to which medium-size step-down
transformers for utilities are provided with on-
load tap-changing varies from country to coun-
try. The conventional width of the tapping
range in per cent also varies.
Distribution transformers are as a rule pro-
vided with a small range of off-load taps (plus-
minus 5 per cent in three or five positions). A
suitable tapping is not selected until the trans-
former is installed, and will usually not be
changed later.
Three-phase connections and
notation of phase displacement.
(The following refers to IEC Standards. Ameri-
can practice differs somewhat.)
Short notation of three-phase winding con-
nection and phase displacement employs a code
97-03-05, 13.35
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
of letters and numerals, e.g. YNyn0, Dy11,
YNautod5. The system is as follows:
• The windings are noted beginning with the
high voltage winding, and with following
windings in the order of falling rated voltages.
The high voltage winding connection is noted
with capital letters; the others with lower-
case letters.
• The connections are Y(or y) for star, D (d)
for delta, Z (z) for zigzag, and I I I (i i i ) for
open windings (all ends brought out sepa-
rately)
• A neutral terminal taken out from a y or z
winding is indicated by the letter ”n”: YN, zn
• Phase displacement between ”correspond-
ing terminals” of the windings is expressed
by the ”clock method”. The high voltage
winding phasor is understood to be at 12
o’clock (not indicated). The other winding
or windings are given clock hour numbers
showing the direction of their respective
phasors in the phasor diagram. The clock
hour number is written after the connection
letter. All usual connections lead to full
hours. The system is best understood by
studying the examples in Fig. [ ? ].
• Auto-connection between two y windings is
indicated - for example as YNauto or YNa0
• A separate equaliser delta winding (not avail-
able for loading) is indicated as ”+d” , e.g.
YNy0 +d
Note that there are different systems of termi-
nal markings in use in different countries:
ABC - RST - UVW - H1H2H3. National stand-
ards specify this.
Specified ratings and loadability in service
Rated quantities are reference values for guar-
antees and tests. The no-load loss is referred to
rated voltage. The short-circuit impedance and
the load loss are referred to rated current. Dur-
ing the temperature rise test, the total loss to be
injected also corresponds to the rated quanti-
ties.
IEC Standards interpret rated power as
incoming power (rated voltage, rated current).
On a loaded transformer, if the primary voltage
is equal to rated voltage, the secondary voltage
will be equal to secondary rated voltage minus
voltage drop. Delivered power is incoming
70
5.4 70
power minus power loss and reactive power
consumption in the transformer. These conven-
tions are independent of direction of power
flow through the transformer.
U.S. Standards interpret rated power as
delivered secondary power. Primary input
power and voltage will be rated power and
voltage plus the consumption and voltage drop.
Step-down transformation is presupposed, and
the power factor is to be at least 0.8 (inductive).
In most practical cases the difference be-
tween the two systems of standards is apparent
only at the specification stage, and will be of
little importance. Once the ratings are fixed,
tests and other related data (losses, short-circuit
impedance) come out the same.
Rated voltage is a quite critical parameter
nowadays, since transformers with modern core
steel are operated with flux density close to
saturation. Overfluxing a transformer results in
abnormal magnetising current, and may cause
overheating of steel parts in the vicinity of the
core. For a transformer with tappings, the ”tap-
ping voltages” for specific tapping numbers
(indicated on the name-plate table) have the
same significance as the rated voltage has for
the ”principal” (central) tapping.
Difficulties with overfluxing may occur if a
transformer is connected to a load with a very
low power factor (capacitor bank or compen-
sating reactor). The numerical voltage drop
across the transformer is then at its maximum
(positive or negative). Such cases should be
indicated and analysed before the transformer
is ordered. The important fact is whether the
direction of reactive power flow is from an
outer winding towards the winding closest to
the core, or the opposite. (A priori it is often not
known whether the low voltage or the high
voltage winding is closest to the core - this is not
apparent from the name-plate, for example.)
Rated current is not critical in the same sense.
Temporary loading of the transformer above
rated current leads to higher winding tempera-
ture rise above surrounding oil, and (more
slowly) increasing oil temperature in the whole
tank. The ordinary winding loss and eddy cur-
rent loss rise strictly by the square of the current.
The stray flux between the windings rises in
97-03-05, 13.35
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
proportion to the current, and its stray loss
heating effects on adjacent steel parts rise by
about the square. In a well designed transformer
there is considerable margin between rated cur-
rent loading and an overload which would cre-
ate immediate risk of serious damage to the
transformer. Cyclic or temporary loading up to
high values with corresponding temperature
swings, however, results in mechanical dilation
of the windings and corresponding permanent
set of the insulation structures, which may re-
duce the rigidity of the design in case of heavy
through-fault current. See also the section on
ageing and emergency loading below.
General information on loading characteristics
of representative power transformers is pre-
sented in the form of ”Loading Guides” by
standardisation bodies (IEC and ANSI). These
documents, however, cannot give guarantees
for any specific transformer; only general guid-
ance.
Three-phase connections are selected based
on several considerations.
The simplest combination is Yy. It is used in
large system transformers - often with auto-
connection. In separate-winding transformers
either the high or the low voltage winding, or
both, may have their neutral terminals taken out
for system earthing according to different princi-
ples (see Chapter ??? on this subject). The
connections are then YNy, Yyn, or YNyn.
If either of the connected systems carries
zero-sequence current (current to the neutral -
either single-phase load between phase and
neutral or earth-fault current) which cannot be
transformed across the transformer to the oppo-
site system, then it may be required to provide
an equaliser delta winding, in which compen-
sating zero-sequence current will be induced
(circulating around the delta winding). This
”reduces the zero sequence impedance”. (See
the section on system earthing under Chapter
??? , Relay protection, p. [?]
”Mixed connections” are, for example, the com-
binations YNd, Dyn, or Zyn. Again, the selec-
tion of these combinations is related to system
earthing and earth fault considerations. As there
is no neutral terminal on a D winding, it may be
necessary to provide an artificial system neu-
tral point at the transformer by connecting a
71
5.4 71
small separate ”earthing transformer” with a
YN or ZN winding.
Distribution transformers feeding four-wire
or five-wire low voltage networks with single-
phase loading between phase and neutral (”zero
sequence”) are specified with mixed connec-
tion: Dyn, or Yzn. These connections provide
neutralisation of the secondary neutral current,
so that this is not carried over to the primary
system. The primary system is usually reso-
nant-earthed in some European countries.
Type of cooling is indicated by a four-letter
code (IEC). The common alternatives for oil-
immersed and air-cooled transformers are:
ONAN: self-cooled by air - without oil pump
or fan
ONAF: natural oil circulation - forced air cool-
ing by fans
OFAF: oil circulation through coolers forced
by pumps - air flow by fans
ODAF: oil flow by pumps, directed right in-
to the windings - air flow by fans
(mainly for large transformers, above
100 MVA)
Alternative cooling systems may be specified
for the transformer. Information is thereby given
about, for example, the permissible load on an
ONAF transformer if the fans are stopped (the
transformer becomes ONAN). According to
IEC, the rated power figure is unique, and
relates to the highest cooling capacity.
According to U.S. Standards, there are mul-
tiple power ratings assigned for the different
cooling steps.
Short-circuit impedance and
voltage drop
Short-circuit impedance (or short-circuit volt-
age) is the series impedance that the transformer
presents when current flows through it. The name
derives from the measurement of this quantity in
one of the routine tests on the transformer, the
short-circuit test. A reduced voltage is applied to
the terminals of one of the windings with the
opposite winding short-circuited. The test volt-
age is raised, until rated current flows - this is the
”short-circuit voltage”. It is expressed as a
percentage of the rated voltage of the energised
97-03-05, 13.35
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
winding. The percentage figure is the same, re-
gardless of whether it is measured from the high
voltage or the low voltage winding.
The ”short-circuit impedance” is the same
percentage of the ”reference impedance” of
the transformer, i.e., the impedance that the
loaded transformer represents when it passes
rated current at rated primary voltage. (The
percentage figure also indicates the apparent
power in MVA that the transformer itself ab-
sorbs under the same conditions, as a fraction of
the rated apparent power).
The short-circuit impedance is represented in
the equivalent diagram of the transformer as a
resistance, representing the load loss, in series
with an inductive reactance, representing the
reactive power required by the leakage flux
betweeen the current-carrying windings (cf.
equations below).
The reactive part of the short-circuit impedance
dominates, and the larger the transformer, the
more this is the case.
A 1 000 kVA distribution transformer has a
loss figure of the order of 1 % of the rated power,
while the short-circuit reactance is typically 6
%. At higher power ratings the percentage loss
becomes lower, but the percentage reactance
increases. A ”natural” reactance of a trans-
former emerges from economic optimisation of
the design with regard to capitalisation of no-
load loss and load loss. A transformer with low
average loading has a low load loss capitalisa-
tion rate; this results in a transformer with light
magnetic core, low no-load loss, high load loss
and high percentage short-circuit reactance.
In some countries there is a praxis that the user
specifies fixed values of series reactance. This
may be in order to facilitate parallel operation
between arbitrary transformers of the same
range; cf. the section below on parallel opera-
tion of transformers. Typical reactance values
for normal utility step-down transformers are
astonishingly different in different countries; a
10 - 20 MVA transformer may have values rang-
ing from below 10 % up to 20 - 25 %. These
traditional practices depend on different phi-
losophies regarding the layout of medium volt-
age systems: average distance between stations,
installation of spare capacity, short-circuit power
72
5.4 72
limitation for cable systems, accuracy of reac-
tive power compensation, etc.
Three-phase conventions for symmetrical quan-
tities:
Current I is line current
Voltage U is line-to-line voltage
Three-phase apparent power S = ô3 ⫻ U ⫻ I
U
Impedance per phase Z = 3:I
ô
(”As in Y-connection”)
Other expression for Z = U 2
S
where S is the three-phase power
(Z in ohms, U in volts, S in Volt-amperes, or
Z in ohms, U in kV, S in MVA)
Rated quantities for the transformer are denoted
with index ”r”
Sr, Ur, Ir, and Zr
All percentage figures are referred to the rated
quantities.
They are noted with common letters, not capi-
tals.
Short-circuit voltage: uk = 100 ⫻ Uk
(dimensionless) Ur
Short-circuit impedance ZT = RT + j XT
(impedance per phase)
Percentage short-circuit impedance
ZT
zT = rT + j ⫻ T = 100 ⫻
Zr
(This number is also dimensionless and is iden-
tical with uk)
The voltage drop across the transformer is the
product of the load current, multiplied by the
transformer short-circuit impedance. However,
this ”vectorial voltage drop” is not in phase with
the current, leading it by nearly 90 degrees,
since the short-circuit impedance is mainly in-
ductive. The conventional, ”arithmetic” voltage
drop which is observed on the voltmeter is the
”arithmetic” difference between the voltage at
no load and the actual voltage with the load
applied. Depending on the phase angle of the
load, this quantity may assume any value be-
tween zero and the full vectorial voltage drop,
and may even be negative (the secondary volt-
age of a transformer will rise, not fall, when
97-03-05, 13.36
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
capacitive load is added). The voltage drop is
largest for low power factor, inductive load.
This explains why there is such a heavy voltage
dip when a large motor is started - the starting
current is large, and the power factor is low.
Assume stiff source voltage on the primary side
of the transformer.
The secondary voltage at not load is then U20
Apply an apparent power load
S windings”). They work, as it were, like two
S=P+jQ=
cos j + j sin j
This load represents an impedance per phase
ZL = U2 ⫻ (cos j + j sin j)
S When two parallel transformers are equipped
The secondary voltage changes by the drop
DU from U20 to U2
U2 = ZL
(this equation is complex)
U20 ZL+ZT
After algebraic operations an approximate ex-
pression of the voltage drop is optained, ex-
pressed in percent of rated voltage:
Du = S ⫻ (xT sin j + rT cos j),
Sr
or I ⫻ (xT sin j + rT cos j)
Ir
Example: Load is 50 % of rated current or rated
apparent power. Power factor is 0.8, inductive
Transformer load loss rT = 08 % of rated power.
Transformer rectance xT= 12 %. (If cos j = 0.8,
sin j = 0.6).
Du = 0.50 (12 ⫻ 0.6+0.8 ⫻ 0.8) = 3.9% - say, 4%
Parallel connection of
transformers
Two units with the same data - spare capacity
consideration
A normal utility installation practice is having
two identical units side by side. If the rated
power of each unit is, say, 70 % of the full load
in the station, then there is 40 % overcapacity
under normal service. However, if one of the
units should fail, continued emergency service
may be provided by overloading the remain-
ing unit, in the worst case up to the proportion
100/70. This may still be acceptable (cf. the
73
5.4 73
section below on ageing and emergency serv-
ice). Under the light load season one of the units
may be taken off (the no-load loss in the station
is then reduced to half). Under normal condi-
tions with both units available it is possible to
sectionalise the secondary busbar (reduced short-
circuit fault current).
”Dual-secondary” transformers have two sec-
ondary windings with the same rated power, and
with low coupling between them (”double-con-
centric” winding system or ”vertically split
parallel transformers on a common core.
Tap-changer mismatch by one step not a
problem
with tap-changers, there are different systems to
coordinate their movement. During the short
interval while the two tap-changers rest in dis-
similar (staggered) positions, there will be a
small superimposed current that circulates be-
tween the transformers. The e.m.f. which drives
this current is one-step voltage, and it meets the
series-connected short-circuit impedances of
the two transformers. The circulating current
will be of the order of 1/10 or 1/20 of rated
current. It is essentially reactive, and combines
vectorially with the load current. Obviously, the
whole phenomenon is in fact negligible. The
estimate is also applicable in cases of parallel-
ing non-identical transformers which have
slightly different rated or tapping voltages (see
the following section).
Paralleling of transformers with non-identi-
cal data
Parallel connection of transformers having non-
identical data is possible under the following
conditions:
• They must have the same clock-hour phase
relationship. (There are stratagems with re-
versed phase sequence, etc., which make a
few additional combinations possible; con-
sult experts or the IEC standard)
• They must have identical or closely similar
rated voltages. Units with tap-changers need
not have precisely the same tapping voltages,
but there must be a sufficiently wide overlap
of the tapping ranges. A small difference in
tapping voltages between the units would be
97-03-05, 13.36
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
limited to not more than one tapping step if
the co-ordination of the tap-changer controls
is optimised. The remaining mismatch of
current sharing should not be given exagger-
ated attention (cf. preceding paragraph about
staggered tap-changer positions).
• They must have approximately the same
short-circuit impedance in per cent. If the
short-circuit impedances in per cent are the
same, the transformers will share the load
current in proportion to their rated currents
(or rated power values). It is easy to under-
stand that if one of the units has a lower
reactance it will absorb a relatively larger
proportion of the load current (so that the
voltage drops become equal for both trans-
formers). The result will be that the sum of
the rated power values for the two transform-
ers cannot be utilised fully. Standards some-
times give the recommendation that the reac-
tance values should not differ by more than
plus/minus one-tenth of the average value.
For two units having the same rated power
this would result in a reduction of their com-
mon loadability of the order of 10 per cent.
One should not connect transformers with widely
differing power ratings together. The risk is that
the small transformer will be the one that sets the
limit of common loadability since it is likely to
have a lower short-circuit impedance in per
cent. Standardised distribution transformers
often have short-circuit impedance values fixed
in large steps: 4, 5, 6%, increasing with the rated
power.
Specification of a new transformer intended
for parallel operation with an existing unit.
Suppose that it is not possible to obtain a true
repeat of the old transformer. The manufacturer
may have modified his design standards or
completely changed his range of products. Or
else, the enquiry may be directed to a different
factory. It is then often difficult to obtain close
agreement with the previous data, particularly
the variation pattern of the impedance along the
tapping range of a regulated transformer. This is
dependent on the physical arrangement of the
windings with respect to each other, and is also
subject to several design considerations. In the
previous paragraphs of this section it has been
explained how to estimate the magnitude of a
circulating current that results from mismatch
74
5.4 74
of either turns ratio, or differing short-circuit
impedances. This implies that requirements re-
garding matching transformer data should not
be exaggerated. A more rational approach in the
enquiry would be to request from the designer a
calculation of the resulting load sharing. The
load must be described with both apparent power
and power factor, or by separate figures for
active and reactive load power. A reasonable,
allowable tolerance (e.g. 10 %) for the load
mismatch should be specified.
Ageing considerations and
emergency service.
Rated current or rated power is not a precise
limit of loadability for the transformer. How-
ever, loading beyond name-plate rating natu-
rally means more rapid wear and tear on the unit.
It is very difficult to express this in quantitative
terms. An effort to provide a scientific back-
ground is based on spontaneous chemical dete-
rioration of the insulation system as a function
of the service temperature.
The rate of reaction of the chemical oxydation
processes grows exponentially with the tem-
perature. An addition of a certain number of
degrees of temperature corresponds to a multi-
plication of the rate of deterioration by a certain
factor. Conventionally, an increment of 8 Kel-
vin is supposed to correspond to a doubling of
the rate of deterioration. Or, about 25 K higher
temperature raises the deterioration rate by a
factor of 10.
Emergency service implies that the unit takes
over load which would normally flow through a
different route. The pattern of variation over the
day will remain unchanged, but the level will be
higher - in the worst case perhaps close to
double the load. Carrying the above example
further, a month of moderate emergency serv-
ice, leading to a representative temperature 25
Kelvin higher than before, would then affect
and shorten the life of the transformer about as
much as a full year of undisturbed service would.
If such scenarios are identified and recognised
during strategic planning, and the transformer
ratings selected to cope with them, then the
installed overcapacity becomes a kind of calcu-
lated insurance premium.
There is no basis, though, for calculations of
consumed or remaining lifetime of a trans-
97-03-05, 13.36
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers
former in absolute terms: years, or percentages.
Besides, there are many other factors, e.g. in the
form of occasional overvoltages or overcurrents,
or neglected maintenance and inner contamina-
tion, that may contribute to the breakdown of a
transformer.
Some conventional guidelines concerning emer-
gency service have been agreed upon (IEC
Loading Guide):
During ”long-time emergency loading” - last-
ing for weeks or even months - it is recom-
mended that the hottest part of the windings
should never exceed 140°C in a medium-size
transformer, or 150°C in a distribution trans-
former, while the current should never exceed
150 % or 180 %, respectively, of the rated fig-
ure. The top oil temperature should never ex-
ceed 115°C in any transformer.
”Short-time emergency loading” is loading
which is so high that some remedial action has
to take place; within half an hour or so. This may
be by manual intervention or through tripping
by thermostats for oil temperature or winding
temperature, well before the temperature in the
transformer has reached its critical value. The
top oil rise limit is again limited to 115°C
(tripping at 120°C). The maximum allowable
current is tentatively limited to 180 % for a
medium transformer (overcurrent tripping pos-
sibly set at 200 %). Note that it is also usual to
have a blocking function in the tap-changer
which prevents operation when the current ex-
ceeds 200 %.
Inrush current
When a transformer is energised, a high inrush
current sometimes occurs at random. This is
caused by transient saturation of the core steel.
Its magnitude depends on the remanence condi-
tion of the transformer core since the previous
disconnection, and on the point of wave of the
AC voltage at which the phases are closed.
The inrush current does not have symmetri-
cal half-cycles, but has a pronounced DC com-
ponent, and contains harmonics of even num-
bers of order. The whole phenomenon decays in
the course of a few seconds. It is accompanied
by a distinctive sound - a heavy thud. The maxi-
mum possible current peak is of the same order
75
5.4 75
as of a full short circuit through the trans-
former: far above rated current peak. This worst-
case current amplitude is possible only if the
transformer is energised on the inner winding,
which is usually the low voltage winding. En-
ergising from the low voltage side should there-
fore be avoided. (However, it should be noted
that the oscillatory, transferred switching
overvoltage on the non-connected high voltage
side is not without risk either.)
A particular phenomenon has been observed
when a second transformer is energised in par-
allel with another, both at no load. The transient
asymmetric saturation may then oscillate back
and forth between the two for a considerable
time, which may confuse the relay protection.
The inrush current is sensed by the differen-
tial protection relay, as well as by the neutral
current protection and overcurrent protection.
The characteristic content of even-order har-
monics has, however, made it possible to design
a blocking feature against inrush current trip-
ping. Another, more simple method is to install
a time-lag device, so that the inrush transient
gets time to decay before any tripping signal is
released.
Capitalisation of losses
Utilities apply capitalisation of loss figures for
the evaluation of transformer bids. They submit
separate capitalisation rates per kW of no-load
losses and of load losses. These capitalisation
rates are based on the applied interest rate for
investment, and - for the variable load loss - on
the expected utilisation of the transformer, ex-
pressed as utilisation time of the maximum load
in hours per year.
In industries there are some transformers
which see load variations over the day and over
the year that are similar to utility loading char-
acteristics, with a typical utlisation time of 4000
hours. For such transformers, the capitalisation
of load loss should be given a rate 1/3 to 1/5 of
the rate applied for no-load loss. The absolute
figures depend on the interest rate for invest-
ment money.
Process transformers (e.g. for electrolysis)
may have utilisation times ranging up towards
7000 hours. The correct rate for load loss capitali-
sation would then rise to about 2/3 of the no-
load loss rate.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Transformers

Installation considerations
Most transformers are air-cooled. When they
are installed in closed cells for fire protection,
there must be adequate provision of cooling air.
For satisfactory cooling, the temperature rise of
the air cannot be taken higher than about 10
Kelvin. This corresponds to a consumption of
about 5 cubic metres of air per minute for each
kW of dissipated losses. All ducts must be sized
for this capacity.
ONAF transformers with radiators and fans
are usually arranged so that the fans blow
horizontally into the radiator banks. The warm
air flows upwards spontaneously. It is impor-
tant to arrange the cell so that this warm air will
disappear out, and not be recirculated down
again in the cell by the fans. Either there have
to be sufficiently wide ducts for incoming and
outgoing air, or separate fans for supplying
sufficient cooling air to the cell.
In case of fire in the cell, the large flows of
cooling air, sometimes forced, would be an
aggravating factor. Therefore, automatic flaps
or shutters have to be installed to stop the supply
of air when fire in the cell is detected.
In metallurgic plants large transformers are
installed close to the furnaces, where the ambi-
ent air is full of dust and fumes. The transform-
ers are then often specified as having water
cooling. A different solution has been practised
with advantage, namely that of designing for
OFAF cooling and running oil pipes to compact
oil-to-air coolers located outside the building.

Distribution transformers in a factory typically

feed widespread motor drive installations. If
oil-insulated transformers are used, they have to
be placed in cells outside the building, out of
regard for the risk of fire and oil spillage. In
order to limit the cost of heavy low voltage
cables and also the losses in these, a popular
solution is to distribute the load centres over the
floor area. This then leads to the choice of dry-
type units which can be installed in simple
metal-clad cubicles with self-cooling by ambi-
ent air through venting slots.

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR

Contents
page
1 Air insulated (AIS) and Gas Insulated Switchgear 77
2 Switchgear components 78
3 AIR Insulated Switchgear (AIS) 80
4 GAS Insulated Switchgear (GIS) 84

Air Insulated (AIS) and Gas

Insulated Switchgear (GIS)
General
Until the 1970s, air insulated switchgear (AIS) out easily. When equipment capacities need to
was the type most in use. AIS requires large be uprated, or the network arrangement has
distances between earth and phase conductors been altered, new equipment may be more
and therefore a good deal of space. Hence, for easily added or changes made.
the higher voltages, this type of installation was With regard to investment costs for the
only feasible outdoors. In some cases it was switchgear alone, AIS is considerably less ex-
possible to install indoor air insulated equip- pensive than GIS. However, when costs for
ment at voltages up to 145 kV, but above 36 kV, maintenance and land area are added, the dif-
outdoor installations had traditionally been the ference becomes less.
rule.
Germany and Japan first introduced SF6 (sul-
phur hexafluoride) as an insulating medium in
switchgear enclosures in order to reduce phase-
to-earth distances. By giving the gas an
overpressure of approx. 500 kPa, this further
improved insulating properties and led to a
reduction in space requirements.
There are now approximately ten world
manufacturers of GIS switchgear, most of them
in Europe and Japan. The advantages of GIS as
compared to AIS are as follows:

• Less space requirements - especially in con-

gested city areas
• Less sensitivity to pollution, as well as salt,
sand or even large amounts of snow
• Higher personnel safety - enclosed high volt-
age and insignificant EM fields

Conventional AIS is constructed outdoors with Fig. 1. Comparison of dielectric strengths.

free-standing switchgear components joined
together by lines or tubular buswork. The ad-
vantage of such an arrangement as compared to
GIS is mostly that modifications may be carried

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Switchgear components
High voltage equipment has to match or exceed
the available short-circuit level at the location
in the network where it is installed. It is also
commonly agreed that the equipment must with-
stand this short-circuit current for the time taken
for the back-up protection to clear the fault.

Circuit breaker
This is the most important switchgear compo-
nent. It must be able to break and make normal
load currents, but above all be able to interrupt
short-circuit currents due to faults in the sys-
tem. Modern circuit breakers have interrupting
times as short as 20 milliseconds. Such an
operation is performed automatically in re-
sponse to signals from fault sensing relays.
The main components of a circuit breaker are

Fig B Centerbreak disconnect switch

the interrupting chamber and the mechanical

operating mechanism.
Energy is stored in charged springs in the
operating mechanism, and when called upon,
this energy is released such that the breaker
contacts are forced apart. The arc now estab-
lishing itself between the parting contacts is
then extinguished by high pressure oil or SF6
gas blown towards the arc. The stored ener-gy
must be sufficient in order for the circuit breaker
to manage one complete open-close-open se-
quence.
There is a tendency for SF6 gas to become a
common interrupting medium for circuit break-
ers used in outdoor AIS as well.

Disconnector
Disconnectors are used in order to switch dur-
Fig A Live tank circuit breaker for outdoor ing no load conditions. In order to make a
switchgear circuit breaker ”dead” (without voltage) and

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

thereby available for service or maintenance, a

disconnector may be used on either side.
Disconnectors may also be used in order to
change the switching arrangement. A discon-
nector has a very low breaking capacity and
may only be operated under no load (no cur-
rent) conditions. The disconnector’s main pur-
pose is to provide an open circuit on both sides
of an item of equipment prior to working on it.
Opening or closing a disconnector takes sev-
eral seconds to complete.

Earth switch
An earth switch is a special kind of disconnector,
used to connect parts of the switchgear to earth,
also prior to working on otherwise live equip-
ment such as lines or cables. Earthing can also
be done in AIS by means of manual earthing
hooks or portable earthing and short-circuiting
devices. However, in GIS there is no access to
phase conductors in this manner. Therefore,
permanent earthing switches must be installed.
Some of these are designed to connect to earth
under full voltage, which requires them to with-
stand, both electrically and mechanically, clos-
ing of a full short circuit.

Surge arrester
Surge arresters protect switchgear against high
overvoltages caused by for example lightning
or switching overvoltages. They work on the
principle of leveling the incoming voltage wave
and diverting the energy as a current. When the
voltage returns to normal, the current is re-
duced to zero. A good surge arrester has a low
ignition voltage and a high extinction voltage,
thus providing a non-linear function between
current and voltage. Earlier makes of surge
arresters generally had silicon carbide resistors
and a spark gap (valve type) to obtain a high
non-linear function between voltage and cur-
rent. Modern zinc-oxide arresters have no spark
gap and provide many advantages such as low
voltage during dissipation, elimination of
reignition transients as well as a high capacity
for diverting energy.
Correct insulation co-ordination is achieved
through properly selecting and locating surge
arresters in the network. The most strategic
locations for surge arresters are at the terminals
of transformers, reactors and incoming over-
head lines.
Fig C Zink-oxide surge arrester with polymeric
insulator
Current and voltage transformer (instru-
ment transformer)
Instrument transformers are required in order
to provide signals for metering and protective
relaying. Depending on the purpose of the sig-
nal, the accuracy may vary greatly. Current
transformers operate under almost short-circuit
conditions, while voltage transformers operate
at no load.
Current transformers normally have a magnetic
coupling between primary and secondary side.
Magnetic flux follows cores of different mag-
netic material, depending on whether its use is
for metering or protection purposes.
Protection current transformers must withstand
both the peak short-circuit currents as well as
the time taken for the longest set back-up relays
to operate. It is very important to match the
relay burden to the current transformers in

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

order that saturation of the cores at high cur- that it is important to specify data for the total
rents does not trick the relays into thinking they relay and metering burden. Voltage transform-
are seeing a different current from the actual ers are usually connected phase to earth.
one.
Voltage transformers can be divided into in-
ductive and capacitive types. The inductive
type is normally used up to approximately 145
kV, while the capacitive type is used above this
voltage. If power line carrier frequencies are
required for communication or for protective
relaying, capacitive types may be used for this
purpose at lower voltages too.
The metering range for the secondary voltage
transformer winding is 80-120% of the nomi-
nal voltage. The relay winding has a range from
5-150 or 190%. The different secondary
windings of voltage transformers have a cou-
pling dependency on each other (which is dif-
ferent from current transformers), and this means

Fig D 2 Top core type current transformers

Line traps
Line traps are installed in power systems where
high frequencies are used for communication
via the high voltage system itself. The line traps
are in reality a barrier that effectivily prevents
high frequency from entering the substation. In
this way a frequency can be reused in other
parts of the network.

AIR INSULATED
SWITCHGEAR (AIS)
Busbar arrangements
Some common arrangements for industrial ap-
Fig D 1 Hair pin type current transformers plications are:

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

Single busbar
Arrangements of this type are the most com-
mon. The majority of Scandinavian power com-
panies use this arrangement up to 145 kV, and
it is growing in popularity in other countries too
for ordinary, uncomplicated industrial purposes.

Single bus with transfer bus

The transfer busbar is used only as an auxiliary
busbar when maintenance is being carried out
on a line circuit breaker. The breaker can be
disconnected on both sides while the line re-
mains in service. One limitation of this arrange-
ment is that the whole station is shut down
when a fault occurs on the main busbar.

Double busbar
This system has two identical buses, i.e., one
can be a standby for the other. This arrange-
ment guarantees uninterrupted service in the
event of a busbar fault. The circuit breakers,

Fig D 3 Magnetic voltage transformer

No busbar
This arrangement represents the simplest de-
sign for small transformer substations. When a
fault occurs, the whole station is shut down but,
on the other hand, initial costs are the lowest.

Fig. 2. Some common switchyard arrangements. Fig D 4 Capacitive voltage transformer

81

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear
however, are not available for maintenance
without the associated bay being disconnected.
Apart from that, operating flexibility is good.
Design considerations for civil works
A large part of the design work for an outdoor
switchyard is civil and structural engineering.
Levelling of ground, sizing of foundations,
layout of cable ducts, etc., require civil works
drawings for foundation plan and cable ducts.
For manufacturing and ordering of equipment,
for erection and commissioning of the plant,
further drawings are required for steelwork and
other hardware, as well as layout (plan and
section) drawings, material lists, purchase or-
ders, cable schedules, etc. Today this documen-
tation is mostly produced by computers.
When establishing the design parameters for
steel structures and foundations, it is logical to
evaluate the maximum force which any piece
of equipment is expected to withstand in its
lifetime.
Mechanical forces acting on electrical equip-
ment and support structures are as follows:
• dead weights from conductor loads and ice
covering,
• wind load,
• short-circuit loading,
• mechanical operation and
• forces due to earthquake.
The worst case for the electrical equipment and
support structures arises from a combination of
these factors. Increasing fault levels in power
systems require an accurate understanding of
the mechanical forces resulting from short-
circuit currents.
Bus design
Designing the bus includes consideration of a
number of factors, the following being the most
important:
• max. load current
• max. withstand impulse voltage
• mechanical strength to withstand dynamic
forces
• atmospheric contamination
There are two basic kinds of bus arrangement;
the flexible stranded conductor or strain busbar,
and the supported tubular busbar. Each gives
the outdoor switchyard a different appearance
82
5.5 82
and also involves different design problems.
For low current ratings requiring only light-
weight conductors, a strain bus may result in a
more economical design, i.e., with lower costs
for foundations, structures, insulators, conduc-
tors, etc., as longer spans can be used than with
tubular conductors.
On the other hand, increased loads, considera-
tion of the dynamic stresses imposed upon buses,
together with a preference for the low-profile
concept, have combined to bring about a move
towards a supported tubular bus rather than the
use of heavy stranded bundle conductors.
The bus design usually includes aluminium
conductors with bolted connectors. The fully
welded design, however, is also used. There are
some problems involved in welding on site as
this must be done in a protective gas flow. Fur-
thermore, special reinforcements have to be
introduced into the design to compensate for the
material strength reduction resulting from weld-
ing temperatures. On the other hand, these joints
will be of the highest quality from the electrical
point of view.
Tubular sections are usually chosen for rea-
sons of economy, strength and symmetry and the
mechanical problems of tubular bus with spans
up to around 20 metres are not difficult to solve
.
Long tubular spans are subject to aeolian
vibrations, although there are various solutions
to this problem. One is to lay aluminium cable
inside the tubes to damp these vibrations.
The bundle conductor arrangement of strung
type busbars constitutes a special calculation
and evaluation problem due to the ”snatch”
forces caused by short-circuit currents (parallel
conductors forcibly pulled together by mag-
netic attraction cause high axial forces in the
conductors).
On installations with very high voltage, co-
rona rings and large radius bends are used to
achieve a low value of electric stress on the
conductor surface.
The busbar insulators must be carefully se-
lected to meet electrical requirements, i.e., in-
sulation level, pollution corona, coefficients
for temperature and altitude. Mechanical re-
quirements are: withstanding short circuits,
seismic and wind forces, normal and composite
loads.
97-03-05, 13.40
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

1. Power transformer Distances between feeders (centre to centre C-C)

2. Circuit breaker and total length for various voltages.
3. Disconnector
4. Current transformer Voltage (kV)C-C (m) L (m)
5. Voltage transformer 52 6,5 21,0
6. Surge arrester 72,5 7,5 21,8
7. Earth switch 145/123 11,0 25,3
8. Post type insulator

Fig. 3. (earlier Fig. 58) Outdoor switchyard for single bus arrangement.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear
Safety clearances
Selection of electrical clearances is fundamen-
tal in AIS design. To ensure reliability and the
safety of operating personnel, it is essential that
adequate clearance is provided for live parts.
There are two main aspects here:
1) insulation clearances
2) personnel safety clearances
A high degree of insulation level standardisa-
tion has been established, although IEC recom-
mendations include alternatives to match es-
tablished practice in different countries. Com-
mon practice for voltages up to 300 kV is to use
standard minimum clearances in air, the same
for phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
Personnel safety clearances are established
by adding to non-flashover insulation clear-
ances the dimensions of a typified body.
Space and electrical clearances must also be
provided for equipment moving in or out of
position.
Air pollution
In recent years air contamination in switchyards
has become a growing problem. The contami-
nation is mainly of two kinds, coastal and
industrial.
A dry, clean insulator has the highest voltage
withstand value for outdoor insulation. A clean
insulator in fog conditions has a slightly lower
withstand value, and the dirty-wet combination
has the lowest. This dirty-wet condition can, in
extreme circumstances, be disastrous to the
power system.
The pollution problem is a very complex
one, influenced by wind, gravity, electrical
forces acting on particles suspended in the air,
adhesion, as well as the insulator shape and its
position in service. In addition, rain can coun-
teract or partly rinse the pollution, or at least
wash away the soluble ingredients.
Industrial pollution flashover is a long-time
phenomenon of a thermal nature, evolving
slowly as the salts first dissolve, and since dry
band formations develop only gradually.
Flashovers from coastal salt pollution evolve
more rapidly since the salts are already dis-
solved and the whole surface suddenly starts
conducting.
84
5.5 84
Countermeasures against pollution are:
• increasing creepage distance
• applying silicon
washing the insulators
• (encapsulating thegrease to the insulators
pollution)
Earth grid and safety earthing
The purpose of the earth grid is to provide a
reliable low resistance path for dissipating large
currents to earth from faults on the system or
from lightning surges. The lower the resistance
the better, and the voltage build-up will then be
smaller.
The earth grid is usually composed of bare
copper conductors laid in the ground at a depth
of about half a metre. To make the voltage
distribution as uniform as possible, the grid
should consist of uniform rectangular meshes.
Furthermore, earth rods penetrating a few me-
tres into the ground are usually connected to the
earth grid, giving dual action between the com-
ponents. The purpose is to limit the step and
touch voltages to safe levels during fault condi-
tions. Both resistance to earth and step and
touch voltages are dependent on earth resistiv-
ity. Measurements are recommended to check
the actual soil resistance and potential gradi-
ents.
Temporary maintenance earthing in switch-
yards during work is an important safety proce-
dure. Higher demands on reliability have led to
a growing use of permanently installed earth
switches. However, the most frequently used
method is still portable maintenance earthing.
The conductor size for this equipment has in-
creased considerably with increasing earth-fault
currents, which has made earthing work strenu-
ous and time-consuming. Some aids have been
introduced, such as suitable lifting tackle and
shortening of the conductors by placing the
earth stud at the top of the equipment stand.
GAS INSULATED
SWITCHGEAR (GIS)
Gas insulated switchgear take advantage of the
excellent properties of SF6 gas, both as an
electric insulation medium, and as arc extin-
guishing medium in the circuit-breakers. As a
result, the designs are compact, with small
requirements on floor or ground area.
97-03-05, 13.40
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear
Pure SF6 gas, as used in GIS equipment, is
nontoxic. Electric arcs in the gas will initiale
some chemical reactions in the gas and with
solid matrials, forming a number of decompo-
sition products. This will occur in circuit-break-
ers, and in the extremely unlikely event of
insulation failures in a GIS compartment. Well
established procedures exist to safely handle
these decomposition products during mainte-
nance and repair work.
SF6 leaking into the atmosphere does not
influence the ozone layer of the earth, and gives
minimal greenhouse effect in the concentra-
tions which maf occur. Emission og SF6 to the
atmosphere should, however, be restricted as
much as possible. At the end of the lifetime, and
during repair of the GIS, care should be taken to
prevent gas from being released.
Arrangements should be made with either
the manufacturer or specialized contractors to
reuse the gas, or to dispose of it in a conrolled
manner.
Fig. 4. Cubicle type 72.5 kV SF6 switchgear for indoor installation.
85
5.5 85
A 72 kV GIS cubicle concept
Using a low differential pressure of only 20 kPa
makes possible an enclosure design of cubicle
shape, similar to traditional metal-enclosed
medium voltage switchgear. The box shape
also makes it possible to use disconnector and
earthing switch designs common in medium
voltage switchgear. SF6 gas, even at this low
pressure, provides the dielectric strength re-
quired for 72.5 kV with a cubicle size only
slightly larger than the standard 24 kV air
insulated cubicle.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the exterior view and
cross-section through a typical double busbar
feeder. The cubicle is sub-divided into the
following four separate compartments, which
can vary depending on the arrangement:
• Circuit-breaker compartment
• Feeder equipment compartment
• Busbar I compartment
• Busbar II compartment
97-03-05, 13.41
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

Fig. 5. Cross-section of a 72.5 kV double bus feeder.

1. Voltage transformer 8 Terminal bushing for C.T. and V.T. secondaries
2. V.T. disconnecting device 9 Pressure relief device
3. Cable end unit with deflector funnel
4. Disconnector with earthing switch 10 Gas barrier insulator
5a Busbar system I 11 Circuit-breaker
5b Busbar system II 12 Operating mechanisms
6 Busbar insulator for disconnectors
7 Current transformer 13 C.B. operating mechanism

Two circuit breaker quenching systems are

used:
1. The interrupter functions on the compres-
sion piston principle, i.e., puffer-type breaker
2. The energy required for interruption of the
short-circuit current is mainly taken from
the arc itself, i.e., self-blast breaker
The feeder compartment contains the follow-
ing equipment:
• cable end unit (or alternatively a terminal
bushing),
• the feeder disconnector with its integrated
fast-acting maintenance earth switches
• instrument transformers.
Each of the separate busbar compartments con-
tains a busbar and associated disconnector. In
addition to the maintenance earth switch on the
circuit breaker side, the disconnector also ac-
commodates a fast-acting earth switch for the
busbar. The busbars are furthermore fitted with
gas barriers between feeder sections, making
each feeder autonomous.

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear
The individual compartments are gas-tight and
segregated from each other. The conductors
pass through gas-tight cast resin barriers. The
walls of the separate compartments are of gas-
tight welded sheet steel.
Ribs of U-profile steel are welded to the
enclosure walls to give additional mechanical
strength. Each compartment is fitted with a
pressure relief valve to relieve excessive
overpressure in the unlikely event of an internal
arc fault.
The switchgear equipment - disconnectors,
circuit breaker, instrument transformers - is in-
stalled through openings in each individual
compartment, closed by special sheet steel cov-
ers. These access openings make possible equip-
ment inspection and repair or replacement with-
out removal of the enclosure. The access open-
ing to the circuit breaker compartment is de-
signed such that the puffer-type circuit breaker,
pivoted at the base plate, can be swung out
through an arc of 30 degrees, facilitating inspec-
tion and replacement of interrupter contacts
without removing the circuit breaker itself.
The operating mechanisms of disconnectors
and earth switches are located in a compart-
ment at the front of each feeder. The SF6 gas
filling points, together with the gas density
relays and supervisory equipment, are also lo-
cated in the same compartment.
Furthermore, control, interlocking, supervi-
sory and other secondary equipment is accom-
modated in the same atmospheric control com-
partment, fitted with doors with mimic dia-
gram, control switches, semaphores and instru-
ments.
The complete feeder together with its control
equipment forms a rugged and free-standing
shipping unit for mounting on an aligned con-
crete foundation. The weight of a fully equipped
double-busbar feeder is approx. 3000 kg.
SF6 gas system
Each feeder is divided into independent gas-
segregated enclosures. A typical double-busbar
arrangement has four separate gas compart-
ments:
• Busbar compartment 1
• Busbar compartment 2
• Feeder terminating
Circuit breaker compartment
• compartment
87
5.5 87
The SF6 in the various compartments is main-
tained at an absolute pressure of 120 kPa. Be-
cause of the cubicle shape, the compartments
are not evacuated prior to filling gas, but filled
as if it was a liquid, exploiting the fact that SF6
has a specific density of approx. five times that
of air.
The gas is introduced through a pipe leading
to the bottom of the compartment and the air
escapes through a pipe at the top. This method
of filling will permit a small amount of air to
mix with the SF6 gas due to a certain amount of
turbulence. On the other hand, an SF6/air mix-
ture with up to 20 % concentration of air exhib-
its a higher dielectric strength than pure SF6.
Each individual gas compartment, including
those of the circuit breaker interrupters, is moni-
tored separately by a density relay. Referred to
20oC, an alarm is initiated when the insulating
gas pressure drops to 110 kPa.
In the circuit breaker an alarm is initiated
when the pressure drops from 700 to 620 kPa,
and a second alarm also blocks the circuit
breaker from operating when the pressure drops
to 600 kPa. This is the lowest pressure at which
the name-plate rating of the circuit breaker is
still maintained.
A 145 kV GIS concept
This type of design uses corrosion-proof alu-
minium as equipment casing. All three phases
are enclosed within the same enclosure, as
compared to one phase design often used for
higher voltages. Due to low specific weight,
floor loading is at a minimum, and expensive
foundations are avoided. A double busbar feeder
bay weighs approx. 3700 kg.
The individual equipment modules are con-
nected such that expansion or modification is
facilitated at a later date. At the same time, gas
barrier insulators ensure minimum disturbance
to neighbouring equipment modules.
True-to-scale plastic models of switchgear
modules and equipment simplify application
engineering. Three-dimensional comparisons
facilitate the engineering evaluation of alterna-
tive layouts.
When applying a layout of this type of GIS,
the same standard electrical arrangements as
for conventional AIS installations can be ap-
plied. Single and double busbar arrangements -
alternatively with transfer bus - as well as bus
97-03-05, 13.42
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear
sections, and bus couplers are realised using
standard equipment modules.
Similarly, other solutions not so common in
Europe, such as duplex, one-and-a-half circuit
breaker or ring-bus arrangements can be ac-
complished.
Standardised flange dimensions provide for
flexibility in combining switchgear modules.
Application engineering and planning of an
installation are thus simplified.
Fig. 6. Exterior view of a 145 kV SF6 switch-
gear bay.
Fig. 7. Cross-section of double busbar 145 kV
feeder.
1 Busbar with combined disconnector/
earthing switch
2 Circuit-breaker
3 Current transformer
4 Potential transformer
5 Cable end unit with combined
disconnector/earthing switch
6 Fast acting earthing switch
7 Control cubicle
88
5.5 88
Busbar with combined disconnector and earth
switch
The busbar is built from modular bus sections,
each 1200 mm long corresponding to the feeder
spacing.
The phase conductors are fixed to the gas
barrier insulator of each feeder section. Each
insulator is combined with a telescopic trans-
verse assembly cover, which simplifies switch-
gear extension or rearrangement. The spring
loaded flange coupling serves to compensate
forces generated by the internal gas pressure
and axial movement caused by temperature
change.
Split, multifinger tulip contacts connect the
phase conductors at the assembly cover. They
absorb axial movement caused by temperature
change. Mechanical stress on the insulators
from temperature difference between individual
phases and enclosure is thus avoided.
A combination of busbar disconnector and
maintenance earth switch for maintenance, etc.,
is an integral part of each busbar module. The
common operating mechanism for the com-
bined disconnector and earth switch is mounted
at the front. Depending on the direction of
movement the contacts act either as a discon-
nector or an earth switch.
SF6 gas system
The SF6 gas has a dual function as arc extinction
and insulating medium. Therefore the circuit
current extinguishing chambers are differenti-
ated from the insulating gas compartments of
busbars, disconnectors, load break switches,
etc. The gas compartments are segregated by
gas barrier insulators, and the gas pressure is
monitored by temperature compensated pres-
sure relays.
During commissioning, each compartment
receives a final filling of gas, allowing for an
extremely small leakage over a lengthy period
of time.
All gas compartments have their own auto-
matic vacuum coupling, so that all maintenance
jobs, such as gas sampling, conditioning or
filling up can be carried out during normal
operation.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
High voltage switchgear

145 kV application example

This type of modular switchgear concept lends
itself ideally to the usual switchgear configura-
tions.
A feeder spacing of 1.2 m is typical, and the
required building depth is normally 7 m, the
building height being less than 6 m. Although
installation of a crane is recommended for this
size of switchgear, erection and maintenance
on the factory-assembled feeders and equip-
ment can be performed effectively even with-
out a permanent crane.
Small industrial substations are often of the
single busbar arrangement. A bus section
disconnector or circuit breaker gives opera-
tional flexibility. In this way it is possible to
extend or modify the switchgear with part of the
substation still in service.
A load break switch is recommended for bus
sectionalising, with the distinct advantage of
switching under load. The single busbar layout
closely resembles that of the double busbar
since only the top or bottom busbar is omitted.
If the appropriate connecting flanges have al-
ready been fixed to the circuit breakers in the
initial extension stage, then subsequent up-
grading to a double busbar version is easy to
implement.

89

5.5 89 97-03-05, 13.43

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
FAULT CONTROL
Contents
1 Protectiv relayng and Co-ordination
2 Motor protection
3 Transformer protection overview
4 Generator protection
5 Selectivity in industrial power systems
Protectiv relayng and
Co-ordination
Introduction
Although ”Fault Control” may sound like a new
expression to some, the protective relaying and
co-ordination in a power system is indeed a ”con-
trol” system with an inherent intelligence which
senses faults and abnormal conditions, makes
decisions and carries out remedial action to iso-
late as small a part of the system as possible
(selectivity). Today this type of ”control”
is more and more being entrusted to micro-
processors.
Industrial plants vary greatly in the complex-
ity of their power distribution systems. A small
plant may have a simple radial design with low
voltage fuse protection only, whereas a major
industrial process complex may incorporate an
intricate network of high, medium and low volt-
age substations, uninterruptible power sources,
and co-generation required to operate in parallel
with and/or isolated from local power company
networks. At an early design stage, the electrical
engineering project team will meet with local
power company staff to review and resolve the
common protection requirements.
The need for increased production from and
availability of xindustrial plants has created de-
mands for greater industrial power system reli-
ability. Meshed networks and parallel operation
with power companies have produced extremely
high short-circuit capacities during fault condi-
90
5.6 90
page
90
91
94
96
99
tions. The high costs of power distribution equip-
ment and the time required to repair or replace
damaged equipment such as motors, transform-
ers, cable, high voltage circuit breakers, etc.,
make relay protection design a very important
consideration.
The losses associated with an electrical power
interruption due to equipment or system failures
vary widely with different types of industries.
For example, a service interruption in a machin-
ing operation means loss of production, loss of
tooling, and loss from damaged products. Like-
wise, an interruption in a chemical plant can
cause loss of product and create major clean-up
and restart problems. To avoid a disorderly shut-
down which can be both hazardous and costly,
it may be necessary to tolerate a short-time over-
load condition and the associated reduction in
life expectancy of the affected electrical appara-
tus. Other industries such as oil refineries, paper
mills, automotive plants, offshore oil and gas
plants, textile mills, steel mills, and food process-
ing plants are similarly affected, and losses can
represent substantial expenses.
For some types of processes, even a momen-
tary voltage dip can shut down the entire plant.
Thus the nature of the industrial operation will
determine the degree of protection which can
be justified.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
MOTOR PROTECTION
General aspects
The mandatory electrical safety regulations in
any country usually offer minimum motor pro-
tection. Therefore, a number of additional con-
siderations have to be evaluated. The equip-
ment being driven by the motor must be taken
into account as well as whether running the
motor to destruction is preferable to “instant”
shutdown. Further, the anticipated areas of fail-
ure, such as bearing failure, winding failure,
ventilation failure, phase reversal, winding turn
failure, vibration, field failure, etc., must be
considered. Last, but not least, comes the cost
of the protection itself. The totality of all this is
to provide “optimum” protection, which means
that total costs of shutdown, loss of production,
repair, reinstallation and recommissioning is
weighed against the costs for varying degrees
of protection.
These decisions will all be different, de-
pending on who decides what. The chemical
engineer may decide that the process could
become unstable and that the motor should be
run to destruction. An accountant might think
that extra money is good insurance if it shortens
downtime. A few extra seconds running time
may provide valuable purging time for gas
process systems where contamination of gas
without the purging could involve costs, repre-
senting money which could have purchased
many replacement motors. What all this means
is that there are no easy answers. However,
some specific advice is presented in the follow-
ing sections.
Synchronous motors resemble generators,
and therefore some generator protection
schemes may also be used for synchronous
motors.
TWO TYPES OF OVERCURRENT
PROTECTION
Whether at low or medium voltage, a motor
circuit is supplied either via a circuit breaker or
a fused contactor. This is the “last” overcurrent
device in a series of overcurrent devices. There
are two types of protection required for a motor
circuit. First of all, the motor and feeder cables
are protected against a short circuit by the
circuit breaker or fuses. Secondly, protection is
required to prevent an increase in load causing
excessive current and heating in the motor,
91
5.6 91
cable, and associated switchgear or controlgear.
This excessive load may be a gradual increase
from overloading, voltage drop, faulty bear-
ings, or other reasons. In any case, it is a slowly
built up type of overcurrent, whereas the short
circuit is a sudden burst of current. Protection
of both types must be considered.
SMALL THREE-PHASE ASYNCHRO-
NOUS MOTORS (MAX. 200 kW)
Three-phase induction motors stand for the bulk
of application work in an industrial plant. Up to
200 kW, all motors are normally low voltage.
Usually protection complying with local wiring
regulations is adequate, unless special high-
inertia loads exist. The setting of the motor
circuit overcurrent device is primarily to protect
the cable and starter from short-circuit stresses
and temperatures.
The motor running overload protection is
usually provided by three thermal heaters lo-
cated in the motor starter. These are fixed-rated
units, and the correct one should be installed
with the starter to meet the allowed overcurrent.
This is listed in most mandatory electrical safety
regulations, but 115% is a generally acceptable
value. Allowances should be made for motors
with switched capacitors.
In dual-speed motors the windings provide
two different power outputs. Therefore, two
different sizes of thermal overloads are re-
quired, each set of windings being considered
separately.
LARGE THREE-PHASE MOTORS
(ABOVE 300 kW)
Three-phase motors above 300 kW are nor-
mally medium voltage, that is 3 to 11 kV. This
makes everything, including the motor, more
expensive than the equivalent at low voltage.
Each medium voltage motor is considered as an
individual unit with its own specific application
problems and cost.
First, it has to be established whether the
motor is essential or non-essential to the proc-
ess. If it is essential, then the basic short-circuit
protection will be installed and all other over-
load devices will actuate alarms rather than
initiate shutdown. This will allow the operator
time to reduce overload conditions or start a
shutdown procedure before closing down the
motor.
97-03-05, 13.43
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
f the motor is non-essential, the overload and
other protective devices will be set to shut the
motor down as fast as possible.
Large motors vary in size, cost and charac-
teristics. The following is therefore a typical
menu of protection schemes.
Short circuit protection
This protection applies to the feeder cable, the
stator winding and the motor starter itself (cir-
cuit breaker or fused contactor). One protective
device for each phase is required. Where a
circuit breaker is used, mandatory electrical
safety regulations usually permit sensing the
fault by integral or external sensing elements
which disconnect all phase conductors simulta-
neously. Where fuses are used, obviously a
single fuse could open, leaving the other two
intact. This would cause the motor to keep
running, but at a reduced output, eventually
leading to overheating and overloading. Dis-
connecting the motor in time to prevent damage
depends on the setting of the overload trips. The
limiting factor for overload heating is some-
times the stator and at other times the rotor.
A more serious single-phase condition will
exist if an earth fault on a single phase of a
primary feeder to a star-delta transformer blows
the fuse, leaving only two phases feeding the
transformer. This means that the three-phase
secondary side will be essentially single-phased
with currents in each motor branch circuit of
115, 115, and 230%, respectively, for the three
phases. This means that every motor connected
to such a transformer would run the risk of
being overheated and seriously damaged.
Phase fault protection
Phase fault protection can be provided by cur-
rent-limiting fuses specially designed for mo-
tor protection. Alternately, instantaneous
overcurrent relays can be used with settings
higher than the starting current and feedback
current in case of external faults. Instantaneous
overcurrent devices affected by the DC compo-
nent of the current must be set well above the
symmetrical value of the starting and fault
feedback currents. Modern electronic relays
have an instantaneous overcurrent function
which is practically unaffected by the DC com-
ponent of the current. Another alternative is to
use an inverse time overcurrent relay with a
92
5.6 92
setting to prevent operation due to the starting
current.
Stator overheating
For large motors stator overheating is much
more serious than for smaller motors. Apart
from insulation damage, stator overheating can
cause frame distortion and, in some cases, bear-
ing damage. In small motors a bimetallic heater
or electronic replica type relay monitors
overcurrent and thus estimates temperature as a
consequence of this current. In large motors
RTDs (resistance-temperature detectors) are
installed together with the winding in the slot to
detect actual hot-spot temperatures. Manda-
tory electrical safety regulations allow this
method of overload protection. The RTDs op-
erate a temperature relay which first gives an
alarm and then trips the circuit breaker when a
certain temperature is reached; consequently,
no other protection is required except for short-
circuit protection. However, in some process
industries the RTDs are wired to the process
control, giving central control room operators
temperature information instead of providing a
protection function which trips the motor.
Further protection may be provided with
current-balance relays, which are essentially
protection for single-phase conditions. This
can also include a phase sequence combination
if desired.
For large motors (≥1500 kW) the overload
protection is a choice between the inverse-time
overcurrent relay and the thermal or electronic
replica (motor heating curve) relay.
The thermal replica type relay tries to imitate
the motor heating curve. At light loads and long
time overload it gives best performance. At
heavy overloads it tends to be slow. The inverse
overcurrent relay works just the opposite, giv-
ing the best protection at heavy loads while
remaining unsure and therefore not very sensi-
tive at light loads. A combination of both gives
the best protection, but RTDs should always be
included for large motors. Both the replica and
the inverse overcurrent relays can be equipped
with instantaneous trips for short-circuit pro-
tection. Modern static or microprocessor type
replica relays are much more versatile and may
be set to imitate the motor heating and cooling
curves much more closely than earlier thermal
or electromechanical relays. These newer ver-
97-03-05, 13.43
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
sions depend on motor thermal time constants
which are sometimes difficult to obtain from
the motor manufacturers where international
standards for specification of such time con-
stants is still lacking.
Rotor overheating
In squirrel-cage motor rotors it is not economi-
cally possible to install detector devices. The
methods used for stator overheating detection
will in most cases reflect general overload
conditions, but in the event of locked rotor and
attempted single-phase starting, the current sens-
ing thermal devices should be used rather than
RTDs. The time lag associated with stator RTDs
during starting may not reflect the rotor heating
at all. As rotor heating on subsequent starts can
damage the rotor without the stator current or
temperature giving a true reflection of the con-
dition, it is extremely important to agree with
the manufacturer on the rotor protection if it is
”rotor-limited”. Particularly during the com-
missioning phase, motors are often subject to
excessive starting stresses. See also ”Acceler-
ating time” below.
In synchronous motors a field current is
supplied to the rotor, and a connection thus
exists to monitor what is going on in the rotor.
By using a replica thermal relay in the field
current, protection can be provided if the motor
fails to start. A further protection is provided by
an out of step device, which will shut down the
motor for an out-of-step condition (where the
motor is out of synchronism with the network).
Starting current considerations
The symmetrical value of the motor starting
current can be anywhere between 3 to 9 times
rated current. The asymmetrical (offset) cur-
rent can vary between 6 to 16 times, or approxi-
mately I.8 of the symmetrical value. The asym-
metrical current with its DC component is high-
est during the first cycle and then gradually
decays. The rate of decay (decrement) of the
DC component is a function of the ratio X/R of
the circuit
Since the asymmetrical current with its DC
component is highest in the first cycle and then
gradually decays, the instantaneous part of the
relay will react to the DC component, while the
inertia in an induction relay or thermal element
will only recognise the symmetrical current.
93
5.6 93
The rate of decrease (decrement) of the DC
component is a function of the X/R ratio of the
circuit and will probably not be fully asym-
metrical. Therefore, the setting of the instanta-
neous devices should be around 12 to 15 times
rated full load current.
The setting of the time delay devices is based
on normal symmetrical starting currents.
Acceleration and deceleration time
The motor accelerating time depends on the
inertia Wk2 of the motor and the load. This must
be taken into consideration when setting in-
verse time overcurrent relays and replica type
thermal time constant relays. A motor usually
has a guarantee from the manufacturer of, say,
”3 starts from cold” and ”2 starts from running
hot condition”. A motor with water cooling
may have as many as three different time con-
stants for heating up when starting, and cooling
down when cruising down or standing still; one
time constant for the copper winding, one time
constant when iron is counted in and one more
when the body of the cooling water is included.
If the cooling water pump is still running after
standstill, this will also affect the cooling curve
without the replica relay ”knowing” it.
Calculation of the accelerating time is fairly
simple, providing the loads are known; alter-
nately, the motor manufacturer can be con-
tacted to obtain acceleration times. However,
protecting the motor from being ”started to
death”, or preventing shutdown due to spurious
trips from a thermal relay that is too conserva-
tively set or selected, requires a considerable
amount of attention.
Feedback of fault current into the power
system
During a fault, all motors will supply current
into the fault. The amount of feedback is an
inverse function of the subtransient reactance
(X”d) which is around 15 to 25% for induction
motors, 10 to 25% for high-speed synchronous
motors, and 25 to 45% for low-speed synchro-
nous motors. During the few cycles while the
subtransient reactance is in effect, the sym-
metrical value of the feedback currents can be
around 4-7 times the full-load current for in-
duction motors, 4-10 times for high-speed syn-
chronous motors, and 2-4 times for low-speed
synchronous motors. The setting of the instan-
taneous overcurrent relay must consider the
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
sensitivity of the relay to the DC component of
the feedback fault current.
Phase-to-earth fault protection
The most common type of electrical fault in the
stator circuit is the phase-to-earth fault. In sol-
idly earthed or low impedance earthed systems
an earth fault will result in heavy damage to the
stator iron. Therefore the best protection (in
addition to fast relaying) is a high impedance
system earthing method which will reduce the
earth fault current to a no-damage value. A
simple method of detecting phase-to-earth faults
is installing all three phase conductors through
a ”window” type current transformer. Normal
load currents are self-cancelling due to 120
degree phase shift; however, during an earth
fault, zero-sequence currents will flow. These
are all in phase and therefore combine with
together, producing an output from the current
transformer which is connected to an instanta-
neous overcurrent relay. It offers sensitive pro-
tection and eliminates false tripping due to
starting and high inrush currents.
An alternate method is a residual connection
with a time overcurrent relay in the neutral of
star-connected current transformers. This uses
a relay with a setting of not more than 10% of
the maximum earth fault current. If the maxi-
mum earth fault current is more than four times
the motor rated current, an additional instanta-
neous trip could be included with a setting of 3
to 10 times the rated motor current, depending
on inrush and feedback criteria.
Undervoltage protection
Undervoltage protection in a large motor is a
standard consideration. The torque of asyn-
chronous motors is reduced by the square of the
voltage, and by the time contactors drop out at
about 65-70% voltage, motor available torque
is reduced to about 40%. If the voltage is
reduced during starting in a direct-on-line ap-
plication, the rotor could overheat faster than
the stator. Depending on the motor design and
winding connection of the motor, the stator
could also overheat first.
The undervoltage relay or trip device can
also have time-delay functions for transient or
voltage dip override. The connection can be
made as an alarm only, or it can automatically
disconnect the motor from the line.
94
5.6 94
The alarm option is usually better for continu-
ous process plants. If the voltage drops to a
level where contactors are dropping out, then a
major plant problem exists anyway.
Differential relays
Phase-to-phase short circuits in a motor seldom
occur, but if they do, they generally involve
large currents and can cause severe motor dam-
age. Phase overcurrent relays must have high
settings or long time delays to override starting
or fault feed-back currents. For motors above,
say, 500 kW, a differential relay is a sensible
consideration. For each phase the differential
relay compares the currents on the line side
with the neutral side. In solidly earthed or low
impedance earthed networks, the differential
relay also operates for phase-to-phase faults.
Bearing temperature protection
Some motors are equipped with bearings that
are force-lubricated by a lubrication pump. A
failure could occur in the oil line rather than in
the pump motor. Therefore, the only way of
preventing overheating or detecting a fault in
the lube oil system is by installing an RTD in
the bearing and running the conductors back to
a dial thermometer with adjustable trip switch.
This switch can operate an alarm or shut down
the motor when a certain temperature is reached.
An option is the use of a sensor connected to
a relay located at the motor. However , this
means running control wires and power to the
motor, which could represent an obstacle, ne-
cessitating an explosion-proof enclosure for
the relay if it is in a hazardous area.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
OVERVIEW
In selecting the right transformer protection
one must first consider the transformer’s role in
the power system:
1. The size and importance of the transformer.
Two possibilities:
• It is an expensive and important part of the
ystem. A transformer failure would result in
loss of production. A spare is not available.
• It is of moderate size or importance. There is
an alternative supply or a spare transformer
available.
97-03-05, 13.44
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
2. The type of transformer insulation: oil or dry
insulated
3. The voltage level and the type of system
earthing on the primary and secondary side.
In some cases even a tertiary winding earth-
ing has to be considered.
Transformer protective relaying is first of all
provided to limit the consequences of faults and
failures such as a short circuit inside the trans-
former and in the connecting leads. Such faults
are very rare, but if such a failure should occur,
it may develop very fast, such that the protec-
tion cannot save the transformer from perma-
nent damage. Fast disconnection will, how-
ever, limit the results preventing a devastating
fire or explosion.
Some kind of short-circuit back-up protec-
tion is generally provided further out in the
supplying network.
In an isolated neutral system or with high
impedance earthing the earth fault current will
be small, and therefore sensitivity and selectiv-
ity are more important than high speed clear-
ing.
Another internal transformer failure is a bro-
ken circuit or a bad conductor joint, which can
cause gas build-up or localised overheating
with the risk of explosion.
A transformer should also be protected against
inadvertent overload and high temperatures in
the winding insulation.
Below 1000 kVA, transformer protection is
generally provided by primary fuses as short-
circuit protection and overload and earth fault
relays as stipulated in most national wiring
regulations and electric safety codes.
Oil-insulated transformers above 1000 kVA
generally require gas detector devices, usually
referred to as Buchholz relays, having two
levels of gas detection: gas warning and surge
tripping. Depending on size and voltage,
overcurrent relays or fuses provide additional
short-circuit protection.
Larger transformers have further protective
arrangements such as redundant or duplicated
short-circuit protection, underimpedance and
differential protection. In the case of on-load
tap-changers, there may be an overpressure
95
5.6 95
device for the tap-changer compartment. Se-
lective earth fault protection is normally pro-
vided for the primary side and selective or
differential earth fault protection for the sec-
ondary side.
Delayed overvoltage protection is provided
for transformers with a risk of elevated voltage,
which can cause core magnetic saturation and
overheating damage if permitted to last.
GAS DETECTION OR BUCHHOLZ
RELAY
This type of protection is used with oil-insu-
lated transformers with conservator for oil ex-
pansion. The gas relay is installed in the con-
necting pipe between the tank and the conser-
vator. A slow accumulation of gas in the oil will
rise through the connecting pipe to the detector
relay, and a float will actuate an electrical
contact to operate an alarm.
The gas can be released and tested. Flamma-
ble gas is a serious sign of oil or paper decom-
position, while ordinary air is less alarming.
For a serious internal fault involving arcing
there will be a sudden pressure rise and a surge
of oil and gas which will be detected by the
Buchholz surge detector. It is a fast and effi-
cient detector which trips the transformer cir-
cuit breaker instantaneously.
Transformers with a nitrogen cushion in-
stead of conservator are common in North
America and can be fitted with a sudden pres-
sure relay instead of the Buchholz type.
WINDING TEMPERATURE
PROTECTION
This device is more of an overload sensor rather
than a fault detector. It measures top oil tem-
perature, but has a compensating device which
reflects the hot-spot temperature rather than the
oil temperature. This also means that the tem-
perature-rise curve is closely followed by the
device. It can be made to operate an alarm or a
cooling device. This fairly inexpensive protec-
tion pays for itself by allowing operation up to
full thermal capacity.
TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL
RELAY
This relay operates instantaneously for faults in
the zone between the two sets of current trans-
formers (for a two-winding power transformer).
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
In order to be stable for external faults and
unsymmetrical events like inrush current dur-
ing energising, the relay uses a current stabi-
liser. Harmonic restraint by second and higher
harmonics is often used.
There is also a need to compensate for possi-
ble current transformer differences and for the
phase shift in the transformer to obtain current
balance for load and external fault currents.
This may be solved by interposing current
transformers or adjusted for internally in the
relay.
SPECIAL EARTH FAULT
PROTECTION
According to local preferences and practice the
following types of earth fault protection may be
used:
A restricted earth fault relay is an instantane-
ous differential earth fault relay, useful in sol-
idly earthed neutral systems where an earth
fault will represent a high and destructive cur-
rent.
A so-called ”tank protection” is similarly (in
a solid neutral earthing system) a current relay
connected to a current transformer between the
transformer tank and earth.
GENERATOR PROTECTION
OVERVIEW
A generator is probably the most important
item in an industrial electrical power system,
being either a co-generator running in parallel
with the power company, a standby unit or an
emergency generating set. Without it the rest of
the system may be useless, or in great trouble.
Therefore, the reliability and protection of gen-
erators are of paramount importance. A short
repair time is also essential, and this means that
fast shutdown is required, as well as early
indication of an impending fault.
The economic justification for maximum
possible protection must be weighed against
the effect on the system of generator shutdown.
If the fault involves iron damage or requires
hard-to-get replacement parts in remote areas,
then the maximum protection may still be rela-
tively inexpensive.
The IPS designer will rarely be called upon
to apply protection for generators without the
96
5.6 96
manufacturer’s recommendations. Therefore,
it becomes a matter of understanding what the
generator manufacturer recommends, rather
than simply making one’s own selection. The
following gives an overview of the basic areas
of generator protection.
STATOR WINDING PROTECTION
If a fault occurs within the stator winding,
opening of the main circuit breaker only re-
moves the fault current supplied from the net-
work. The fault still exists within the generator
and current continues to flow into it. As long as
the field is energised, the generator is produc-
ing an e.m.f. (electromotive force) which main-
tains the fault current. If the field supply is
removed, then the time to decay the flux will
dictate the current reduction in the fault. This is
a problem related to winding protection.
Phase-to-phase fault
This fault requires fast detection and instant
shutdown. Even with the generator breaker
opened, the generator will still attempt to feed
the fault if the field is still connected or the
magnetic flux is still decaying. Relaying must
therefore detect the fault, disconnect the load,
open the field breaker and shut down the prime
mover.
Phase overcurrent or impedance relays must
have a setting above the maximum load current,
as well as a time setting which gives selectivity
for external faults. Consequently, this relay
does not provide an adequate first line of de-
fence for internal phase faults, only as back-up
protection. Instead, a sensitive differential re-
lay is applied, except for very small generators.
Turn-to-turn fault
This is a short circuit between two coil turns in
one of the phases. This type of fault is not
detected by phase overcurrent or generator dif-
ferential relays. For generators with split neutrals
the interturn protection consists of a time-lag
low-set overcurrent relay sensing the current in
the connection between the stator neutrals. The
time delay is short, as the interturn fault current
can be high, but must also prevent operation
due to external fault currents being unbalanced.
One method is to use a low-burden ”very in-
verse” overcurrent relay with specially designed
split-phase current transformers.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
Phase-to-earth fault
Neutral earthing and stator earth faults
The phase-to-earth high current fault is the
most serious of the stator winding faults be-
cause of possible damage to the stator lami-
nated steel core. Most generators are Y-con-
nected with an earthed neutral. The neutral may
be solidly or impedance-earthed, often resist-
ance earthed on low voltages 500-690 V or on
medium voltage 3-11 kV generators. Where the
earthing is done through low resistance (or
direct neutral earthing), then a high fault cur-
rent exists and differential relaying can be used,
protecting about 80% of the winding. High
resistance earthing reducing fault currents to
some 5-10 A, would preclude differential re-
laying, but also reduces the danger of iron
damage. In this case a separate earth fault relay
must be considered.
When high-resistance earthing is used, then
a current relay may have trouble distinguishing
between third-harmonic currents and fault cur-
rents.
One alternative method of generator earthing
(instead of connecting the 5-10 A resistor di-
rectly between the star point and earth) is to
insert a small distribution transformer in the
neutral with a resistor connected across the
secondary. In both cases a voltage relay with
third harmonic filter - measuring the voltage
across the resistor - will provide reliable stator
earth fault protection.
If the resistor is selected to limit the earth
current to 10 A, the damage to the iron will be
limited and therefore high speed is not as essen-
tial as if the neutral was solidly earthed. Even
so, it is good practice to have the generator shut
down as fast as possible on earth faults, taking
into consideration the option of the relay in-
stead sounding an alarm in the case of a standby
or emergency generator.
FIELD EARTH FAULTS
The generator field is DC and is normally
unearthed. Therefore, if one earth fault occurs,
nothing much will happen. If a second earth
fault occurs, part of the field winding will be
short-circuited. The field magnetic flux be-
comes unbalanced. If the short circuit occurred
in close proximity, the unbalance could be
minimal. If it occurred at two extreme points, a
97
5.6 97
large unbalance would occur in the magnetic
flux. Because of the small air gap in some high-
speed turbogenerators with long shafts, distor-
tion could cause the rotor to rub on the stator,
resulting in major damage.
Again, this problem and the selection of
appropriate relaying should be co-ordinated
with the generator manufacturer.
GENERATOR MOTORING
When a generator prime mover cannot supply
sufficient power to its own losses, then the
electric power system will supply energy to the
prime mover via the generator. This is known
as ”motoring”.
A reverse-power relay can protect against
motoring. It can be designed for sensitive op-
eration and will detect reverse power down to
about 0.5%. A timer in the relay eliminates
spurious tripping due to transient surges, which
usually occur during synchronising and switch-
ing operations.
The losses and motoring power for prime
movers vary within a wide range for gas tur-
bines, diesel units and steam turbines.
NEGATIVE PHASE-SEQUENCE
PROTECTION
”Negative sequence” is a term used in sym-
metrical-component analysis. It is, in effect, a
three-phase system of vectors but rotating in
the opposite direction to the normal “positive
sequence.” The generator produces positive
sequence currents of 50 or 60 Hz. A phase-to-
phase fault or unbalanced loading of the phases
would produce negative sequence currents. This
negative sequence current produces an addi-
tional ampere-turn wave which rotates back-
wards. This means that it rotates relative to the
rotor at twice synchronous speed, producing
double frequency eddy currents in the rotor
causing excessive heating in the rotor surface,
but also in the potential damper winding.
Phase-to-phase faults only allow a few sec-
onds before damage can occur. Since the nega-
tive sequence currents decrease with distance,
they are greatest at the fault location and de-
crease approaching the generator. This means
that the closer the fault is to the generator, the
less time is available for clearing it. Phase-to-
phase faults should be cleared in less than 5
seconds.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
GENERATOR OVERVOLTAGE
Overvoltage at the generator output can be
produced by overspeed or by a faulty voltage
regulator. Both problems are serious enough to
warrant instant shutdown. Therefore, the relay-
ing should ignore transients, accept some volt-
age rise within limits, and shut down instantly
on large increases. A straight overvoltage relay
will provide protection against overspeed due
to a faulty governor on the prime mover, or a
faulty voltage regulator. The time-delay setting
should be around 10% above normal, while the
instantaneous setting should be slightly above
the expected transient voltage increase due to
load dumping and prior to the regulator correct-
ing the voltage.
FIELD WINDING OVERVOLTAGE
Overvoltage protection of the field winding is
usual on self-excited, slow-running hydro gen-
erators, which are mostly power company type
installations. Therefore, the average industrial
power system designer will not encounter this
problem.
LOSS OF EXCITATION
Loss of excitation will cause the generator to
operate as an induction generator. In order to do
this, it must lose synchronism. This can cause
oscillating and temporary instability. There is
time to sound an alarm and allow reapplication
of the field, providing the system stability is not
affected and the time to correct the problem did
not exceed a few seconds, or come up to half a
minute.
Normally, installing a timer will provide an
alarm to give the operator the chance of correc-
tive action. After this, the unit automatically
shuts down.
The loss of excitation results in numerous
changes to reactive power, power factor, sys-
tem stability, and real power output, and the
protection can be accomplished by a direc-
tional distance relay operating from alternating
current and potential transformers at the gen-
erator. The relay is a field-loss relay and inevi-
tably a discussion of field loss will involve the
generator manufacturer, who will also have his
own recommendations, purely as self-defence
against warranty claims.
BEARING TEMPERATURE
Bearings in large generators are usually sleeve
98
5.6 98
types rather than anti-friction bearings. As such
the bearing metal is subject to “flow” at high
temperatures.
Various methods are available to measure
these temperatures, such as contact-making ther-
mometers, bulb-type thermometers, RTDs (re-
sistance temperature detectors), and thermo-
couples.
All these options are acceptable, but low-
mass items such as RTDs and thermocouples
should be protected from cold and incorrect
locations which could affect their reading.
VIBRATION
Vibration can be caused by electrical as well as
mechanical faults. Therefore, vibration can also
be a “back-up” indication of an electrical fail-
ure causing unbalanced magnetic forces. The
vibration due to the stator becoming “egg-
shaped,” or asymmetrical, is caused by unbal-
anced magnetic forces. Loss of dynamic bal-
ance of the rotor can produce vibration along
with other possible mechanical faults.
Where the generator unit is a high-speed tur-
bine, vibration recorders with alarm contacts
can be used. For other low-speed types of prime
movers, vibration protection is not usually pro-
vided.
OTHER TYPES OF PROTECTION
Cooling water for bearings can sometimes leak
into the bearing oil. An oil level indicator can
give an alarm if the level suddenly increases.
Creep indicators are limited to the hydro-type
generators and are used to prevent bearing
damage. A certain speed is required before a
film of oil covers the bearing. If the generator is
allowed to slowly “creep,” bearing damage
could occur due to lack of an oil film. This creep
indicator allows the operator to see if the gen-
erator rotor has actually stopped rotating.
Potential transformer fuse protection will act
when fuses blow due to ageing and transient
overvoltages.
EMERGENCY GENERATOR
PROTECTION
Emergency or essential generators are usually
smaller diesel or combustion engine driven
units and may have survival value for many
people (say on an offshore oil or gas platform).
Such generators are started and load-tested
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
fairly regularly, mostly every week, and run for
a couple of hours. It is important to recognise
that the protection requirements during test are
quite different from a situation where the gen-
erator is called upon in an emergency. Hence it
may be correct to equip the generator with a
fairly comprehensive set of protective relays
which are active only during testing, whereas
many of these are blocked off with only short-
circuit protection active during an emergency.
Most important for a small generator is to have
sufficient short-circuit capacity to operate se-
lectively all connected fuses and circuit break-
ers in an emergency. Otherwise, the unit could
simply shut down due to an uncleared remote
system fault. (Faults are very likely to happen
in a catastrophic situation where fire or explo-
sions can occur, but these should not affect the
operation of the emergency power supply.)
Capacitor banks
High voltage capacitor banks normally have
their capacitor units individually fused. Large
capacitor banks exceeding 1 MVAr are usually
connected in double star. A current relay with
third harmonic filter connected to a current
transformer in the interconnection between the
two neutrals can be used to trip the bank before
fuses disconnect too many individual units.
The unbalance protection can also be a volt-
age relay set to operate when the neutral voltage
of the capacitor bank exceeds a certain value.
Individual capacitors may be switched by con-
tactors, circuit breakers or, for low voltage
applications, by fused switches. They have to
be rated for at least 1.5 times capacitor rated
current, and must withstand transient inrush
currents up to 100 times rated current.
Capacitor bank feeders are normally pro-
tected by fused contactors or switches. In the
case of circuit breakers, phase fault and earth
fault protection are provided.
Cable feeders
Plain cable feeders for high voltage distribution
are protected by phase short-circuit and earth
fault protective relays.
Differential protection is provided on all
high voltage feeders which can be operated in
parallel, or where instantaneous fault clearance
is required.
99
5.6 99
Low voltage cable feeders are protected by fuse
and switch combinations, or by moulded case
circuit breakers (MCCBs) providing short-cir-
cuit and earth fault trips.
Overhead line circuits
Overhead lines are normally not part of indus-
trial complexes, but where distances are cable-
prohibitive, medium or high voltage lines may
be the solution. Lines are protected by circuit
breakers with phase short-circuit and earth fault
protective relays. When distance protection is
used, it is provided in conjunction with
overcurrent and earth fault protection, the latter
serving as back-up protection.
Three-phase auto-reclosing schemes may be
considered if the geographical location and
lightning incidence require this.
SELECTIVITY IN INDUSTRIAL
POWER SYSTEMS
The following is a short description of what a
selectivity analysis is, and a set of rules to use
in a relay co-ordination study. This guide is also
a check-list for use when auditing selectivity
work done by others, performed by hand or by
computer.
Selectivity means that series-connected
overcurrent protection should operate success-
fully during short-circuit and earth faults and
isolate as small a part of the system as possible.
The rest of the power system should remain
operative. In British terminology “Discrimina-
tion” is sometimes used instead of Selectivity.
In U.S. terminology “Coordination of
overcurrent devices” or “Relay coordination”
is also used.
SETTING THE SELECTIVITY STAGE
A preliminary selectivity study is often carried
out early in the power system planning. This is
followed up during subsequent stages of design
and operation. The analysis consists of drawing
time-current curves on log-log paper, either by
hand or computer, in order to establish type and
settings of overcurrent protective devices. The
selectivity study also includes calculating and
determining how the devices will operate on
available short-circuit currents, as well as giv-
ing a graphical presentation of the degree of
protection provided.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
Further, let-through energy (I2t) during the
first half cycle of the short circuit must be
considered for current-limiting fuses and cir-
cuit breakers.
Characteristic operating curves of overcurrent
devices are usually published by manufacturers
on log-log paper with time as ordinate and
current as abscissa. To be useful in selectivity
work, such diagrams should contain full infor-
mation on all time and current tolerances and
ranges of adjustment and settings. There is at
present no international standard stating how
such data should be presented, and therefore
such diagrams vary considerably.. This is one
of the major challenges for anyone engaged in
selectivity work.
The time-current characteristics for electro-
mechanical, thermal or electronic overcurrent
releases are usually published in the U.S.A./
Canada as operating bands including all toler-
ances. In Europe, these characteristics are often
published as lines with tolerances given in per
cent.
The term ”primary relay” is often used for a
direct-acting trip device directly mounted on a
low voltage circuit breaker. A ”secondary re-
lay” is energised by the current or voltage
derived from an instrument transformer and is
installed separately from the CB and consid-
ered as a ”switchgear relay” or simply ”relay”.
It is important to realise the difference between
these terms, as these devices are all part of the
selectivity analysis and co-ordinated with each
other at different voltage levels.
Inverse or constant time/current relays used
for overload or short-circuit protection, may be
directional or with voltage restraint. When a
”primary relay” is found to be insufficient for a
low voltage circuit breaker, separate ”second-
ary” relays may be added. An example: genera-
tor circuit breakers in low voltage installations.
PRELIMINARY SELECTIVITY STUDY
FOR A NEW PLANT.
In order to select correct protection which may
later be co-ordinated, an early selectivity evalu-
ation is necessary. This evaluation is based on
practical experience of how protective devices
best fit together, and at the same time give good
protection.
Such an evaluation may be difficult without
the drawing of time-current curves on log-log
100
5.6 100
paper, but new computer-aided design simpli-
fies this process. This preliminary analysis is
normally part of the conceptual study, and the
short-circuit and fault protection philosophy at
this stage is reviewed together with network
layout and reliability of supply required by the
industrial process. An offshore or remote area
plant may have a much higher priority for
protection compared with selectivity. This is
due to the time and expense of bringing in new
equipment if it is damaged, as compared with
an industrial plant where transport and access
are easy. In addition, a purely radial network is
easy to make selective, whereas a complicated
interconnected network may be difficult to co-
ordinate using ordinary overcurrent devices.
DETAILED SELECTIVITY STUDY FOR
A NEW PLANT.
When all protective devices have been chosen
and time-current characteristics have been de-
termined, a detailed selectivity plan is estab-
lished. The detailed selectivity plan is the basis
for setting of relays and overcurrent releases
during commissioning. Commissioning also
includes calibration and testing of characteris-
tics as part of the hardware quality control.
These checks and calibrations may also take
place as part of QA witnessing at the manufac-
turer’s premises.
SELECTIVITY FOR EXISTING
PLANTS
The selectivity plan for a new plant is an effec-
tive diagnostic tool for operating personnel when
troubleshooting after faults and unscheduled
outages. The graphical representation on time-
current charts is the key to understanding the
built-in intelligence in the protection during
overload or fault conditions. The familiarity of
operating personnel with the selectivity plan is
of vital importance to the safety of both people
and plant.
It therefore becomes essential to update the
selectivity plan at regular intervals or whenever
changes to the electrical system take place. In
older plants so many changes may have occurred
that a new selectivity study must be carried out.
This usually falls within the responsibility of
preventive maintenance and is often combined
with other switchgear service during the yearly
audit and shutdown in process plants.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
A TYPICAL SELECTIVITY REPORT
A selectivity report may typically contain the
following sections:
1. Scope of work. Describing the extent of, and
criteria for, the analysis.
2. Single-line diagram. Overall diagram for the
whole plant
3. General criteria for settings and margins
4. Short-circuit calculations
5. Time-current charts.
6. Tables of device settings
7. Comments on the time-current charts
8. Summary and conclusions
TIME-CURRENT CHARTS
(see under Item 5 above)
These contain the characteristic curves with
associated settings of each protective device
plotted (or drawn) on transparent A3 log-log
paper, 4.5 x 5 decades, 5.6 cm per decade.
Although there is no international standard for
these graphs, this is a frequently encountered
and also practical size to ensure sufficient clar-
ity and legibility.
• Each time-current chart includes a single-
line diagram of the electrical system covered
by the chart (for ease of reading).
• Each time-current chart also includes a table
of settings for each protective device on the
chart, with associated current transformer
ratio (where applicable).
• Each protective device characteristic should
be clearly identifiable, both in the single-
line diagram and in the table.
• There should not be so many protective
devices on a chart that overview and clarity
are jeopardised. (A small number of charac-
teristics should be aimed at.)
• Maximum and minimum available symmetri-
cal short-circuit currents for three-phase
faults are shown on each chart. These cur-
rents apply for the network covered by the
single-line diagram on the chart. When nec-
essary, the time-dependent variation of the
current is shown.
• When several voltage levels are represented
on the same chart, the current scale in amps
is marked for each voltage level on the
abscissa. Alternatively, multiplication fac-
tors are given for converting current to the
other voltage levels.
101
5.6 101
• When the system neutrals are earthed via
impedances, the selectivity of earth fault
devices is shown on separate earth fault
charts. Each voltage level is considered a
separate circuit.
WRITTEN COMMENTS (see under Item
7 above)
Each time-current chart is accompanied by
separate written comments including:
• Explanation of each setting chosen (which is
not covered by some general criteria). It is
important for future revisions and changes
to know what were the original reasons for
selecting the settings.
• Comments are made when adequate selec-
tivity or protection cannot be obtained with
existing equipment. Alternative solutions
are to be proposed (such as replacing equip-
ment and the practical aspects of each alter-
native evaluated). This applies first of all to
old installations, but new plants also some-
times suffer from difficulties with regard to
selective co-ordination. Full selectivity is
sometimes impossible to achieve, and may
not be necessary either. These comments are
therefore very important in order to explain
aspects which may not be obvious from just
•
looking at the charts.
The possibility of operating a device or melt-
ing a fuse with the minimum available short-
circuit current must be evaluated and com-
mented on. This is especially important where
short-circuit currents are so small that trip-
ping may not occur at all, such as in emer-
gency systems, UPS systems or vital auxil-
iary low voltage systems .
• When the network layout causes difficulties
in respect of obtaining selectivity, this is to
be commented on. In meshed networks it
may be difficult to see from the time-current
curves and the single-line diagram how the
protection is supposed to operate. A func-
tional description which includes interlocks
is then required.
• When, as a by-product of the selectivity ana-
lysis, equipment is discovered which may
be underrated or misapplied, this is to be
commented on. This applies particularly to
old circuit breakers which may have become
incapable of coping with the current short-
circuit level.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
CRITERIA FOR SETTINGS AND
MARGINS (see under Item 3 above)
The report also requires a section where general
criteria for the selectivity work is explained,
such as:
• Time and/or current margins between relay
curves of inverse time characteristic. This
usually applies to systems for medium or
high voltage where relays and current trans-
formers are used. The relay may be of differ-
ent manufacture from the circuit breaker and
have different operating times which must
be accounted for in the lower time decades.
• Time and/or current margins used in the
analysis between low voltage characteris-
tics. These margins may be accounted for in
two ways:
1. The devices are drawn with their tolerance
bands including opening or melting times.
The margins are thus inherent in the charts
themselves. (This is of course easiest to
understand by operating personnel.)
2. The devices may be drawn as single lines,
requiring margins to be specified elsewhere.
North American and some Japanese manufac-
turers usually provide time-current graphs as
TOTAL operating bands including all toler-
ances. European and other manufacturers may
provide graphs drawn as lines only, tolerances
being found elsewhere in their publications.
• The margins of the device settings are given
with respect to: a) Motor rated current and
starting current as well as locked rotor with-
stand time. b) Transformer rated inrush cur-
rent and thermal withstand current due to
secondary short circuit. c) Cable thermal
withstand current or I2t curve.
TABLES OF DEVICE SETTINGS
(see under Item 6 above)
For each switchgear assembly (MCC, panel,
etc.) a table covering all overcurrent devices
should include the following:
• Name or number of feeder, or circuit device
identification number/tag number.
• Type of device (relay, fuse, MCCB, MCB,
etc., or combination of these) manufacturer,
current transformer ratio, setting ranges and
recommended settings.
• Any change to a previous setting or com-
plete change of protective device (e.g. for
5.6 102
older installations) should be noted in the
table.
• These tables are primarily intended for oper-
ating personnel who can then check that all
settings are correct. The tables must be up-
dated along with the rest of the selectivity
plan.
SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM
(see under Item 2 above)
An overall single-line diagram of the plant
subject to analysis is to be included in the
report. When only part of the electric power
system is subject to analysis, this is to be clearly
indicated in the single-line diagram.
SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
(see under Item 4 above)
These are the basis for all selectivity work, and
are carried out in advance or as part of the study.
A summary of short-circuit calculations appli-
cable to the protection is to be presented as a
separate section of the report. All impedances
and time constants used in the calculations are
to be included.
DATA REQUIRED
In order to carry out a selectivity analysis, the
following data are required:
• A single-line diagram of the electrical sys-
tem involved showing: Power, voltage, imped-
ance and connections of all transformers. Nor-
mal and emergency switching conditions.
Name-plate ratings and subtransient reactance
of all major motors and generators. Transient
reactances of synchronous motors and genera-
tors. Synchronous reactances of generators.
Current forcing of smaller generators during
short circuit. When emergency supply is part of
the study, short-circuit capability of capacitor
banks and UPS converters must be given. Con-
ductor sizes, types and configurations. Current
transformer ratios. Identification of all
overcurrent devices.
• Ratings, time-current characteristics and
ranges of adjustment of all relays, overcurrent
•
releases and fuses under consideration.
Complete short-circuit study for both first-
cycle and interrupting duties. This includes
maximum and minimum expected currents as
well as available short-circuit current from all
sources.
102
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control

• Expected
considered.
maximum loading on any circuit

• Any special overcurrent protective device

setting requirements stipulated by the sup-
ply company
• When EX(e) motors are included in the
study, it is necessary to include rated current
and starting current as well as thermal time
limit Te.
• When direct-started motors and their protec-
tion are part of the analysis, starting current,
actual starting time and maximum allowable
starting time are to be given.

103

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Voltage and frequency control
INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM CONTROL
Contents
1 General
2 Voltage and frequency control
3 Fault control
4 Motor control
5 System events recorder (SER)
6 Central control room (CCR) aspects
7 Load management system (LMS)
8 Load shedding system
9 Reacceleration (RA) and restart (RS) system
10 Black start system
11 Operation control (where to operate, monitor and alarm)
General
There are frequently misconceptions amongst
project design engineers as to what is to be
”controlled” and by whom or what in an indus-
trial power system. Unfortunately, the word
”control” has many meanings, and with the
advent of fast integrated circuits, microcomput-
ers these days can ”control” just about anything
in a large plant. In the following sections some
of the most common power system parame-
ters subject to ”control” will be presented. This
overview will hopefully assist the electrical and
instrument/automation disciplines in agreeing
on what method and type of equipment will be
best suited to supervise, regulate, monitor, give
alarm and execute action in the power system.
Voltage and frequency control
During normal operation an industrial electri-
cal system has only two parameters which are
subject to regulation, namely frequency and
voltage. However, both these parameters are
controlled by regulators which are delivered
with and are part of the power equipment itself,
and which it is not generally considered suit-
able to purchase separately.
104
5.7 104
page
104
104
105
105
105
106
107
108
108
109
109
Frequency
If the plant is interconnected with a power
company, frequency is not generally of much
concern, since it is wholly looked after by the
generator prime movers in the main grid. How-
ever, if the industry has co-generation, or is
running its generators in island operation, fre-
quency must be corrected to 50 or 60 Hz, with
some small acceptable tolerance. The
generator(s) follow the rotation of the prime
movers, and the speed is controlled by the
turbine or diesel engine governor, which comes
with the unit as part of the package delivery.
Hence frequency is wholly a slave of the prime
mover speed.
Voltage
The voltage normally swings continually within
acceptable limits as loads are connected and
disconnected inside the plant and outside in the
power company network. In-plant generator
voltage regulators will attempt to bring the
voltage back to a predetermined value when it
falls outside the set values. Otherwise, the large
transformers may be equipped with on-load tap-
changers (OLTCs), which also adjust the volt-
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Voltage and frequency control
age according to a predetermined value. None
of this equipment is able to cope with fast
variations that are due to disturbances such as
starting of large motors in a weak network.
Here it is up to the designer to foresee all
”normal” disturbances and engineer the power
system such that it can ride through the larger
voltage swings without connected loads being
interferred with.
Fault control
By far the largest and most complex intelligent
supervisory system in any power supply is the
fault control system. It is generally not thought
of in this way as it is usually termed ”relay
protection” or simply ”protection”. However,
as microprocessors are becoming steadily faster
and cheaper, relays are gradually incorporating
more and more chips to become like small
individual processors with a great number of
protection functions, which previously required
many individual relays to accomplish. How-
ever, there is still some way to go before micro-
processor-based relays take over industrial pro-
tection altogether, particularly in the low volt-
age fuse field where a current-limiting fuse will
take 2 milliseconds to complete the entire fault
sensing, decision making and fault interrupting
cycle. Control and instrument engineers are
generally not aware of the speed and fast opera-
tion required in a power system to protect
people and plant against harm and damage
when short circuits and other faults occur. There-
fore, fault control or power system protection
still remains much like a separate electrical
discipline with its own engineering rules, some-
times being more of an art than an exact tech-
nology. However, this has been presented in
rather more detail in the previous section.
Motor control
The starting and stopping of constant speed
asynchronous induction motors, as required by
the manufacturing or plant process, is the most
common control function in any industry. For
this reason, a fused switch combined with a
contactor and some minor protective and aux-
iliary relaying is, in some parts of the world,
given the name ”motor controller”. Similarly,
105
5.7 105
an assembly of such units is likewise given the
name ”Motor Control Centre” or MCC. Start-
ing and stopping may only require manual
operation; however, MCCs are normally under
the management of a computer, which may
execute the start and stop actions without inter-
ference from operators. Sometimes the process
operator may wish to overrule the computer
and start or stop motors manually, providing it
is safe for the process to do so.
Of course, motor control may be more so-
phisticated and include the variation of speed,
traditionally done with DC motors, but more
and more often by adjusting the frequency to
either cage-type induction motors or, for larger
units, using synchronous motors all the way
up to 40 MW for large compressor drives. For
such large ASDs (adjustable speed drives) it is
essential to recognise that the speed controller
(or frequency converter) is an integral part of
the motor package, where all parts are finely
tuned to each other. The interface with process
control is basically only to provide a protocol
for an input signal to the frequency converter in
order to increase or reduce speed.
System events recorder (SER)
When faults or severe disturbances occur in the
industrial power system, it may be of advantage
to know the sequence of events afterwards in
order to diagnose the source of the fault or
disturbance. With the extremely fast behaviour
of power systems, as many as 50 actions may
have taken place within a 100 millisecond pe-
riod. This is usually too fast for normal process
control since the industrial process which it is
designed to handle is much slower.
Here are some reasons for installing an SER
to look after the high and medium voltage
systems:
1. When medium voltage motors fail, they may
still be under some form of guarantee. In
order to prove to the manufacturer, for in-
stance, that the failure was due to low quality
stator winding insulation and not maltreat-
ment of the motor, the recorded sequence of
temperature, protective relay operation and
circuit breaker action is a sound basis for
further discussions.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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2. Although a power company should know its

availability at the point of delivery, it may
well happen that it does not include in such
statistics short voltage dips or even complete
outages of less than say 0.2 seconds. These
may cause complete plant shutdown if the
plant has not been designed to ride through
them. A recording of all important power
system events is the only solid proof in
contractual discussions with the power com-
pany in such cases.
3. Some faults or disturbances are very hard to
get to the roots of, especially in the area of
earth faults. A recording of the sequence of Fig. 1. Traditional mimic where the IPS is rep-
events just prior to and following such a fault resented on a sheet steel panel with physical
may give valuable clues. symbols, operating ”handles”, monitoring in-
4. Spurious (nuisance) tripping without any struments and indicating lights.
obvious cause sometimes happens, espe-
cially in a commissioning or early opera-
tional phase. Even if such trips often have
their causes in small wiring or control cir-
cuitry not being monitored by the events
recorder, a record of the main events may
indirectly point to the cause.

Central control room (CCR)

aspects
A process type industry will normally have a
central control room where all process-related
decisions are taken and executed from, either
by the operators themselves or by some compu-
ter-based logic assisting the operators. There
may be one single or many separate control
systems collected in the CCR, with their asso-
ciated mimic panels or equivalent video screen
graphical pictures. However, the power supply
control and the electrical operators have tradi-
tionally had their location elsewhere, outside
the CCR. The reason for this is the traditional
duties and education of electrical staff, along
with the electrical safety codes or regulations in
most industrial countries having a 100-year-
old history. However, the electric power supply
has a strong interface with all that is going on in
the CCR.
Interface with emergency shutdown
system (ESD)
The safety philosophy of any industry has to
evaluate the possibility of hazardous situations
Fig. 2. Single-line diagram, monitoring, indi-
cation and operating functions represented on a
modern video display unit (TV screen).
arising which will require partial or total shut-
down of the entire plant. Gas release in a chemi-
cal plant would be such a situation. And if the
gas, in addition, is flammable, all electrical
equipment that is not explosion-proof may be
subject to shutdown. The ESD is normally a
stand-alone control system located in a CCR
and is heavily interfaced with all electrical
supply circuits. However, there is not much
influence from the electrical discipline, except
in one respect: the ESD is itself powered from
one or several UPS feeders. (If UPS supply is
lost, the ESD usually shuts down as a ”fail-
safe” mode, and nuisance trips of the UPS can
therefore be rather embarrassing.)

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Interface with fire detection
All electrical rooms usually have smoke and/or
fire detectors feeding into an autonomous con-
trol system often located in CCR. This control
system will sometimes automatically release
some fire extinguishing agent after smoke or
fire is detected. This could be detrimental to
electrical switchgear and control electronics, as
an electrical ”fire” is seldom anything but a
smouldering in cable insulation, which is best
taken care of by interrupting the faulty circuit.
It may be hard to convince safety engineers
that there is not much point in pouring fire
extinguisher onto a burning arc, as this has only
the outer appearance of a ”fire”, but is alto-
gether a different natural phenomenon. A burn-
ing arc consumes no air and will burn in spite of
no oxygen present, contrary to all other fires.
The best arc ”extinguisher” is again disconnec-
tion of the circuit. Fresh water, with its cooling
effect, has proved to be just about the only
medium which has any real purpose as a fire
extinguisher in electric power equipment rooms.
Integration of the electrical and instru-
mentation/automation disciplines
The impact of modern control equipment is not
so much a technical question as one which ad-
dresses old and new ways of organising work.
The continuous discussion over many years
about what is required to integrate the entire
electric power system into process control has
an answer which is closely related to what edu-
cation and training is mandatory in each coun-
try for electrical and instrument operators. The
answer to this question will also decide how the
power system (traditionally run by electricians)
can now be operated by ”any” CCR operator.
Such integration makes the CCR into the true
plant nerve centre from where ALL plant opera-
tional commands are executed, AND from
where maintenance work permits are issued.
Additionally, the CCR may at the same time be
made into a command headquarters from where
necessary electrical operations would also be
carried out in an emergency or catastrophic situ-
ation (similar to the way the CCR functions in
a nuclear power station). Most manufacturing
industries may not need an integrated CCR of
this nature, but for large process industries and
offshore petroleum installations, there are real
benefits to be obtained by such integration.
107
5.7 107
Plants in petroleum refining have carried out
integration programmes where all CCR opera-
tors have to have full electrical and instrumen-
tation competence (in addition to being famil-
iar with the plant process). Such programmes
have invariably been in conjunction with in-
stalling an entirely new CCR and process con-
trol. In this manner the CCR has become the
integrated control centre that control engineers
have dreamed about for years. Some of the
issues involved are:
• Training of electrical and instrument staff is
required to make all CCR operators multi-
disciplinary. This may involve courses and
on-the-spot training of two years´ duration.
• Integrating the operations and maintenance
functions
• Reorganising of the electrical and instru-
ment disciplines, and setting up an advisory
engineering department
• Doing away with the earlier engineering and
maintenance manager positions
Load management system (LMS)
This is a type of control aimed at saving energy
and costs, and is therefore also termed Energy
Management. It attempts to optimise the run-
ning of all loads such that they will consume a
minimum amount of power at all times, without
interfering with plant production. A typical
load management system (LMS) run by a cen-
tral processing unit (CPU) and a number of
field processing units (FPUs) for a manufactur-
ing plant may incorporate:
• HVAC (heating, ventilating and air condi-
tioning) loads are generally serious energy
wasters if not closely monitored. The high-
est cold-duct temperatures and lowest hot-
duct temperatures should be set by the CPU
to maintain zone comfort.
• Weekly and holiday scheduling can be set so
as to match the running of equipment to
expected occupancy in various buildings.
With a large number of buildings, and vari-
ations of occupancy, the switching on and
off the correct amount of lighting, HVAC
and other energy consuming services is a
difficult manual task, even with semi-auto-
matic devices scattered throughout the com-
plex.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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• Process chilled and hot water monitoring
includes tight control of temperatures and
cycling in chiggers, heat pumps, cooling
towers, heat exchangers under widely vary-
ing seasonal temperatures. Manual control
can waste a great deal of energy.
By controlling the above parameters, a typical
manufacturing plant reduced its 3 MUSD elec-
tric energy bill by 10-15% in the first year of
operation of an LMS. It is obvious that if a plant
process control system is to be designed and
installed, it is sensible to incorporate load man-
agement as well, rather than purchase a sepa-
rate CPU just for this purpose.
Load shedding system
Disconnecting loads during faults, or other
abnormal circumstances such as too high a load
or reduced supply, sometimes also falls under
the category of ”load management”. However,
it is treated separately here since its main pur-
pose is not to reduce costs in the long run, but
rather to avoid total system collapse, or avoid
penalty clauses in power contracts. Automatic
load shedding equipment is sometimes manu-
factured under that name by specialist manu-
facturers. But due to its generally ”slow” opera-
tion, it may also be integrated in some central
process control scheme. The following situa-
tions may call for automatic load shedding in a
typical large pulp and paper mill with hydro and
steam co-generation:
1. Limiting demand may be required if the
mill´s own generation is disconnected and
demand exceeds the power company con-
tract value. Tripping of load inevitably means
restarting, which in case of large motors may
represent a large voltage drop and which
may be a nuisance to the rest of the plant.
This may influence the selection of the loads
to be shed.
2. A system instability situation may develop
during a sudden loss of generation or power
supply, or during fault conditions. Only dy-
namic fault studies will indicate if there is a
latent instability which requires disconnec-
tion of loads in order to save the entire
system from collapse and total shutdown.
Such studies will also provide the necessary
time margins for recovery of voltage and
108
5.7 108
frequency and for setting the disconnection
times.
3. The fault duties of switchgear may be ex-
ceeded as a result of plant expansion. Rather
than purchasing and installing new equip-
ment, one can choose to disconnect fault
current sources (such as large motors) prior
to attempting to open a circuit breaker in the
faulty area in the case of a short circuit. Thus
the fault current is reduced to an acceptable
level before the breaker begins to interrupt
it.
4. Generator overloading may occur if the
power company supply is lost. Existing in-
plant generators will attempt to take on the
entire connected load, which causes:
• Frequency drop, resulting in:
• Speed drop on station auxiliaries, which
may be critical on steam turbines, where
pump or fan output is proportional to speed.
• Transformer overfluxing, if voltage can be
maintained.
• Steam turbine blading resonance, which can
shorten blade life to as little as 10 seconds.
• Detrimental effects on process control or
computers.
Appropriate load shedding will prevent these
results from happening.
Reacceleration (RA) and restart
(RS) system
It is important to distinguish between on the
one hand reacceleration, which takes place af-
ter a short voltage dip has occurred and all plant
motors have slowed down and are now all
trying to regain speed, and on the other hand
restart, which assumes that the voltage dip or
outage has lasted for so long that RA is no
longer possible and an automatic sequential
restart has to take place. In the RA case, there
may not be enough strength (short-circuit ca-
pacity) in the system to manage the large reac-
tive demand from induction motors, which are
all drawing starting current at the same time.
The system voltage would simply collapse if
some load shedding as described above were
not applied. In other words, RA is normally
incorporated with a load shedding scheme.
Similarly, automatic RS may also be com-
bined in a load shedding scheme.
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Black start system The locations are:

This is normally not only a control scheme, but
also a manual or semi-automatic procedure to
follow when a complete black-out has occurred.
It includes the possible depletion of UPS batter-
ies and necessary fuel tanks for emergency or
essential power generation. In other words, all
plant is now completely dead, including all
control systems and emergency lighting.
This may not be an actual possibility for a
land-based plant, but an offshore petroleum
plant which in an gas explosion or other emer-
gency may have evacuated all staff has to be
designed for such a possibility. Also, if land
plants go through the exercise of envisaging
how to start up after a complete and total outage
at any time of the year, there may be some
unforeseen consequences in store. For instance,
if a chemical plant in a winter climate comes to
a complete halt, how are all the frozen pipes
going to be thawed out after some hours of
standstill?
CRC = central control room
Gen CP = Generator control panel located close
to or adjacent to the generator
HV SWGR = high or medium voltage switch-
room or a local control room adjacent to the
outdoor switchyard
LOC = local (this may be on the motor skid or
generator skid)
ER = system events recorder (located adjacent
to switchgear or in a local electrical control
room)
PMCP = prime mover control panel at the skid
or in adjacent local control room
LOCANN = local annunciator at the switch-
board or in an adjacent local control room
LOC CP = local switchgear control panel at
the main intake substation
Other abbreviations are:
BS = bus section
CB = circuit breaker
G/T = generator transformer
OLTC = on-load tap changer.

Operation control (where to

operate, monitor and alarm)
The following is a typical listing of controls,
instruments and meters, status indications and
alarms, both locally and remotely, for some
common types of large electric power equip-
ment. The situation reflected in these tables
represents a plant with a normal autonomous
system of electrical discipline. This is not an
integrated situation as described above in the
CCR section ”Integration of electrical and in-
strument disciplines”. Therefore, a number of
local control rooms and locations are assumed.
Although this may be typical of a chemical or
petroleum type of industry, the lists may also be
applied to other types of plant.

The requirements at each location in the tables

are as follows:
M = mandatory
MA = mandatory if applicable
GA = grouped alarm
IA = individual alarm
O = optional
T = close circuit breaker in test position only

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MAIN GENERATOR with PRIME MOVER

CCR HVSWB Gen CP PMCP

Generating set controls:

- normal start M
- auto start M
- fast loading MA MA
- normal stop M M
- emergency stop M M
- local/remote M
(control selector switch)
Isochronous/droop control O MA
(selector switch)
Generating set - base/peak MA MA
(load selector switch)
Governor setpoint control M M M
Generator CB control O XT M
G/T OLTC - tap raise/lower MA MA
G/T OLTC - local/remote selector switch MA
Field switch - on/off M
Voltage regulator - auto/manual M
selector switch
Voltage regulator - voltage/P.F. MA MA
selector switch
Voltage setpoint control - auto M M
Voltage setpoint control - manual M M
P.F. setpoint control MA MA
Synchronising selector switch O M

Generator status indications:

Generating set - local/remote control M M
Generating set - base/peak MA MA
load operation
Isochronous/droop operation MA MA
Generator CB - open/closed M M M
Field switch - open/closed O M
Voltage regulator - voltage/P.F. MA MA

Generator instruments and meters:

voltage M M M
frequency M M M
current M M M
real power M MA M
reactive power M M
power factor M M
real energy summated M M
reactive energy summated M
Synchronising instruments O M
Field voltage M
Field current M
Stator temperature M
Hours-run meter M

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Generator alarms:
Master trip relay(s) M M M
Stator temperature high alarm M M O
Coolant temperature high alarm M M O
G/T temperature high alarm MA MA O
G/T Buchholz gas alarm MA MA O
Excitation system alarm M M O
Rotor earth fault MA MA O
Auxiliary systems M M O
All protection relays (trip) IA O
Mechanical non-trip alarms IA GA GA
Mechanical trip alarms IA GA GA

POWER COMPANY INTAKE AND MAIN HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION

CCR HV SWBD LOC CP

Controls:
Incoming feeder CB
CB control O XT M
sync relay & selector switch MA M
Incoming transformer OLTC
tap raise/lower O MA
local/remote selector switch MA
AVR setpoint control O MA
auto/manual selector switch MA
Bus tie or Bus coupler CB
CB control O XT M
sync relay & selector switch MA MA
Outgoing feeder CB
CB control O XT M

Status indications:
All CBs - open/closed O M M

Instruments and meters:

Busbars (per section)
voltage O M M
frequency O M M

Incoming feeder
voltage O M M
current O M M
real power O M
reactive power O M
power factor O M
real power summated O M
reactive power summated MA MA
transformer tap position O MA MA

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Outgoing feeder
current O M
real power O O
reactive power O O
real energy O O

CCR HV SWBD LOCANN ER

Alarms:
All circuits - master trip relay(s) IA IA IA IA
Switchgear tripping supplies -
battery/charger IA IA O
Switchgear closing supplies -
battery/charger (each) IA IA O
Trip circuit supervision IA IA O
(per busbar section)
Loadshed (per stage) MA MA IA
Annunciator repeat alarms GA
Annunciate fault GA IA
HVAC failure GA IA
Substation temperature
too high/too low GA IA

MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHBOARDS

CCR HVSWBD LOCANN ER

Controls:
Incoming feeder CB close/open M
Bus section CB close/open M
Distribution feeder CB close/open M
Motor CB close/open XT

Status Indications:
Incoming and bus section CBs - M O
open/closed
Distribution feeders - open/closed M O
Motor feeders - open/closed O M
Motor feeders - operations counter M

Instruments and meters:

Busbar voltage (per section) O M
Incoming line voltage M
Incoming line current O M
Bus section current O M
Distribution feeder current O M
Motor feeder current O M
Motor running hours M

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Alarms:
All non-motor circuits
master trip relay GA IA IA GA
Motor circuits - protection operated IA IA
Switchgear trip supply
battery/charger (each) IA IA O
Switchgear closing supplies
battery/charger (each) IA IA O
Trip circuit supervision
(per busbar section) IA IA GA
Annunciator repeat alarms GA
Annunciator fault GA IA
Ventilation failure GA IA
Substation temperature
too high/too low GA IA

LARGE MOTORS (Medium Voltage)

CCR HVSWBD LOC CP

Manual controls:
Normal start M M
Normal stop M M
Emergency stop M M M
Local/remote selector switch M
CB control M M
Excitation setpoint control (sync. mach.) M M

Status indications :
Drive stopped M M
Drive running M M
CB - open/closed M M

Instruments and meters:

Stator current M M M
Real power M M
Reactive power M M
Power factor M M
Field voltage (sync. mach.) M
Field current (sync. mach.) M
Stator temperature M
Hours-run meter M

Alarms:
Master trip relay M M
Stator temperature high alarm M M
Coolant temperature high alarm M M
Excitation system alarm (sync. motor) M M
Protection relays on switchgear IA
Electrical non-trip alarms IA IA
Mechanical non-trip alarms IA GA
Mechanical trip alarms IA GA

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INDUSTRIAL COGENERATION
OF POVER AND HEAT

Contents
page
1 Introduction 114
2 The steam turbine cycle 114
3 The steam turbine 115
4 The VAX steam turbine family 116
5 The gas turbine cycle 117
6 A gas turbine example 120
7 The combined cycle 121
8 Cogeneration with steam or gas turbines 122
9 Electric generators 123
10 Control system 124

Introduction
Power generation by thermal processes in gas
turbines and steam turbines involves unavoid-
able losses. These losses are discharged in the
form of low grade heat to the environment as
hot exhaust air or warm cooling water in normal
power stations. In industry, however, as well as
in areas where heat can be distributed to local
heat users by district heating, this low grade
heat can often be used as a full replacement for
heat from separate heating boilers. The various
thermal cycles will be explained in some detail
in the following.
continue all the way down to nearly the cooling
water temperature. Thus, the steam is expanded
down to a pressure far below atmospheric pres-
sure. It is then condensed into water again in
order to reduce the volume of working fluid to
be put under pressure again for a new cycle.
High pressure and high steam temperature in-
creases the efficiency of the steam cycle. Addi-
tional efficiency can be achieved by introduc-
ing multiple stage preheating of the feed water.

The steam turbine cycle

In a conventional steam turbine cycle, water is KOPIA
used as the working fluid. The water is put
under high pressure by a feed pump in order not
to boil at a too low a temperature. In industrial
systems the pressure may be 100 bar or even
higher. The water is heated in a boiler by
burning of fuel. It evaporates into steam, which
is subsequently superheated in a separate sec-
tion of the boiler. The resulting superheated
steam is expanded in a turbine where mechani-
cal power is generated. The expansion may Fig. 1. Elementary diagram of the steam cycle.

114

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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Steam is then extracted from the turbine at
suitable temperature levels and fed to heat
exchangers in the feed water stream.
Steam cycles operate in the range of 40 %
efficiency as condensing power plants. The
limiting temperature for the steam cycle de-
pends on the maximum operating temperature
of low- to medium-cost construction steels used
in the boiler and turbine or on other economic
restrictions. The temperature is often in the
range 450 to 540oC. Industrial steam power
plants often operate in the pressure range 60 to
120 bar. Process related limitations may reduce
these values, e.g. in waste incineration boilers,
where hot corrosion is a major problem at high
temperature.
The combustion of fuel is separate from the
working steam, and practically any fuel can be
used. Coal is used frequently around the world
for steam power plants due to its attractive cost
in comparison with other fossil fuels available.
The steam turbine
The steam turbine transforms the thermal en-
ergy of the superheated steam into mechanical
power driving the electric generator. Modern
designs feature high efficiency of the steam
expansion in order to maximise the useful en-
ergy.
Steam enters the turbine through an emer-
gency stop valve and one or more inlet control
valves. The valves control the steam flow dur-
ing operation. Depending on the design, the
steam admission can either be full or partial arc.
Fig. 2. Typical configuration of a two-cylinder VAX steam turbine.
115
5.8 115
At partial arc admission, steam is introduced at
full pressure through several separate valves
and nozzles covering part of the first rotating
blade row, the governing stage. The load is
controlled through opening or closing these
valves. At full arc admission, the steam enters
the turbine through one control valve and over
the full arc of the first turbine stage. The load is
controlled through sliding live steam pressure.
This arrangement is common for steam tur-
bines operating in combined cycles.
Steam for process purposes can be extracted
from the turbine at suitable pressure levels. At
the stage of extraction, additional space is pro-
vided for between the turbine discs. Holes in
the turbine casing allow steam to flow into a
collection chamber integral with the casing and
further to the extraction steam pipe. The steam
flow from the extractions may be controlled by
means of internal or external devices. The steam
turbines can be equipped with a stage of vari-
able stator vanes for extraction control. By
closing the stator vanes downstream of the
extraction, more steam will flow into the ex-
traction pipe. External control is accomplished
by a throttle valve in the extraction pipe.
In district heating turbines the steam flows to
heating condensers, which operate under some
pressure. Often, two-stage heating is used to
increase the overall cycle efficiency. Steam
then leaves the turbine at two different pressure
levels close to each other and condenses in two
separate heating condensers.
Steam turbines are tailored to their purpose,
i.e., the steam channel is designed uniquely for
the individual customer’s needs. Modern de-
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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signs can meet these demands and yet have
many standard parts and components. The VAX
steam turbine manufactured by ABB STAL is
a typical example. For each module the casing,
bearings, bearing distances, shaft glands, blade
clearances and inlet valves are the same. Also
the auxiliaries come in modules, including the
lube oil, hydraulic oil, gland steam and control
systems.
The VAX steam turbine family
To get the best possible efficiency from the
VAX steam turbine, expansion has been split
over two turbine casings when admission con-
ditions are high and the steam expands to
vacuum.
The following modules are available in the
VAX series:
HP modules
The high pressure turbines are of a barrel design
with a vertically split casing. They accept steam
up to 140 bar and 540oC. Designs are also
available for 180 bar and 560oC. The radially
uniform casing allows for thermal flexibility
and smaller clearances, which contributes to
a high efficiency. The rotor and diaphragms
are assembled into a package, which is put into
the casing horizontally using a special tool,
Fig. 3. VAX HP turbine. Assembly of rotor/stator package with casing.
116
5.8 116
see Fig. 3. The stator parts are kept together by
means of rings, which build up the package.
The HP turbine is geared to the generator,
which can be of a four-pole or two-pole design.
Steam is introduced through four symmetri-
cally located control valves with integral cast
nozzle segments. Alternatively, a single inlet
valve can be used. This is an efficient arrange-
ment for sliding pressure operation or for tur-
bines running with small load variations.
LP modules
The LP modules normally have an axial ex-
haust with the condenser bolted directly to the
turbine casing. It allows for a simple founda-
tion and a low and compact layout. The blading
has a roof in all stages except in the last two,
which have free-standing blades. The LP mod-
ules are either geared or directly coupled to the
generator. If required, the steam exhaust can
also be arranged downwards, upwards or to one
side. The casing is horizontally split and fabri-
cated from steel plate. Steam up to 20 bar and
440oC can be used.
MP modules
The MP modules are extremely compact. High
efficiency is secured by using advanced ex-
haust blading developed for large power plant
steam turbines. The smallest MP-modules are
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nally controlled extraction. Moreover, they can

have pass-in of steam from external sources or
from a multi-pressure steam boiler in a com-
bined cycle. The MP modules can have a maxi-
mum of five different extractions.

Control system
The VAX control system comprises a built-in
turbine governor and electro-hydraulic valve
control, turbine protection and man-machine
communication. The man-machine communi-
cation and automatic equipment for controlling
Fig. 4. Medium pressure module MP24 of the auxiliary equipment can be connected to the
VAX series. corresponding system of other parts of a plant.
The control system is based on wide experi-
of high speed design and is geared to the gen- ence from demanding power plant applica-
erator. Larger modules, however, are directly tions. It has been delivered as a stand-alone
coupled. The MP modules can accommodate system as well as for integration with the over-
steam up to 90 bar and 510°C. MP modules can all decentralised control system for the plant.
accommodate steam up to 90 bar and 510°C.
MP modules are used in combined cycle plants Starting
and in waste-to-energy plants, where the ad- The thermal flexibility of the VAX results in
mission data are lower. short start-up times compared to other designs.
Typically, less than one hour is required from
Extractions and admissions cold machine to full load. A hot start can be
The VAX modules are designed for multiple made in less than 20 minutes. For plants oper-
admissions and extractions with internal or ating in dispatch mode short starts contribute
external control. Two locations are available in additional power.
the HP turbine. In two-casing arrangements,
steam can be extracted from the cross-over pipe
and an additional three extractions can be ar- The gas turbine cycle
ranged in the LP turbine. The LP and MP In a gas turbine the power is generated by
turbine modules can be furnished with inter- compressing air up to a pressure level of ten to
71.9 MJ/s
Natural gas 245,3 MBtu/h
1.013 bar 534°C
48 815 kJ/kg 14,69 psia 993°F
20 987 Btu/Ib
79,2 kg/s
1.013 bar Combustion 174,4 lb/s
15°C
14,69 psis chamber
59°F
7700/1500 rpm
77,7kg/s 14,2 Bar 1112°C 7700/1800 rpm
171 lb/s 2034°F
206 psia

ISO cond., Nat. gas fuel, Base load operation

Output, MW 24,6
Gas generator El. eff., % 34,2
Heat rate, kJ/kWh (Btu/kWh) 10 256 (9 979)
Fuel flow, MJ/s 8MBtu/h) 71,9 (245,3)
10 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage Exhaust flow, kg/s (pps) 79,2 (174,4)
axial compressor compressor turbine power turbine Exhaust temperature, °C (°F) 534 (993)
Exhaust heat, MJ/s (MBtu/h) 44,7 (152,7)

Fig. 5. Elementary flow diagram. GT10 gas turbine manufactured by ABB STAL.

117

5.8 117 97-03-05, 13.50

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
40 bar. The compressed air is further heated by
combustion of gas or liquid fuel. The resulting
hot combustion gases then expand through tur-
bines, which drive the compressor and the gen-
erator. All combustion products - including
ashes - get in contact with the metal surfaces of
the turbine stages. In order to avoid hot corro-
sion, the range of fuels is limited to gas and
relatively clean liquid fuels.
As air has a larger volume at higher tempera-
tures it will be possible to extract more energy
during expansion than during compression of
the air. The surplus energy is used to drive the
generator. As a by-product, hot exhaust gas is
emitted. Typically, the temperature of the ex-
haust gas will be 375-600 oC. The thermody-
namic efficiency of gas turbines will be in the
range 28 to 42 %. Modern industrial machines
will have an efficiency of some 35%.
Gas turbines should be seen as standard
products. Contrary to steam turbines, they are
seldom changed to fit a process due to the large
development costs involved. The main compo-
nents of the gas turbine are the compressor, the
combustor and the turbine.
The compressor
The compressor design is in most cases of the
axial flow type with 10 to 20 stages. The effi-
ciency is critical as the compressor uses more
Fig. 6. Cut-away of the GT10 gas turbine.
118
5.8 118
power than the net power output of the gas
turbine. Efficient axial compressor designs were
developed after World War II, which made jet
engines a realistic alternative to piston engines.
One of the reasons for the success was the
considerably reduced number of parts com-
pared with a piston engine. This is accompa-
nied by higher reliability and lower mainte-
nance costs. Modern computer-based calcula-
tion has improved the efficiency and reliability
of the compressor designs to very high levels.
The compressor is usually made from 12% Cr
steels and the temperature is around 400 to
500 oC at the exit of the compressor.
A compressor based on aerodynamic effects
is sensitive to surge in contrast to displacement
compressors. Surge occurs when the real pres-
sure ratio is higher than the pressure ratio the
compressor is able to deliver at a certain mass
flow. This can occur at start-up or during tran-
sients. In order to handle these difficulties mov-
able guide vanes are used to modify the compres-
sor performance. Extraction of air from the com-
pressor is often necessary in order to safely pass
some difficult operating points during start-up.
The compressor transports very large vol-
umes of air There is always some particulate
present, which can deposit on the blades in the
air channel. Deposits will make the compressor
less efficient and may lead to increased risk of
97-03-05, 13.51
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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surge. They have to be removed on a regular
basis by washing. Washing is accomplished by
spraying cleaning liquid into the compressor
during low load operation or by stopping the
machine and soaking the compressor with wa-
ter for a short period. It will remove most of the
dirt and restore the compressor to its original
performance. Some deterioration is not possi-
ble to correct, however. The reason may be
corrosion causing rough surfaces, or erosion of
particles which changes the blade geometry to
a less efficient form.
Another cause of performance deterioration
is increasing blade tip clearances, which may
occur if rubbing takes place, i.e., contact be-
tween the rotating and stationary parts during
operation. Rubbing results from rapid tran-
sients when the thermal expansion of the rotor
and the stator reduces the blade tip clearances
to zero. In normal operation it results in in-
creased leakage over the blade tips and lower
efficiency. This is one of the reasons for keep-
ing the transients at reasonably low levels.
The compressor controls the air flow and
thereby the available gas turbine power. The
effect of air temperature on performance is
quite marked, as a result of higher air density
at low temperatures. Thus, the gas turbine out-
put is higher at low ambient air temperature.
A 15 oC increase in temperature may reduce
the available power by some 5%.
The combustor
The combustor is an advanced device for com-
bustion of fuel. The energy density is very high.
A major requirement on the combustion proc-
ess is to keep Nox production at a minimum to
reduce the effects on the environment.
The major gas turbine manufacturers are
striving to reduce Nox formation by develop-
ing so-called lean premix combustors. In a
traditional combustor the fuel is introduced as
a cone of concentrated fuel, which burns in
contact with the surrounding air flow. Thus, the
temperature passes the theoretical maximum
during combustion and dilution of the gases. In
a lean premix burner the fuel is mixed with the
combustion air before it is ignited. The maxi-
mum temperature can be kept at a lower level
close to that required at the turbine inlet, and the
NOx-producing peak temperatures are elimi-
nated. Unfortunately, this results in lower flame
119
5.8 119
stability and requires extra arrangements for
some operating points, such as low part load.
In practice most of the air is mixed with fuel
before combustion. Cooling of the combustor
by leaking cold air films along its walls to
reduce metal temperature is no longer possible.
The combustor has to be cooled by leading
combustion air for cooling in channels in the
combustor.
Combustion air
Gas fuel stage 2
Gas fuel stage 1 Flame
Liquid fuel
Gas fuel stage 2
Atomisation
nozzle Gas injection
ports
Fig. 7. ABB’s burner for dry low emission
(DLE).
Combustor design is a compromise between
different requirements: low NOx formation,
fuel flexibility and turbine inlet temperature at
various operation points. Limiting factors are
the maximum metal temperature, permissible
pressure drop, etc.
Today, dry low emission (DLE) combustors
dominate the market now that gas is the main
fuel. DLE burners for liquid fuel will be based
on the same principles, but they are not yet
available on the market.
ABB has developed a DLE burner, which is
based on the principle of lean premix combus-
tion. The burner is a very simple design with a
split cone where the two halves are displaced to
form two slots where air can enter. Fuel gas is
introduced in the centre as well as through
small holes along the slots to achieve the de-
sired premix. The gas-air mixture forms a vor-
tex, which breaks down at the end of the cone
and combustion takes place. Nox formation is
reduced to some 25 ppm at 15% O2.
The turbine.
The turbine parts operate at very high tempera-
tures. In fact, the operating gas temperature
may exceed the melting point of the materials
used. To master the situation the metal parts
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
have to be efficienly cooled. This is done by
film cooling and internal convective cooling
with air bypassing the combustor. The cooling
air is not used for power generation and repre-
sents a loss. Optimum use of small flows of
cooling air would give a competitive edge.
Due to the high temperatures, the relative
expansion of different turbine components is
critical, especially during transients. A good
design results in low clearances during opera-
tion and low risk of rubbing.
Gas turbine operation
The gas turbine must be started by a cranking
motor, often electric or diesel. Other means of
starting are also available, such as gas expand-
ers or by compressed air. When the air flow
through the combustor is sufficient, the fuel
valve opens and the fuel is ignited by a spark
plug. The engine is accelerated to idling speed
by the external power in combination with the
power it generates on its own. Blow-off valves
on the compressor are opened during part of the
start-up process to avoid surge due to to low
mass flow.
When the turbine is running it will be influ-
enced by at least one limitation in the control
system. It is left to increase its power until it
reaches a limit. Such limits could be the maxi-
mum generator electric output or a limit from
Fig. 8. A GT10 gas turbine in the assembly shop at ABB STAL, Finspong.
120
5.8 120
the grid. It could also be a limit of heat produc-
tion if it is a cogeneration unit or any other
control parameter from the outside or from
design limitations of the installation.
A simple cycle gas turbine or a condensing
combined cycle is usually limited by the rated
maximum power or some grid limitation. A
cogeneration system is usually limited by the
rated maximum power or the need for heat.
A gas turbine example
The ABB STAL GT10 is a modern industrial
gas turbine. The machine has a power of 24,600
kW at continuous load. The pressure ratio is
13.6, i.e., the compressor raises the pressure
almost14 times the ambient pressure. The air
mass flow is 79.2 kg/s. The high exhaust tem-
perature of 536 oC makes the unit most suitable
for combined cycle operation. Further techni-
cal particulars are shown in Fig. 5. The GT10 is
an industrial gas turbine designed and built for
industrial operation.
There are two main machine types on the
market, the aeroderivative and the industrial
gas turbine. Both are used in power plants, but
they have different characteristics.
The aeroderivative, as the designation im-
plies, is a jet engine originally developed for
powering aircraft but suitably modified for
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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stationary duty. It features compact design,

light weight and high efficiency, but requires
good fuels and frequent maintenance.
The industrial gas turbine has been devel-
oped for industrial use and high continuous
load. Weight is normally not an issue, so more
rugged designs and materials are applied to
ensure reliability in operation. A wider range of
fuels can be burnt, but the simple cycle effi-
ciency is slightly lower. Maintenance intervals
are longer and on-site overhauls can be made.
While the design of a modern jet engine departs
from the optimum path for cogeneration and
combined cycle, the industrial design is nar-
rowing the efficiency gap in such installations.
Both the GT10 and the 17 MW GT35 industrial
gas turbines are equipped with a DLE burner
for NOx abatement. The GT10 has been been Fig. 10. The interior of a KA10-1 combined
used with a DLE burner since 1991. cycle power plant with the steam and gas tur-
bine driving the same generator, providing sim-
Steam Turbine plicity and compactness.
15%
11%
WHR

Unit 80°C Combined cycle power plants have gained popu-

larity for their compactness, short construction
40%
33%
55°C time and environmental friendliness when built
100%
around modern gas turbines with DLE capabil-
Fuel ity. Based on a given heat demand, the com-
Fig. 9. Elementary combined cycle flow chart.
Waste heat recovery unit Steam turbine

The combined cycle

From the cycle descriptions above it appears
that the gas turbine cycle will emit hot gas at a
temperature close to the temperature of live
steam in the steam turbine cycle. It would be
natural to use the hot exhaust gas from a gas
turbine as the heat source for a steam turbine
cycle. Such cycles are called combined cycles.
The exhaust gas is used for steam production
in an exhaust boiler and the total effect will be
that a gas turbine with 33 % efficiency will
produce another 40 % of the recoverable heat as
electricity. The thermal efficiency may reach
50 % or more if the steam turbine runs in
condensing mode.
The steam end of the combined cycle can be
arranged in the same way as a conventional
steam cycle for extraction or back pressure Fig. 11. Combined cycle power plant of type
operation. KA10-2 in Borculo, Holland.

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5.8 121 97-03-05, 13.54

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Fault Control
bined cycle will produce more electricity thanks
to its high efficiency.
The KA10-1 from ABB STAL built around
the GT10 gas turbine can serve as an example
of a modern combined cycle plant. The output
is about 35 MW in condensing operation. The
gas turbine and the steam turbine drive the
common generator from opposite ends. Steam
is raised in a two-pressure boiler to maximise
the efficiency of the total plant. The machinery
and boiler are arranged in a compact common
building. Depending on customer demand, the
gas turbine and the boiler may be arranged for
vertical or side exhaust. The steam turbine and
gas turbine are connected to the generator by
means of flexible couplings to allow for flex-
ibility in operation.The KA10-1 combined cy-
cle plant may reach a thermal efficiency of
close to 50% in condensing mode.
If higher power is required, two GT10 gas
turbines may be combined with one larger
steam turbine to produce up to 70 MW, forming
the KA10-2 model.
Cogeneration with steam
or gas turbines
Process industries often have large heat de-
mands as well as demands for power. They may
also generate by-products which can be used as
fuels, such as gas from refineries or black liquor
from sulphate pulp mills. These fuels form the
basis for the application of cogeneration.
In industrial applications where heat is used the
temperature is set by process requirements, and
these can vary considerably. The steam cycle is
adapted to such requirements by extracting
steam at a pressure where condensation corre-
sponds to the temperature required by the proc-
ess. The condensation heat of the extracted
steam flow is then used to replace heat gener-
ated directly by some fuel in a separate boiler.
Several extractions are often needed to supply
steam at the correct pressure levels set by the
process.
In some applications, the total steam flow
passing the turbine is used for process heat
demands. The turbine is then of the back pres-
sure type. In most cases, the condensate is
recovered and pumped back to the boiler, and
the residual heat goes back into the system.
122
5.8 122
If the process requires a fixed temperature, the
steam flow is normally throttled in the turbine
downstream of the extraction. This is a control-
led extraction. The remaining steam, not bled off
to the process, can be used in a low pressure
turbine, where it expands down to the same
pressure level as in a condensing turbine. A pulp
mill is a typical example, where the digesters will
need steam at 12 bar and the dryers at 2 to 3 bar.
The plant may also need heating of buildings in
the winter with heat at 80 oC.
A similar application is district heating, where
the heat load usually is at lower temperatures
than in a process industry. Often, the peak
temperature of the hot water is 120 oC and
normal operation is at 80 oC.
In all these applications the steam turbine has
to provide the flexibility, be it in a steam turbine
cycle or a combined cycle. In a gas turbine
cycle where the heat is recovered directly from
the exhaust gas, the temperature level is usually
not changed. A rare exception is when fuel is
burnt in the exhaust to increase the temperature
of the gas. More common, however, is to burn
fuel in the exhaust boiler to get enough heating
energy at extreme conditions or to follow heat
load variations.
14% Losses
Waste Heat
Recover Unit 53% Heat
33%
Electric Power
100%
Fuel
Fig. 12. Gas turbine with cogeneration.
Waste heat recovery unit Electric power
Economy of cogeneration
The normal thermal efficiency of a steam tur-
bine cycle is approximately 40 % and for a gas
turbine cycle some 30 to 40 %. The combined
cycle reaches approximately 50% in the size
range used by industries. These values could be
compared with the efficiency of a cogeneration
system, where the total efficiency of power and
heat may be in the order of 85 %.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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The loss of power by heat recovery is negligible
for a gas turbine plant. The power loss in steam
turbines operating in process applications de-
pends on the pressure and flow at the extraction
points. In order to use the heat at the tempera-
ture needed, it is necessary to sacrifice part of
the power production. In a district heating tur-
bine the losses are some 30 % of the power
attainable in condensing mode. The extra pro-
duction of heating energy is often twice the
production of electrical energy.
The ratio between electrical and heating en-
ergy of a cogeneration plant is called the alpha
value. Steam cycles have an alpha value around
0.5, while combined cycle plants may reach 1.0
or even higher.
The loss of power has to be evaluated against
the value of the additional heat produced and
the incremental investment for cogeneration.
In most cases it is very profitable to use
cogeneration when replacing heat produced by
commercial fuels.
The structure of the power sector differs
widely between countries, and the success of a
cogeneration project also depends on how the
benefits can be shared between the power user,
the heat user and the power supplier.
Electric generators
Introduction
Generators for industrial cogeneration are ei-
ther of 2-pole or 4-pole type.
The 2-pole generator, a so-called turbo-gen-
erator, has speeds of 3000 and 3600 rev/min for
50 and 60 Hz, respectively. The 4-pole genera-
tor has corresponding speeds of 1500 and1800
rev/min. The output range is 20-150 MVA,
with 2-pole generators covering the entire range
and 4-poles covering 20-60 MVA.
The voltage range is 6 - 20 kV, with standard
voltages being 10.5 - 11.5 kV for 50 Hz and
13.8 kV for 60 Hz operation. The efficiency is
> 98 %. The generators comply with the inter-
national standards IEC and ANSI.
Arrangement
The turbo-generator is a synchronous machine
with a horizontal shaft and a cylindrical rotor
supported in shield bearings. The shaft can be
connected to a turbine at one end (single-end
drive) or at both (double-end drive). For low
123
5.8 123
Figure 13: ABB air-cooled turbo-generator-
type GTL. Typical arrangement for industrial
cogeneration with top-mounted coolers, over-
hung exciter, main terminals on the sides and
shield bearings.
speed turning of the turboset, the generator can
be equipped with a turning gear/ motor if the
drive arrangement is a single-end drive. The
exciter machine is of the overhung type.
Air/water coolers are normally located on
the top and the generator terminals are side-
mounted. This arrangement has been devel-
oped to suit the specific requirements of indus-
trial cogeneration where low foundations are
required in order to minimise civil works.
Cooling
For industrial cogeneration applications the
generators used are predominantly air-cooled.
Even though other cooling media than air are
used at outputs as low as 70 MVA, air cooling
is today the predominant method of cooling.
The advantages lie in lower unit cost, less space
required, system simplicity, higher safety and
lower maintenance requirements. In terms of
size, the air-cooled technology is today used for
above 300 MVA, and even higher outputs are
being contemplated.
There are, in principle, two ways of arranging
air cooling:
1. Air is circulated in the generator internally,
dissipating the heat collected in the genera-
tor active parts in air/water coolers mounted
on the generator body. The coolers can be
arranged as top or side mounted.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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2. Air is supplied from outside through filter
arrangements, and after collecting heat from
the active parts, it leaves the generator
through an exhaust.
Inside the generator the air is circulated by
means of axial fans mounted on the generator
shaft. The cooling air collects heat from the
stator winding end turns, the rotor winding and
the stator core/ winding.
The rotor
The cylindrical rotor has radial slots in which
the rotor (field) winding of silver-alloyed cop-
per is located. The winding is secured in the
rotor slots by means of wedges. The winding is
cooled with air flowing axially in the rotor
slots.
The stator
The stator housing has three functions:
1. Support for the rotor via the shield bearings
2. Support for the stator active parts, e.g. core
and winding
3. Directing of the cooling air
The stator core consists of silicon-alloyed elec-
troplate which is stamped into segments and
stacked inside the stator housing. The core is
arranged in a number of axial packages with
cooling air flowing radially between the pack-
ages. The core is held together by means of two
preasure plates mounted in the stator housing.
The winding insulation system used is pre-
dominantly of the pre-impregnated, resin-rich
type. ABB generators use the Micarex® sys-
tem.
Terminals
The generator neutral leads are terminated in a
neutral terminal enclosure, equipped with neu-
tral grounding devices. The line leads are con-
veyed through a line terminal enclosure which
contains surge protection and connection points
for cables or busbars. Both enclosures have
transformers for generator protection and con-
trol.
Instrumentation
The generator is equipped with instruments to
monitor the operation of the unit. Shaft vibra-
tions are monitored with either seismic or prox-
124
5.8 124
imity (shaft displacement) probes. Tempera-
tures in windings, cooling air and bearings are
monitored by means of resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs). To ensure that fluids (oil,
water) do not collect in the interior of the
generator, leakage detectors are supplied.
Excitation
The generator is usually equipped with a
brushless excitation system. In order to guaran-
tee a black start feature, the excitation energy is
generated in a permanent magnet generator
(PMG) mounted on the generator shaft. The
PMG feeds a thyristor bridge, which feeds the
main exciter with field voltage. The main ex-
citer armature voltage is converted to generator
rotor DC voltage in a rotating diode bridge. The
diodes are over-sized in order to guarantee
trouble-free operation with minimum mainte-
nance requirements.
The voltage regulation equipment controls
the thyristor bridge and thereby the generator
voltage.
Control and protection
A generator control and protection cubicle
(GCP) can be supplied with a choice of equip-
ment to be installed in it. It normally contains
the voltage regulating equipment, excitation
thyristors, protection relays, synchronising
equipment, temperature monitoring and vari-
ous instruments.
The generator voltage is regulated with an
automatic voltage regulator (AVR), see above,
Excitation). The regulator is of a digital type,
based on the ABB Advant Controller ® process
control system and can comprise additional
functions such as synchronising. Other features
in the AVR are a power system stabiliser, diode
monitoring and rotor earth fault detection.
Protective relays of ABB type REG can be
supplied for various protection tasks.
Control systems
For the control of cogeneration systems, i.e.,
boiler, turbine generator, gas turbine and auxil-
iary equipment, microprocessors have replaced
the old systems based on mechanical relays. A
boiler control system handles the fuel transport
system, burners, boiler control, safety system
and auxiliary systems. For the turbine a turbine
97-03-05, 13.54
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
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regulator and automatic control are included, as

well as the turbine-related safety systems. The
auxiliary systems are also protected by relays
for transformers, intermediate voltage and low
voltage systems.
Control and monitoring of the unit are based
on man-machine communication where selec-
tion of process pictures and operation is made
directly on a display. Large units usually have
a common control room where all the separate
parts of the power plant are controlled. The
computer-based system includes printout fa-
cilities for alarm list reports, etc.
The industrial process and the cogeneration
unit can be integrated in common control sys-
tems for increased efficiency of the operators in
the control room.
High energy costs and more stringent envi-
ronmental regulations require more complex
control systems, which impose additional re-
sponsibility on the operator. By using micro-
processor systems for control and supervision
the operator is better equipped to meet these
increasing demands.

125

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
STANDBY AND UNINTERRUPTED
POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
Contents
1 General
2 Standby versus uninterrupted power
3 Engine driven generating sets as standby power
4 Diesel engine versus gas turbine (GT) generating sets
5 Generator current ”forcing”
6 Uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
7 Dublicated invertes
General
Many of today’s activities, industrial, commer-
cial and governmental, require power supply in
addition to, or, of a quality that is better than
normal. Anyone planning to install or operate
such equipment should carefully review power
requirements and determine in advance the qual-
ity of electric power he or she will require to
operate the plant successfully, efficiently and
economically.
Standby versus
uninterrupted power.
An understanding is essential of the difference
between these two types of equipment and sup-
ply systems.
Standby power
is power which is standing by and is not neces-
sarily immediately available, usually from an
engine-driven generator. In some cases, the
standby power may actually be running idle, but
must be switched into the system after main
power has failed. This operation requires a time
interval resulting in an interruption. Generally
speaking, all standby systems are idle and must
receive a signal to start up and accelerate to
126
5.9 126
page
126
126
127
127
129
132
137
operating speed, voltage and frequency before
they can be connected to the load.
Uninterrupted power
implies continuous voltage and frequency within
the limits of the equipment that is using it. One
type of equipment might supply what could be
termed uninterrupted power, even though there
might be a perceptible change in voltage and
frequency, but for a very short period of time. In
another system, there may be little or no dis-
cernible change in voltage or frequency.
It is extremely important to realise that there
is no perfect continuous power from any source,
including the most modern and best-regulated
UPS units available in the market. There will
always be instances, although there may be no
discontinuity of power, when there will be
changes in voltage or frequency unacceptable
to the equipment being supplied.
Even though power is continuous, intermit-
tent changes in voltage of 10% may occur. Such
a change can be acceptable to most equipment
but not acceptable to some. Spikes occurring on
the voltage, or over-harmonic voltages and
currents generated by other loads would cause
no problem for most equipment, but could be
disastrous to other equipment.
97-03-05, 13.55
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
Engine driven generating sets
as standby power
Generating sets, where a combustion engine is
driving an electric generator, are self-contained
and independent from the mains supply. This
makes them particularly suitable where:
• another electric supply would not otherwise
be available, or would be available only at
unjustifiable cost.
• ainreasonably priced power supply is required
addition to the mains supply for the pur- •
pose of covering peak loads.
• a standby power supply is needed to cover
vital or emergency loads during power com-
pany supply failures.
• the equipment and its power requirements
have been analysed and can tolerate a power
interruption of l0 to 15 seconds for diesels
and 4-5 minutes for gas turbines, either an
idle/standby system or a continuously run-
ning system can be selected.
In principle, generating sets can be driven by
steam turbines, gas turbines, gas-engines, gaso-
line (petrol) engines and diesel engines as the
prime mover for the electric generator. In prac-
tical use, however, the diesel-engine and gas-
turbine-driven units have gained almost exclu-
sive acceptance in the power ratings from about
50 to 5000 kVA. Diesels are most common in
the lower range and gas turbines become com-
petitive at the high end of the scale. For ratings
below 50 kVA, alternative power supplies such
as gasoline engines, fuel cells, solar or wind
powered generators combined with batteries
are in common use.
Diesel engine versus gas turbine
(GT) generating sets
The following is an extract from an IEEE evalu-
ation, where the two types of units are com-
pared on a broad basis:
Diesel engine advantages
• Experience has been gained from vast num-
bers of sets in service
• The unit has the ability to start within 10 sec.
and accept load while being brought up to
speed.
5.9 127
• ItperhaskWlowin initial cost (USD 150 to USD 200
the 100-1000-kW rating range —
this is roughly 15-30% less than a turbine-
driven set).
• It is capable of operating in extreme environ-
ments — high altitudes and high tempera-
tures, dust, and even extreme cold (if proper
low temperature provisions are made).
• A good record has been shown for prompt
and competent service facilities almost eve-
rywhere in the world.
Frequent opportunities are present to use the
engine’s waste heat in the jacket and stack
cooling water when the unit is used for long-
term peak-shaving service.
• There is reduced fuel consumption — roughly
30% less under full load as compared to the
single-cycle gas turbine.
Diesel engine disadvantages
• The engine is heavy, requiring solid, earth-
based support or expensive structural sup-
port if it is above earth. Moving or modify-
ing such an installation later can be an ex-
pensive project.
• Engine noise and vibration are in the low
frequency range, which is difficult and ex-
pensive to isolate acoustically from nearby
occupied areas because of the substantial air
volume required for both cooling and com-
bustion.
• Maintaining the starting reliability for emer-
gency or standby service requires the engine
to be started and run under at least 30% load
at least twice a month. Generally this energy
is wasted if the unit is not equipped with
synchronising equipment such that it can be
run in parallel with the main power system.
• Starting in extremely cold weather is reli-
able only if lube oil or water jacket or both
are kept heated. In cold climates, this supple-
mentary heat source, and its maintenance,
can be expensive.
• Speed regulation for isolated machines un-
der load is inferior to that of gas turbine
units. Typically, sudden addition or removal
of half the rated load will change the fre-
quency by about 3 Hz before the governor
reacts and can compensate.
Gas turbine advantages
• Weight of a gas-turbine generator package is
127
97-03-05, 13.55
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
typically only about half that of an equiva-
lent diesel unit. Thus, it costs less to mount
it on the roof or similar locations, or to move
it if production or building-utilisation plans
change.
• When recommended clearance space is in-
cluded, a gas turbine set may take less than
half the volume of a diesel unit.
• Less air is required. All the turbine’s air is
for combustion, whereas diesels require a
great volume of air for cooling.
• Turbine vibration and noise are generally
easier to handle. The familiar turbine ”whine”
is almost all in the higher frequency ranges,
which are easy to isolate from the building
and to attenuate within the air intakes and
exhaust ducts.
• Starting reliability is extremely high, even in
the coldest weather. Tens of thousands of
turbine starts are made daily, with failures
almost unknown, in jet aircraft all over the
world.
• Speed regulation is inherently superior be-
cause of the high speed and high inertia
characteristics of the turbine. For instance,
once full speed is reached, full load can be
instantaneously connected or disconnected
on a turbine generator set, and the frequency
deviation will remain within 2 Hz. This
frequency stability is particularly important
where the emergency load consists of large
motors (e.g. compressors or fans) which are
connected on line intermittently.
• Routine maintenance requirements are sim-
pler. Manufacturers typically recommend
that a turbine for emergency standby be
operated unloaded once a month and under
load only at three-month intervals.
• Gas turbines offer greater fuel flexibility,
burning lighter fuel oils, including highly
stable kerosene, aviation jet fuel, or residen-
tial fuel oils.
Gas turbine disadvantages
• Inherently higher fuel costs — typically more
than 30% greater than that of a diesel unit of
the same capacity.
• Limited availability of trained service per-
sonnel. Estimates are that there are only
about 5-10% as many standby and emer-
gency power turbine sets in service as there
are diesel units.
128
5.9 128
• The greater time required for start-up is so
much more (2-4 minutes) that the larger sets
cannot be used as the sole emergency power
source (such as in hospital facilities) where
life-support needs call for start-up times
around 10 seconds or less. However, in a
battery-supported UPS combination that
carries the no-break loads over the starting
time of the gas turbine, this may be an
excellent combination.
• Initial costs are generally 20-30% higher
than for a diesel unit. (Much of this premium
may be offset by reduced installation costs.)
Operating diesel and gas turbine sets
electrically in parallel
A practical example of operating diesel and gas
turbine generator sets electrically in parallel in
an emergency power system manifests the re-
markably different mechanical and control char-
acteristics as stability problems such as severe
transient overloads, voltage drop, and frequency
drop, which are likely to cause catastrophic
shutdowns during emergency conditions.
To illustrate such a situation, a land-based oil
producing facility has two emergency genera-
tors consisting of a 2.5 MW diesel unit and a 3.5
MW gas turbine unit connected electrically in
parallel. Emergency loads includes HVAC
loads, fire pumps, freeze protection, emergency
lighting and life support loads. The majority of
these loads can switch on automatically upon
process demands or safety requirements. Some
normal loads (also automatic) are mixed with
emergency loads in the same switchgear. Thus
very large load steps, including motor starting
as well as static loads, can suddenly be applied
to the generators.
Because of its heavy weight, the diesel en-
gine generator set is quite stable; the inertia
WK2 is almost ten times the inertia of the gas
turbine. However, the diesel is also less sensi-
tive to system changes. This creates a stability
problem on the lighter and more sensitive gas
turbine unit during large step loading. The gas
turbine, having lower inertia and higher gover-
nor gain constant than the diesel unit attempts
to assume much of the load while the diesel
engine hardly reacts to a load change. Load-
sharing devices used to distribute steady-state
load proportionally between the two machines
have an insignificant effect during the first one
97-03-05, 13.55
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)

or two seconds of the transient duration. ers in case of fault. Therefore, standby genera-
Transiently exceeding the shaft torque limit of tors are mostly compound-excited from current
the aeroderivative gas turbine may damage the and voltage transformers on the output from the
shaft or reduce its useful life significantly. generator, see Fig. 1. Another way to produce
The diesel generator unit is designed to start the necessary short-circuit current is to provide
and assume load within 10 seconds after the a separate exciter, as in Fig. 2. The requirement
loss of normal power. The gas turbine unit is a in many standby generator specifications (and
very lightweight aeroderivative type, compact even some mandatory government regulations)
and low in cost and designed to take load 120 call for the generator to produce 3 times its
sec. after the loss of normal power. The differ- rated current for at least 10 seconds. Fig. 2
ence in starting time means that the diesel unit shows a comparison between a self-excited
can become heavily overloaded during the pe- machine and current-forcing machines.
riod before the gas turbine unit is ready to
assume load.
The two generators operate with an iso-
chronous (constant speed) control mode. They
start, synchronise, and pick up load automati-
cally after disruption of normal power. The
governor systems of the generator units are also
dissimilar. The gain of the gas turbine governor
is much higher than the gain of the diesel engine
governor. The voltage regulator exciter system
of the gas turbine generator has a faster re-
sponse than that of the diesel-generator unit,
providing fast response under short-circuit or
large motor starting conditions, when the volt-
age is low but the current is high.
The conclusion in this particular case is first
of all that modified load-sequencing and load-
shedding controls have to be provided to avoid
transient stability problems. Secondly, system
stability in general is an important issue in all
planning and design of small emergency power Fig. 1. Compound excited generator.
systems with step loading or intermittent motor
starting. This practical case shows the necessity
for parallel emergency generator sets to have
compatible dynamic responses to system tran-
sient disturbances. The factors which signifi-
cantly influence the dynamic response of a
generator set are: mechanical inertia, governor
system, excitation system, generator subtran-
sient and transient reactance. Parallel genera-
tors with compatible dynamic responses pro-
vide a more reliable emergency power system
and much simpler controls.

Generator current ”forcing”

One disadvantage of small self-excited genera-
tors is that they may have a problem supplying
a sustained short-circuit current which is suffi-
cient to operate fuses, relays and circuit break- Fig. 2. Separately excited generator.

129

5.9 129 97-03-05, 13.56

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
Fig. 3. Comparison between available short-
circuit current.
Mechanical hints when designing for
standby sets (mostly diesels)
Space
Where space is a problem, the set should be
sized physically before it is sized electrically.
Ideally, the set should be positioned alongside
two external walls so that the cooling and
discharge air can be easily vented.
Foundation
To overcome the problem of vibration with
diesel engines, machines are built on heavy
bedplates. These must be bolted down on to
substantial (and expensive) concrete founda-
tions. With the unit construction method —
where the rigidly coupled engine and generator
sit on a lightweight subframe attached to a
mainframe through resilient mountings — less
substantial foundations are needed.
Maintenance clearances
It is important to allow at least 1 metre working
clearance at the sides and 1.5 metres at the
generator end of the machine for maintenance.
The set can be placed on a level floor, but
maintenance is facilitated if it is raised on two
longitudinal plinths.
Exhaust systems
The exhaust should be as short as site condi-
tions and regulations will permit. Bends should
be few in number and of a long radius. (Hot
130
5.9 130
exhaust gases travel at high speed and are
inflexible to rapid changes in direction of flow.
Back pressure then builds up in the exhaust
system with a resultant loss of engine power.)
The first section of exhaust from the engine
manifold should be a flexible section of pipe or
bellow. The next section must be supported to
allow the flexible pipe movement without
putting weight on the engine manifold.
The support brackets on the exhaust should
allow for pipe expansion, and short flexible
sections should be used on long runs between
fixing brackets. Where the exhaust pipe passes
through walls, a sleeve or wall plate should be
fitted, or a clearance hole left. Care should be
taken when deciding on the exhaust point to
atmosphere to ensure that there are no air inlets
or windows which could allow exhaust gas to
re-enter the building. On long exhaust runs a
drain point or condensation trap should be
fitted near the engine.
Where more than one engine is installed,
each should have its own independent exhaust
system. More than one exhaust into a common
pipe can be dangerous and could cause damage
to various parts of the engine. On long exhaust
runs it is nearly always necessary to fit a sec-
ondary silencer near the end of the run.
Cooling and ventilation
Ventilation of the engine room is important,
and provision should be made for adequate
airflow through the room to replace the air
consumed by the engine and the air pushed out
of the room by the engine cooling system.
Various types of cooling can be adopted. The
main ones are set-mounted radiator, remotely-
positioned radiator, heat exchanger cooling or
cooling tower. The large volume of air required
by a diesel engine for cooling and combustion
is not always appreciated, and the total area of
incoming air vents should be at least double
that of the engine radiator outlet at the opposite
end of the engine room.
In cold climates where sets are employed on
standby duty the room must be kept warm; air
inlets and radiator outlets should be closed
when the set is not in use.
When using a remote radiator or heat ex-
changer cooling system, allowance must still
be made for cooling the engine room to remove
radiated heat from the engine/generator. Air for
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
aspiration in the engine must also be included
in this air flow requirement figure.
Water used in all engine cooling should
preferably be treated irrespective of the quality
of the water available. The cost of doing this is
small compared with the cost of damage result-
ing from lack of adequate treatment.
Fuel oil system
With all fuel oil installations, local regulations
have to be checked. When locating the daily
service tank away from the set, care must be
taken that the engine fuel lift pumps can supply
the fuel pump. For reliability, gravity fuel sup-
ply with the tank at a higher level is to be
preferred. Where bulk storage is required, the
simplest and most economical method is to
install the tank adjacent to the engine room. A
typical fuel oil arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.
Authorities who should be consulted during the
planning of a standby generating set installa-
tion include the local building authorities, the
fire and environmental authorities, and local
power company.
Paralleling standby emergency power with
main supply
When lights go out, emergency generators some-
times fail to start. They may have been in the
basement for months, even years, representing
thousands of dollars in capital investment. But
when the time comes, they may fail to perform
their vital function. The answer is often that
Fig. 4. Typical fuel oil system.
131
5.9 131
sufficient maintenance and regular ”exercis-
ing” - under load - have not been practised.
There are four methods of interconnecting and
operating standby generators in parallel with
main supply to facilitate this routine of exercis-
ing under load:
1. Generators continuously running take up in-
house loads without the usual momentary
interruption associated with a transfer switch.
2. If synchronising equipment is installed, any
magnitude of exercising load can be applied
to the generators without the need to select
actual loads for transfer.
3. Generators can double as peak-shaving
equipment, either for the power company’s
peak or for the customer’s.
4. In the case of large generators, income from
power sold back into the power company
network may be used to offset the cost of
exercising..
Most emergency generating systems are oper-
ated at low voltage and connected to the emer-
gency loads, when needed, by transfer switch-
ing. The transfer switches are carefully de-
signed to eliminate the possibility of the emer-
gency generators ever being paralleled with the
power company or main supply. This arrange-
ment has been dictated partly by the power
companies´ traditional resistance to intercon-
nection, and partly by the need to keep the
emergency system totally separate. Some na-
tional safety regulations or codes even require
97-03-05, 13.56
 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
that no transformer be interposed between the
emergency generator and its loads.
One of the problems with the transfer method,
whether done with a transfer switch or with
interlocked circuit breakers, is that one supply
must be dropped before the other is connected.
This causes a brief power interruption to vital
systems. The result is that hospital administra-
tors, and industry managers concerned with the
continuous operation of their facilities, may
actually resist regular exercising of emergency
generators.
It’s interesting to note that power company
thermal generating stations, which must main-
tain emergency power supply to lubrication
pumps and lighting in the event of a total
blackout, never interrupt the prime power source
in order to load the emergency system. They
exercise emergency generators regularly by
dumping the power generated into dedicated
resistive loads. However, as power costs con-
tinue to increase, more and more emergency
generating systems are being built for parallel
operation with main power. But the cost is high.
Fully protective relays used with a continuous
interconnected generator are required, as well
as additional circuit breakers. So the emer-
gency generating system must either be large,
or important enough to justify the interconnec-
tion.
Peak shaving
may very well be the cost-cutter that justifies
interconnection. Of course, one can peak-shave
by switching selected loads over to the emer-
gency generator as total plant load nears its
peak, but this is cumbersome and depends on
having switchable loads of the right size. Ide-
ally, the load shaved should be carefully se-
lected to minimise generator running time for
maximum reduction in peak load. An intercon-
nected generator can be automatically loaded
to keep the total plant load below a predeter-
mined level, whatever the total plant load.
Power company paralleling adds security
Because an emergency generator operates only
when power company supply fails, it may be
thought that there is not much opportunity for
operating the systems in parallel when an emer-
gency actually occurs. But this is not the case.
Most industrial and commercial facilities that
132
5.9 132
need emergency generation also have multiple
feeder networks to ensure maximum reliability
of power company supply, even before the
emergency generator is considered.
It is unlikely that all of the power company
feeders will fail simultaneously. Individual feed-
ers may fail due to problems at local substa-
tions, and their loads can usually be taken up by
the other feeders in the event of a total power
company blackout; the feeders usually go dead
one after the other as the power company sys-
tem goes down.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER
SUPPLY (UPS)
As previously stated, standby power takes some
time to come on line after a main power outage
has occurred. This does not satisfy the require-
ments of vital or essential equipment in numer-
ous industrial applications, which may require
AC or DC no-break supply, such as:
• emergency lighting and escape route
lighting
• public address and status alarm
• SOLAS (safety of life at sea) radio for
offshore plants
• fire and gas protection systems
• instrument safeguarding/emergency
shutdown systems
• power supply to process instruments
and analysers
• power supply to process computers and
data processing machines
• lube oil pumps for large generators
and motors
• switchgear and relay protection in
substations
Direct current uninterruptible supply.
This is a power supply derived from a battery-
rectifier combination (DC UPS unit) or from
rectifiers energised from one or more AC
uninterruptible supply sources (AC UPS unit).
Such supplies should be considered for appli-
cations where the load is relatively small and
closely concentrated, or to supplement AC UPS
systems (e.g. for switchgear auxiliary circuitry,
fire alarm or communications systems). When
designing DC systems, due consideration should
be given to permissible voltage drop at the load
terminals.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
Common causes of failure
Before starting to design DC (and also AC)
uninterruptible power supply, it may be useful
to review some of the most common causes of
failure:
• Poor maintenance and insufficient system
supervision is one of the most frequent causes.
This includes battery failures or too low
capacity due to:
Incorrect charging voltage
Battery circuit interruption, such as
single-cell failure
Too high temperature
• Incorrect design of the distribution system
Non-selective short-circuit protection
can result in total or partial shutdown of
the system
Insufficient tripping can result in fire or
low voltage
Long cable runs result in high voltage
drops which can render sensitive loads
inoperative
• Incorrect battery or charger sizing
• Unsuitable or non-existing redundancy
For certain loads like switchgear relay
protection and emergency shutdown sys-
tems with main and back-up functions,
it is necessary to have a duplicated sup-
ply with dual batteries, chargers (and
inverter for AC)
• Incorrect design of charger AC supply (such
as feeder protection that is set too low, which
inadvertently may trip the charger and de-
plete the battery)
Where an AC UPS is available and the DC load
does not exceed 15% of the AC supply capac-
ity, the DC may be derived via a rectifier unit
fed from the AC UPS distribution switchboard.
Sizing the battery charger
While the size of the battery will provide defi-
nite constraints on the battery charger, the fol-
lowing should all be considered when design-
ing the charger (or DC UPS rectifier):
• AC supply, three-phase or single-phase
source and voltage
• battery voltage and capacity
• normal DC continuous load current
• battery discharge levels and recharging times
• ambient temperature
• altitude
133
5.9 133
Although there are differences from one manu-
facturer to another, most chargers are designed
for approximately 40°C maximum ambient
temperature and 1000 m altitude. Deviations
exceeding these values should be avoided.
Derating of 4% per ambient degree above 40°C
is not uncommon. Therefore, between 40 and
50°C, the battery charger may require a derat-
ing of 40%.
Altitude is a problem that can also affect the
battery charger application, while not adversely
affecting the battery. A typical derating of
approximately 2% applies per 100 metres above
1000 metres.
In sizing the DC current rating of the charger,
the following applies:
A = (Ich + L) X 1/C1 X 1/C2, where
• AIch==thethebattery charger rating in amps.
• battery manufacturercurrent
charging according to the
for specified recharg-
ing time at given charging voltage. (As an
approximation Ich = 1.1 x Ah/T.)
• 1.10 = typical charger conversion factor
• Ah = the ampere-hours of recharge
• T = recharge time in hours,
• L = DC continuous load current in amps
• C1 = temperature correction factor
• C2 = altitude correction factor
DC system supervision
Although a multitude of options are available
as indications and alarms, the following are
useful and will assist in diagnostic work and
maintenance:
1. Loss of AC alarm. Most causes of loss of AC
are due to temporary power failures affect-
ing the entire plant. But it is also possible
that a fuse or breaker on the battery charger
circuit has operated. Without proper alarm,
the loss of AC can result in the loss of the
entire DC UPS system.
2. Low DC voltage alarm (U< and U<<). Nu-
merous conditions exist which could create
a low DC battery voltage. One of the most
common is loss of the battery charger. Nor-
mal settings for U< is 1% below float charge
voltage. U<< is normally set at 85 % of float
charge voltage.
3. Battery earth fault indication and alarm.
Most critical DC UPS systems are unearthed.
Therefore, a single earth fault will not result
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
in operating a breaker or melting a fuse.
However, a second earth fault on another
”phase” may result in the loss of several DC
circuits. An earth fault indicator is normally
used to detect a battery earth in order to
locate and remove the earth fault before a
second one occurs.
4. High DC voltage alarm (U> and U>>). Like
U<, the U> is set 1% above the float charge
voltage. Although not common, chargers
may occasionally “run away” into an
overvoltage condition. Such a condition can
result in damage to connected loads, severe
gassing from the battery, loss of water to the
battery, and ultimately a battery failure. To
avoid nuisance alarms, the voltage high alarm
(U>>) should be set above the high rate
equalising charge.
5. High rate equalising timer. Most batteries
require a high rate equalising charge on a
periodic basis. While a selector switch from
”float” to ”equalise” is available on most
chargers, it does require that a person re-
members to return the selector switch back
to ”float”. As usual, people are not always
perfect, and an equalise rate can be left in the
“on” position, resulting in possible damage
to the battery. The use of an equalising timer
will reduce the probability of this occurring.
6. High temperature alarm
7. Battery circuit failure
Battery capacity requirements
The batteries of DC or AC UPS units are sized
to supply loads for greatly varying time inter-
vals. Assuming that ”normal” load is present
during the entire interval, the following are
some examples of how to size battery ampere-
hours (if load is less than ”normal”, the batter-
ies would take longer before depletion):
• 301-8minutes for process plant shutdown
• ratinghours for substations and power gene-
plants
• 10-20 minutes for non-process computer
installations
• 3abandon
hours for offshore plant shutdown and
platform procedures
• 8andhours for fire fighting, fire alarm systems
telecommunication systems.
• tional aidsfor(onSOLAS
36 hours equipment or naviga-
offshore plants)
134
5.9 134
It is obvious with such varying times that each
individual application has to be carefully engi-
neered with respect to size of the loads and
normal (and worst case) duty cycle.
Battery types
1. Vented lead acid
Sometimes this is called ”open type” lead
acid, and is the most common type of
battery and also the lowest price one. It
requires few quick-charges. Some of its
disadvantages are:
Sensitive to high temperatures and ripple
voltage (harmonics) generated by the
charger (and inverter for AC UPS) as
well as certain types of load.
More maintenance is required than for
the two other types.
Wrong type of float charging influences
its useful life.
2. Valve regulated lead acid
This type of battery is a more modern
lead acid type sometimes claimed to be
”maintenance-free” or ”sealed”. Neither
of these claims are quite true. Because
they have a ”solid” type of electrolyte,
they require no water refill. Having no
acids that may spill is an advantage in
handling and promotes personnel safety.
Since there is little generation of explo-
sive gases during charging, because of
the regenerative process, there is no need
for a separate battery room as for conven-
tional lead acid. The size is relatively
compact.
On the negative side are the same disad-
vantages as for freely ventilated lead acid.
In addition, it is impossible to check the
level of charging by measuring electro-
lyte density. The valve may become stuck,
which may cause drying out or explo-
sion. Further, there are limitations on
charging voltage and current. The battery
cannot be stored without loss of lifetime
as the gel is included during manufactur-
ing. Finally, there is considerable spread
of cell voltage, which makes monitoring
difficult.
3. Nickel cadmium
This battery has the longest lifetime (ap-
proximately 20 years). It is a mechan-i
cally robust battery which can tolerate
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
many deep discharges as well as out-of-
tolerance charging, which does not affect
battery life. There is no risk of so-called
”sudden death”.
On the negative side there is the high cost
- approximately 2-3 times the cost of lead
acid. So-called ”voltage depression”
means that the battery must be oversized
or many quick charges may have to be
made. The electrolyte has a tendency to
carbonise.
Battery sizing
Sizing the battery means:
1. Determining the number of cells
2. Determining the rated Ah capacity
The following guidelines may offer some as-
sistance when determining the battery bank
size:
• IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing
Large Lead Storage Batteries for Generating
Stations and Substations ANSI/IEEE Std
485-1983
• IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary
Applications ANSI/IEEE Std 1115-1992
While the calculations for sizing a battery can
be performed by hand, computer programs are
normally used. The battery manufacturer can
assist in choosing and sizing the battery. Here
are some simple rules for estimating battery
size:
Maximum system voltage
This is the highest acceptable voltage for the
equipment to be connected to the battery, nor-
mally not less than 110% of nominal voltage.
Minimum system voltage
This is the voltage designated by the user to
define the lowest acceptable voltage for the
equipment connected to the battery.
Number of cells = max. system voltage/float
voltage per cell
End voltage/cell = 0.85-0.90 x Vnom/number
of cells
135
5.9 135
High end voltage implie low utilisation of the
battery, and therefore high cost. In order to
achieve a low end voltage, the highest possible
system voltage should be aimed at, normally
110% of nominal voltage. In addition, the low-
est possible float charge and the lowest possible
system voltage (80-90% of nominal voltage)
will achieve this result.
Duty cycle calculation
Fig. 5. Typical basis for battery duty cycle
sizing.
The above figure illustrates, for a substation
battery, how the capacity must take into ac-
count the base load (such as relay protection),
intermittent load (such as motor operation),
peak load (busbar trip) over the entire standby
period.
The continuous current = load/min. system
voltage (I = P/Umin)
Required Ah capacity = continuous current x
standby period (Ah = A x t)
This assumes all loads of constant power type
and battery capacity data based on constant
current load.
Average discharge current for intermittent load
I = S(In x tn)/t
where
In = intermittent load during time interval tn
t = required discharge time (standby period)
Required Ah capacity for intermittent load = I
x t (to be added to Ah for continuous load)
For peak loads shorter than 1 minute, the bat-
tery capacity will not be affected. For worst-
case conditions it is assumed that all peak load
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
takes place at the end of the discharge period.
The voltage drop caused by the peak load will
influence the rated capacity in the following
way:
Voltage drop per cell DU = Ip x Ri
where Ip = peak load
Ri = internal resistance given at the actual
state of charge
Then Ubatt + DU ≥ Umin
Where Ubatt = Battery voltage per cell after
continuous and intermittent load discharge. Umin
= minimum system voltage per cell.
Fig. 6 shows how a large battery can accommo-
date a peak load at the end of the discharge
period without voltage dropping to an unac-
ceptable level (battery 1)
Fig. 6. Effect of peak load applied at the end of
the discharge period.
Min. system voltage
Temperature correction
Under ideal conditions the battery should be
maintained at a temperature near 20°C, which
is normally accomplished with HVAC equip-
ment. At low temperatures the battery capacity
is reduced significantly
Since most industrial rooms are electrically
heated, the ambient temperature of the battery
room could become quite cold in winter if main
power is lost. Therefore, the minimum tem-
perature of the battery room must be considered
in battery sizing calculations. During an 8-hour
outage in extreme frost conditions, the battery
room could easily drop to less than 0°C.
Correction factors
A margin of 15-20% is recommended to be
added when sizing the battery due to unfore-
seen additional loads, poor maintenance and
136
5.9 136
insufficient charging. Further, towards the end
of the battery life, the capacity will begin to
drop, and to obtain an approved battery test
requires 80% of remaining battery capacity. If
it is below this level, the battery should be
replaced. To allow for these capacity variations
over the life of the battery, a life margin of
another 20% should be considered. This means
altogether a design factor in the sizing of the
battery of 35-40%, which may appear high.
But, it is important to consider the application
of the battery and the consequences of failure.
In most cases, the added margins are well worth
the added cost.
Alternating current uninterruptible supply
The principal difference between DC and AC
UPS is that the AC system basically consists of
a DC system with an added inverter to it. In
other words, AC UPS = DC UPS + inverter.
Therefore, all that has previously been said
about rectifier and battery also applies to the
AC UPS.
Over the past two decades, the process con-
trol industry has become one of the major
customers for static AC UPS systems, the main
reason being that the UPS provides for a better
quality power supply with less pollution of the
AC sinus wave than the power company can
provide. In some parts of the world a computer
UPS supply is therefore called a ”power condi-
tioner”. This is, of course, in addition to the
non-interruptability of a UPS.
Further, with the increasing use of real-time,
on-line data processing, together with associ-
ated data communication, the demand for static
AC UPS systems is growing consistently.
As the technology has developed, various sys-
tem configurations have emerged catering for
various levels of operational security. All static
UPS systems (as opposed to previously more
common rotating UPS units) are based on the
same fundamental principles. Normal AC sup-
ply is used to feed a rectifier which provides DC
at battery voltage. This DC feeds a static in-
verter which generates the required AC voltage
and frequency for the load, see Fig. 7.
A static switch between the inverter and load
is normally included. This static switch incor-
porates detection and sensors of any out-of-
tolerance situation, such as an inverter fault,
and switches the load over to an alternate AC
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
source. This alternative could be the normal
main supply or some other source of sufficient
quality.
Fig. 7 Simple AC Uninterruptible Power
Supply
This basic UPS configuration is widely used.
The chance of a static inverter fault coinciding
with a main power failure is extremely small.
However, in some applications, even this small
risk may be unacceptable, and various more
sophisticated configurations have been engi-
neered to higher degrees of redundancy.
Increased reliability
One of the more popular arrangements for
additional reliability is shown in Figure 8 where
the inverter is duplicated, with the two inverters
run in a duty/standby mode, one supplying
100% of the load and the other on standby.
Fig. 8. High reliability uninterruptable power
supply.
137
5.9 137
Dublicated Invertes
The two inverters may also be operated paral-
leled, with each sharing 50% of the full load.
In the event of a fault in either inverter, the other
one takes over the full load.
This configuration allows a faulty inverter com-
ponent or unit to be replaced without disabling
the whole system.
Advanced inverter/rectifier designs have dy-
namic response regulation to enable switching
0-100% load changes within acceptable volt-
age variation.
Where even greater security is required, the
main power supply is used as a third power
source. In addition, a redundant rectifier, or
even duplicate batteries, may be included. These
steps would be taken only where exceptionally
high security is required, or where the site
location is remote and unmanned. Further, even
a by-pass maintenance switch will permit the
UPS to be taken out of service, where a reliable
by-pass source is available.
Limited short-circuit capacity
A criticism often levelled at the static UPS
inverter as opposed to rotating machine types is
its low short-circuit capability. While rotating
generators supply momentarily 5-10 times its
rated current to melt fuses or trip circuit break-
ers promptly, static UPS can only deliver about
1.5 times its rated current into a short circuit.
This represents much tighter restrictions on the
protection equipment and selectivity than if a
rotating generator were used, sometimes re-
quiring an oversized static UPS just to produce
sufficient short-circuit current.
There is a popular misconception about this
which goes as follows: ”The static switch will
switch to mains supply to blow fuses or trip a
circuit breaker in case of a short circuit, and
there is little probability that a mains supply
and short circuit will occur at the same time”.
This is correct for most UPS applications, but
for UPS systems also designed to operate dur-
ing a catastrophe situation, the previous state-
ment is not true. This is because it is exactly
during calamities (fires, earthquakes, gas ex-
plosions, etc.) that short circuits will occur.
Therefore, if the UPS system is supposed to
operate in real emergencies too, the inverters
must be designed to deal with short circuits
without help from the static switch.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Standby and uninterrupted power supply (UPS)

Another drawback of the static UPS related to
the small short-circuit capacity is its poor abil-
ity to cope with harmonics created by non-
linear loads. Such harmonics may be created by
certain types of loads such as switch-mode
power supplies (see Fig. 9), and if these are of
large size or several in number, they can create
havoc in a system which should be completely
free from disturbances.
haviour, as well as careful protection and selec-
tivity analysis, are essential if surprise outages
are to be insured against. Such surprise outages
unfortunately have a tendency to reveal them-
selves at the most inconvenient times. There
are numerous accounts of failures of vital sup-
ply to important equipment, including even the
total and permanent breakdown of entire power
stations, which could have been avoided with
only a little attention to the issues mentioned
above.

Fig. 9. Non-linear load - switch-mode power

supply.
Typical video display terminal
Summarised load from 100 VDTs

A combined standby and UPS power

ystem
There is more to vital and essential supply than
just the generators and converters/batteries. In
a large industrial complex there may be many
UPS units, both AC and DC, normally fed from
high priority distribution boards supplied by
standby or emergency generation. One of the
important questions here is whether to central-
ise some or all UPS units into one or two, or to
provide a distributed UPS supply with many
small units.
Secondly, the possibility of fire hazard and
other calamities has to be considered. Impor-
tant loads usually have two independent feeder
cables from the UPS distribution board(s), and
separate paths have to be found such that proc-
ess control or vital communication systems are
not knocked out because both power supply
cables happened to lie on the same cable rack.
Thirdly, the dynamic behaviour of the standby
or UPS power system is no different from large
power systems, and may suffer from the same
disturbances if motors are started, loads are
switched, or when faults happen. Therefore,
system study and calculations of dynamic be-

138

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations
PREFABRICATED AND MOBILE SUBSTATIONS
Contents
1 General
2 Secondary substations
3 Main or primary substations
4 Modular substation buildings (docking type)
5 Integral transformer substation
6 SF6 compact substation
General
Substations are assemblies of primary switch-
gear, transformers, and secondary distribution
equipment. Many different arrangements are
used, with the equipment normally closely con-
nected, although primary or secondary equip-
ment may also be separated from the trans-
former.
Traditionally, the various components of a
substation are shipped as separate items and
erected, wired and tested at site in custom-
made buildings or rooms by local contractors.
In recent years the trend towards using prefab-
ricated or even mobile units and buildings have
led the way to savings in costs, made available
by efficient factory assembly methods.
In the following section the essence of this
modular and prefabrication trend is described
using the substation definitions and terms as
stated in section 5.1 IPS Design.
Secondary substations
Mini and kiosk type substations
The European development of factory-assem-
bled substations started in the 1960s with small
outdoor ”mini” or ”kiosk” type substations
primarily for the electric power companies.
Distribution transformers in the range of 300-
1500 kVA, together with medium voltage and
low voltage fusegear are installed inside the
same factory-made metal enclosure. Since it is
often used in 10-20 kV ring networks, the
medium voltage T-connection is sometimes
called a ”ring main unit” (in British-influenced
139
5.10 139
page
139
139
141
141
142
143
countries). Although the low voltage fusegear
is typical of power company tradition, these
substations are nowadays also customised for
industrial applications.
Up to now, transformers have normally been
purchased separately and installed after the
substation frame and walls have been erected at
site. This is primarily because the substation
frame need not then be made so rigid in order to
stand up to the heavy transport weight. But
more important, procurement tradition has con-
sidered distribution transformers as bulk items
and purchased them separately. Access to the
equipment is through outside doors or louvres.
Fig. 1 shows a modern typical mini-substation
being hoisted into place.
Over the years the demand has increased for
larger, prefabricated, indoor-operated ”walk-
in” type substations, especially in colder cli-
mates, and this has led to the development of
the medium-sized substation.
The philosophy behind this factory-assem-
bled unit was more or less the same as for the
earlier ”mini” type:
• Simple transportation
• Flexibility in size through the use of differ-
ent standard sizes of housing. For larger
substations two or more housing-modules
are coupled into one large substation at site.
• Minimum civil works at site.
• Minimum erection and commissioning
at site.
• Easy to relocate. Combining housing and
foundation makes it simple to move the
substation from one site to another.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations

A recent development in the prefabricated line

of substations is the ”container” type. This has
become particularly popular in various process
industries, not only as a substitute for conven-
tional transformer and switchgear rooms, but
also for housing of computer and control equip-
ment, pneumatic and hydraulic auxiliaries and
diesel generator sets.

Fig. 1. Typical mini-substation for outdoor

operation.
Front page photo from Swedish brochure 1WAF
201 (M-Stationen)
The housing itself consists of a painted steel Fig. 2 . Prefabricated ”container”-type substa-
frame with insulated walls and roof. The wall tion installed in a metal processing industry.
cladding may be sheet steel, concrete or hard
pressed reinforced fibre glass with a surface
cover of crushed natural stone.
The substation can accommodate optional
equipment such as:

• Medium voltage indoor switchgear 12-36 kV

• Low voltage indoor switchgear
• Distribution power transformers
• Auxiliary transformers
• Auxiliary AC and DC supply from batteries
• Forced ventilation
Relay and control equipment
• Substation heatingorandairlighting
conditioning
•
Different layouts may be accomplished almost Fig. 3. Layout of a substation consisting of four
without any limitation of the possible combina- interconnected container modules. Medium vol-
tions of the above equipment. This means that t-age switchgear (1), transformers (2), low volt-
these prefabricated units may be placed both age switchgear (3) and supervisory control (4).
outdoors and indoors in industrial environments.
Particularly in dusty or dirty atmospheres, the
overpressure ventilation or purging will prevent
harmful particles or gas entering the substation Unit substations
and interfering with sensitive relay or control The ”unit” concept for substations was con-
equipment. This is an interesting alternative to ceived of during the enormous industrial ex-
the conventional way of arranging substations pansion that took place in the U.S.A. during and
in permanently built rooms for this purpose, after the Second World War. In order to reduce
with the added work of co-ordinating the design engineering work, standardise manufacturing
between many different disciplines. and simplify erection, the transformer and as-

140

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations
sociated primary and secondary switchgear were
adapted to each other in such a manner that they
could be bolted together into a single unit. Most
often the substation was enclosed in such a
manner that it was installed in factory environ-
ments without a separate room being required.
This concept was both cost- and space-saving,
introducing the so-called ”load centre” princi-
ple, where the substation was located more or
less in the centre of a heavy electrical load area.
Since the transformer was manufactured with
a bolt-on facility on the primary and secondary
side, it became a special transformer, only to be
used in the context of a unit substation. This
concept of the ”unit” substation was not widely
accepted in other parts of the world until many
years later.
Today there are not such large differences
around the world;in the way indoor substation
equipment are arranged; however, European
units more often use cables instead of buswork
to connect between switchgear and transformer.
Main or primary substations
Primary or main industrial substations may be
wholly or partly owned by the electric power
company supplying the industrial plant. This is
due to the need of the power company to switch
in the high voltage network, in which the indus-
trial substation may be located in a strategic
position. In some cases the industrial customer
may locate his metering on the low side of the
transformer if there is more than one consumer
connected to the substation low side. If the
plant is located at the end of transmission line(s)
and no other customers in the future are likely
to connect to the substation, the industrial plant
may also own the transformer and high side
switchgear, which usually results in a better
tariff contract.
Due to a restrictive economic climate, both
electric power and industrial companies may
have reduced their engineering capacity due to
high personnel costs, and at the same time may
need to reduce the total cost for putting a
substation into commercial operation. The fol-
lowing are some advantages of modular, fac-
tory-assembled substations and buildings in
general, pointing out where they may be par-
ticularly useful:
141
5.10 141
• Insiteremote areas where the cost of sending
personnel is high and where it is difficult
to accommodate them.
• Inconditions
areas with difficult terrain and/or climatic
• Where a relocation or extension of the sta-
tion may be necessary in future.
• Inrequired
an emergency where a new station is
with short notice due to, say, the
total failure of an old station.
• With standard building modules, design costs
are reduced
• High quality is achieved due to good factory
working conditions, skilled and experienced
personnel and effective quality control
• Easy transport and handling
• Co-ordinated and minimised design, trans-
port, civil works, erection and electrical com-
missioning
• With only one supplier responsible for the
entire substation, co-ordination between sub-
suppliers is eliminated
Modular substation buildings
(docking type)
The concept of prefabricated or modular sub-
stations is easily extended from the smaller
secondary substations to the larger main or
primary substations. Concrete or steel enclosed
factory-assembled substation buildings have
been in use in Europe and elsewhere for many
years. A range of substations has been devel-
oped where the prominent features have been
simplicity and flexibility. Simplicity is impor-
tant not only to reduce costs, but also because
trained operating and maintenance personnel
may be scarce in the country of application.
Flexibility means that different electrical safety
codes and standards must be met without in-
creased costs. Dimensions are kept within the
transport limitations by overland truck and as-
suming that local hoisting facilities are gener-
ally available.
Other requirements are: mechanical strength,
corrosion resistance, personnel safety, aesthetic
appearance.
The building module consists of a steel frame
with insulated roof and walls. The walls can
consist of:
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations
• Fibre-glass-reinforced polyester panels with
insulation and steel plate inside, or
• Plastic-covered painted steel panels with
insulation and steel plate inside
The advantage of factory assembly versus site
assembly is basically the same as for smaller
units and can be summarised as follows:
1. Less co-ordination at site
2. Integrated civil and electrical engineering
3. Equipment protected against weather and
theft during transport and at site
4. Less application and installation costs
5. Short completion time
6. Routine testing at the factory before delivery
7. Minimum of civil work.
A large substation or switchgear building is
divided into modules after the substation and
the building layout (according to certain guide-
lines) have been designed electrically and me-
chanically. Each module is pre-fabricated and
pre-assembled in the workshop before ship-
ment. The range of electrical equipment that
can be erected in this building is similar to that
described for medium-sized substations. Each
module is made of concrete and has a cable
trench under a fireproof false floor. The mod-
ules are fitted to each other at site using a
mobile crane, and afterwards all cables, busbars
and other equipment are installed exactly as
they were before being disconnected before
shipment. This design requires no concrete
foundation, with civil work reduced to a com-
pacted and drained ground area. The modules
can be used for different purposes for housing
switchgear, control, battery banks, workshop
and office. Complete assemblies with a floor
area of 150-200 m2 are not uncommon.
Fig. 4a. Site assembly of a 4-module substation
building with 10 kV switchgear in a double-
bus, front-to-front arrangement.
142
5.10 142
Fig. 4b. Layout of the 4 modules showing
switchgear room to the right (2 modules), con-
trol room (1 module) and pantry/WC in the left
module.
Integral transformer substation
By combining a modular building as described
in the above section with conventional outdoor
equipment mounted directly on the power trans-
former, an ”integral” transformer substation
(ITS) becomes a unique design compared with
a conventional substation.
The cable between the transformer and the
medium voltage switchgear can be provided
with either dead break elbow connectors at both
ends (for fast disconnection) or with conven-
tional cable terminations.
•areasTherequiring
ITS concept is ideal for small allotted
less civil work and less space
for high voltage switchgear, this being erected
either on top of the power transformer or, on the
substation building
• The factory-assembled building unit is ready
for immediate hook-up of outgoing cables.
• Minimum of erection work at site
• The time span between site delivery and
commercial operation is much shorter than
for conventional substations
• Conventional high voltage apparatus and
indoor switchgear are used
Civil work is limited to:
• Site clearing and levelling
• building supports.
Concrete plinths for power transformer and
Alternatively, skid mount-
ing eliminates plinth requirements.
• Security fencing
• Earth grid or rods
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations
Common designs are:
One or two transformers each fed from separate
high voltage line circuits.
Any busbar system can be supplied
Provisions for future busbar arrangements can
be made at the design stage
Flexibility in cable connection between trans-
former with switchgear and the substation al-
low for considerable ground movement, i.e.,
clay soil conditions, without detrimental effect
on the equipment.
Fig. 5. Example of an 86 kV portal switchgear
arrangement for two incoming lines and single
busbar. The transformer and distribution unit
are here located at the end of the portal arrange-
ment. The single-line diagram also shows from
right to left: receiving unit, transformer unit
and distribution unit making up a complete
substation.
The installation work at site is reduced:
• All complex items are prewired and factory-
tested prior to shipment
• AErection
minimum of specialist staff is required
• tion of equipment
time is reduced due to the elimina-
support structures.
• Secondary earthing and earthing quantities
are considerably reduced.
143
5.10 143
Each substation has the following features:
• Designed to meet current demand
• Easily extendible or may be removed and
replaced by a conventional type substation
when justified by demand.
• Easy circuit identification as all equipment
is mounted on its associated power trans-
former.
• Maintenance easily and safely performed.
Disruption of supply may occur unless two
incoming feeds to the medium voltage
switchgear are available.
• Primary voltage 36-145 kV
• Secondary voltage 10-36 kV
• Transformer rating 5-40 MVA
SF6 compact substation
Another compact concept for the primary side
of a main industrial substation is to use SF6
switchgear inside a modular or custom-built
building.
Owing to the compact cubicle shape and the
light weight of SF6 equipment, there is no need
for an overhead crane in the building. A low
building profile of 3.5 m height using 72 kV
switchgear may be achieved due to the absence
of any overhead crane. This is shown in Fig. 6.
Future extension of the substation may be
carried out by providing the addition of a 72 kV
feeder at either end of the switchboard.
Although the building layout shows a cable
basement, this may not be really necessary, as
the HV terminations are at a suitable height
above the floor.
This type of substation arrangement is typi-
cal of requirements in industrial zones.
Although the 72.5 kV switchgear is shown
located in a separate room, it could also be
placed together with the 11 kV switchgear.
Omission of a full cable basement economises
on building costs, but makes cable repair or
reinstallation more difficult. In such a case the
72.5 kV cables are brought in at floor level and
the 11 kV cables are run in a shallow trench.
Except for the transformer concrete box, all
rooms in the building have a ceiling clearance
of only 3.5 m, resulting in a low building profile
and lower costs.
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations

A feeder outage, or even worse the outage of a

whole substation, can lead to blackouts with
very serious economic consequences.
In order to maintain acceptable service it is
often necessary to install standby feeders in each
substation. Such an arrangement may be too
heavy a financial burden and instead it may be
possible to bring in to the site a strategically
located emergency mobile substation. This may
be an interesting alternative for both industrial
plants and power companies. Shared ownership
could also be a viable solution, with some agreed
contract of user priority in case of failure.
A mobile substation may contain a combina-
tion of the following equipment:

• High voltage switchgear

• Transformer
• Medium voltage feeder switchgear
• Trailer or semi-trailer
Relay and control equipment
•
Depending on the configuration of the incom-
ing line, the primary and secondary voltage, the
number of medium voltage cubicles involved
and the size of the transformer unit, the substa-
tion may consist of one or several trailers.

Fig. 6. Layout of a 72.5 kV SF6/ 11/0.4 kV load

centre substation.
1. Transformer
2. Auxiliary transformer
3. 72.5 kV switchgear
4. 11 kV switchgear
5. LV distribution board Fig. 7. Mobile substation 84/13.8 kV (??)
6. Battery room mounted on a single trailer.
7. Mess room
8. W.C.

Mobile substations The outdoor line receiver switchgear can be up

Interruptions in electric supply, no matter how
short, are a menace to industrial plants which
then experience a total shutdown and lost pro-
duction, unless some reserve feeder or substa-
tion from an alternative source of supply is
available.
to 132 kV and indoor up to 36 kV. Medium
voltage feeder switchgear can be either for
indoor or outdoor use. Switchgear for indoor
use, relay and control equipment are built into
cubicles or small prefabricated kiosks with
insulated roof and walls.

144

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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations
The total weight and overall dimensions finally
depend on local traffic regulations in each coun-
try, but a weight of 50 tonnes and a length of 17
metres are not unusual.
The limits in power output and voltage level
installed on a single trailer are determined
mainly by the maximum dimensions and the
maximum load per axle imposed by the local
traffic rules. These limitations do not vary
much from one country to another.
The following are some typical industrial
applications where the advantages of mobile
substations are useful:
• In the initial stages of production of a new
plant, the power company may not yet have
completed its final supply with acceptable
reliability. The availability of electric power
may be substantially increased by using one
or more mobile substations during this first
period.
• In order to maintain acceptable power avail-
ability, it is often necessary to install standby
feeders in substations. Such permanent ar-
rangements are very costly. A technically
and economically attractive alternative is to
locate one or several emergency mobile sub-
stations which can be brought to site at short
notice.
• Earthquakes, landslides and other natural
catastrophes are typical events when inter-
ruption in electricity supply may occur, and
which in some countries it may be useful to
safeguard against.
• Temporary power supply to construction
sites, oil drilling fields, mines, construction
camps, etc.
Economic advantages
The overall cost of a mobile substation is usu-
ally lower than the installed cost of a similar,
conventionally built substation.
For road trailers consisting of a main plat-
form carried at both ends by removable rubber-
tyre supports, a single set of axles and wheels is
sufficient for several mobile units, and thus
total cost may be further reduced.
The cost of the equipment is the same for
both mobile and conventional arrangements.
However, the cost of the platform itself is less
than that of the supporting structures and foun-
dations of a permanently built substation, and
the plot area required is also greatly reduced.
145
5.10 145
These factors result in considerable overall
savings for the mobile solution.
Erection and commissioning costs are also
much lower for the mobile plant, since the
mobile substation is entirely factory-assem-
bled and pre-tested.
Semi-trailer substation
In this case the substation equipment is in-
stalled on a platform coupled to front and rear
with removable rubber-tyre supports for carry-
ing the unit to the various sites.
Raising and lowering the platform to the
ground is performed by a hydraulic system.
Connecting and releasing the support of the
platform is a quick and simple operation, in-
volving the connecting couplings between sup-
ports and platform only.
The main advantages offered by this solution
are:
• a single set of rubber-tyre supports for
several substations
• the rubber-tyre supports can be stored sepa-
rately, away from the influence of sun, sand-
storms, etc., when the substations is in serv-
ice in tropical or desert areas
Trailer substation
Selection of the most appropriate trailer is de-
termined by the total weight and size of the
equipment and the length of the whole plant.
The heaviest substations (over 40 tonnes and
over 15 m long) are most conveniently installed
on trailers because of:
better weight distribution and axle loading
the possibility of using steerable wheels at the
rear to permit travel on roads with sharp bends
by using a large number of wheels, substations
of considerable weight and length will give a
lighter weight distribution on soft roads.
Skid-mounted substation
A special application of a mobile substation is
the skid-mounted unit. Fig. 8 shows an example
of a fully equipped unit for tropical environ-
ments. Skid-mounted substations are particu-
larly suitable for movable applications in quar-
rying and open-cast mining.
The fully enclosed robust sheet steel super-
structure is divided into different compartments,
mounted on a solid foundation raft. The rigid
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 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations

raft enables the unit to be easily repositioned,

either by crane or by means of towing gear or
tractor. The unit may be erected outdoors on
practically any suitable surface without special
foundations. Owing to the size of the raft, the
specific load-carrying capacity of the support-
ing ground need not be particularly high. The
factory-assembled unit contains all electrical
equipment required and it is ready for hook-up.
A special elevated roof protects against sun-
light and prevents overheating in tropical areas.
Incoming and outgoing cable transits are sealed
against vermin, dust, etc.

Fig. 8. Skid-mounted substation fully equipped

for tropical mining environments.

146

5.10 146 97-03-05, 14.01

 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM
Prefabricated and mobile substations

Bibliography

[ABBDSI1316 87E] Switchgear Manual, 8th Edition, Mannheim 1987, ISBN 3-590-
80841-1

[Laz80] Irwin Lazlar. Electrical Systems Analysis and Design for Industrial
Plants, McGraw-Hill , New York 1980, ISBN 0-07-036789-2

[IEEE 141] Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants IEEE Red Book - 1986

[IEEE 242] Protection & Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
IEEE Buff Book - 1986

[IEEE 739] Energy Conservation and Cost-Effective Planning in Industrial Fascilities

IEEE Bronze Book - 1984

[IEEE 241] Electric Power Systems in Commercial Buildings IEEE Gray Book - 1983

[IEEE 142] Grounding Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

IEEE Green Book - 1982

[IEEE 399] Industrial and Commercial Power System Analysis IEEE Brown
Book -1980

[IEEE 493] Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power Systems IEEE Gold
Book - 1980

[IEEE 446] Emergency and Standby Power for Industrial and Commercial
Applications IEEE Orange Book - 1980

147

5.11 147 97-03-05, 14.02

 BOOK No 11
Version 0

Power Systems
for Industry

ABB Transmission and Distribution Management Ltd BU TS / Global LEC Support

BA THS / BU Transmission Systems and Substations C/o ABB Switchgear AB
P. O. Box 8131 SE - 721 58 Västerås
CH - 8050 Zürich Sweden
Switzerland

ReklamCenter AB (99311) Printed in Sweden, ABB Support 1999-06