Analytical Phase

Data analysis
- converting data to information

Branches:

Descriptive Statistics

-methods applied in order to organize, summarize and present data in

a form which will make them easier to analyze and interpret

Inferential Statistics

-methods involved in order to make generalizations and conclusions

about a target population, based on results from a sample

Variables

-a value of a characteristic that changes from subject to subject or

from time to time

Relationship between Variables:

Dependent Variable

- the outcome or response variable

Independent Variable

- the variable that is presumed to influence the outcome

Confounding Variable

- An extraneous variable which by itself may influence the outcome and

which may be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variable
being considered.

Types of Variables:

Qualitative Variables

- categories are simply used as labels to distinguish one group from

another

Quantitative Variables
 - categories can be measured and ordered according to quantity/amount

Discrete Quantitative Variables

- can assume only integral values or whole numbers

Continuous Quantitative Variables

- can attain any value including fractions or decimals

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale

- unordered categories

Ordinal Scale

- ordered categories

Interval Scale

- the exact distance between two categories can be determined but the
zero point is arbitrary

Ratio Scale

- Similar to interval but the zero point is fixed

Kinds of indicators

- Parameters – derived from the entire population

- Statistics – derived from a sample of the population

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean – arithmetic average

Median – middle value

Mode – most frequently occurring value

Measures of Variation

Range

- the difference between the highest observation and the lowest

observation
Variance

- refers to how much the individual observations differ from the mean

Standard Deviation

- square root of the variance

Coefficient of Variation

- Measures the relative dispersion which expresses the standard

deviation as a percentage of the mean

Frequency Distribution:

- the proportion of subjects found in the different classes of the

population

Proportion, ratio and rate:

Proportion

- a / (a+b)

- e.g. proportion of patients cured

Ratio

- a/b

- e.g. sex ratio = no. of males : no. of females

Rate

- e.g. incidence rate = (no. of new cases over a period of

time/population at risk) x 100,000

How is the method of data analysis determined?

The method of data analysis that should be used for a study

depends on:

- the objectives and the research design

- the scale of measurement/type of data

METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

Descriptive Statistics

- Computations of indicators
  Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode

 Measures of variation: range, standard deviation

 frequency/percentage distribution; rates, ratios

Organizing, presenting & summarizing data in forms that

facilitate interpretation

- Inferential Statistics

o computations of indicators

o comparison of indicators

o test for significance of observed differences

o determination of degree of association

Criteria for selection of a statistical test:

• Level of Measurement of the Data

– Nominal

– Ordinal

– Interval/Ratio

• Specific objectives to be attained

• Types of samples

• Assumptions of the test

Purpose of doing the test:

• to determine if a sample could have come from a population with a

stipulated mean or proportion or from a population of some pre-
specified distribution

• comparison of two means or proportions

• comparison of more than two means or proportions

• determination of correlation or association between variables

Type of Samples

• Independent samples – the elements in one sample is not in any

way influenced by the characteristics of the elements selected in the
other sample.
 • Paired or related samples – samples which are matched for certain
variables

Two kinds of statistics test

Parametric tests – involves numerical data, measured either on an interval

or ratio scale

Non-Parametric tests – involves data that are not truly numerical being
only on a nominal or ordinal scale

Statistical Significance vs. Practical Significance:

• Practical Significance refers to the benefits that may be derived

from the application of the knowledge or technology tested by the
study.
• Statistical Significance measures the probability of accepting a
wrong hypothesis or of rejecting a true hypothesis.