Animal The Definitive Visual Guide (VetBooks - Ir) PDF

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ANIMAL
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s m i t h s o n i a n Smithsonian
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ANIMAL Editors-in-Chief
David Burnie and Don E. Wilson
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EDITORS-IN-CHIEF DAVID BURNIE & DON E. WILSON
MAIN CONSULTANTS
MAMMALS BIRDS REPTILES AMPHIBIANS

DR. JULIET CLUTTON-BROCK, DR. FRANÇOIS VUILLEUMIER, CHRIS MATTISON PROFESSOR TIM HALLIDAY,
DR. KIM DENNIS-BRYAN, ROB HUME, Zoologist and writer specializing in JEREMY JACOBS
& & herpetology. Fellow of the Royal &
DR. DON E. WILSON CARLA DOVE Photographic Society RONALD CROMBIE
FISHES INVERTEBRATES
PROFESSOR RICHARD DR. GEORGE C. MCGAVIN, DR. DR. M.G. HARASEWYCH, GARY F. KENSLEY, DR. DAVID PAWSON, DR.
ROSENBLATT, RICHARD BARNES, DR. FRANCES HEVEL, KLAUS RUETZLER
DR. FRANCES DIPPER, DIPPER DR. W. DUANE HOPE, DR. BRIAN F.
&
CAROLE BALDWIN, DR. STANLEY DR. STEPHEN CAIRNS, TIMOTHY
WEITZMAN, DAVE JOHNSON COFFER, DR. KRISTIAN FAUCHALD,
CONTRIBUTORS AND CONSULTANTS

Dr. Richard Barnes Dr. Timothy M. Crowe Dr. Gavin Hanke Dr. Rodrigo A. Medellin Jeff Sailer FOR THIS EDITION
Dr. Paul Bates Dr. Kim Dennis-Bryan Derek Harvey Dr. Fridtjof Mehlum Dr. Scott A. Schaeffer ADDITIONAL CONSULTANTS
Dr. Simon K. Bearder Dr. Christopher Dickman Dr. Cindy Hull Chris Morgan Dr. Karl Schuchmann Derek Harvey
Deborah Behler Joseph A. DiCostanzo Dr. Barry J. Hutchins Rick Morris Prof. John D. Skinner Darren Mann
John Behler Prof. Philip Donoghue Dr. Paul A. Johnsgard Dr. Bryan G. Nelson Dr. Andrew Smith FOR THE SMITHSONIAN
Keith Betton Dr. Nigel Dunstone Dr. Angela Kepler Dr. Gary L. Nuechterlein Dr. Ronald L. Smith INSTITUTION
Dr. Michael de L. Brooke Dr. S. Keith Eltringham Dr. Jiro Kikkawa Jemima Parry-Jones Dr. David D. Stone REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
Dr. Charles R. Brown Prof. Brock Fenton Prof.Nigel Leader- Malcolm Pearch Dr. Mark Taylor Jeremy F. Jacobs
Dr. Donald Bruning Joseph Forshaw Williams Prof. Christopher Perrins Dr. David H. Thomas FISH
George H. Burgess Susan D. Gardieff Dr. Douglas Long Prof. Ted Pietsch Dr. Dominic Tollit Dr. Jeffrey T. Williams
Dr. Kent E. Carpenter Dr. Anthony Gill Darren Mann Dr. Tony Prater Dr. Jane Wheeler INVERTEBRATES
Norma G. Chapman Dr. Joshua Ginsberg Dr. Manuel Marin Dr. Galen B. Rathbun Dr. Ben Wilson Dr. Rafael Lemaitre
Ben Clemens Prof. Colin Groves Chris Mattison Dr. Ian Redmond Dr. David B. Wingate Christopher Mayer
Dr. Malcolm C. Coulter Dr. Jurgen H. Haffer Dr. George C. McGavin Dr. James D. Rising Dr. Hans Winkler Jonathan Norenburg
Dominic M. Couzens Prof. Tim Halliday Dr. Jeremy McNeil Robert H. Robins Dr. Kevin Zippel Michael Vecchione
6
CONTENTS
Mouselike rodents ........................... 123
Cavylike rodents .............................. 129
SPRINGHARES ........................................................ 132
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COLUGOS ................................................................. 132

FOREWORD ..................................................................
ABOUT THIS BOOK .................................................. 10

8
THE ANIMAL TREE SHREWS ........................................................ 133
PRIMATES .................................................................. 134
KINGDOM 84 Prosimians ............................................................ 136
INTRODUCTION 12 Monkeys ................................................................ 140

Apes ........................................................................ 150
BATS ............................................................................ 156
WHAT ARE ANIMALS? .................................. 14
HEDGEHOGS AND RELATIVES ......................... 162
EVOLUTION .................................................. 16 SHREWS AND MOLES ......................................... 163
CLASSIFICATION .......................................... 18 PANGOLINS .............................................................. 165
CLADISTICS .................................................. 20 CARNIVORES ........................................................... 166
ANIMAL NAMES AND GROUPS .................... 21 Dogs and relatives ............................................ 168
ANATOMY ..................................................... 26 Bears ....................................................................... 176
BEHAVIOUR .................................................. 28 Sea lions, walrus, and seals ......................... 182
LIFE CYCLES ................................................ 30 Skunks ................................................................... 186
ANIMALS IN DANGER ................................... 32 Raccoons and relatives .................................. 187
CONSERVATION ........................................... 34 Red panda ............................................................ 190
MAMMALS 86
Mustelids ............................................................... 191
Malagasy carnivores ......................... 197
MAMMALS ................................................................... 88
HABITATS 36 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS ........................................ 92

Mongooses .......................................................... 198
Civets and relatives ........................................... 199
MARSUPIALS .............................................................. 93
Cats ......................................................................... 200
WORLD HABITATS ........................................ 38 SENGIS ....................................................................... 104
Hyenas and aardwolf ....................................... 208
GRASSLAND ................................................. 40 TENRECS AND GOLDEN MOLES .................... 105
HOOFED MAMMALS ............................................. 210
DESERT ......................................................... 44 AARDVARK ................................................................ 106 Horses and relatives ......................................... 212
TROPICAL FOREST ....................................... 48 DUGONGS AND MANATEES ............................. 107 Rhinoceroses ...................................................... 214
TEMPERATE FOREST .................................... 52 ELEPHANTS .............................................................. 108 Tapirs ....................................................................... 217
CONIFEROUS FOREST ................................. 56 HYRAXES ................................................................... 110 Pigs .......................................................................... 218
MOUNTAINS .................................................. 60 ARMADILLOS ........................................................... 110 Hippopotamuses ............................................... 220
POLAR REGIONS .......................................... 64 SLOTHS AND ANTEATERS ................................. 111 Camels and relatives ........................................ 222
FRESHWATER ............................................... 68 RABBITS, HARES, AND PIKAS .......................... 113 Deer ......................................................................... 224
OCEANS ........................................................ 72 RODENTS .................................................................. 116 Pronghorn ............................................................. 227
COASTS AND CORAL REEFS ....................... 76 Squirrel-like rodents ......................... 118 Giraffe and okapi ............................................... 228
URBAN AREAS .............................................. 80 Beaverlike rodents ........................... 121 Cattle and relatives ........................................... 230
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CETACEANS ............................................................. 244 FALCONS AND CARACARAS ............................ 336

Baleen whales ..................................................... 246 PARROTS ................................................................... 338
Toothed whales .................................................. 250 PASSERINES ............................................................ 342
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FISHES 466
REPTILES 370
FISHES ........................................................................ 468
REPTILES ................................................................... 372 JAWLESS FISHES .................................................. 472
TORTOISES AND TURTLES ................................ 374 CARTILAGINOUS FISHES ................................... 473
TUATARAS ................................................................. 383 Sharks .................................................................... 474

SNAKES ..................................................................... 384 Rays ........................................................................ 483
Boas, pythons, and relatives ........................ 386 BONY FISHES .......................................................... 486
Colubrids ............................................................... 393 Fleshy-finned fishes .................................................. 488

Elapids .................................................................... 399 Primitive ray-finned fishes .................................... 489
Vipers ...................................................................... 402 Bony-tongued fishes ............................................... 490
BIRDS 262 Blind and thread snakes ................................. 407 Tarpons and eels ........................................................ 491
Herrings and relatives ............................................. 494
LIZARDS ..................................................................... 408
BIRDS .......................................................................... 264 Iguanas and relatives ....................................... 410 Catfish and relatives ................................................. 496
TINAMOUS ................................................................ 268 Geckos and snake-lizards ............................. 417 Salmon and relatives ............................................... 501
OSTRICHES .............................................................. 268 Skinks and relatives .......................................... 420 Dragonfishes and relatives .................................. 508
RHEAS ........................................................................ 269 Anguimorph lizards ........................................... 426 Lanternfishes and relatives ................................. 509
CASSOWARIES AND EMUS ............................... 269 AMPHISBAENIANS ................................................ 431 Codfishes and relatives ......................................... 510
KIWIS ........................................................................... 269 CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS .................... 432 Spiny-rayed fishes ............................................. 512
WATERFOWL ............................................................ 270
GAMEBIRDS ............................................................. 274
PENGUINS ................................................................. 278
DIVERS ........................................................................ 280
INVERTEBRATES 530
GREBES ..................................................................... 280
ALBATROSSES AND PETRELS ......................... 282 INVERTEBRATES ................................................... 532
FLAMINGOS .............................................................. 284 SPONGES ................................................................ 536
TROPICBIRDS .......................................................... 286 CNIDARIANS ........................................................... 537
STORKS ..................................................................... 286 FLATWORMS .......................................................... 541
HERONS AND RELATIVES .................................. 287 SEGMENTED WORMS ........................................ 542
GANNETS, CORMORANTS, AND RELATIVES .. 290 ROUNDWORMS .................................................... 543
HAWKS, EAGLES, AND RELATIVES ................ 294 MINOR PHYLA ........................................................ 544
BUSTARDS ............................................................... 302 ARTHROPODS ....................................................... 546
MESITES .................................................................... 302 Insects .................................................................... 548
SERIEMAS ................................................................. 302 Centipedes and millipedes ............................ 578
KAGU AND SUNBITTERN .................................... 303 Crustaceans ........................................................ 579
RAILS, CRANES, AND RELATIVES ................... 303
WADERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 306
AMPHIBIANS 436
Sea-spiders .......................................................... 585
.........................
Horseshoe crabs ............................................... 585
SANDGROUSE ........................................................ 313 Arachnids .............................................................. 586
AMPHIBIANS ............................................... 438
PIGEONS .................................................................... 313 MOLLUSKS ............................................................... 594
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS ......................440
HOATZIN .................................................................... 315 ECHINODERMS ....................................................... 602
CAECILIANS .................................................447
TURACOS .................................................................. 315 INVERTEBRATE CHORDATES ......................... 605
FROGS AND TOADS ....................................448
CUCKOOS ................................................................. 315
OWLS .......................................................................... 316
NIGHTJARS AND FROGMOUTHS ................... 321
HUMMINGBIRDS AND SWIFTS ......................... 323
MOUSEBIRDS .......................................................... 326
TROGONS ................................................................. 326
CUCKOO ROLLER ................................................ 327
KINGFISHERS AND RELATIVES ........................ 327 GLOSSARY ................................................. 606
HOOPOES AND HORNBILLS ............................. 331 INDEX .......................................................... 610
WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS ................... 332 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................... 632
8
FOREWORD
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The first man-made object was sent into a low orbit around the We know a lot about the physical composition of the earth
earth in 1957, just three years after I was born. I was a schoolboy and through studying rocks and the fossil record we have
when the first humans walked on the surface of the moon. been able to piece together the history of life. We know that
Since then the exploration of space has continued steadily and evolution has produced, as Darwin eloquently put it, “endless
instruments of increasing complexity have been launched into forms most beautiful and most wonderful,” but we are still
space. One of these, Voyager 1, has even left our solar system. a very long way off putting a number on exactly how many
The information gathered has revolutionized our understanding of species we share the earth with. What we do know for sure
space, the birth and death of stars, and has widened our horizons is that relatively few of them, just shy of 3 percent, have a
to the point where we have proved the existence of many planets backbone. Most species and the majority of animals are
that might be similar to earth, orbiting stars in far-flung galaxies. It is invertebrates with 3 or more pairs of legs—insects, spiders,
hard not be impressed at what we have achieved in such a short and crustaceans. Some estimates of global species numbers
time. For a little over 400 years since Galileo first saw the moons have been set as high as 30 million or more, but a general
of Jupiter, we have been looking outward—but in my lifetime consensus view is that it may be somewhere between
we have been able to look back at ourselves. For me, one single 8 and 12 million species. Despite our increasing mastery
image from all this monumental effort stands out and it is not one of biology, from discovering and deciphering the code of
of a Martian landscape or the icy surface of a comet, but the now life to the making of synthetic organisms, it is very unlikely
famous “blue marble” photograph of the earth, taken on December that we will ever name and catalog the full extent of life
7th, 1972, by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft, at a distance of on our planet. We must, therefore, get used to the idea that
about 45,000 kilometers. It shows us how small our home really is the majority of species will come and go without us ever
and, more importantly, that it is finite. knowing they existed at all.
9
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When I was born, the world human population stood at a little We are now asking questions that I never imagined would be asked
over 2.7 billion. In the time I have been alive it has increased when I was studying Zoology—which species to save and which
to over 7.2 billion and there is no doubt that this dramatic species we can let go. It’s a bit like saying—there are 200 species
increase has caused the web of life to fray considerably. of owls but we may have to lose half of them. How do you choose
Wilderness areas have reduced by almost half, and many which ones we need to look after and which ones we can let slip
species are now threatened. Not just the countless tiny into oblivion? We might try to conserve “one-of–a-kind” species,
creatures that live in the undergrowth, but primates like us, organisms that are so unique and genetically different from
50 percent of which are already in danger. Anxiety about
everything else that they deserve special treatment. Or you could
species losses is rightly growing, but consider the bigger
take a different approach and concentrate on preserving the species
picture. The norm for any species on our planet is extinction
that have an intrinsic value to us—the ones that provide us with food
and it has been estimated that only about 1 percent of all
and materials. The trouble is we know so little about the complexities
species that have ever lived are alive today. The evolution
of ecosystems that we might very well get it wrong. Surely it would
of life on earth has been shaped over thousands of millions
of years by numerous extinction events, some so large be much better to try to save as much of the natural habitat that
that relatively few species survived them. We and all other remains as we possibly can.
species are descendants of those survivors. But now the
earth faces an extinction event caused primarily by human Studying the natural world is one of the most absorbing and
numbers and activities. Unchecked, the loss of natural satisfying things anyone can do and if I had my life over again I
habitat may lead to the extinction of one third of all living would still want to spend it getting to know some of the animals
species in the next hundred years. I might encounter.
George McGavin
Zoologist, explorer, and broadcaster
10 ABOUT THIS BOOK
ABOUT THIS BOOK THE ANIMAL 88 MAMMALS
mammals
Animal is organized into 3 main sections: a general KINGDOM PHYLUM
CLASS
Chordata
Mammalia
29
Mammals, the most familiar group of vertebrates, all
nourish their young on milk produced by the female’s
mammary glands (the unique skin structures after which the
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ORDERS
Introduction to animals and their lives; a section on the

FAMILIES 153
class is named). Most also give birth to live young and, with
This section of Animal is divided

5,916
SPECIES
only a few exceptions, have a covering of hair on their body.
Mammals are most widespread and diverse on land, but they
have also colonized the water. Their success is largely due to their ability to
world’s main Habitats; and the main part of the book, into 6 chapters: mammals, birds, maintain a constant internal body temperature, regardless of changing external
conditions. Most mammals are also highly adaptable and often modify their
behavior to suit changing circumstances. Some mammals, especially
The Animal Kingdom, which is dedicated to the description reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and primates (the group that includes humans), form complex societies.
Evolution structure (see panel, left), the YOUNG MAMMALS
invertebrates. Each chapter begins

therapsids evolved a lighter, more One of the key features that sets mammals
of animal groups and species. At the end of the book, a

The ancestors of mammals were flexible skeleton. Another significant apart from other animals is the way that
a group of reptiles known as the change was the alignment of the limbs females suckle their young on milk
therapsids. These small, active beneath rather than at the sides of the from their mammary glands. Some
carnivores lived during the Triassic body, which helped the early mammals mammals look after their young
with an introduction to the animal
MAMMALS
Period (which began 251 million years become faster and more agile. until they are several years old.
ago). The various features that now The transition from reptiles to
detailed glossary defines all zoological and technical terms

separate reptiles and mammals in fact mammals was completed toward other reptiles, the bodies of
developed over a long period of time the end of the Triassic Period (195 most species of dinosaurs would
and at different rates. In addition to million years ago), although some have tended to shut down in low which reflects and facilitates their
group. Lower-ranked groups such

several important differences in skull early mammals (multituberculates) temperatures. Mammals, however, varied diet. All mammals have 3 types
are said to have started evolving and were unaffected by these fluctuations of teeth: incisors, which are used
used, while a full index lists all the groups and species featured,
diversifying 20–40 million years before in temperature and so were better for biting; canines for gripping and
DENTARY
BONE
dinosaurs became extinct. These able to survive the change in climate. tearing; and cheek teeth (molars
reptiles were the dominant animals and premolars), which are used for
as orders and families are then Anatomy

hinge at back on Earth during the Mesozoic Era grinding. The shape and size of each
of skull (251 – 65 million years ago), before type varies according to diet.
uniform they were ousted by modern Several differences between the Most mammals, unlike other
by both Latin name and common name, including alternative

EARLY REPTILE mammals that outcompeted them skeletons of mammals and other
teeth animals, have mobile external ears
for food. Mammals’ ability to regulate vertebrates can be seen in the (pinnae) to locate sounds and then
introduced, followed by profiles of

their internal temperature may explain skull. Mammals are unique in funnel them to the eardrum, where
zygomatic arch
why they outlasted the dinosaurs. having a lower jaw that is hinged
During the Mesozoic Era, directly to the rest of the skull—in
hinge farther molars premolars canine incisors
forward than the climate became other vertebrates the connection
common names. the species classified within them.

in early reptile TRIASSIC MAMMAL cooler and daily is indirect, with at least one other
temperatures were bone between the 2 parts of the
large more variable. Like jaw. This direct articulation, and
zygomatic the fact that the lower jaw is made
arch
of a single bone (see panel, left),
The invertebrates are organized

specialized JAWS makes the jaw a powerful tool
teeth Mammals have a unique for cutting and dismembering food.
MODERN MAMMAL jaw, in which the Unlike other vertebrates, mammals TEETH OF A RACCOON
lower jaw is hinged also have a set of specialized teeth,
EVOLVING SKULL directly to the skull. sharp broad, grinding multicusped
cutting surface chewing surface
slightly differently (see opposite),

Mammals’ reptilian ancestors had The hippopotamus edge
uniform teeth and a jaw that was has an unusually
made of several bones and limited large mouth and a
to an up-and-down movement. By wide jaw extension.
INTRODUCTION
the Triassic Period, mammal skulls
CARNIVORE HERBIVORE OMNIVORE
while passerine birds are profiled at

had both a zygomatic arch to house CHEEK TOOTH CHEEK TOOTH CHEEK TOOTH
powerful jaw muscles and only one
jawbone (the dentary). Modern TEETH IN MAMMALS
skulls have specialized teeth and Many mammals, such as raccoons (top),
a single jawbone often capable have incisors, canines, and premolars and
family level, with only representative

of complex movements. These molars (cheek teeth) that reflect their diet.
features, in combination with strong Carnivores have sharp cheek teeth for
jaw muscles, allow mammals to cutting bones, while herbivores have
chew their food—a unique feature broad cheek teeth to grind up vegetation.
Animal begins with an overview evolution, behavior, and

of the group. Omnivore cheek teeth are broad and
species shown.
multicusped for chewing a variety of foods.
of all aspects of animal life. This conservation. In addition, there

includes an account of what an is a comprehensive presentation
animal is—and how it differs from of the classification scheme that HABITAT SYMBOLS Rivers, streams, and all flowing
other living things. It also examines underpins the species profiles in Symbols in profiles are listed as shown
water
animal anatomy, life cycles, The Animal Kingdom. below, not in order of main occurrence. Mangrove swamps, above or below
the waterline
26 ANATOMY 27
Temperate forest, including Coastal areas, including beaches and
ANATOMY
feature of arthropods—a huge group of
invertebrates that includes insects, crustaceans,
and arachnids. These cases, or exoskeletons,
In this kind of skeleton, some bones meet at
flexible joints. Other bones, particularly those
in the skull, lock together for extra strength.
Soft feathers and fur help to retain body heat,
while extra-strong feathers are used in flight.
Colors or patterns act as camouflage or help
woodland cliffs, areas just above high tide, in
cover the entire body and include structures as animals recognize their own kind.
EFFICIENT RESPIRATION
strong as a crab’s pincers or as delicate as a
All animals are made up of various parts. Their smallest fully functional parts Muscles and movement
Coniferous forest, including the intertidal zone, and in shallow,
Animals that are highly
butterfly’s antennae. Unlike shells, body cases
are cells, which are shaped in different ways according to the tasks that they cannot grow, so periodically they have to be Muscles work by contracting. This means they Respiration active in cold habitats
need lots of oxygen.
carry out. Groups of similar cells are organized into tissues, and tissues are shed and replaced. can pull but not push. In most cases, they are For small and thin animals, obtaining oxygen
When an ibex runs uphill,
Internal skeletons (endoskeletons), made of arranged in pairs or groups that pull in opposing is a simple matter because it seeps into
its lungs take in 10 times
grouped together to form organs. Organs themselves are linked to form
woodland offshore waters

bone and/or cartilage, provide support from directions: when one muscle or muscle group their bodies from outside. At the same
as much air as when it
organ systems, which carry out all the processes essential for survival. within. Found only in vertebrates, they have 2 contracts, its partner is brought back to its normal time, carbon dioxide escapes in the other
is lying down.
great advantages: they resting shape. direction. For larger animals, respiration
The structure of these systems varies widely between one type of animal are relatively light for Muscles make animals move in different ways. is more complex. In relative terms, they
and another, and also between animals that live in different ways, but the their size—important for In animals without limbs, such as earthworms and have a much greater volume than surface
land animals that have jellyfish, they work to change the body’s shape. In area, so there is less room for gases to
work they do is the same.
Tropical forest and rain forest Seas and oceans

to move quickly— earthworms, opposing muscles alternately shorten move in and out. To breathe, they rely
and they can grow. on respiratory organs—structures that
relaxed bell fills circular muscles water expelled
effectively pack a large surface area into a
Body systems system—the parts that form the “outer
SHELL
A snail’s shell grows at its
with water contract from bell
small amount of space. In aquatic animals,
Animals have up to a dozen separate body cladding”—protect the body from physical gills are the most common respiratory
lip, getting progressively
systems. In many species, the muscular and damage and, in terrestrial animals, from the threat organs. Typical gills consist of thin, flat,
larger with its owner. Some
Mountains, highlands, scree slopes Coral reefs and waters immediately

skeletal systems make up a large proportion of of drying out. or feathery surfaces that bring blood into
species can seal the shell
the body’s total weight, while the integumentary Two key systems enable animals to obtain energy close contact with the water outside.
with an operculum, or “door.”
from food. The digestive system breaks food down However, most gills do not work in air
genital testis ovary simple brain with
chamber 2 nerve cords
so that it can be absorbed; and the respiratory EXOSKELETON because—out of water—their surfaces
MOVING WITHOUT LIMBS
system delivers oxygen to the body’s cells so that A crab’s body case covers all the collapse and stick together. Land animals
around them
food substances can be “burned” and their Jellyfish swim by rhythmically contracting the bell-shaped part therefore have hollow respiratory organs that
surfaces of its body, including its
Desert and semidesert

chemical energy released. The respiratory of their body. This expels water from the bell, which pushes the carry air deep inside their bodies. In insects,
eyes. Unlike an insect’s exoskeleton,
system also removes carbon dioxide—a jellyfish forward. Most jellyfish make little headway against the these organs are tubes, called tracheae, which
it is reinforced with calcium.
potentially toxic waste product formed during current: they swim mainly to keep at the right level in the water. divide into extremely fine filaments that reach
the production of energy. In many animals, muscles contract to muscles maintain individual cells. In land-dwelling vertebrates,
Polar regions, including tundra and

SIMPLE INVERTEBRATE BODY SYSTEMS including all vertebrates, oxygen and carbon propel frog forward streamlined shape front legs the organs are lungs—air-filled chambers
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Simple invertebrates, such as flatworms, do not have respiratory dioxide are carried by blood in the circulatory SECTION absorb surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
Open habitats, including

OF BONE impact
organs or a circulatory system. The digestive system often has system. Carbon dioxide is usually exhaled; other Muscles make the lungs expand or contract, with its own lens system; these compound eyes
just one opening, the mouth, and the reproductive system is kinds of dissolved waste are removed, before they sucking air in or blowing it out. create a mosaic-like image and are especially
typically made up of both male and female organs. have a chance to build up, by a separate good at detecting movement.
icebergs
excretory system. Mammals are the only animals with prominent
JUMPING
Nerves and senses
grassland, moor, heath, savanna,
intestines form part of stomach digestive gland Animals use 2 different systems to When a frog leaps, its legs act as levers, propelling earflaps. Vertebrates’ ears are always on the
tubular digestive system coordinate their bodies, and to react ENDOSKELETON Nerve cells, or neurons, are the animal world’s head, but in some animals, they are positioned
marrow
it into the air. Its front legs fold up to cushion its body
to their surroundings. The nervous Strong, light, and flexible, from the impact when it lands. equivalent of wiring. Neurons conduct brief bursts elsewhere. Most grasshoppers and crickets
cavity
system deals with anything that needs bones are living body parts of electricity, known as impulses, which carry have ears on their abdomen or legs. Organs that
small brain a fast response, processing information hard bone formed by cells (called and lengthen the animal’s segments so that it can information from sense organs or make muscles detect taste and smell can also be in a variety
fields, scrub Urban areas, including buildings,

gathered by sense organs. In all animals, it containing osteocytes), surrounded by creep through soil. In limbed animals, one set of contract. Corals and other simple animals have of positions. Like ears, they can be used in
osteocytes mineral crystals that are
triggers built-in or instinctive behavior, but in some, muscles pulls the limb down or back, while the a network of nerves scattered throughout their communication, as well as for avoiding danger
especially vertebrates, it also stores information, laid down in rings. other lifts it up or forward. bodies. But in most animals, the nervous system and finding food.
nerve cord runs
along animal’s allowing animals to adapt their behavior according As well as making animals move, muscles converges on the brain. Many animals have senses that are more acute
underside exoskeleton
parks, and gardens

to their past experience. The endocrine system serve other purposes. They force food through Some animal senses, such as touch, operate than those of human beings, and some can sense
works in conjunction with the nervous system, SYMMETRY the digestive system (peristalsis) and pump blood through nerve endings scattered all over the things that humans cannot. For example, most fish
Wetlands and all still bodies of

ARTHROPOD BODY SYSTEMS releasing hormones, or chemical messengers, Some animals’ bodies are circular, without a around the circulatory system. Unlike most other body. A similar sense, which works internally, tells can sense pressure waves in water, and many can
The tubular digestive system is open at both ends. The blood that help the nervous system coordinate long- head or tail. This type of anatomy, called radial muscles, the heart muscle has a built-in rhythm animals about their posture. The most important detect weak electric fields. Some snakes can “see”
flows partly through vessels and partly through body spaces. term processes. symmetry, can be seen in sea anemones and that keeps it contracting throughout an animal’s life. senses—vision, smell, and hearing—work through warmth, enabling them to attack warm-blooded
Oxygen is supplied via gills or via minute airways called tracheae. Finally, the reproductive system carries out the other cnidarians, and also in ctenophores or organs that form some of the most elaborate prey in total darkness.
water, including lakes, ponds, Parasitic; living on or inside another

most important task: producing young. Unlike comb jellies. The vast majority of animals show structures in the body.
large brain other body systems, it often functions only during bilateral symmetry, which means they can be Body coverings Vision is essential for many animals,
a set season, and then only in mature animals. divided into halves. The halves are not always Animal cells are easily damaged. and eyes show a wide variety of designs.
kidneys remove waste
equal: male fiddler crabs, for example, have very To protect them from injury and At their simplest—for example, in snails—
unequal claws, and flatfish have different sides. disease, animals have body they do little more than distinguish
Skeletons and support
Animals need to keep the shape of their bodies
stable. Many invertebrates achieve this without
any hard body parts at all. Instead, they rely on
RADIAL SYMMETRY
A sea anemone can
be divided into 2 equal
coverings, most of which consist
largely of nonliving matter.
Mammalian skin is covered by
dead cells, while insect body
between light and dark. In many
animals, particularly arthropods
and vertebrates, they focus
light onto large numbers
pools, marshes, bogs, and swamps animal
the pressure of internal fluids to keep their bodies halves on any axis. It cases are covered by a hard FEATHERS of nerve cells, building
firm in the same way that air stabilizes a tire. This has a central mouth substance called “chitlin” and up a detailed image of
lungs, via
which oxygen system, called a hydrostatic skeleton, works well and body cavity, with waterproof wax. In many cases, the surroundings. In
intestines on a small scale. But in larger animals, particularly feeding tentacles these protective layers are vertebrates, these
reaches blood
blood flows inside land ones, this type of skeleton is often not strong arranged in a ring. themselves protected: mammals eyes have a single
vessels rather heart enough to support the body’s weight. Animals often have a coat of fur, while lens, which throws
than through have developed 2 quite different solutions to many other animals have scales. light onto a “screen,”
body spaces
this problem: external shells and body cases; and Some of these extra coverings or retina. In arthropods,
VERTEBRATE BODY SYSTEMS internal skeletons, typically made of bone. have developed additional uses. SCALES the eye has up to
The nervous system is highly developed, and the brain is typically Shells are made up of one or 2 parts, and they BILATERAL SYMMETRY 25,000 separate
larger than in invertebrates. The circulatory system is closed, grow with their owner. They can be seen in marine Frogs and toads BODY BARRIERS compartments, each
and blood is pumped under high pressure by the heart. animals called brachiopods, or lampshells, but have just one axis of Bird feathers, butterfly scales, and
they are most highly developed in bivalve symmetry. Externally, the mammal fur are made of nonliving BINOCULAR VISION
DATA FIELD
KEY TO SYSTEMS
mollusks, which can grow shells over 31⁄4 ft (1 m) 2 halves look identical; substances that are produced Jumping spiders have 2 extra-large
CIRCULATORY EXCRETORY across. Body cases are more complex than shells: internally, some organs by living cells. Feathers and fur are eyes that face directly forward. This gives
SEX (Fishes only)

DIGESTIVE NERVOUS they consist of a large number of separate plates lie to the left or the right. replaced during their owner’s lifetime, them binocular vision, which is essential
RESPIRATORY REPRODUCTIVE that meet at flexible joints. They are a characteristic but butterfly scales are not. FUR for gauging distances before making a jump.
Whether the species has separate males and

Summary information is given at the
females (Male/Female), is a Hermaphrodite,
start of each profile. Measurements
HABITATS
or a Sequential hermaphrodite.
are for adult males of the species and
may be a typical range, single-figure OCCURRENCE (Invertebrates only)
average, or maximum, depending on Number of species in the family, class,
This section looks at the world’s life, and the types of animals found available records. or phylum; their distribution and the
main animal habitats. Coverage there. The pages that immediately microhabitats they can be found in.
of each habitat is divided into 2 follow describe how the anatomy STATUS (all groups)
LENGTH (all groups, except Invertebrates)
parts. The first (illustrated below) and behavior of animals are MAMMALS: head and body. BIRDS: tip of bill
Animal uses The IUCN Red List (see p.33)
describes the habitat itself, adapted to suit the conditions to tip of tail. REPTILES: length of carapace and other threat categories, as follows:
including its climate and plant in which they live. for tortoises and turtles; head and body, EXTINCT IN THE WILD (IUCN) Known only
including tail, for all other species. FISHES & to survive in captivity, as a naturalized
general introduction description of more specific dotted lines identify distinct AMPHIBIANS: head and body, including tail. population outside its natural range, or
to habitat type habitat sub-type zones within habitat TAIL (Mammals only) Length. as a small, managed population that
has been reintroduced.
60 MOUNTAINS MOUNTAINS 61
WEIGHT (Mammals, Birds, and Fishes only)
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (IUCN) Facing an
Mountains Tropical mountains
Body weight.
HIGH ELEVATION
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild

In the tropics, the generally warm climate means that
MOUNTAIN mountain vegetation zones extend much higher than
In many land habitats, climatic HUMMINGBIRDS they do in montane habitats elsewhere in the world.
survive low For example, near the equator, trees often grow at
conditions vary only slightly within
SOCIAL UNIT (Mammals only) in the immediate future.

THE SNOW LEOPARD spends nighttime elevations of up to 13,200 ft (4,000 m), which is why
a region. In mountains, however, its summers above the temperatures in the Andes
by becoming torpid—a form
many tropical mountains are forested to their summits.
the average air temperature drops by about treeline, but during winter Above this elevation is the tropical alpine zone, an
follows hoofed animal prey of overnight hibernation.
1.8° F (1° C) for every 650 ft (200 m) gained in open landscape dominated by grass and some highly
Whether a species lives mainly alone

to lower elevations.
height, oxygen becomes more scarce, and the specialized plants. This zone
ENDANGERED (IUCN) Facing a very high risk

is often above the clouds,
air becomes less effective at screening out
which means that nights are
ultraviolet light. As a result, mountains can be
(Individual), in a Group, in a Pair, or varies

cold and frosty and yet the
divided into distinct zones, each supporting sunshine is fierce.
of extinction in the wild in the near future.

ALPINE ZONE
plant and animal life that is very different from Many tropical animals have
successfully adapted to life at
that of the zone above and below. A wide range
between these units (Variable).

high elevation. They include
of animals live in the low-elevation foothills, but the vicuna, which can be TROPICAL MOUNTAINS include
VULNERABLE (IUCN) Facing a high risk of

only the hardiest survive year-round in the harsh found up to 18,100 ft (5,500 m) a major chain, the Andes, and
environment above the tree line. THE VICUNA’S blood is in the South American Andes, isolated ranges in East Africa
and Southeast Asia.
THE EURASIAN BLACK especially good at gathering and the yak, which reaches a
MIDELEVATION
VULTURE is wide-ranging record 19,800 ft (6,000 m) just
PLUMAGE (Birds only)

oxygen at high elevations.
Temperate mountains
extinction in the wild in the medium-
across open country,
north of the tropics in the Himalayas. Birds also live at
scavenging on carrion, but
In temperate regions, a mountain’s climate is occasionally taking live prey, great heights: in South America, for example, mountain
relatively cool throughout the year. However, such as rabbits. hummingbirds called Andean hillstars often feed at
Whether sexes are alike or different.

seasonal changes are much more marked than over 13,200 ft (4,000 m). The Andean hillstar’s minute
term future.
they are in the tropics. At high elevation, above size means it has difficulty storing enough energy
the tree line, there is a sudden burst of plant to enable it to survive the cold nights. To combat the
growth in spring and summer. Some animals problem, its nocturnal heartbeat slows down and its
H A B I TAT S
H A B I TAT S
migrate upward to make use of this brief temperature plummets, conserving energy.
THE NORTHERN PUDU is The cloud-covered forest below the alpine zone is
MIGRATION (Birds only) NEAR THREATENED (IUCN) Strong possibility

abundance of food, but others, such as the
the smallest species of deer
marmot, are permanent residents between the habitat of some of the world’s most endangered
and occurs across Andean
mid and high elevation, surviving the winter mountain habitats—from animals. They include the eastern gorilla—a species
FOREST ZONE
cold by living in burrows, and by hibernating montane rainforests up to restricted to the mountains of central Africa—and the
Whether a bird is a Migrant, Partial migrant, of becoming endangered in the near future.
for up to 8 months a year. High-elevation insects paramo grassland. resplendent quetzal, a bird that lives in the cloud
spend many months in a dormant state, coming forests of Central America. The abundant moisture
to life when warm weather arrives. For many, this BIGHORN SHEEP live on means that the forest zone also teems with many
rugged terrain, from precipitous different species of frogs, living both on the ground
dormant period is
slopes of cliffs and rocky
Nonmigrant, or Nomadic.
spent inside the egg, and in trees.
LEAST CONCERN (IUCN) Low-risk category that

outcrops down to hot canyons
which hatches when and desert valleys.
the days lengthen and
the temperatures rise. MINING AND QUARRYING
Once isolated from human activities, mountain wildlife now
At lower elevations,
includes widespread and common species.

faces many changes. The greatest of all is global warming,
BREEDING (Reptiles and Fishes only)

the climate is warmer, which alters the natural pattern of vegetation zones. Some
and generally more like mountain animals can benefit from this, but others face
THE NORTHERN that of the surrounding steadily shrinking habitats, because they live in a narrow
temperate zone’s mountain land. However, GELADAS are ground-living range of elevations, or on isolated ranges or peaks. More
DATA DEFICIENT (IUCN) Not a threat

monkeys allied to baboons.
Whether the species is Viviparous,

ranges include the highest because the sloping, specific threats to
peaks on earth. In the Southern They are confined to high mountain animals
rocky ground is elevations of Ethiopia, where
Hemisphere, mountains are include hydroelectric
smaller and more isolated. difficult to farm, the they graze on grassland projects, and the
mountainsides often plateaus. rapid expansion of
Oviparous, or Ovoviviparous. category. Population and distribution

LOW ELEVATION
retain more of their tree cover than does flatter mines and quarries.
ground. In undisturbed conditions, these Dust, pollution, and
ALPINE MARMOTS can spend
LOW ELEVATION
montane forests are the natural habitat of half the year in hibernation— the dumping of waste
large mammals, such as pumas, bears, and one of the longest periods of can all have a
data is insufficient for assessment.

deer, and also of a wide range of seed- dormancy for any mammal. harmful effect on
mountain wildlife.
HABIT (Reptiles and Amphibians only)

and insect-eating birds.
Temperate mountains abound in birds of
prey. Some, such as the peregrine falcon, ROCK REMOVAL
pursue their prey on fast-flapping wings,
NOT EVALUATED Data not yet assessed

In some parts of the
Whether the species is partly or wholly

while eagles and buzzards soar high up, world, quarrying has
riding on updrafts. One characteristic mountain destroyed important
species, a vulture called the lammergeier, wildlife habitats. As road
A DIVERSITY OF mountain frogs building and construction
against the 5 IUCN criteria.

turns the mountain landscape to its advantage thrives around streams in moist, projects continue to
Terrestrial, Aquatic, Burrowing, or Arboreal.

by carrying carrion bones aloft and dropping humid foothill forests—with THE EASTERN GORILLA uses the increase, the demand for
them onto the rocks to expose the edible many species restricted to dense vegetation of the forest rock continues to grow.
marrow inside. isolated ranges. zone for both food and cover.
BREEDING SEASON (Amphibians only) For fuller details see The IUCN Red List
map showing global photographs show representative feature on The time of year in which breeding occurs. website (www.iucnredlist.org)
distribution of habitat animals found within each zone conservation issues
ABOUT THIS BOOK 11
MAMMALS 89 , MAJOR GROUPS

HAIR
Mammals are the only animals
The juveniles of all mammals
are fed on milk secreted by the
mother’s mammary glands, which
necessary. Body temperature can be
altered by increasing or decreasing
the metabolic rate, widening or
Each of the 6 major animal groups is introduced with an overview INVERTEBRATE
ANIMALS
with a covering of hair on the become active after the young are constricting blood vessels that carry
of its defining characteristics. These pages also cover key aspects

hair
body. A hair consists of a rod of born. Except in monotremes, the milk heat to the skin’s surface, raising or
cells strengthened by the protein sebaceous is delivered through teats. As well as lowering body hair to trap or release
keratin. Hair can take several gland providing nourishment (it is rich in an insulating layer of air, and causing
forms, including whiskers, spines, erector proteins and fats), the milk contains shivering (to gain heat) or evaporation
of evolution, life cycle, and behavior.

prickles, and even horns (as in muscle antibodies that help establish via sweating or panting (to lose heat).
rhinoceroses). Most common is sweat resistance to infection. Being Mammals can also control their body
fur, which usually consists of an gland nourished on milk during the early temperature by adopting special
There are so many invertebrate species

VetBooks.ir
insulating layer of underfur and a weeks of life also means that young body postures: a monkey, for
, PHYLA, CLASSES, AND ORDERS

projecting guard coat that protects mammals do not have to forage for example, will hunch up in the cold
the skin and gives hair its color follicle their own food, which greatly (and many mammals huddle
(which may aid camouflage). Hairs increases their chances of survival. together in small groups to keep
that in order to provide representative

blood
such as whiskers may also have supply Litter sizes vary from 20 (Virginia warm); lemurs warm up in the early
a sensory function. 166 CARNIVORES to follicle opossum) to only 1 (orangutan); and morning sun by sitting up and CARNIVORES 167
SKIN SECTION gestation periods range from 12 days
Each hair arises from a pocket in the skin
Carnivores
called the follicle. Next to the follicle is an
erector muscle that raises or lowers the hair,
(short-nosed bandicoot) to 22 months
(African savanna elephant).
Feeding
Most carnivores live on a diet of freshly killed animal
Within each major group, lower- coverage of the group as a whole, this
Temperature control
changing the insulating properties of the coat.
ranked groups such as orders book focuses on profiling the larger

prey, ranging in size from insects, other invertebrates,
MODIFIED HAIR
PHYLUM Chordata
Porcupines have whiskers, long body hairs,
AlthoughMammals, thelike
term
birds,carnivore
are endothermic,
meaning that they maintain a constant
is commonly used to describe Hunting and small vertebrates to animals as large as buffaloes
and reindeer. Carnivores are generally adaptable
CLASS Mammalia
and defensive spines (which are modified hairs). an animal that eatsand
body temperature meat, it also refers specifically to members
can therefore Carnivores include some of nature’s most skillful feeders, seldom restricting themselves to a single
they are transmitted to the inner ear

ORDER Carnivora
FAMILIES 16
Prototheria and Theria—that is, the
of the
meat,
order
remain Carnivora.
active at extremely While
high or
external temperatures. This is why
most
low members of the group eat
some have a mixed diet or are entirely herbivorous.
mammals are able to occupy every
and efficient predators. Most use keen senses of
sight, hearing, or smell to locate prey, which they
catch either by pouncing from a concealed place
food type. However, there are specialists—for
example, there are pinniped species that eat only
fish. Others, such as bears, badgers, and foxes, eat are described in separate taxonomic groups—phylum, class,
order, and family—rather than on
by 3 tiny bones, and so to the brain. egg-layers and 279
SPECIES those that give birth Meat-eating
to major habitatcarnivores
and are more are the dominant predators on land or by stalking and then running down their a mixed diet of meat and plants, while a few, notably
quarry in a lengthy chase or swift rush. the giant panda, are almost entirely herbivorous.
introductions. These identify

The fennec fox has enormous, live young. Theria is subdivided into 2 widespread than any other vertebrates STAYING WARM
in all habitats: their bodies and lifestyles Many can kill animals larger than them- CARRION-FEEDERS PLANT EATERS
sensitive pinnae; by contrast, true further groups—infraclass Metatheria (except birds). Many species, such as Large animals, such as red deer, remain active
seals have lost their pinnae. (the marsupials) and infraclass
CLASSIFICATION NOTE the seals and arewhales
highly adapted
of the Antarctic,for hunting.
all winter. They survive and keep warm by using selves. Weasels kill by biting the back of Hyenas feed on live prey and the remains of other animals’ kills. The diet of the giant
individual species. Groups are presented

the head and cracking the skull, while Their particularly sharp teeth and strong jaws enable them to break panda consists mainly of
MAMMALS
One of the most distinctive parts EutheriaAs(other mammals).
the evolution Marsupials
of the order Carnivora becomes live in regions where thethere
However, temperature fat reserveswithin
is great variety built up during the summer. Over
of a mammal’s body is its skin. This complete their
better development
known, scientists havewhile is well below freezing for much or all
subdivided existing time, this leads to weight loss. cats bite into the neck, damaging the bones and tendons that are too tough for other carnivores. bamboo shoots and roots,
of the year. the
the animals found in the group,

consists of 2 layers: a protective outer families, and by
being nourished included
theirthose from the order Pinnipedia
mother’s group,
An area of thewhich includes species as
brain known spinal cord, or into the throat, on which it feeds for up to
(seals and walrus). There are currently 16 families, causing suffocation. Though 12 hours a day. Pandas are
in 3 ways: a brief introduction to an order

layer of dead cells (the epidermis) and milk, whereas placental mammals
of which 14 are shown in this book. as the diverse as the giant panda and the
hypothalamus monitors body
an inner layer (the dermis) that contains develop within the body of the mother temperature and some carnivores are solitary, slow moving compared with
adjusts it if walrus. Uniquely among mammals,
Dogs and relatives Red Panda see p.190 others hunt in packs. other carnivores, and their flat
blood vessels, nerve-endings, and and nourishment
see pp.168 – 75 is supplied Mustelids
to
describe their defining properties,

glands. It is the glands in the dermis the fetus through
Bears the –placenta.
see pp.176 81 see pp.191 – 6 carnivores have 4 carnassial teeth. cheek teeth are better suited
or class, supported by a description of

that are particularly unusual: the Marsupials have no true placenta
Sea lions (seecarnivores
Malagasy SOLITARY HUNTER for grinding than for cutting.
sebaceous (or scent) glands secrete below) see
andpp.182
produce – 3 young atsee p.197
a very
They also have a penis bone The bobcat, which feeds mainly
Walrus see p.184 Mongooses see p.198
chemicals that mammals use to early stage
Sealsof seetheir
pp.184 development.
–5 CivetsInand relatives (baculum). Indigenous to most parts on small prey such as the
and explain many of the terms

communicate with one another, the some species, the young aresee kept in a
p.199 snowshoe hare, hunts alone.
one or more constituent families, with

Skunks see p.186
Raccoons and Cats see pp.200 – 7 of the world, carnivores have also
mammary glands produce the milk pouch on the outside of the mother’s
used to nourish newborn young, and relatives see pp.187 – 8
body until they are more fully grown.
Hyenas see pp.208 – 9
been introduced to Australasia.
the sweat glands—together with the The largest reproductive group is the
each family illustrated by representative

hair, which also arises from the dermis infraclass Eutheria, which contains
(see panel, above)—play an important
part in regulating temperature.
Anatomy
the placental mammals. The unborn
young develop in the mother’s uterus.
Althoughfood
During pregnancy, carnivores
and oxygen vary considerably in size and shape, most
HUNTING IN PACKS
Lions generally hunt in groups to capture large used in the species profiles.
species (e.g., insects); a profile of a class,
share several to fetusfeatures
throughthat make them well suited to a hunting animals. The females (males rarely join in) usually
Reproduction pass from mother
MAMMALS
MAMMALS
lifestyle.
an organ known as A thetypical
placenta, terrestrial carnivore is a fast and agile runner stalk to within 98 ft (30 m) and encircle the prey.
Depending on the way they while wastewith sharp teeth
substances move andinclaws, acute hearing and eyesight, and a After a short charge, the animal is brought
well-developed sense of smell. KEEPING Carnassial
COOLteeth (see below) are down with a grab to the flank, then killed
illustrated by species that represent

reproduce, mammals are divided the opposite direction. When
into 2 groups or subclasses— present in
born, infant placental mammals predacious living carnivores but are less well developed
In hot climates, mammals avoid overheating by resting by suffocation with apart
in the hottest bite of
to the
the throat.
day. They
among
are more highly omnivorous,
developed thanherbivorous, mayand
alsosome piscivorous
keep cool by panting, species.
as this puma is doing. Panting helps lower the body
Carnivores have either 4 or 5 digits
those of marsupials. on each
temperature limb.the
through Members
evaporationofofthe
water from internal surfaces, such as the tongue.
umbilical cord placenta (on wall
distinct groups or types within it (e.g.,

connects fetus of uterus) cat family have sharp, retractable claws used to rake prey, defend
200 CARNIVORES
themselves, and climb. Most other carnivores have nonretractable
Social groups
to placenta amniotic
fluid HIBERNATIONclaws, often used for digging. COLD SLEEP
Cats
Some mammals, especially small species, conserve energy Many bats that live in Although
temperate many carnivores live
regions hibernate overalone
crustaceans); a description of a phylum
during theJAWScold AND
months TEETH by hibernating, just as some reptiles or in pairs, others form
the winter.
Mostthe
(for example, carnivores
garterhavesnake) sharpdo.
teeth and temperature
Their upper and temporalis
While groups that
sleeping, the temperature of take different
carnassial muscle
heart ratepowerful jawsbreathing
fall, their for killing and disemboweling
slows, their metabolism
tooth drops their body falls to thatforms, and have complex
of the roost
to almost prey. The temporalis muscles,
andwhichtheyare site, as shown by the structures.
dew on this Lion prides, for
illustrated by a representative species of

imperceptible levels, fast, drawing on
With a lithe, muscular body, acute to draw in sounds made by prey,
CONSERVATION
stored fat most effectiveWhen
reserves. when hibernating,
the jaws are open, the animal is difficult Daubenton’s bat, right.example, consist of several PHYLUM Chordata
while long, stiff, highly sensitive
to rouse. AareWest
used European
to deliver a powerful
hedgehog stab begins hibernation related families, although
Mammalia
senses, highly evolved teeth and claws,
CLASS whiskers aid navigation and night The entire cat family is listed by the
when the from
outsidethe sharp canines. The
temperature carnassial
falls below 59° F (15° C), and most males leave the pride lightning reflexes, and camouflage hunting. The sense of smell is also Convention on International Trade
that phylum (used for minor phyla only).

teethitsarebody
sharpened molars in lowers
the into which they are born. ORDER Carnivora
in midwinter temperature to about 43° F coloration, cats are model hunters. In well developed, and in the roof in Endangered Species of Wild
fetus uterus upper and
(6° C). In some bats,lower jaws.temperatures
rectal They act like of 32°upper F (0° C) have Lions spend most of FAMILY Felidae
fact, cats are the most specialized of the of the mouth is a “smell-taste” Fauna and Flora (CITES), which
scissorsduring
been recorded and slice through hideLarger
hibernation. and animals, canine
such as their time together, hunt
SPECIES 37 organ, called the Jacobson’s regulates trade in live animals or their
PLACENTAL MAMMALS flesh,black
the American and arebear,
used doto crush bone, hibernate—they
not truly too. sleep. masseter cooperatively, and tend each mammalian flesh eaters. They are unusual
muscle organ, which detects sexual body parts. The main reason for
The fertilized egg of a placental mammal, such Their bodyIn temperature
combination with the masseter
drops only a few degrees and they other’s young.WINTER In mostHIDEAWAY
other groups,
lower individual ties are looser. Red and Arctic foxes live
in that all species appear remarkably odors. Secretions from scent this measure is habitat destruction.
as a horse, divides many times and eventually can rousemuscles, which can
more easily. be used
Related to when the
hibernation is estivation, For hedgehogs, effective glands on the cheeks and forehead, Land is converted to agricultural
becomes a fetus. As the fetus grows, the uterus jaw is almost
which is torpidity completely
during closed, they
the summer. Likeform lower
hibernation,
carnassial tooth
in groups of one adult male
camouflage is anand several vixens, but
important
similar: the differences between tigers and the domestic cat,
canine HYENA SKULL under the tail, and between the use, reducing and fragmenting the
expands in size and weight. In the horse, estivation asaves
powerful shearing
energy whentool for
foodtearing flesh.
is short. each adult hunts partalone in hibernation.
of winter a different part of the group’s for example, are surprisingly small. Cats are found throughout claws communicate information natural environment in which cats
territory. Elephant seals gather in large numbers only
pregnancy lasts about 11 months. Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas (the domestic cat is found such as age and sex. live. Many cat species require large
during breeding. The groups are made up of several
, LOWER-RANKED GROUPS
worldwide), from alpine heights to deserts. Many species live areas to maintain an adequate
TIGER
males and their respective harems of females, which
are closely guarded. in forests. All except the largest cats are expert climbers, and
Hunting techniques food supply. Cats are also hunted
SKELETON While some cats actively search for for their fur, bones, and other
several are excellent swimmers. Most cats are solitary. prey, others conceal themselves and remains for traditional oriental
separate radius and ulna
maximize flexibility await passing victims. Many employ medicines. In a few species—such
fused “wrist” a combination of these 2 methods. as the North American bobcat—the
Anatomy
In many chapters, animal groups are
bones them sharp. However, when required In either case, the cat’s fur usually overall population is stable. However,
flexible spine
SKELETON AND MOVEMENT
Predatory terrestrial carnivores have PLAY Communication Cats have a rounded face and a (during climbing, for example), they provides camouflage: a tiger’s despite intensive action to protect
physical adaptations that enable Young carnivores develop their fighting skills Carnivores communicate with each other with scent markings, relatively short muzzle (but a wide spring forward via a mechanism stripes, for example, blend in with them, many other cats, including
enables back to
bend while running them to move quickly over the ground through play. By playing together, these red visual signals, and vocalizations. Scent messages, which have gape). The large jaw muscles help similar to a jackknife. The naked tall grasses, while many forest-living the tiger and the lion, are in
divided into smaller groups, such as families.

in pursuit of prey. The spine is generally foxes learn to test another animal’s strength the advantage of being persistent, are used to define territory deliver a powerful bite, and the long pads on the soles of the feet are species are spotted, to mimic the sharp decline.
flexible, the limbs are relatively long, and without suffering painful consequences. or to find potential sexual partners. They are left by spraying canines are used for stabbing and surrounded by hair, which assists effect of sunlight through leaves.
the collarbone is reduced, maximizing the urine or leaving piles of feces, although some animals also gripping. The carnassials, modified
MARKING TERRITORY with silent stalking. The distance a cat will chase
Bears use treescheek
to leaveteeth that marks
slice bones and its quarry varies between species. Cats hunt any animal they can
mobility of the shoulders. To help increase SHARED PARENTHOOD rub scent onto objects from glands on their face, between their both scent
Senses
An introduction to each of these smaller
the length of their stride and stability, all These young slender-tailed meerkats are claws, or at the base of their tail. When animals meet face-to- GREETING POSTURES tendons,
and visual signs. Here, scentare highly developed. Cats
is being Heavier-built cats, such as tigers, catch and overpower. The big
carnivores have fused wrist bones, and dogs not necessarily the offspring of the adult face, posture, facial expression, and sound are used to pass Body language is an important form of communication for African are covered
transferred in saliva with soft
and from glands in fur, which is All cats have keen senses. Large, prefer to stalk and pounce; the cats specialize in prey larger than
MAMMALS
and cats walk on their toes (rather than the watching over them. Sharing parental duties on a wealth of information, including threats, submissions, wild dogs, which live in large packs. In this greeting ritual, adult the bear’s feet,often striped
while the or spotted,
sharp teeth and and have a forward-facing eyes enable them cheetah can use an explosive speed— themselves, and are capable of
SIBERIAN TIGER soles of the feet). is common in many carnivore societies. advances to partners, and warnings of approaching danger. dogs push their muzzles into each other’s faces. claws are beingtail that
used is haired,
to rip the bark. flexible, and usually to judge distances accurately. up to 68 mph (110 kph) for short dragging a carcass some distance
long. There are 5 digits on the front The pupils can contract to a slit or to distances. Some small cats, such as to a safe feeding spot. Smaller cats
feet and 4 on the back feet, and each
digit has a curved, retractable claw
for holding prey. The claws are
normally retracted, which helps keep
a pinhole (depending on species) in
bright light and can dilate widely for
excellent night vision. The ears are
large, mobile, and funnel-shaped
the serval, hunt in long grass, and use
“jack-in-the-box” leaps to surprise and
flush out their prey.
seek out rodents and birds—some,
such as the fishing cat, wade into
streams and scoop out fish.
sections describes common anatomical
features. Relevant aspects of reproduction
and behavior are also introduced.
CLASSIFICATION KEY arrow. The taxonomic ranks above the
group are named in the upper part of
In each animal group introduction, the table, while the number of lower d SPECIES PROFILES
a color-coded panel shows the ranks that it contains are shown below Over 2,000 wild animals are profiled in The
position in the animal kingdom of the it. In some introductions, an extra Animal Kingdom. Every profile contains
group being described. The group is Classification Note is included, to list a text summary and, in most cases, a color
identified by a white outline and an subgroups or identify areas of debate. TERRITORIAL CONFLICT
All cats are territorial and will fight if their scent
marks and vocal warnings are ignored. These male
jaguars are threatening one another, and a conflict
will ensue if neither of them gives way. The flattened
ears show fear, and dilated pupils and bared teeth
illustration and a distribution map.
indicate aggression.
LATIN NAME DATA FIELD 206 CARNIVORES CATS 207
The species’ Latin Core information is provided in summary form Puma yagouaroundi Puma concolor its fur is uniformly buff-colored. Neofelis diardi Panthera uncia Panthera onca Acinonyx jubatus CONSERVATION
name appears in at the beginning of each species entry. The Jaguarundi Puma
It makes many sounds, including
an eerily humanlike scream when
courting, but it cannot roar. Amazingly
Diard’s clouded Snow leopard Jaguar Cheetah In Namibia, in order to monitor
the effect of wildlife management
leopard
a colored band at categories vary between groups (see opposite) adaptable, the puma lives in habitats and livestock protection measures,
Length 19 – 33 in Length 23⁄4 – 51⁄4 ft Length 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft Length 4 – 51⁄2 ft Length 31⁄2 – 5 ft
(48.5 – 83.5 cm) (0.9 – 1.6 m) (0.9 – 1.25 m) (1.2 – 1.7 m) (1.1 – 1.5 m)
ranging from tropical rain forest, high some cheetahs are caught and
Tail 11 – 33 in Tail 231⁄2 – 38 in Tail 32 – 39 in Tail 171⁄2 – 32 in Tail 231⁄2 – 32 in
mountains, and conifer forest to desert. Length 28 – 41 in fit with radio collars. Following their
the beginning of
(27.5 – 59 cm) (60 – 97 cm) (70 – 105 cm) (80 – 100 cm) (44 – 80 cm) (60 – 80 cm)
Weight 61⁄2 – 17 lb Weight 75 – 160 lb Small mammals, such as mice, rats, Weight 49 – 115 lb Weight 71 – 260 lb Weight 79 – 130 lb release (below), the animal’s
Tail 23 ⁄2 – 34 in
1
(3 – 7.6 kg) (34 – 72 kg) rabbits, and hares, form the staple diet in (60 – 85 cm) (22 – 52 kg) (31 – 121 kg) (36 – 59 kg) movements are tracked.
Location S. USA to South Social unit Individual Location W. and S. North Social unit Individual many areas, as well as occasional sheep, Location C., S., and Social unit Individual Location Central America Social unit Individual Location Africa, W. Asia Social unit Individual/Pair
each entry
America America, Central America, Weight 22 – 55 lb E. Asia to N. and C. South America
Status Least concern South America Status Least concern young cattle, moose, and other livestock; (10 – 25 kg) Status Endangered Status Near threatened Status Vulnerable
the puma rarely scavenges. Births peak Location S.E. Asia Social unit Individual
from February to September. The litter Status Vulnerable
size ranges from 1 – 4 (average 2). The
Puma yagouaroundi
More mustelid than felid in overall Larger than some “big” cats, the spotted cubs are born after a gestation Resembling the leopard (see p.206) Renowned as the world’s fastest land
proportions, with a pointed snout, long puma—also called panther, cougar, of 92 – 96 days, in a den among rocks in its wide range of prey, this woolly animal, the cheetah can sprint at
body, and shortish legs, the jaguarundi or mountain lion—is probably related or in a thicket. They take solid food from furred big cat prefers crags and ridges over 62 mph
has several color forms of unpatterned more closely to smaller cats. Most of 6 – 7 weeks. in steppe, rocky shrub, and open (100 kph)
fur, from black—mainly in forests— conifer forest to altitudes of for 10 – 20
COMMON NAME
Jaguarundi
to pale gray-brown or red—in dry 16,500 ft (5,000 m). It can seconds,
long, muscular
shrubland. This cat hunts by day, rear legs, for hunt yak or asses, but most before it
often on the ground, in habitats ranging powerful leaping prey are smaller—wild sheep, begins to overheat. If
COLORATION
The species’ common

from semiarid scrub to rain forest and goats, marmots, pikas, hares, its prey can stay ahead Desert animals tend to be paler
swamp. Its main prey are birds, rodents, and birds. Breeding habits The New World’s only “big” cat, the for longer than this, it with smaller spots. The “king
rabbits, reptiles, and invertebrates. resemble similar-sized jaguar resembles the leopard (see invariably escapes. The cheetah,” from southeast
name appears below

felids, although p.206) but has rosettes with dark cheetah eats medium- Africa, has the largest
Diard’s clouded leopards range 4 – 5 cubs may centers, and is more squat and sized ungulates such spots, which appear
Length 19 – 33 in throughout Southeast Asia; those from be raised. powerful, with a large, broad head as Thomson’s gazelle, as to merge and form
the Latin name, with Sumatra and Borneo were recently and heavily muscled quarters. It well as larger antelopes and stripes on its back.
(48.5 – 83.5 cm)

determined to be a separate species. prefers a watery environment, such smaller animals such as
They have smaller, darker “cloud” short, as permanent swamps and seasonally hares. It is more social than ringed tail
alternative common
very large markings than those found on mainland stocky flooded forest, where its main prey are any other big cat except lions.
paws limbs, for
Asia. Their numbers are estimated to medium-sized mammals such as deer, Siblings leave their mother
Tail 11 – 33 in
relative to climbing
MAMMALS
MAMMALS
overall size be larger in Borneo (5,000 – 11,000) peccaries, and tapirs. Despite legal at 13 – 20 months, but may
names given in the (27.5 – 59 cm)

than Sumatra (3,000 – 7,000). They kill
a wide range of prey from monkeys to
fish and porcupines, and spend much
protection and reduced hunting for fur,
jaguars are increasingly at risk from
habitat destruction and their elimination
stay together for several
more months—indeed,
brothers may stay
text profile below of their time in trees. from cattle ranches. together for years.
Weight 61⁄2 – 17 lb Panthera pardus BLACK PANTHER CACHING IN TREES Panthera leo ROLE PLAYING ASIATIC LION
(3 – 7.6 kg) Leopard Like many species of cats and other mammals, leopards may exhibit melanism. Lion Retracted claws and nonexposed
Location S. USA to South Length 3 – 61⁄4 ft

As a result of this genetic change (mutation), the skin and fur contain large
amounts of the dark pigment, melanin. Length 51⁄4 – 81⁄4 ft
teeth show that these 2-year-old
lionesses are “play-fighting” to
America Social unit Individual (0.9 – 1.9 m)

Tail 24 – 43 in
(60 – 110 cm)
Most common in moist, dense forests,
melanic leopards, known as “black
(1.6 – 2.5 m)
Tail 24 – 39 ft
(61 – 100 cm)
develop skills for the hunt. The
tussle helps to determine whether
LOCATION Weight 46 – 160 lb panthers,” were once viewed Weight 280 – 550 lb a lioness will be one of those who
Status Least concern Location W., C., S., E.,

(21 – 71 kg)
Social unit Individual
as a separate species.
In deserts, leopards Location Africa, S. Asia
(125 – 250 kg)
Social unit Group
chase and direct prey—or one
who carries out the ambush and kill.
Color maps indicate the

and S.E. Asia, Africa (Gir Forest)
Status Vulnerable are pale yellow; Status Vulnerable Play also helps to establish relative
in grass, they are social status within the pride.
rosettes and
deeper yellow. spots may be The leopard is an adept climber
world distribution for Few other wild cats are as varied in

appearance or in prey preference
faintly visible and uses its immense strength
to drag its prey up into trees, for
immediate consumption or for
Unique among felids, lions form
close-knit, long-term social groups.
uniform
tawny coat
thick mane for protection
each species with as the leopard, or have a

wider geographical range.
Its varied diet includes
caching (hiding for future use).
In the branches, it can eat
undisturbed, and the meat
In females, these are called prides, and
average 4 – 6 related adults and their
cubs. Females tend to give birth at the
further details given More mustelid than felid in overall

small creatures, such
as dung beetles, and
large mammals many
is safe from scavenging
hyenas and jackals.
same time and suckle each other’s
young. Prides occupy home ranges
and members cooperate to hunt large
in the caption below times its own weight, such

HEAD AND SHOULDERS
prey such as zebra, wildebeest, impala, The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo
proportions, with a pointed snout, long

as antelopes. A large victim and buffalo. Individuals also forage persica) survives only in the Gir
The leopard’s large head houses
may provide enough food for powerful jaw muscles to bite, alone for small rodents, hares, and Forest region of northwest India,
2 weeks, although such kills are kill, and dismember prey. The reptiles. Adult males live alone, or in with a probable population of about
usually made about every 3 days, shoulders and forelimbs are coalitions of usually 2 – 3 unrelated 350. It tends to be smaller than the
body, and shortish legs, the jaguarundi twice as often for a female with cubs.
The average litter of 2 is born after
90 – 105 days’ gestation, and is cared
also heavily muscled, to
hold down victims
and drag or haul
members or 4 – 5 relatives (originating
from the same pride). A coalition
defends a large area against other
African lion, with a fold of skin
along the central underside
of the belly; males have
has several color forms of unpatterned

for by the mother. Weaned by 3 prey into trees. male coalitions, and holds mating shorter manes. Prides
months, they stay with her for a year or rights over prides within it, but this are also smaller,
HABITAT SYMBOLS
pale-centered
more, and siblings may associate for solid black rosettes on body tenure generally lasts only 2 – 3 years. usually 2 related
longer. Adaptable to human presence, patches and pale females and young.
fur, from black—mainly in forests—

spots on limbs background
These define the

leopards hunt to within a few and head MALE AND FEMALE
color on
miles of big cities, but numbers underparts ringed tail The lion averages 400 lb (180 kg) against the
are falling due to various lioness’s 280 lb (125 kg). The male’s skull is
environment in to pale gray-brown or red—in dry

human activities. also significantly larger than that of the female.
204 CATS 205

which the animal shrubland. This cat hunts by day, Panthera tigris CONSERVATION
is found (see opposite often on the ground, in habitats ranging YOUNG LIFE
A young tiger is dependent on its mother for food
Tiger
Length 41⁄2 – 91⁄4 ft
Between 1900 and 2000, tiger
numbers fell from an estimated
100,000 to 3,500—approximately
for key). Additional FEATURE BOXES

for the first year or so of its life. By the time it is (1.4 – 2.8 m)
2 years old, it will have enough power, strength, the figure today. After decades of
Tail 28 – 43 in
from semiarid scrub to rain forest and

and experience to be able to catch prey for itself. (72 – 109 cm) poaching, habitat loss, and loss
It may start breeding in its fourth or fifth year, Weight 165 – 720 lb of prey, scattered populations
information may Profiles may include

and lives on average until the age of (75 – 325 kg) survive only in eastern Russia,
8 – 10. TIGER IN ACTION Location S. and E. Asia Social unit Individual China, Sumatra, and in southern
Tigers in the Ranthambhore reserve in northwest Asia from Vietnam to India.
swamp. Its main prey are birds, rodents,

Status Endangered
India have been known to charge into lakes after Although protected in most areas,
be given in the text features on anatomy

samba deer and become fully submerged with tigers are still killed to meet the
their prey. The tigers in this area have also been demand for bones and body
reported to have killed and eaten crocodiles.
The tiger is the largest member of the parts, which are used in oriental
rabbits, reptiles, and invertebrates.

cat family, and its orange coat with medicines. Programs to save
profile below or species variation black stripes and white markings is

instantly recognizable. Its size, coat
color, and markings vary according to
the tiger have met with mixed
results, with limited successes set
against a trend of overall decline.
(blue box), behavior

subspecies. Although 8 subspecies are Radio collars (see below) and
recognized historically, 3 have become antipoaching patrols give these
extinct since the 1950s. And out of the vulnerable predators at least some
5 remaining, 3 are critically endangered protection in the wild.
(yellow box), or and 2 are endangered. The geographical

distribution of the tiger once extended
as far west as eastern Turkey, but it is
conservation (green box)

now restricted to pockets of southern
and eastern Asia. The tiger’s habitat
TEXT PROFILE varies widely, from the tropical forests

of Southeast Asia to the coniferous
woodlands of Siberia, but its basic
Each entry has a

requirements are dense cover, access
to water, and sufficient large prey.
MAMMALS
MAMMALS
Hunting mainly by night, it takes mostly

deer and wild pigs, and cattle in
description of the some regions, but it also
FEATURE
eats smaller animals,
including monkeys, birds,
most characteristic
reptiles, and fish, and
.
readily feeds on carrion.
Tigers will also attack
and noteworthy PROFILES young rhinoceroses and

elephants. They may
eat up to 88 lb white
long,
sensitive
whiskers
(40 kg) of meat at underside
features of Species of particular a time and return

to a large kill for 3 – 6
days. Tigers are usually
solitary, but are not
sharp,
retractable claws
interest are given a

DISTINCTIVE COAT
the species
necessarily antisocial. A
The Bengal tiger, Panthera tigris tigris, the most common of the
male is occasionally seen subspecies, exhibits the classic tiger coat: deep orange with white
resting or feeding with a undersides, cheeks, and eye areas, and distinctive black markings.
female and cubs, and tigers Tiger stripes, which range from brown to jet-black, vary in number,
double-page entry.
may also travel in groups. width, and tendency to split. No 2 tigers have the same markings.
LIVING TIGER SUBSPECIES
ILLUSTRATIONS
The surviving subspecies of tiger differ
These consist of a markedly from one another. In general,

animals from northern regions are a
paler orange and have fewer stripes.
Most entries include profile with feature

They also have a much longer and
thicker coat in winter to protect them
from the cold.
a color photograph or
artwork of the
boxes, a spectacular,
species. The animals close-up photograph, SUMATRAN TIGER
The smallest and darkest of the SIBERIAN YOUNGSTERS
and, in some cases,

tiger subspecies is the Sumatran tiger, The Siberian tiger, Panthera tigris altaica, is the largest
pictured are normally

Panthera tigris sumatrae. Only about subspecies, and the lightest in color, with the longest
600 are thought to exist today. coat. Its numbers may be as low as 150 – 200.
adult males an action sequence.

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INTRODUCTION
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Animals form the largest of the natural

world’s kingdoms. Although they evolved
after other living things, they are now the
dominant form of life on earth. Among
the attributes that have made them so
successful are the abilities to adapt their
behavior and to move. This section looks
at the features that set them apart from
other life forms, how they have evolved,
their often complex responses to the
world around them, and the way biologists
classify them. It also examines the many
threats they face.
14 WHAT ARE ANIMALS?
WHAT ARE ANIMALS? invertebrates

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alive today. The vast majority

With almost 2 million species identified to date, and even more than that of species are
awaiting discovery, animals are the most varied living things on the planet. invertebrates, or vertebrates
animals without backbones.
For over a billion years, they have adapted to the changing world around them,
Unlike chordates, INVERTEBRATE
developing a vast array of different lifestyles in the struggle to survive. At one invertebrates often have very MAJORITY
extreme, animals include fast-moving predators, such as sharks, big cats, and little in common with each Chordates make
other, apart from their lack up less than
birds of prey; at the other, there are the inconspicuous sorters and sifters of the of a backbone. The giant 3 percent of the
animal world’s leftovers, living unseen in the soil or on the deep seabed. Together, squid, the largest invertebrate, world’s animals.
can measure over 52 ft (16 m) The remaining
they make up the animal kingdom—a vast collection of living things that are linked long, but it is very much an 97 percent are
by a shared biology and that occupy a dominant place in life on Earth. exception. Most invertebrates invertebrates.
KINGDOMS OF LIFE
Characteristics of animals spectrum are microscopic organisms—rotifers Biologists classify all living things into overall groups,
Most animals can move faster than other and tardigrades are only 1⁄500 in (0.05 mm) long— called kingdoms. The members of each kingdom
kinds of organisms. Although not all animals and submicroscopic flies and beetles about are alike in fundamental ways, such as in the nature
move from place to place, or locomote, the 1
⁄125 in (0.2 mm) long. These animals are so tiny of their cells or in the way they obtain energy. In
combination of muscles and nerves of animals that their weight is negligible. Even so, they the most widely used system of classification there
means that they can respond quickly to the possess all the body systems needed for were 6 kingdoms, of which the animal kingdom was
world around them and move at least parts of survival. the largest. However, changes to this classification
their bodies by contracting their muscle fibers. Different body sizes allow animals to live have split the protoctists into multiple kindoms,
Most important of all, they get the energy they in different ways. Whales have few natural reflecting a deep-rooted diversity that encompasses
need by taking in food. predators; and the same is true of elephants, plantlike, funguslike, and animallike forms, many
Animals are highly complex and remarkably the largest land animals. Their massive bodies of which are single-celled. An altogether different
responsive, compared with other forms of life. are highly energy-efficient because they process classification has also been proposed, which groups
INTRODUCTION
Even the simplest animals react quickly to food on such a large scale. However, they take all life into 3 “superkingdoms”: Archaebacteria,
changes around them, shrinking away from a long time to reach maturity, which means they Eubacteria, and Eukaryota.
potential danger or reaching out for food. are slow to reproduce. Insects, on the other
Animals with well-developed nervous systems hand, are easy prey for many animals, and their ANIMALS
can go much further: they can learn from small size means that their bodies are not as Animals are multicellular
experience—an ability that is unique to the energy-efficient as those of large animals. But, organisms that obtain
animal world. since they can breed rapidly when conditions energy by ingesting food. All
are favorable, their numbers can climb at a animals are capable of moving at
The scale of animal life prodigious rate.
least some parts of themselves,
and many can move from place to place.
The world’s largest living animals, baleen
whales, can be up to 82 ft (25 m) long and weigh PLANTS
132 tons (120 tonnes). At the other end of the Chordates and invertebrates Plants are multicellular organisms that grow by
Almost all the world’s largest and most familiar harnessing the energy in light. Through a process
STATIC LIFE animals are vertebrates—animals with internal called photosynthesis, they use this energy to
Sea squirts are skeletons made of cartilage or bone. They build up organic matter from simple materials,
creating most of the food on which animals rely.
typical “sessile” include the fastest animals on land, in water,
animals: they spend and in the air, and also many species with FUNGI
their adult lives fixed elaborate behavior and highly developed
to a solid surface. brains. Vertebrates themselves belong to Most fungi are multicellular. They collect
energy from organic matter, which they do
The young, which a group of animals called chordates, which not ingest but break down externally using
resemble tadpoles, share a common ancestry stretching back microscopic threads that spread throughout
can move freely, millions of years. However, despite leading their food. Many fungi are too small to be
enabling sea squirts the animal kingdom in many fields, chordates seen, but some form large fruiting bodies.
to spread. make up a tiny minority of the animal species PROTISTS
Protists are single-celled organisms that typically live

in water, or in permanently moist habitats. Their cells
are larger and more complex than those of bacteria.
Some protists behave like plants, collecting energy
from sunlight; others, known as protozoa, are more
like animals, acquiring energy by ingesting food.
MINIATURE ANIMALS
BACTERIA
Microscopic tardigrades (also
called water bears) move about Together with Archaea, bacteria are the simplest fully
on tiny legs. Their behavior is independent living things. Their cells are prokaryotic,
meaning they lack organelles—the specialized structures
as complex as that of animals
that more complex cells use for carrying out different tasks.
thousands of times their size. Bacteria gather energy from various sources, including
organic and inorganic matter, and sunlight.
ARCHAEA
OCEAN GIANTS Single-celled archaeans used to be classified among

bacteria, and like them they lack cellular organelles. But
A humpback whale bursts out of details of their chemical makeup link them more closely
the sea. Animals this large depend to higher organisms. Many archaeans are extremophiles:
on aquatic habitats because water they are adapted to live in extreme environments, such
can support most of their weight. as hot volcanic springs and super-saline lakes.
WHAT ARE ANIMALS? 15
SUPPORT SYSTEMS fluid prevents leech’s muscles work so slowly that they find it difficult that capture food, digest it, or reproduce. They
Many invertebrates—such body from collapsing to move. Birds and mammals, on the other hand, dangle beneath a giant, gas-filled polyp that acts
as leeches—have no hard are barely affected by this kind of temperature as the colony’s float.
body parts; to keep their change. Their internal heat and good insulation
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shape they rely on the enable many to remain active even when
pressure of their body fluids. temperatures fall below freezing. Fuel for life
Simple chordates, which LEECH Animals obtain their energy from organic
include lancelets, have matter, or food. They break food up by digesting
a strengthening rod, or notochord Individuals and colonies it through chemical reactions using oxygen,
notochord, that runs along Physically, most chordates function as separate and then they absorb the substances that are
the length of their bodies. units, even though they may live together in released. These substances are carried into
Vertebrates, which are more LANCELET families or larger groups. In the invertebrate world, the animal’s cells. This process—called cellular
advanced chordates, are the it is not unusual for animals to be permanently respiration—is like a highly controlled form of
internal
only animals that have skeleton linked together, forming clusters called colonies. burning, with food acting as the fuel.
internal skeletons Colonies often look and behave like single animals. The majority of animals are either herbivores,
made of bone, Most are static, but some—particularly ones that which eat plants, or carnivores, which eat other
and/or cartilage. live in the sea—can move about. Colonial species animals. Carnivores include predators, which hunt
include some of the world’s most remarkable and kill prey, and parasites, which feed in or on
invertebrates. Pyrosomes, for example, form the living bodies of other animals. There are also
colonies shaped like test tubes that are large omnivores, which eat both animal and plant food,
BONY FISH
enough for a diver to enter. But, in ecological and scavengers, which feed on dead matter—
are tiny, and many live in inaccessible habitats, from decaying leaves and corpses to fur and
which explains why they are still poorly known even bones.
compared with chordates. All animals, regardless of lifestyle, ultimately
provide food for other animals. All are connected
by food chains, which pass food—and its energy—
Warm- and cold-blooded animals from one species to another. However, individual
Most animals are cold-blooded (or ectothermic), food chains are rarely more than 5 or 6 links long.
which means that their body temperature is This is because up to 90 percent of an animal’s
determined by that of their surroundings. Birds energy cannot be passed on: it is used up in
and mammals are warm-blooded (or endothermic), making the animal’s own body work.
which means that they generate their own heat
INTRODUCTION
and maintain a constant internal temperature
regardless of the conditions outside. CARNIVORE 3
This difference in body temperature has some The food chain ends with a “top predator”—
far-reaching effects on the way animals live, in this case, an osprey. When it dies, the
energy in its body is used by scavengers,
because animal bodies work best when they such as insects and bacteria.
are warm. Cold-blooded animals, such as
reptiles, amphibians, and insects, operate very
effectively in warm conditions, but they slow
down if the temperature drops. They can absorb LIVING TOGETHER
some heat by basking in sunshine, but if the This branching coral is covered with a living “skin” that connects CARNIVORE 2
temperature falls below about 50º F (10º C) their its individual animals, or polyps. The polyps are in constant contact The perch lives almost exclusively on
with each other but otherwise lead separate lives. Each has a set other animals. A perch feeding on dragonfly
nymphs is a second-level carnivore, receiving food
HEAT CONTROL of stinging tentacles and catches its own food.
that has already been through 2 other animals.
A basking butterfly
soaks up the sunshine. terms, the most important colonial animals are
By basking, or by hiding reef-building corals, which create complex
in the shade, butterflies structures that provide havens for a range of other
and other cold-blooded animals. In reef-building corals, the members of CARNIVORE 1
animals can adjust their each colony are usually identical. But in some Dragonfly nymphs are typical first-level carnivores,
body temperature. Even colonial species, the members have different using a mixture of speed and stealth to hunt small
prey. Tadpoles are a good food source
so, they have difficulty shapes designed for different tasks. For example, and often feature in their diet.
coping with extreme the Portuguese man-of-war—an oceanic drifter
temperatures, especially that has a highly potent sting—looks like a jellyfish
severe cold. but consists of separate animals, called polyps,
HERBIVORE
During their early lives, tadpoles use their jaws to
feed on water plants. By digesting the plant food, and
therefore turning it into animal tissue, they change
plant food into a form that carnivores can use.
PLANT
By capturing the energy in sunlight, plants
transform it into food to drive life on earth.
In this chain, waterweed is the first link,
creating food that can then be passed on.
FOOD CHAIN
INSULATION This is a typical 5-stage food chain from a freshwater habitat.
In sub-zero conditions, superb insulation keeps Food and energy move upward through the chain, being passed
the body temperature of these young emperor on every time one organism eats another. The chain ends when
penguins at an almost constant 104º F (40º C). it reaches an animal that has no natural predators. The energy in
the final animal’s body is ultimately passed on to scavengers and
to recyclers, known as decomposers, many of which live in soil.
16 EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
becomes split up into 2 or more isolated groups,
which are kept apart either by physical barriers,
such as seas and mountain ranges, or by changes
in behavior. If these groups remain separate for
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long enough, they evolve their own characteristic

Like all living things, animals undergo changes as each new generation succeeds adaptations and become so different that they
the one before. These changes are usually so slight that they are very difficult to can no longer interbreed.
Speciation is difficult to observe because it
see, but over thousands or millions of years, they can completely alter the way
occurs so slowly, but evidence of it is not hard to
animals look and also the way they behave. This process of change is called find. Many animals—from butterflies to freshwater
evolution. It allows animals to exploit new opportunities and to adapt to changes fish—show distinct regional differences. In time,
these local forms, or subspecies, can become
that take place in the world around them. Evolution works by modifying existing species in their own right.
characteristics, usually through a series of extremely small mutations. The result
of this is that every animal is a living store of evolutionary history—one that helps Extinction
to show how different species are related. Extinction is a natural feature of evolution because
for some species to succeed, others must fail.
Since life began, about 99 percent of the Earth’s
species have disappeared and, on at least 5
Animal adaptation Natural selection operates all the time, invisibly occasions, huge numbers have died out in a
Evolution is made possible by the variations screening all the subtle variations that come about relatively short time. The most recent of these
that exist within animals, and it occurs mainly when animals reproduce. For example, for many mass extinctions, about 65 million years ago,
because animals compete with each other for animals, camouflage is a valuable aid to survival. swept away the dinosaurs and many other forms
limited resources, such as space and food. In this Natural selection ensures that any improvements of life. However, despite such catastrophes, the
competition, some characteristics prove to be in an animal’s camouflage—a slight change in
more useful than others, which means that their color, pattern, or behavior—are passed on to
owners are more likely to thrive, and to produce the next generation, increasing its chances
the most young. Animals with less useful features of survival and therefore its chances of
producing young.
BLENDING IN Adaptations such as camouflage
Most owls have brown plumage, which last only as long as they
INTRODUCTION
helps them hide in trees. However, the are useful: if an animal’s

snowy owl, from the treeless Arctic lifestyle changes, the path GOING, GOING, GONE
tundra, is mainly white— that evolution follows changes, too. Declared extinct in August 2007, the Chinese river dolphin lived
an adaptation that increases This has happened many times with only in the Yangtze river basin. Increasing human activity caused
its chances of birds: some lineages have evolved the the population to decline drastically from 400 in the 1980s to 100
catching food and power of flight only to lose it when they in the mid-1990s. None has been found in recent surveys.
raising young. take up life on land.
total number of living species has, until recently,
followed a generally upward trend. Today, the
Species and speciation extinction rate is increasing rapidly as a result
A species is any group of animals that has the of human interference in natural ecosystems.
potential to interbreed and that, under normal Primates, tropical birds, and many amphibians are
circumstances, does not breed with any other particularly threatened. For the foreseeable future,
group. Speciation is one of the evolutionary this decline is set to continue because evolution
processes that brings about new species. It generates new species far more slowly than the
TAWNY OWL SNOWY OWL usually occurs when an existing species current rate of extinction.
face more difficulties and find it harder to breed.

The least successful animals are therefore Convergence
gradually weeded out, while those with “winning” Unrelated animals often develop very noticeable
characteristics become widespread. This similarities. For example, sharks and dolphins
weeding-out process is called natural selection. are fundamentally very different, but both have
streamlined bodies with an upright dorsal fin—
A HISTORY OF LIFE a shape that gives them speed and stability
Geologists divide earth’s history into periods characterized by GERMAN FORM JAPANESE FORM underwater—while moles and marsupial moles
major physical changes, such as bursts of volcanic activity, SPECIATION share a range of adaptations for life underground.
collisions between continents, or alterations in climate. Many The Apollo butterfly is a highly variable species. Many forms are Amphisbaenians and caecilians also look very
of these periods have ended in worldwide mass extinctions. restricted to specific parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Since the similar, although the former are reptiles and the
For each period described below, the date shown indicates Apollo often lives on mountains, its different forms tend to remain latter are highly unusual amphibians. Such
the period’s end. apart. In time, these forms could evolve into new species. similarities are the result of convergent evolution,
PRECAMBRIAN CAMBRIAN ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN DEVONIAN CARBONIFEROUS

800 This vast expanse of geological The start of the Cambrian During this period, life was Silurian In Devonian times, jawed and jawless fish During this period, which
time stretches from when the period was marked by an still confined to the sea. Animals times saw the diversified rapidly, which is why the period is is also called the “Coal Age,”
700 continents first formed to when extraordinary explosion of included the earliest crustaceans evolution of known as the “Age of Fishes.” Many fish lived a warm global climate
NUMBER OF FAMILIES
600 animals with hard body parts first animal life in the seas. and some of the earliest jawless the first fish in freshwater, where warm conditions and encouraged the growth of
appeared in the fossil record. Life Cambrian animals included fish. Trilobites (arthropods with jaws and falling water levels encouraged the evolution forests on swampy ground—
500 emerged near the beginning of mollusks, echinoderms, and with a 3-lobed body) were of giant sea of primitive lungs. As a result, amphibians home to amphibians and
Archean Eon, more than 4 billion arthropods. These were numerous, as were long-shelled scorpions— evolved, becoming the first vertebrates flying insects, including
400
years ago. The date for the first among the first creatures to nautiloids (predatory mollusks relatives to live on land. On land, insects became dragonflies with wingspans
300 animals is less certain: being have hard, easily fossilized with sucker-bearing arms). of today’s widespread, and the first true forests of up to 231⁄2 in (60 cm). In the
soft-bodied, they left few traces, body parts. By the end of this Like the Cambrian period, the arachnids. The began to form. The Devonian ended with sea, ammonoids (mollusks
200 although their existence is evident period, all the major divisions of Ordovician ended in a mass first land plants the third mass extinction, which killed up to related to today’s nautiluses),
100 from fossils of burrows and tracks animal life, or phyla, that exist extinction, probably caused appeared. 70 percent of animal species. were common.
(about one billion years old). today had been established. by climatic changes.
0
YEARS AGO (MILLIONS): 542 488 444 416 359 299
PALAEOZOIC ERA
EVOLUTION 17
a process in which natural selection comes up MIXED BLESSING

with the same set of adaptations to a particular Oxpeckers eat ticks and other parasites that live on
way of life, reshaping body parts or whole animals the skin of large animals, but they also feed on blood from
until they outwardly look the same. Convergence is wounds—a habit that is less helpful to their hosts.
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responsible for a whole series of striking similarities

in the animal kingdom. It can make the task of cannot survive without
tracing evolution extremely difficult, which is each other. By contrast, a
why the theories regarding animal classification commensal partnership—such
often change. as that between remoras and their
host fish (see p.522)—is one in
which one species gains but the
other neither gains nor loses.
Partnerships may appear to
be mutually obliging, but each
partner is driven purely by
EURASIAN MOLE
self-interest. If one partner
can tip the balance in its
MARSUPIAL MOLE
favor, natural selection will
SIMILAR SHAPES lead it to do so. The ultimate
Apart from their difference in color, Eurasian moles and marsupial outcome is parasitism, in which
moles are alike in many ways. However, they are not at all closely one animal, the parasite, lives on or inside
related; their similarities are a result of convergence. another, entirely at the host’s expense.
Animal partnerships Biogeography

Over millions of years, animals have evolved The present-day distribution of animals is the
complex partnerships with each other and with combined result of many factors. Among them Madagascar, which have been isolated from the
other forms of life. In one common form of are continental drift and volcanic activity, which rest of the world for millions of years. Until humans
partnership, called mutualism, both species constantly reshape the surface of the earth. By arrived, their land-based animals lived in total
benefit from the arrangement. Examples are splitting up groups of animals, and creating seclusion, unaffected by competitors from outside.
oxpeckers and large mammals, and corals and completely new habitats, these geological The result is a whole range of indigenous species,
microscopic algae. Many partnerships are loose processes have had a profound impact on animal such as kangaroos and lemurs, which are found
INTRODUCTION
ones but, as with pollinating insects and plants, life. One of the most important effects can be nowhere outside their native homes.
some are so highly evolved that the 2 partners seen on remote islands, such as Australia and Animals are separated when continents drift
apart, and they are brought together when they
collide. The distribution of animals is evidence of
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION such events long after they occur. For example,
The variations that natural selection works on are often difficult to see. Australasia and Southeast Asia became close
One herring, for example, looks very much like another, while starlings neighbors long ago, but their wildlife remains
in a flock are almost impossible to tell apart. This is because entirely different: it is divided by “Wallace’s line,”
natural selection operates on a huge range of features an invisible boundary that indicates where the
among many individuals in a species. However, when continents came together.
animals are bred in controlled conditions, their hidden
variations are very easy to bring out. Animal breeders
rigorously concentrate on the reproduction of
particular features, such as a specific size or
color, and by selecting only those animals with
the desired features they can exaggerate those YELLOW-TAILED
features with remarkable speed. This process, AFRICAN TETRA
called artificial selection, is responsible for

all the world’s domesticated animals
and all cultivated plants.
FAMILY LIKENESS AFRICAN CHARACINS

All domesticated dogs are descended
SOUTH AMERICAN CHARACINS
from the gray wolf. Through artificial
selection, individual breeds can be SPLIT BY CONTINENTAL DRIFT SOUTH AMERICAN
PIRANHA
established in a very short time. The characin family—tropical freshwater fishes
including tetras and piranhas—evolved where
CHIHUAHUA GRAY WOLF South America and Africa were once joined and
so are now split across the two continents.
PERMIAN TRIASSIC JURASSIC CRETACEOUS PALEOGENE NEOGENE QUARTERNARY

Reptiles became the The Triassic period marks During this period, reptiles strengthened The Cretaceous period saw rapid evolution in As the Grasslands This period
dominant land animals. the beginning of the “Age of their position as the dominant form of flowering plants and in animals that could use Earth cooled replaced has seen
The continents formed Dinosaurs,” when reptiles animal life. They included a wide range of them as food. But the most striking feature of this and dried, forests in many abrupt
a single landmass. dominated life on Earth. They plant- and meat-eating species. There was period was the rise of the most gigantic land rainforests continental changes
The period ended with included flying pterosaurs, a rich variety of vegetation and, toward animals that have ever lived. They were all retreated to interiors. North in climate.
the mass extinction— swimming forms such as the end of the Jurassic, flowering plants dinosaurs, and they included immense plant-eating the equator and South Mammals
probably from climate nothosaurs and ichthyosaurs, appeared, creating new opportunities for sauropods, perhaps weighing up to 88 tons (80 and mammals America joined, have become
change and volcanic and the first true dinosaurs. animals—particularly pollinating insects. tonnes), as well as colossal 2-legged carnivores, diversified to disrupting supreme, and
activity—of over 75 Early mammals also existed, Birds gradually evolved from dinosaurs. The such as Tyrannosaurus, and its even bigger take over from warm ocean humans have
percent of land species but with reptiles in the first known bird, Archaeopteryx, probably relative, Carcharodontosaurus. Toward the end of victims of the currents and become the
and over 90 percent ascendant they made up took to the air over 150 million years ago. the Cretaceous, dinosaurs were already in decline, Cretaceous leading to the dominant
of marine species. only a minor part of Earth’s but they were wiped out by a mass extinction that extinction formation of form of life.
land-based fauna. also erased many other forms of life. event. polar ice caps.
251 200 145 65 23 2.6 PRESENT

MESOZOIC ERA CENOZOIC ERA
18 CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
the aardvark family contains just one. At the other
extreme, in the insect world, the weevil family
currently contains 55,000 species, and there are
probably many more. Not all animals fit neatly into
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groups that Linnaeus originally devised and so,

Nearly 2 million kinds of animals have been identified by scientists, and over 2 centuries of study, taxonomists have
thousands more are discovered every year. The real total may be 10 times this created a wide array of intermediate levels. These
include superfamilies, infraclasses, suborders, and
number, which means that the task of locating and identifying all the world’s
subphyla, each fitting into the hierarchy at different
animals will never be complete. To make sense of this bewildering diversity, points. At a much finer level, many species are
biologists use classification—a system that works like a gigantic filing system of divided into variants called subspecies—the
milksnake, for example, has about 24, each with its
all the past and present life on our planet. In classification, the entire living world own distinctive markings and geographic range.
is divided into groups, known as taxa. Each type of animal is given a unique These intermediate levels do not mean that
Linnaeus’s system does not work. Rather, it simply
scientific name, and is placed with its closest relatives, reflecting the path that reflects the fact that classification levels are really
evolution is thought to have followed. convenient labels, rather than things that have a
physical existence of their own. The only category
that really exists is the species, and even this level
can be difficult to define. Traditionally, a species
Principles of classification the genus Felis, which includes most of the world’s is defined as a group of living things that breed
Scientific classification dates back over 300 years, smaller cats. At a glance, this shows that there are exclusively with their own kind to produce fertile
to the work of John Ray (1627–1705). He classified differences between tigers and wild cats, in the young. This works well enough with many animals,
plants and animals, using names that described way they have evolved as well as in their size. but does not always hold true.
features such as leaf shape. He also realized the
importance of species, an idea that is still key to
classification today. In the 18th century, another Classification levels Gathering evidence
botanist—Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)—laid the In Linnaean classification, the species level is the Identifying which group an animal belongs to
foundations of modern classification by devising basic starting point. Species are organized into is vital to the classification process, and anatomical
classification hierarchies and 2-part scientific groups of increasing size, starting with genera and features play a key part. They can be very useful
names. Like Ray, Linnaeus worked long before working upward through families, orders, classes, in tracing the path of evolution, often showing how
the discovery of evolution. He saw species as and phyla, and then into kingdoms and domains, body parts, such as limbs or teeth, have been
INTRODUCTION
fixed, with unique shapes and lifestyles that were which are the largest groups of all. developed and modified for different ways of life.
part of a divine plan. These groups work like flexible folders, and even The limbs of 4-legged vertebrates are one of the
At first sight, Linnaeus’s binomial names may equivalent levels can vary enormously in size. The best-known examples of this kind of evolutionary
seem cumbersome, even though they are far more cat family, for example, contains 37 species, while improvization. The basic limb pattern, dating back
concise than the ones that were used before. They
have 2 immense advantages. Unlike common
names, they are unique to a particular species and KINGDOM Animalia
they act like signposts, showing exactly where a A kingdom is an overall division The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular
species fits into life as a whole. containing organisms that work in organisms that obtain energy by eating food.
The study of classification, known as taxonomy, fundamentally similar ways. Most have nerves and muscles, and are mobile.
has rules for the way scientific names are devised
and used. Each species has a genus name and a
specific name by which it can be identified. The PHYLUM Chordata
tiger, for example, is Panthera tigris, showing that A phylum is a major subdivision of a Animals of the phylum Chordata have a
its closest relatives are other members of the kingdom, and it contains one or more strengthening rod or notochord running the
genus Panthera—the lion, the leopard, and the classes and their subgroups. length of their bodies, for all or part of their lives.
jaguar. The wild cat, on the other hand, belongs to
CLASS Mammalia
A class is a major subdivision of a phylum, The class Mammalia contains chordates that are
and it contains one or more orders and warm-blooded, have hair, and suckle their young.
their subgroups. The majority of them give birth to live young.
ORDER Carnivora
An order is a major subdivision of a class, The order Carnivora contains mammals that have
and it contains one or more families and teeth specialized for biting and shearing. Many of
their subgroups. them, including the tiger, live primarily on meat.
FAMILY Felidae
A family is a subdivision of an order, The family Felidae contains carnivores with short
PHYLUM Chordata
and it contains one or more genera skulls and well-developed claws. In most cases,
CLASS Mammalia and their subgroups. the claws are retractable.
ORDER Carnivora
FAMILY Felidae GENUS PANTHERA
SPECIES Panthera tigris A genus is a subdivision of a family, and The genus Panthera contains large cats that have
it contains one or more species and their a specialized larynx with elastic ligaments. Unlike
TIGER CLASSIFICATION subgroups. other cats, they can roar as well as purr.
In this book, panels such as the one above are used to identify
the position of animal groups in the taxonomic hierarchy. The
larger panel on the right defines the various taxonomic ranks, SPECIES PANTHERA TIGRIS
starting at the top with the kingdom (one of the highest ranks) A species is a group of similar The tiger is the only member of the genus
and ending with the species. Taking the tiger as an example, individuals that are able to interbreed Panthera that has a striped coat when adult.
it also shows how a particular animal’s physical characteristics in the wild. There are several varieties, or subspecies.
are used to determine its place in the classification system.
CLASSIFICATION 19
SUPERFICIALLY SIMILAR
MICRO-ANIMALS mouth cone Bats and birds both have similar
A large part of the animal kingdom consists of animals that adaptations for flight, such as wings
are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Some kinds, such and a lightweight skeleton. However, they
are not directly related; bats are mammals
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as the tardigrades and rotifers, are almost always microscopic,

while others have close relatives that are much easier to see. and birds have a separate ancestry that
Whatever their size, most have a clearly recognizable body plan, stylets originates from among the dinosaurs.
surrounding
which can be used in their classification. However, occasionally, mouth cone
a micro- animal appears that does not fit any recognized group.
One example is the phylum Loricifera, which was added in the digestive canal
late 20th century. features, such as the
reproductive way a single cell
organs
SAMPLING A STREAM divides when a new
Aquatic habitats often teem animal starts to take
with tiny animals, which can shape. They also include
be trapped with ultrafine nets. A NEW FORM OF LIFE vestigial organs that have
Many are straightforward to Loriciferans were first described in 1983. lost their original function
classify, but larval forms can Measuring about 1⁄25 in (1 mm) long, they over time, and become smaller
cause problems—in the live in marine sediments, and have a as a result. Among them are the
past, they have sometimes mouth surrounded by sharp stylets, or hind limb bones of some snakes
been classified as species spines. They probably live worldwide. that play no part in movement,
in their own right. but indicate a 4-legged ancestry.
Similarity does not always mean genetic
relationship. Convergence (p.16) happens when
over 300 million years, is built around 3 main unrelated species evolve similar adaptations to
sets of bones: a single bone near the body, similar ways of life—such as the wings of flying bats
humerus radius 2 bones farther out, and 5 sets of smaller and birds. Convergence can sometimes obscure
bones at the limb’s farthest point. As 4-legged genetic relationships—especially within families
ulna digits vertebrates spread from the water to the land and or genera. But when examined in more detail,
CHIMPANZEE ARM air, their limbs became very different in shape and fundamental biological differences can reveal
size, and in the way they worked, however, the the true pattern of the evolutionary tree and how
humerus underlying pattern of bones was retained, making species have evolved from separate branches.
INTRODUCTION
radius
it an identifying feature that remains to this day. In extreme cases, convergence can make
Because this pattern is unlikely to have evolved the relationships between organisms extremely
digits
more than once, it provides important evidence difficult to unravel. A record of the past is
DOLPHIN FLIPPER that these animals evolved from a shared ancestor. built into every living thing in the form of DNA.
ulna Since the 1990s, technological advances in
both computing and DNA extraction have
ARMS AND FLIPPERS Conflicting clues helped explain convergence and many other
A human arm and a dolphin’s flipper look very different in life, but Taxonomy is rarely straightforward, because questions. By studying the similarities and
they contain the same arrangement of bones. This similarity is evolution provides a mix of useful and confusing differences in genetic material, relationships
strong evidence that chimpanzees (and humans) and dolphins clues. Useful ones include the underlying patterns between different organisms can be established
evolved from a common ancestor. of bones or body segments, and microscopic regardless of their appearance.
NEW SPECIES
Every year, the world’s taxonomists examine thousands of new species that have
been collected or photographed in many different parts of the world. Most of them are
invertebrates, particularly from the sea and the rainforests, but there are also reptiles,
birds, and mammals, often from remote areas of the tropics. Each new species is formally
identified, named, and described as part of the classification process.
New discoveries famous ones such as Charles Darwin

Since classification first began, taxonomists (1809–1882)—thought little about trapping
have identified and catalogued species from all new species, or shooting them out of the trees.
over the world. Today, that process continues. In today’s more enlightened times, technology
Most large, land-dwelling animals are known, plays a role instead. Automatic cameras OLINGUITO
but huge numbers of invertebrates, particularly photograph animals on rain forest floors, and This cloud forest member of the raccoon family from the Andes
in the deep ocean, have yet to be discovered deep in the oceans where there is no natural was recognized as a separate species after scrutiny of museum
and described. Victorian zoologists—including light. Camera traps helped confirm that the skins—one of very few new discoveries of mammalian carnivores.
Annamite striped rabbit, on the Laos-Vietnam
border, was a genuinely new species.
There are many examples of new species being
“discovered” in this way. For example, the African
Splitting species forest elephant (p.109) is now recognized as being
New species can also be found in another different from the African savanna elephant (p.109),
way—by reexamining ones that are already known. whereas formerly they were thought to be one.
Sometimes, this shows that 2 species are actually The giraffe (p.229) was long thought to be a single
one, but it can also have the opposite effect. species, but has now been split into 4 separate
MICRO LEAF CHAMELEON Two species may look similar, but their anatomy, species. “Splitting” is particularly common among
Discovered on a tiny islet of Madagascar—and described in behavior, and genes may show that this similarity forest primates, accounting for a considerable
2012—this tiny leaf chameleon ranks among the smallest of is just skin-deep. When this happens, the species growth in the number of species, even though
land-living vertebrates. Its total length is less than 11⁄4 in (3 cm). is split into 2, and one of them renamed. their numbers are often in serious decline.
20 CLASSIFICATION
CLADISTICS GENETIC INSIGHTS

When used with cladistics, genetic evidence often
confirms traditional classification, but in some
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cases it refutes existing ideas. For example,

During the 1950s, a new classification system was proposed by the German snakes and lizards are traditionally classified in
entomologist Willi Hennig (1913–1976). Unlike traditional Linnaean classification, the order Squamata, which also includes the
amphisbaenians; some snakes have the vestiges
Hennig’s system—called cladistics, or phylogenetics—works solely with
of pelvic bones, which strongly suggests that
hierarchical groups called clades. Clades can contain a handful of species, snakes had lizardlike ancestors. However, DNA
or hundreds of thousands, but each is a single branch from the tree of life, with evidence shows that the picture may be more
complex. Snakes are now widely regarded as a
an ancestor and all of its descendants. Cladistics was controversial when it was monophyletic group, and constitute one of several
first introduced, but with the advance of DNA analysis in the 1990s, it has moved major clades within the Squamata, with the other
clades including lizards.
to the forefront of modern classification.
Clades meaning that they contain a complete evolutionary

Cladistics investigates the sequence in which line, with all the offshoots that it has produced.
features have evolved. It makes 2 basic Linnaean classification, on the other hand, long
assumptions: that living things are all related— predates the discovery of evolution. Many of
however distantly—and that features evolve over its groups are indeed clades, but some are
time. By taking a group of species, and then polyphyletic, meaning that they contain several LIZARD SNAKE
comparing the features that they do or do not evolutionary lines treated as if they were one.
share, taxonomists generate cladograms, or “family Others are paraphyletic, which means that they LOSING LEGS
trees,” showing the most likely path that evolution contain some branches of a clade, but not all. Lizards typically have well developed legs, many rows
has followed. For example, Linnaean classification recognizes of scales on their undersides, and eyelids that can blink.
Cladistics differs from Linnaean classification reptiles as a separate class, and it gives the By contrast, snakes are legless, with a single row of belly
in several ways. For example, the only groups same treatment to birds. Cladists recognize scales, and eyes covered by a single transparent scale,
cladistics recognize are clades. These can be of them both as members of the same clade, or brille. These adaptations may have evolved more than
any size, but by definition they are monophyletic, which also includes the dinosaurs. once, originally for a burrowing lifestyle.
INTRODUCTION
Common ancestor
of monophyletic
group A + B + C Cladistic analysis
CLADE When cladistics was first introduced, it relied on
A Also known as a monophyletic structural features, such as bones, feathers, or
A monophyletic group can group, this contains a single shared vein patterns on insects’ wings. It still uses these
be removed from the tree ancestor, and all its descendants,
with a single “cut” B both alive and extinct. A clade can
today, but in addition, modern cladistics works by
comparing genes. Whatever the features, the
be of any size, and may contain procedure is the same: the “primitive” (ancestral)
C further clades nested within it. or “derived” (altered) state of various features is
scored and compared for a particular group of
POLYPHYLETIC GROUP species. Those sharing the most derived features
D Unlike a clade, this contains a are likely to be most closely related—a principle
Common ancestor
of polyphyletic number of species, but not their that is used to build up the branch-points of a
group D + E + F shared ancestor. Warm-blooded family tree. For example, moths and butterflies
E animals, for example, form a group share numerous features with other insects, but
like this: they consist of mammals they differ in being covered in microscopic scales.
and birds, but do not form a clade. This derived feature—together with many others—
F strongly suggests that they are more closely
related to each other than to other insects. Initially,
PARAPHYLETIC GROUP cladists processed their data by hand, but today's
G A paraphyletic group contains an computers can deal with thousands of features,
ancestral species, but not all of its analyzing huge numbers of outcomes to produce
descendants. As a result, it does
CLADOGRAM H not form a clade. Reptiles are an
the most probable result.
This cladogram, or “family tree,”
example, because, traditionally,
shows 3 typical groupings used in
classification. In cladistics, the only I they do not include birds. Two systems
groups recognized as valid are clades. Linnaean classification has a specific hierarchy
In traditional Linnaean classification, of named levels. Cladistics does not work like this,
polyphyletic and paraphyletic groups
Common ancestor
of paraphyletic
J because branch-points can occur at any stage in
are sometimes used as well. group G + H + I a family tree. As a result, cladists prefer not to give
clades different levels of their own. Instead, they
are often referred to as “unranked clades,"
followed by a definition or shortened name.
REVEALING WINGS Taken to its logical conclusion, cladistics rewrites
All flying insects have evolved much of animal classification, creating a plethora
from a single common ancestor of unranked clades in the place of traditional
that had 6 – 8 strengthening Linnaean groups. However, the Linnaean system
veins along its wings. In is very practical, which is why the 2 systems are
DRAGONFLY dragonflies, the primitive pattern often used side by side. Cladistics provides a
BUTTERFLY MOTH
of veins has been subdivided powerful way of investigating the past, and
many times. But in butterflies determining how closely different species are
VEINING
HIDDEN BY and moths, it is usually hidden related, while the Linnaean system provides a
SCALES VEINING ON by scales; these scales point to concise way of identifying and dealing with familiar
WINGS their shared ancestry. groups and their names.
ANIMAL GROUPS AND NAMES 21
ANIMAL VERTEBRATES
MAMMALS
GROUPS
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GREVY’S ZEBRA
CLASS Mammalia
Mammals are chordates characterized by (Eutheria). Monotremes lay eggs, while
AND NAMES
having fur or hair, and raising their young on marsupials and placentals give birth to live
milk. There are over 5,000 living species, in young. Marsupial young are born at an early
29 orders, ranging from a single species to stage, and complete development in a
over 2,000. Mammals are divided into 3 pouch. In placentals, young are nourished
groups, depending on their reproductive inside their mother’s body, so they are at
strategy: monotremes, marsupials a more advanced stage at birth. Even so,
The following 5 pages summarize the classification system (Metatheria), and placental mammals parental care may last at least a year.
used in this book. Like all classification systems, it
represents current thinking, which is always liable to change. EGG-LAYING MAMMALS
Monotremata 2 5
Groups are “nested” to show how they are related; informal ORDER FAMILIES SPECIES
groups with no distinct biological identity are bounded by

dotted lines. Some of the species totals, particularly for MARSUPIALS
INFRACLASS Marsupialia FAMILIES 19 SPECIES 363
the invertebrates, are based on estimates; as with new
discoveries, these can be subject to rapid change. AMERICAN OPOSSUMS
ORDER Didelphimorphia FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 103
Animal groups AUSTRALASIAN CARNIVOROUS MARSUPIALS

ORDER Dasyuromorphia FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 75
The animal kingdom is divided into more than 30 phyla. Some of the
smallest phyla contain less than 100 species, while at the other extreme,
the arthropod phylum contains as least 1.2 million, making these arguably BANDICOOTS
ORDER Peramelemorphia FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 19
the most successful animals of all time. Between these 2 extremes are
INTRODUCTION
the chordates—animals that usually have a backbone, and that make up
a large part of this book. MARSUPIAL MOLES
Although not front runners in terms of species, chordates are exceptional ORDER Notoryctemorphia FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 2
in many ways. They show an extraordinary range in dimensions, from fish
the size of a fingernail to majestic 100-ton whales. They can be found on
KANGAROOS AND RELATIVES
land, at sea, and in the air, where they outrun, outswim, or outfly all other
ORDER Diprotodontia FAMILIES 11 SPECIES 156
forms of life. Since antiquity, they have been much observed, which is why
many names for animal groups have their origin in those times.
SHREW OPOSSUMS
ORDER Paucituberculata FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 6
Group names
Like species names, group names often look obscure but they have a MONITO DEL MONTE
language and logic of their own. Many of them are named after particular ORDER Microbiotheria FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 1
body parts that make a group distinct. Chordates, for example, get their
name from the notochord—a strengthening rod that runs down their backs
for part or all of their lives. Arthropods get their name from their joint-
bearing legs, one of the features that accounts for their success. Among SENGIS
chordates, frogs and toads make up the order Anura, which simply means ORDER Macroscelidea FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 15
“without tails," while elephants make up the order Proboscidea, after their
long proboscis, or nose.
TENRECS AND GOLDEN MOLES
Sometimes, ancient folklore also plays a part in names. For example,
ORDER Afrosoricida FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 51
nightjars and frogmouths, in the avian order Caprimulgiformes, got their
name from the belief that nightjars sucked milk from goats. Dugongs and
manatees are more fanciful still. They belong to the order Sirenia, from their AARDVARK
supposed resemblance to the three sirens of Greek mythology—mythical ORDER Tubulidentata FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 1
figures who seduced sailors into shipwreck on the rocks.
DUGONG AND MANATEES
An ongoing process ORDER Sirenia FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 4
Classification changes all the time as more is discovered about animals

and their evolutionary past. Some changes affect life at its highest levels: ELEPHANTS
today, for example, it is generally accepted that there are 5 kingdoms of ORDER Proboscidea FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 3
life (see p.14), but in the recent past there were 6. Changes to lower-level
classification happen every day. Through cladistics and DNA analysis, HYRAXES
much more information about the relationships between species is ORDER Hyracoidea FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 5
becoming available, and as a result, groups at different taxonomic levels
are often moved, split, or joined together.
Seals, for example, were formerly considered to be a separate group ARMADILLOS
ORDER Cingulata FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 21
of mammals, the order Pinnipedia. Today, most zoologists classify them
as a family within the order Carnivora, together with terrestrial carnivores
such as cats, dogs, and bears. One widely accepted change not reflected SLOTHS AND ANTEATERS
here is the creation of the order Cetartiodactyla, which shows the close ORDER Pilosa FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 10
relationships between even-toed hoofed animals and the cetaceans. With
moves like these, the animals themselves do not change. What does
RABBITS, HARES, AND PIKAS
change is our understanding of them: how they have evolved, and which ORDER Lagomorpha FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 92
animals are their closest relatives.
22 ANIMAL GROUPS AND NAMES
RODENTS
ORDER Rodentia FAMILIES 34 SPECIES 2,478 SKUNKS FAMILY Mephitidae SPECIES 12
SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS
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RACCOONS AND RELATIVES FAMILY Procyonidae SPECIES 13

SUBORDER Sciuromorpha FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 332
RED PANDA FAMILY Ailuridae SPECIES 1

BEAVERLIKE RODENTS
SUBORDER Castorimorpha FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 109
MUSTELIDS FAMILY Mustelidae SPECIES 57
MOUSELIKE RODENTS MALAGASY CARNIVORES FAMILY Eupleridae SPECIES 8

SUBORDER Myomorpha FAMILIES 7 SPECIES 1,737
AFRICAN PALM CIVET FAMILY Nandiniidae SPECIES 1
CAVYLIKE RODENTS
SUBORDER Hystricomorpha FAMILIES 18 SPECIES 301 MONGOOSES FAMILY Herpestidae SPECIES 34
CIVETS AND RELATIVES FAMILY Viverridae SPECIES 34

SPRINGHARES AND RELATIVES
SUBORDER Anomaluromorpha FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 9
LINSANGS FAMILY Prionodontidae SPECIES 2
COLUGOS CATS FAMILY Felidae SPECIES 37
ORDER Dermoptera FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 2

HYENAS AND AARDWOLF FAMILY Hyaenidae SPECIES 4
TREE SHREWS
ORDER Scandentia FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 20
HOOFED MAMMALS
PRIMATES ODD-TOED HOOFED MAMMALS
ORDER Primates FAMILIES 12 SPECIES 480 ORDER Perissodactyla FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 17
INTRODUCTION
PROSIMIANS
SUBORDER Strepsirrhini FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 139 HORSES AND RELATIVES FAMILY Equidae SPECIES 7
MONKEYS AND APES RHINOCEROSES FAMILY Rhinocerotidae SPECIES 5

SUBORDER Haplorhini
TAPIRS FAMILY Tapiridae SPECIES 5
MONKEYS FAMILIES 6 SPECIES 315
EVEN-TOED HOOFED MAMMALS

APES FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 26 ORDER Artiodactyla FAMILIES 10 SPECIES 376
PIGS FAMILY Suidae SPECIES 17
BATS PECCARIES FAMILY Tayassuidae SPECIES 3
ORDER Chiroptera FAMILIES 18 SPECIES 1,330

HIPPOPOTAMUSES FAMILY Hippopotamidae SPECIES 2
HEDGEHOGS AND RELATIVES

CAMELS AND RELATIVES FAMILY Camelidae SPECIES 7
ORDER Erinaceomorpha FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 24
DEER FAMILY Cervidae SPECIES 53

SHREWS AND RELATIVES
ORDER Soricomorpha FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 428 CHEVROTAINS FAMILY Tragulidae SPECIES 10
PANGOLINS MUSK DEER FAMILY Moschidae SPECIES 7
ORDER Pholidota FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 8

PRONGHORN FAMILY Antilocapridae SPECIES 1
CARNIVORES GIRAFFE AND OKAPI FAMILY Giraffidae SPECIES 5

ORDER Carnivora FAMILIES 16 SPECIES 279
CATTLE AND RELATIVES FAMILY Bovidae SPECIES 279
DOGS AND RELATIVES FAMILY Canidae SPECIES 35
BEARS FAMILY Ursidae SPECIES 8 CETACEANS

ORDER Cetacea FAMILIES 14 SPECIES 89
SEA LIONS AND FUR SEALS FAMILY Otariidae SPECIES 34
BALEEN WHALES
WALRUS FAMILY Odobenidae SPECIES 1 SUBORDER Mysticeti FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 14
EARLESS SEALS FAMILY Phocidae SPECIES 18 TOOTHED WHALES

SUBORDER Odontoceti FAMILIES 10 SPECIES 75
BIRDS
CLASS Aves BULLOCKS ORIOLE
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Birds are the only members of the phylum containing the mousebirds has MESITES
Chordata that possess feathers. They use only 6. By comparison, the order containing ORDER Mesitornithiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 3
them to keep warm and, in most cases, the passeriformes, or perching birds,
to fly. Birds are closely related to reptiles, contains more species (over 6,000) than all
and form a single clade (p.20) with them the other orders combined, and it includes SERIEMAS
and the now-extinct dinosaurs. In recent all the world’s songbirds. Within this huge ORDER Cariamiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 2
years, comparison of DNA from different order, there is considerable disagreement
species of birds has led to many changes about how many families of passerine birds
in avian classification, with the system there are. Some ornithologists consider KAGU AND SUNBITTERN
used in this book separating the class that there are just 60 families, but many ORDER Eurypygiformes FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 2
into 40 orders. Some bird orders are of the larger ornithological societies are
very small: the ostrich order, for example, moving toward a system that recognizes RAILS, CRANES, AND RELATIVES
contains just 2 species, while that more than 130 families.
ORDER Gruiformes FAMILIES 6 SPECIES 189
TINAMOUS WADERS, GULLS, AND AUKS

ORDER Tinamiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 47 ORDER Charadriiformes FAMILIES 19 SPECIES 384
OSTRICH SANDGROUSE
ORDER Struthioniformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 2 ORDER Pteroclidiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 16
RHEAS PIGEONS
ORDER Rheiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 2 ORDER Columbiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 342
CASSOWARIES AND EMUS HOATZIN

ORDER Casuariiformes FAMILIES 2 SPECIES 4 ORDER Opisthocomiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 1
KIWIS TURACOS
INTRODUCTION
ORDER Apterygiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 5 ORDER Musophagiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 23
WATERFOWL CUCKOOS
ORDER Anseriformes FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 177 ORDER Cuculiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 149
GAMEBIRDS OWLS
ORDER Galliformes FAMILIES 5 SPECIES 299 ORDER Strigiformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 242
DIVERS NIGHTJARS AND FROGMOUTHS

ORDER Gaviiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 6 ORDER Caprimulgiformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 123
PENGUINS HUMMINGBIRDS AND SWIFTS

ORDER Sphenisciformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 18 ORDER Apodiformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 470
ALBATROSSES AND PETRELS MOUSEBIRDS

ORDER Procellariiformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 147 ORDER Coliiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 6
GREBES TROGONS
ORDER Podicipediformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 23 ORDER Trogoniformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 43
FLAMINGOS CUCKOO ROLLER

ORDER Phoenicopteriformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 6 ORDER Leptosomiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 1
TROPICBIRDS KINGFISHERS AND RELATIVES

ORDER Phaethontiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 3 ORDER Coraciiformes FAMILIES 6 SPECIES 160
STORKS HOOPOES AND HORNBILLS

ORDER Ciconiiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 19 ORDER Bucerotiformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 74
HERONS AND RELATIVES WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS

ORDER Pelecaniformes FAMILIES 5 SPECIES 118 ORDER Piciformes FAMILIES 9 SPECIES 447
GANNETS, CORMORANTS, AND RELATIVES FALCONS AND CARACARAS

ORDER Suliformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 60 ORDER Falconiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 66
HAWKS, EAGLES, AND RELATIVES PARROTS

ORDER Accipitriformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 265 ORDER Psittaciformes FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 397
BUSTARDS PASSERINES
ORDER Otidiformes FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 26 ORDER Passeriformes FAMILIES 131 SPECIES 6,430
24 ANIMAL GROUPS AND NAMES
REPTILES FISHES
AMERICAN PADDLEFISH
CLASS Reptilia AFRICAN STRIPED SKINK
Despite similarities, fish are a varied collection and their lifestyles distinct. Today, bony fishes
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Chordates with scaly skin, or reptiles, 90 percent of living reptile species, of animals with different evolutionary histories. make up by far the largest class across aquatic
were the first 4-legged animals to although the largest species are Lampreys and hagfish have no jaws. Bony habitats. The major subclass of this group
be fully at home on dry land. This tortoises and crocodiles. Most reptiles and cartilaginous fishes have jaws, skulls, and contains so many orders and species that it
is because their skin is waterproof. lay eggs, but a small minority give skeletons, but their anatomy is very different, is dealt with at superorder level in this book.
Snakes and lizards make up over birth to live young.
JAWLESS FISHES
TORTOISES AND TURTLES HAGFISH
ORDER Chelonia FAMILIES 14 SPECIES 346 CLASS Myxini ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 78
TUATARAS LAMPREYS
ORDER Rhyncocephalia FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 1 CLASS Cephalaspidomorphi ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 1 SPECIES c.43
SQUAMATES CARTILAGINOUS FISHES

ORDER Squamata FAMILIES 52 SPECIES 10,000 CLASS Chondrichthyes ORDERS 14 FAMILIES 54 SPECIES c.1,200
SNAKES SHARKS AND RAYS SUBCLASS Euselachii

SUBORDER Serpentes FAMILIES 19 SPECIES c.4,500
SHARKS
BOAS, PYTHONS, AND RELATIVES ORDERS 9 FAMILIES 34 SPECIES c.510
SUPERFAMILY Henophoidea FAMILIES 12 SPECIES 218
RAYS
COLUBRIDS AND RELATIVES ORDERS 4 FAMILIES 17 SPECIES c.650
SUPERFAMILY Caenophoidea FAMILIES 3 SPECIES c.4,000
COLUBRIDS FAMILY Colubridae SPECIES 3,300

CHIMAERAS
SUBCLASS Holocephali ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 48
VIPERS FAMILY Viperidae SPECIES 337
INTRODUCTION
ELAPIDS FAMILY Elapidae SPECIES 361

BONY FISHES
CLASS Osteichthyes ORDERS 67 FAMILIES 481 SPECIES c.31,000
BLIND AND THREAD SNAKES
SUPERFAMILY Scolecophidia FAMILIES 5 SPECIES 441
FLESHY-FINNED FISHES
SUBCLASS Sarcopterygii ORDERS 2 FAMILIES 4 SPECIES 48
LIZARDS
SUBORDER Lacertilia FAMILIES 37 SPECIES c.6,300 RAY-FINNED FISHES SUBCLASS Actinopterygii
IGUANAS AND RELATIVES PRIMITIVE RAY-FINNED FISHES

SUPERFAMILY Iguanoidea FAMILIES 14 SPECIES 1,840 ORDERS 4 FAMILIES 5 SPECIES 49
GECKOS AND SNAKE LIZARDS BONY-TONGUED FISHES

SUPERFAMILY Gekkotoidea FAMILIES 7 SPECIES c.1,700 ORDER Osteoglossiformes FAMILIES 5 SPECIES 244
SKINKS AND RELATIVES

TARPONS AND EELS
SUPERFAMILY Scincomorphoidea FAMILIES 8 SPECIES 2,477
SUPERORDER Elopomorpha ORDERS 4 FAMILIES 24 SPECIES c.1,000
ANGUIMORPH LIZARDS
SUPERFAMILY Anguimorphoidea FAMILIES 9 SPECIES 250 HERRINGS AND RELATIVES
SUPERORDER Clupeomorpha ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 5 SPECIES 405
AMPHISBAENIANS SLICKHEADS AND TUBESHOULDERS

SUBORDER Amphisbaenia FAMILIES 6 SPECIES 196 SUPERORDER Alepocephali ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 137
CATFISH AND RELATIVES

SUPERORDER Ostariophysi ORDERS 5 FAMILIES 85 SPECIES c.10,500
CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS
ORDER Crocodilia FAMILIES 3 SPECIES 25
SALMON AND RELATIVES
SUPERORDER Protacanthopterygii ORDERS 2 FAMILIES 14 SPECIES 355
AMPHIBIANS
SMELTS AND DRAGONFISHES
CLASS Amphibia PACIFIC GIANT SALAMANDER SUPERORDER Osmeromorpha ORDERS 4 FAMILIES 14 SPECIES c.600
Frogs and toads make up the largest order salamanders most closely resemble
of amphibians, and show the widest range ancestral amphibians; caecilians are an LANTERNFISH AND RELATIVES
of adaptations for terrestrial life. Newts and aberrant and relatively little-known group. SUPERORDER Scolepomorpha ORDERS 2 FAMILIES 19 SPECIES c.520
SUPERORDER Cyclosquamata ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 1 SPECIES c.13
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS OPAHS AND OARFISHES

ORDER Caudata FAMILIES 9 SPECIES 707 SUPERORDER Lamprimorpha ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 6 SPECIES c.22
CODFISHES AND RELATIVES

CAECILIANS
SUPERORDER Paracanthopterygii ORDERS 5 FAMILIES 24 SPECIES c.667
ORDER Gymnophiona FAMILIES 10 SPECIES 205
SPINY-RAYED FISHES
FROGS AND TOADS SUPERORDER Acanthopterygii ORDERS 34 FAMILIES 284 SPECIES c.14,800
ORDER Anura FAMILIES 56 SPECIES 6,700
INVERTEBRATES ARTHROPODS
PHYLUM Arthropoda SPIDER-HUNTING WASP
SPONGES
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Arthropods form the largest phylum in also contains 2 other giant classes,
PHYLUM Porifera CLASSES 3 ORDERS 24 FAMILIES 127 SPECIES c.10,000 the animal kingdom. Insects make up crustaceans and arachnids, which dwarf
the biggest subgroup, but the phylum many phyla in the invertebrate world.
CNIDARIANS MANDIBULATES
PHYLUM Cnidaria CLASSES 6 ORDERS 24 FAMILIES 300 SPECIES c.11,000 SUBPHYLUM Mandibulata CLASSES 16 ORDERS 109 FAMILIES c.2,230 SPECIES c.1.2 million
HEXAPODS
FLATWORMS SUPERCLASS Hexapoda CLASSES 4 ORDERS 32 FAMILIES c.1,047 SPECIES c.1.1 million
PHYLUM Platyhelminthes CLASSES 6 ORDERS 41 FAMILIES 424 SPECIES c.30,000 SPRINGTAILS

CLASS Collembola ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 32 SPECIES c.8,100
SEGMENTED WORMS PROTURANS

PHYLUM Annelida CLASSES 4 ORDERS 17 FAMILIES 130 SPECIES c.18,000 CLASS Protura ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 7 SPECIES c.760
DIPLURANS
ROUNDWORMS CLASS Diplura ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 8 SPECIES c.975
PHYLUM Nematoda CLASSES 2 ORDERS 17 FAMILIES 160 SPECIES c.26,000 INSECTS

CLASS Insecta ORDERS 29 FAMILIES c.1,000 SPECIES c.1.1 million
MINOR PHYLA ROTIFER BRISTLETAILS

ORDER Archaeognatha SPECIES c.470
PARASITIC LICE
ORDER Phthiraptera SPECIES c.5,200
Invertebrates are classified in about 30 phyla, minor phyla also appear on pages 544 – 5. SILVERFISH BUGS
which vary considerably in size. In this book, Almost all these minor phyla contain marine ORDER Thysanura SPECIES c.570 ORDER Hemiptera SPECIES c.88,000
major phyla are treated separately, but a few animals or ones that live in damp habitats.
MAYFLIES THRIPS
ORDER Ephemeroptera SPECIES c.3,000 ORDER Thysanoptera SPECIES c.7,400
COMB JELLIES WATER BEARS DOBSONFLIES AND ALDERFLIES
INTRODUCTION
DAMSELFLIES AND DRAGONFLIES
PHYLUM Ctenophora SPECIES c.200 PHYLUM Tardigrada SPECIES c.1,000 ORDER Odonata SPECIES c.5,600 ORDER Megaloptera SPECIES c.300
CRICKETS AND GRASSHOPPERS SNAKEFLIES

PEANUT WORMS SPOONWORMS ORDER Orthoptera SPECIES c.10,500 ORDER Raphidioptera SPECIES c.200
PHYLUM Sipuncula SPECIES c.150 PHYLUM Echiura SPECIES c.200
STONEFLIES ANTLIONS, LACEWINGS, AND
RELATIVES
Plecoptera c.3,000
ROTIFERS HORSESHOE WORMS ORDER SPECIES
ORDER Neuroptera SPECIES c.11,000
PHYLUM Rotifera SPECIES c.2,000 PHYLUM Phoronida SPECIES c.20 ROCK CRAWLERS
BEETLES
ORDER Grylloblattodea SPECIES 30
ORDER Coleoptera SPECIES c.370,000
BRYOZOANS VELVET WORMS EARWIGS
PHYLUM Bryozoa SPECIES c.6,000 PHYLUM Onychophora SPECIES c.180 ORDER Dermaptera SPECIES c.1,900 STREPSIPTERANS
ORDER Strepsiptera SPECIES c.580
STICK AND LEAF INSECTS
RIBBON WORMS HEMICHORDATES ORDER Phasmatodea SPECIES c.2,500 SCORPIONFLIES
PHYLUM Nemertea SPECIES c.1,400 PHYLUM Hemichordata SPECIES c.130 ORDER Mecoptera SPECIES c.550
MANTIDS
FLEAS
BRACHIOPODS Mantodea c.2,300
10 OTHER MINOR ORDER SPECIES
ORDER Siphonaptera SPECIES c.2,500
PHYLUM Brachiopoda SPECIES c.400 INVERTEBRATE GROUPS COCKROACHES
FLIES
ORDER Blattodea SPECIES c.4,600
Diptera c.150,000
ARROW WORMS
ORDER SPECIES
TERMITES
PHYLUM Chaetognatha SPECIES c.150 ORDER Isoptera SPECIES c.3,000
CADDISFLIES
ORDER Trichoptera SPECIES c.10,000
WEB-SPINNERS
MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES
ORDER Embioptera SPECIES c.400
ORDER Lepidoptera SPECIES c.165,000
MOLLUSCS
ANGEL INSECTS
BEES, WASPS, ANTS, AND
ORDER Zoraptera SPECIES 43 SAWFLIES
PHYLUM Mollusca CLASSES 7 ORDERS 53 FAMILIES 609 SPECIES c.110,000 BARKLICE AND BOOKLICE ORDER Hymenoptera SPECIES c.198,000
ORDER Psocoptera SPECIES c.5,600
ECHINODERMS
PHYLUM Echinodermata CLASSES 5 ORDERS 38 FAMILIES 173 SPECIES c.7,000 MYRIAPODS
SUPERCLASS Myriapoda CLASSES 2 ORDERS 21 FAMILIES 171 SPECIES c.13,150
INVERTEBRATE CHORDATES CRUSTACEANS

SUPERCLASS Crustacea CLASSES 7 ORDERS 56 FAMILIES c.1,000 SPECIES c.70,000
Invertebrate chordates are animals that TUNICATE
share some characteristics with vertebrates a swimming tadpole stage but are baglike
but lack a bony skeleton. There are as adults; lancelets are mobile and in their
2 subphyla—tunicates (the majority of internal anatomy bear strong resemblances CHELICERATES
species), and lancelets. Tunicates have to vertebrates. SUBPHYLUM Chelicerata CLASSES 3 ORDERS 14 FAMILIES 675 SPECIES c.104,350
SEA SPIDERS
TUNICATES CLASS Pycnogonida ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 13 SPECIES c.1,330
SUBPHYLUM Urochordata
CLASSES 3 ORDERS 7 FAMILIES 36 SPECIES c.2,900
HORSESHOE CRABS
CLASS Merostomata ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 4
LANCELETS
SUBPHYLUM Cephalochordata ARACHNIDS
CLASSES 1 ORDERS 1 FAMILIES 1 SPECIES 30 CLASS Arachnida ORDERS 12 FAMILIES 661 SPECIES c.103,000
26 ANATOMY
ANATOMY
feature of arthropods—a huge group of
invertebrates that includes insects, crustaceans,
and arachnids. These cases, or exoskeletons,
cover the entire body and include structures as
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strong as a crab’s pincers or as delicate as a

All animals are made up of various parts. Their smallest fully functional parts butterfly’s antennae. Unlike shells, body cases
are cells, which are shaped in different ways according to the tasks that they cannot grow, so periodically they have to be
carry out. Groups of similar cells are organized into tissues, and tissues are shed and replaced.
Internal skeletons (endoskeletons), made of
grouped together to form organs. Organs themselves are linked to form bone and/or cartilage, provide support from
organ systems, which carry out all the processes essential for survival. within. Found only in vertebrates, they have 2
great advantages: they
The structure of these systems varies widely between one type of animal are relatively light for
and another, and also between animals that live in different ways, but the their size—important for
land animals that have
work they do is the same. to move quickly—
and they can grow.
Body systems system—the parts that form the “outer

SHELL
A snail’s shell grows at its
Animals have up to a dozen separate body cladding”—protect the body from physical
lip, getting progressively
systems. In many species, the muscular and damage and, in terrestrial animals, from the threat
larger with its owner. Some
skeletal systems make up a large proportion of of drying out.
species can seal the shell
the body’s total weight, while the integumentary Two key systems enable animals to obtain energy
with an operculum, or “door.”
from food. The digestive system breaks food down
genital testis ovary simple brain with
chamber 2 nerve cords
so that it can be absorbed; and the respiratory EXOSKELETON
system delivers oxygen to the body’s cells so that A crab’s body case covers all the
food substances can be “burned” and their surfaces of its body, including its
chemical energy released. The respiratory eyes. Unlike an insect’s exoskeleton,
system also removes carbon dioxide—a it is reinforced with calcium.
potentially toxic waste product formed during
the production of energy. In many animals,
SIMPLE INVERTEBRATE BODY SYSTEMS including all vertebrates, oxygen and carbon
INTRODUCTION
Simple invertebrates, such as flatworms, do not have respiratory dioxide are carried by blood in the circulatory SECTION
OF BONE
organs or a circulatory system. The digestive system often has system. Carbon dioxide is usually exhaled; other
just one opening, the mouth, and the reproductive system is kinds of dissolved waste are removed, before they
typically made up of both male and female organs. have a chance to build up, by a separate
excretory system.
intestines form part of stomach digestive gland Animals use 2 different systems to
tubular digestive system coordinate their bodies, and to react ENDOSKELETON
marrow Strong, light, and flexible,
to their surroundings. The nervous cavity
system deals with anything that needs bones are living body parts
small brain a fast response, processing information hard bone formed by cells (called
gathered by sense organs. In all animals, it containing osteocytes), surrounded by
osteocytes mineral crystals that are
triggers built-in or instinctive behavior, but in some,
especially vertebrates, it also stores information, laid down in rings.
nerve cord runs
along animal’s allowing animals to adapt their behavior according
underside exoskeleton to their past experience. The endocrine system
works in conjunction with the nervous system, SYMMETRY
ARTHROPOD BODY SYSTEMS releasing hormones, or chemical messengers, Some animals’ bodies are circular, without a
The tubular digestive system is open at both ends. The blood that help the nervous system coordinate long- head or tail. This type of anatomy, called radial
flows partly through vessels and partly through body spaces. term processes. symmetry, can be seen in sea anemones and
Oxygen is supplied via gills or via minute airways called tracheae. Finally, the reproductive system carries out the other cnidarians, and also in ctenophores or
most important task: producing young. Unlike comb jellies. The vast majority of animals show
large brain other body systems, it often functions only during bilateral symmetry, which means they can be
a set season, and then only in mature animals. divided into halves. The halves are not always
kidneys remove waste
equal: male fiddler crabs, for example, have very
unequal claws, and flatfish have different sides.
Skeletons and support
Animals need to keep the shape of their bodies RADIAL SYMMETRY
stable. Many invertebrates achieve this without A sea anemone can
any hard body parts at all. Instead, they rely on be divided into 2 equal
the pressure of internal fluids to keep their bodies halves on any axis. It
firm in the same way that air stabilizes a tire. This has a central mouth
lungs, via
which oxygen system, called a hydrostatic skeleton, works well and body cavity, with
intestines on a small scale. But in larger animals, particularly feeding tentacles
reaches blood
blood flows inside land ones, this type of skeleton is often not strong arranged in a ring.
vessels rather heart enough to support the body’s weight. Animals
than through have developed 2 quite different solutions to
body spaces
this problem: external shells and body cases; and
VERTEBRATE BODY SYSTEMS internal skeletons, typically made of bone.
The nervous system is highly developed, and the brain is typically Shells are made up of one or 2 parts, and they BILATERAL SYMMETRY
larger than in invertebrates. The circulatory system is closed, grow with their owner. They can be seen in marine Frogs and toads
and blood is pumped under high pressure by the heart. animals called brachiopods, or lampshells, but have just one axis of
they are most highly developed in bivalve symmetry. Externally, the
KEY TO SYSTEMS
mollusks, which can grow shells over 31⁄4 ft (1 m) 2 halves look identical;
CIRCULATORY EXCRETORY across. Body cases are more complex than shells: internally, some organs
DIGESTIVE NERVOUS they consist of a large number of separate plates lie to the left or the right.
RESPIRATORY REPRODUCTIVE that meet at flexible joints. They are a characteristic
27
In this kind of skeleton, some bones meet at Soft feathers and fur help to retain body heat,
flexible joints. Other bones, particularly those while extra-strong feathers are used in flight.
in the skull, lock together for extra strength. Colors or patterns act as camouflage or help
animals recognize their own kind.
EFFICIENT RESPIRATION
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Muscles and movement Animals that are highly

Muscles work by contracting. This means they Respiration active in cold habitats
need lots of oxygen.
can pull but not push. In most cases, they are For small and thin animals, obtaining oxygen
When an ibex runs uphill,
arranged in pairs or groups that pull in opposing is a simple matter because it seeps into
its lungs take in 10 times
directions: when one muscle or muscle group their bodies from outside. At the same
as much air as when it
contracts, its partner is brought back to its normal time, carbon dioxide escapes in the other
is lying down.
resting shape. direction. For larger animals, respiration
Muscles make animals move in different ways. is more complex. In relative terms, they
In animals without limbs, such as earthworms and have a much greater volume than surface
jellyfish, they work to change the body’s shape. In area, so there is less room for gases to
earthworms, opposing muscles alternately shorten move in and out. To breathe, they rely
on respiratory organs—structures that
relaxed bell fills circular muscles water expelled
with water contract from bell effectively pack a large surface area into a
small amount of space. In aquatic animals,
gills are the most common respiratory
organs. Typical gills consist of thin, flat,
or feathery surfaces that bring blood into
close contact with the water outside.
However, most gills do not work in air
because—out of water—their surfaces
MOVING WITHOUT LIMBS
collapse and stick together. Land animals
Jellyfish swim by rhythmically contracting the bell-shaped part therefore have hollow respiratory organs that
of their body. This expels water from the bell, which pushes the carry air deep inside their bodies. In insects,
jellyfish forward. Most jellyfish make little headway against the these organs are tubes, called tracheae, which
current: they swim mainly to keep at the right level in the water. divide into extremely fine filaments that reach
muscles contract to muscles maintain individual cells. In land-dwelling vertebrates,
propel frog forward streamlined shape front legs the organs are lungs—air-filled chambers
INTRODUCTION
absorb surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
impact Muscles make the lungs expand or contract, with its own lens system; these compound eyes
sucking air in or blowing it out. create a mosaic-like image and are especially
good at detecting movement.
Mammals are the only animals with prominent
JUMPING
When a frog leaps, its legs act as levers, propelling Nerves and senses earflaps. Vertebrates’ ears are always on the
it into the air. Its front legs fold up to cushion its body Nerve cells, or neurons, are the animal world’s head, but in some animals, they are positioned
from the impact when it lands. equivalent of wiring. Neurons conduct brief bursts elsewhere. Most grasshoppers and crickets
of electricity, known as impulses, which carry have ears on their abdomen or legs. Organs that
and lengthen the animal’s segments so that it can information from sense organs or make muscles detect taste and smell can also be in a variety
creep through soil. In limbed animals, one set of contract. Corals and other simple animals have of positions. Like ears, they can be used in
muscles pulls the limb down or back, while the a network of nerves scattered throughout their communication, as well as for avoiding danger
other lifts it up or forward. bodies. But in most animals, the nervous system and finding food.
As well as making animals move, muscles converges on the brain. Many animals have senses that are more acute
serve other purposes. They force food through Some animal senses, such as touch, operate than those of human beings, and some can sense
the digestive system (peristalsis) and pump blood through nerve endings scattered all over the things that humans cannot. For example, most fish
around the circulatory system. Unlike most other body. A similar sense, which works internally, tells can sense pressure waves in water, and many can
muscles, the heart muscle has a built-in rhythm animals about their posture. The most important detect weak electric fields. Some snakes can “see”
that keeps it contracting throughout an animal’s life. senses—vision, smell, and hearing—work through warmth, enabling them to attack warm-blooded
organs that form some of the most elaborate prey in total darkness.
structures in the body.
Body coverings Vision is essential for many animals,
Animal cells are easily damaged. and eyes show a wide variety of designs.
To protect them from injury and At their simplest—for example, in snails—
disease, animals have body they do little more than distinguish
coverings, most of which consist between light and dark. In many
largely of nonliving matter. animals, particularly arthropods
Mammalian skin is covered by and vertebrates, they focus
dead cells, while insect body light onto large numbers
cases are covered by a hard FEATHERS of nerve cells, building
substance called “chitlin” and up a detailed image of
waterproof wax. In many cases, the surroundings. In
these protective layers are vertebrates, these
themselves protected: mammals eyes have a single
often have a coat of fur, while lens, which throws
many other animals have scales. light onto a “screen,”
Some of these extra coverings or retina. In arthropods,
have developed additional uses. SCALES the eye has up to
25,000 separate
BODY BARRIERS compartments, each
Bird feathers, butterfly scales, and
mammal fur are made of nonliving BINOCULAR VISION
substances that are produced Jumping spiders have 2 extra-large
by living cells. Feathers and fur are eyes that face directly forward. This gives
replaced during their owner’s lifetime, them binocular vision, which is essential
but butterfly scales are not. FUR for gauging distances before making a jump.
28 BEHAVIOR
BEHAVIOR ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

At one time, intelligence was thought to be rare in
animals, with some exceptions such as dolphins,
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monkeys, and chimpanzees. Mammals include

An animal’s behavior encompasses all the things that it does as well as the way gifted communicators, but they are not alone in
that it does them. Behavior ranges from simple actions, such as eating or keeping having problem-solving skills. Many other animals
use simple tools, and some even shape them as
clean, to highly elaborate activities, such as hunting in a pack, courting a mate, or
well. Among the most impressive tool-makers are
building a nest. In some animals, behavior is almost entirely predictable; in others, crows and their relatives. In captivity, one New
it develops with experience, so the more an animal does something, the more Caledonian crow was seen bending a straight piece
of wire, which it successfully turned into a hook for
skilled it becomes. As with all aspects of animal biology, behavior is the product reaching food. It did this despite never having seen
of evolution, which means that it gradually changes as time goes by. These wire before—a remarkable example of insight that
even a primate would find hard to match.
changes enable species to react in the most effective way to the opportunities
and dangers that they encounter in daily life.
Instinct and learning improves. This is particularly important for some

In simple animals, behavior is “hard wired”— animals—such as male weaverbirds—which use
governed by inherited instincts—which means that their nest-building skills to attract a mate.
it consists of fixed sequences of actions prompted Apart from octopuses and their relatives, most
by triggers. For example, day-old birds instinctively invertebrates have narrow limits when it comes
beg for food when their parents appear at the nest. to learning. For vertebrates, on the other hand,
At this stage, they are usually blind: their behavior learned behavior is often extremely important.
is triggered by noise and movement rather than by Frogs and toads quickly learn to avoid animals
the sight of food itself. that taste unpleasant, while mammals acquire a
Instinctive behavior may seem basic, but it can wide range of skills from their parents, including THE SIGNS OF INTELLIGENCE
produce quite remarkable results. The structures how to hunt. Among primates, individuals very Chimpanzees can solve problems, and they are able to
that animals build—from nests to dams—are occasionally “invent” new behavior, which is then learn sign language to communicate with humans. They can
INTRODUCTION
the results of inborn behavioral impulses. When copied by their neighbors. This copying process learn symbols for objects and actions, and they occasionally
beavers set out to make a dam, they do so without produces culture—patterns of behavior that are combine the symbols in ways that resemble spoken phrases.
any knowledge of engineering principles. Yet the handed on down the generations. Culture is
structure they make is shaped to withstand water something that humans, as a species, have
pressure as if it had been scientifically designed. developed to a unique degree.
Beavers do not have to think how to build, just Communication
as spiders do not need to work out how to weave For most animals, keeping in touch with their
webs. Even so, the results of instinctive behavior own kind is essential to their survival. Animals
can change. As animals repeat certain tasks, communicate with each other for a range of
such as making a nest, their performance often reasons, including finding food, attracting a mate,
and bringing up their young. Different methods of
communication have their own advantages and
drawbacks. Body language—which includes facial
expressions and physical displays—works well at
close quarters but is ineffective at a distance and
in habitats where dense vegetation gets in the way.
In such cases, communication by sound is much
more practical. Whales call to each other over
immense distances, while some small animals
produce remarkably loud sounds for their size.
Treefrogs, cicadas, and mole crickets, for example,
LEARNING TO FEED can often be heard at a distance of over 1 mile
Eurasian oystercatchers learn (2 km). Each species uses its own distinctive
how to feed by watching their “call sign,” and many behave like ventriloquists,
parents. Some birds hammer pitching their calls in a way that throws predators
at shells to break them, off their track.
while others stab at the Animals that are capable of producing light
shells’ hinges to force them also use identifying call signs. These can consist
to open. Once a bird has of specific sequences of flashes or—in many
learned one technique, it deep-sea fishes—illuminated body patterns.
uses it for life. But, like body language and sound, this form of
communication works only when the signaller is
actively signaling. Scent communication is quite
INSTINCTIVE WEAVING NIGHT LIGHT

Spiders often build Female glow worms
highly complex webs, use light to signal their
but they always produce presence to the males,
them to one particular which fly overhead.
design. As a result, it is Signaling with light can
often possible to identify be dangerous because it
a spider from its web alone. can attract predators as
This garden spider will use well as potential mates.
its web for just one day; then If a glow worm senses
it will eat it before starting on danger, she quickly
a replacement. “switches off” her light.
BEHAVIOR 29
groups, the members are all closely related.

Examples of such extended families include Behavioral cycles
wolf packs and kookaburra “clans”, where Some kinds of behavior, including self-defense,
the young remain with their parents instead can be provoked at any time. Others are cyclical,
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of setting up independently. This kind of triggered by cues that keep animals in step with
group-living reaches its extreme in social changes around them. One of the most important
insects, such as termites and ants, which cycles is the alternation between night and day.
cannot survive alone. Others include the rise and fall of the tide and
the annual sequence of changing seasons.
Cyclical behaviors are all instinctive. They may
Defence and attack be stimulated by external changes, by built-in
Both predatory and prey animals use specialized “biological clocks,” or by a combination of the 2.
behavior to help them survive. For example, while Birds, for example, often gather to roost late in
many prey animals simply try to escape, others the day, a form of cyclical behavior that is triggered
JOINING THE CHORUS keep perfectly still, relying on by falling light levels as the sun nears the
By howling, wolves advertise their ownership of a hunting territory camouflage to protect horizon. On a much longer time scale,
to any other wolves that may be in the area. Wolves often howl at them. A wide range of ground squirrels show an annual cycle in
night, after they have made a successful kill. species, from moths to body weight, getting heavier before
lizards, try to make they enter hibernation. However,
different because the signal lingers long after the themselves appear ground squirrels maintain their cycle
animal that made it has moved on. Animal scents dangerous by even if kept in conditions of constant
are specific, allowing animals to lay trails and to temperature and day length, which
advertise their presence to potential mates. Some RESPONDING TO THREAT shows that the rhythm is controlled
male insects are able to respond to individual When threatened, puffer biologically. Biological clocks often
molecules of airborne scent, allowing them to fish enlarge themselves involve hormones, but the way they
track down females far upwind. by gulping water. Once work is not yet fully understood.
distended, they can barely
move, but their spines make them
Living in groups practically impossible to attack.
Some animals spend all their lives alone and never
encounter another member of their species. But, exaggerating their size or by revealing colored
for many, getting together is an important part of spots that look like eyes. Sometimes such threats
INTRODUCTION
life. Animal groups vary in size as well as in how are real: for example, the brilliant colors of poison-
long they last: mayflies, for example, form mating arrow frogs indicate that they contain some of the
swarms that last just a few hours, while migrating animal kingdom’s most potent poisons.
Predatory animals use one of 2 techniques to
GROUP FORMATION catch prey: they either wait for it to come their way
By forming a V (or or they track it down. “Sit-and-wait” predators are
skein), geese can often camouflaged, and some actively entice their
reduce the amount victims within range. In anglerfish, for example, the
of energy needed to snout has a long, luminous protuberance, called a
migrate by flying in lure, which the fish dangle appetizingly in front of
the leading birds’ their mouths: anything swimming close to inspect
slipstream. They this lure is snapped up whole. For active hunting, FEEDING TIME
take turns to lead. nature puts a premium on speed and keen senses, Fiddler crabs emerge from their burrows to pick over the
which is why animals such as cheetahs, peregrine nutrient-rich sediment for small particles of food. They cannot
falcons, and blue marlins are among the fastest in feed underwater, so their feeding behavior is governed by the
the world. Some active predators operate in groups. daily rise and fall of the tide.
By working together, gray wolves, African wild
dogs, and lions can tackle prey much
larger than themselves.
PACK HUNTING
A pack of African wild dogs pulls down
a wildebeest that they have run to exhaustion.
Once their victim is dead, the dogs will devour
it. On returning to their den, they regurgitate
some of the meat for any pups that have
SAFETY IN NUMBERS been left behind.
In open habitats, such as grassland, where predators tend to be
fast and hiding places scarce, prey mammals typically live in large
groups. This group of zebras has further increased its security by
grazing near a herd of wildebeest.
birds often assemble for several weeks. Many

other animals, including fish and grazing
mammals, form groups that are maintained for life.
Groups of animals may seem to be easy targets
for predators, but the opposite is usually true.
Predators find it difficult to single out individuals
from a group, so living together gives animals a
better chance of survival. Groups are also more
difficult to catch by surprise because there is
always more than one animal on the alert for
signs of danger.
In most animal groups, the members belong to
a single species but do not necessarily share the
same parents. However, in the most tight-knit
30 LIFE CYCLES
LIFE CYCLES
Despite these difficulties, sexual reproduction is
widespread throughout the animal world, which
demonstrates its long-term value. Even species
that normally reproduce without sex periodically
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include a sexual phase in their life cycle, thereby

An animal’s life cycle consists of all the stages between the beginning of one getting the best of both worlds.
generation and the beginning of the next. In some species—especially insects
and other small invertebrates—the entire cycle is completed within a few weeks; Animal sexes
in much larger animals, it often takes many years. Regardless of how long it takes All animals that reproduce sexually with a partner
to complete, an animal’s life cycle always involves 2 main steps: a period of of the opposite sex show dimorphism—that is,
the males and females are anatomically different
growth and development, followed by reproduction. Some animals reproduce and behave in different ways. In some species,
once and then die: for them, reproduction marks the end of life as well as the the differences are not obvious, but in others, they
are quite distinct. Dimorphism exists because
completion of the life cycle. For many, reproduction continues throughout the sexes have developed different roles in
adulthood, giving animals more than one chance to produce young. reproduction and need different body forms
to carry them out.
However, not all sexually reproducing animals
are of opposite sexes. Some—earthworms and
Reproduction example, produce small buds that grow into terrestrial snails, for example—are hermaphrodite
The ability to reproduce is the cornerstone of life complete new animals, while sea anemones
because it allows living things to multiply, exploit literally tear themselves in 2. Some animals
new opportunities around them, and evolve. produce eggs that develop without fertilization –
Animals reproduce in one of 2 ways: a process called parthenogenesis. This is
asexually (without sex) or sexually. common in aphids and other sap-sucking
In asexual reproduction, a single insects, but it is rare in vertebrates
parent partitions off part of itself (whiptail lizards are one of the few
to form a new animal. The examples). Asexual reproduction is
partitioning process can happen relatively quick and simple, but it has
in a variety of ways. Hydras, for one important disadvantage: since
only one parent is involved, the
INTRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION offspring are either genetically

As a female common frog lays her eggs, her identical to that parent or
mate sprays them with sperm to fertilize them. very similar to it. As a result,
Each tadpole will be genetically unique. parent and offspring are
equally vulnerable to DIMORPHIC PARTNERS
threats such as disease: In some animals, sex differences are extreme. Here, a wingless
if one animal dies, the rest female vapourer moth (seen on the right) has attracted a winged
will often follow suit. male. After mating, the female will crawl away to lay her eggs.
Sexual reproduction gets around
this problem because the involvement of 2 parents (they have both male and female sex organs).
produces offspring that are genetically varied. This simplifies sexual reproduction because any
Each one has a unique combination of adult of a species is potentially a suitable mate for
characteristics, which allows the fittest to survive another. A further variation is that some species
and the species slowly evolves. However, the have separate sexes but individuals can change
disadvantage of sexual reproduction is that it is sex during adult life. Parrotfishes, for example,
much more complicated: the parents must be of often live in small schools dominated by a single
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION the right species and correct sex, and in most male. If the male dies, a female changes sex and
This sea anemone is in the final stages of reproducing, which it cases they must cooperate to breed. In addition, takes his place.
does by tearing itself in half. The result will be 2 individuals that only one parent—the female—actually produces
have exactly the same genetic makeup. young, so some reproductive potential is lost.
Courtship
Before an animal can mate, it has to find a partner.
LIFESPANS This is easy enough for species that live in groups,
In general, animal lifespans are directly related to BODY SIZE but for animals that live alone, it poses problems.
adult body size: the larger the animal, the longer shrew (up to elephant (up Solitary animals locate potential mates by sending
4 in/10 cm): to 25 ft/7.5 m):
it is likely to live, although there are exceptions 1 year 70 years out signals, such as sounds or airborne scents.
to this rule. One important factor affecting lifespan Each species has its own characteristic “call sign,”
is metabolic rate—the rate at which an animal uses ensuring that it finds others of its own kind.
energy to make its body work. “Cold-blooded” Once the sexes are in contact, one partner—
WARM-BLOODED AND COLD-BLOODED
animals, such as amphibians and reptiles, have usually the male—has to overcome the other’s
a relatively low metabolic rate and tend to be wariness and demonstrate his suitability as a mate.
long-lived, while “warm-blooded” animals, such rock pigeon (warm-blooded): This process is known as courtship. It often takes
as birds and mammals, have a high metabolic 10 years the form of ritualized behavior that displays the
rate and tend to be relatively short-lived. This common toad (cold-blooded): male’s physical fitness or his ownership of a good
is especially true of small species because 35 years provision of food. If the female is sufficiently
a low body mass means that heat escapes ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
impressed, she will accept him as her mate.
quickly from the body and has to be constantly While some species form lifelong partnerships,
replaced by food. Environmental factors, such housefly (at 77˚ F/25˚ C): 6 weeks many go their separate ways after mating. In the
as temperature and humidity, also have an effect. housefly (at 59˚ F/ latter case, the males typically mate with several
Houseflies, for example, often die within 6 weeks 15° C): 18 weeks females but take no part in raising the young.
in warm conditions but may survive for many FACTORS DETERMINING LIFESPAN More rarely, things work in the opposite way, with
months if it is cool, and some microscopic animals Three of the major factors influencing an animal’s lifespan one female mating with several males. Where this
survive for decades if they remain in a dormant are illustrated above. The life expectancy of each animal is happens—for example, in phalaropes (see p.312)—
state. In general, animals rarely live for long after represented by a colored bar, indicating the degree to the female is more brightly colored than the male
their reproductive life has come to an end. which a factor can affect its lifespan. and often takes the lead in courtship. In general,
these females take little or no part in rearing young.
LIFE CYCLES 31
Starting life LIVING TOGETHER

Most animals—apart from the ones that use Many animals associate with their own kind but
asexual reproduction—start life as a single continue to lead independent lives. However,
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fertilized egg cell. If the egg has been fertilized eusocial species, such as termites, ants, and bees,
externally, it will already be outside the mother’s form permanent groups or colonies in which just
body, perhaps drifting in the sea or glued to one member—the queen—produces all the
seabed plants or sand. If the egg has been colony’s young. As a result, the colony’s members
fertilized internally, it will either be laid, to hatch are closely related and in many ways behave like a
afterward, or it will be retained inside the mother single organism. The great success of the system
while it begins to develop into a young animal. is apparent in the fact that these insects are
The degree of development that takes place at among the most numerous on earth.
any one stage varies from one type of animal to
another. Oviparous species, such as birds, lay their
COURTSHIP RITUAL fertilized eggs before fetal development begins.
A male frigatebird inflates his throat pouch to attract the attention In birds, development is often deferred for several
of a female. Birds have good color vision, which explains why
males often have striking plumage. LIVE BIRTH
Animals that give birth have
relatively few offspring,
Fertilization but they often show a
Marking the start of a new life, fertilization occurs high level of parental
when a male sperm and female egg cell fuse. care. This female seal
In animals, it takes place in one of 2 ways: either will look after her cub
outside or inside the female’s body. for many weeks. QUEEN TERMITE
External fertilization is used by many animals Hidden deep inside a termite nest, where she is attended by
that either live permanently in water or return to it her workers, a queen termite lays up to 30,000 eggs a day.
to breed. In the simplest version of this process— In her complete dependence on the workers for food, she
seen in static invertebrates such as corals—vast represents the ultimate form of reproductive specialization.
numbers of the male and female sex cells are
shed into the water, where they mingle so that
fertilization can occur. A more advanced version Although metamorphosis is most common in
INTRODUCTION
of this, shown by animals that can move around, invertebrates, it does occur in amphibians and
such as frogs, involves 2 partners pairing up. some fish. Animals that undergo the metamorphic
Although they appear to mate, fertilization more days until the clutch is complete; it begins process spend the early part of their lives as
nevertheless takes place in the water rather than as soon as the parent starts to incubate the eggs. larvae. In the sea, larvae often drift near the
inside the female’s body. Ovoviviparous species, which include many surface as part of the plankton, and because they
External fertilization does not work on land reptiles and sharks, incubate their eggs internally, are carried far and wide they play an important role
because sex cells soon dry out and die when “giving birth” at the moment when the eggs are in helping their species spread.
exposed to air. Most terrestrial animals therefore about to hatch. Viviparous species—which include In the insect world,
use internal fertilization. In general, this involves virtually all mammals, as well as some reptiles, metamorphosis occurs
the male injecting sperm into the female. However, amphibians, and fish—give birth to live young. in 2 ways. Incomplete
some terrestrial animals, such as salamanders and metamorphosis, shown
newts, do not copulate. Instead, the male deposits by grasshoppers and
a package of sperm (a spermatophore) near the Metamorphosis bugs, involves a series
female; she then collects it with her reproductive All animals change shape as they grow and of gradual changes that
organ so that internal fertilization can take place. develop. In some, the changes are gradual and are made as the young
relatively minor, but in others, they are so far- insect, or nymph,
reaching that the animal is completely transformed. matures. Complete CRAB EGGS
This transformation is called metamorphosis. metamorphosis—
It allows animals to live in different ways—and shown by butterflies,
often in different habitats—during their young beetles, and flies—
and adult lives. involves more drastic
changes, which occur
during a resting stage,
called pupation, when
the body is broken
down and rearranged.
ZOEA LARVA
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Like all insects, flat-footed
bugs have to pair up so that the
female’s eggs can be fertilized.
ADULT CRAB
Mating takes several hours.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Corals release their sex cells into
the water. They are triggered to do
this by the changing phases of the
moon—a natural clock that many FROM LARVA TO ADULT
animals use to synchronize their Like most crustaceans, shore crabs start life as eggs (top). The
breeding behavior. eggs hatch to produce the first larval stage, called a zoea (center),
which floats in plankton. This changes into a megalopa larva, then
sinks to the seabed and finally changes into an adult crab.
32 ANIMALS IN DANGER
ANIMALS IN DANGER
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Until a century ago, the earth still contained large areas of wilderness, where Hunting, fishing, and collecting
animals had little or no contact with human beings. Since then, the human Unlike many of the world’s other resources,
animals can reproduce. This means that—in
population has soared closer to 7.5 billion, and our increasing use of energy and
theory—useful species can be harvested without
raw materials affects the entire planet. Natural habitats are disappearing, and the them ever running out. Unfortunately, many
earth’s biodiversity—the sum total of all living species—is in sharp decline. This species have been overexploited, with the result
that some have died out, while others are now in
is a dangerous situation for humanity, because it reduces the earth’s biological serious danger.
resources, and makes the world a less stable place. For animals, the results can The list of past casualties from hunting includes
the African bluebuck, which died out in about
be disastrous. Some changes are local ones, which threaten individual species, 1800, and the North American passenger pigeon,
but others, particularly climate change, are global in their reach. which became extinct in 1914, despite formerly
being one of the most numerous birds in the
world. These animals were killed primarily for
food, a practice that continues today in a more
Habitat change The most problematic chemical pollutants are diverse way, in the bushmeat trade. Once a
Humans first started to alter habitats when they synthetic organic (carbon-containing) substances, subsistence activity, the bushmeat trade has
discovered fire, but with the start of farming, about such as solvents, pesticides, and herbicides. recently become a global business, focusing
10,000 years ago, habitat destruction rapidly Hundreds of thousands of these chemicals now on all kinds of forest animals that can be caught
increased. Agriculture has been the main driving exist, and new kinds are produced every year. and sold as food. Primates are particularly
force behind deforestation, which swept across Their chemical structure means that they are threatened, but the trade also endangers many
the Northern Hemisphere in historical times, and often absorbed by living tissue, where they are other animals, from snakes to pangolins. Animals
continues in the tropics today. It has also been ideally placed to cause the most damage. Some are also hunted to meet less pressing needs.
responsible for the destruction of some of the of these substances are toxic to all forms of life, Elephants are in demand for their ivory, and rhinos
world’s major natural grasslands, and of marshes but others are more selective. They are passed for their horns. Tigers are hunted for their fur and
and other freshwater wetlands that supply many on when predators eat their prey, and as a result, body parts, which fetch increasingly inflated prices
wild animals with their food. In recent times, they accumulate in species at the top of food as the number of surviving animals falls.
INTRODUCTION
urbanization has become almost as important as chains, such as whales, polar bears, and birds
a threat—towns and cities take up space, and of prey. As well as dissolved pollution, marine
the roads between them use up even more. animals have to cope with solid plastic waste.
The pattern of habitat change is often as Taking decades or even centuries to degrade,
important as its scale. For example, if large areas this forms huge eddies or gyres in the world’s
are preserved, the habitat can often function as oceans, which can often be hundreds of miles
before, although on a reduced scale. But if the across. Small particles of these plastics are often
same amount of habitat is divided up into smaller ingested by animals, weakening them or killing
isolated fragments, the effect on animals is much them outright.
more severe. This is because many species— Animals are also affected by air pollution,
which is created mainly when fuels are burned.
FROM PRAIRIE TO FARMLAND Air pollution causes localized problems such as
North America’s forests acid rain, which can have a highly damaging effect
and prairies underwent an on freshwater fish. On a much broader scale, it is
explosive burst of habitat also responsible for global warming—the biggest
change with the arrival of environmental change of all.
European settlers. Both were
originally home to a wide DEADLY SLICK AWAITING EXPORT
variety of animals, such as Oil spills devastate wildlife. These pelicans were victims of the Packed in tiny wire cages, these parakeets are destined to supply
NATURAL PRAIRIE bears and bison, which were Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico. Oil is toxic the caged-bird trade. The trade is driven by money from dealers
hunted and then displaced and destroys the waterproofing of plumage; without treatment, overseas. However, in the birds’ native countries, collecting birds
as agriculture expanded. affected birds die. may sometimes be the only way of earning a living.
Much of the forest has
grown back, but the prairies
are now almost entirely
devoted to cereal farming:
the original grassland habitat
has largely disappeared.
CEREAL FIELD
particularly predators at the top of food chains—

need extensive territories to survive. These
fragmented habitats are also exposed to more
intrusion and disturbance from humans and
domestic animals, making it much harder for
wild animals to feed and breed.
Pollution
Pollution occurs when chemicals or other agents
disrupt natural ecosystems. Sometimes it has a
natural origin, but in most cases it is the result of
human activity. It can affect animals physically—
for example, entangling them in waste, or clogging
them with oil—but its chemical effects are often
more serious, and harder to identify or predict.
ANIMALS IN DANGER 33
At sea, fish have become victim to the kind of SHRINKING ICE

overexploitation once reserved for animals on Polar bears use winter sea ice as a
land. Plummeting stocks of once-common species, platform for catching seals. With global
such as tuna and cod, are typical of a resource warming, the Arctic Ocean’s ice cover is
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that is often only weakly regulated, or not at all. diminishing, making it more difficult for
Some fish breed at an early age, and can recover polar bears to stock up on food during
from overfishing if the pressure is reduced. But this crucial time of year.
with species like tuna, maturity takes time, so
adult fish can become too rare to guarantee
a future supply of young. Comparatively little is
known about the effect of this relentless harvesting
on marine and coastal life. However, fish play a key
part in many food chains, and when their numbers
fall, the effects are felt by countless other animals,
from seabed invertebrates to fish-eating birds.
Introduced species
Even before Columbus discovered America,
explorers and colonists had spread animals to makes sea ice melt and changes the pattern of nest-building. The passenger pigeon was a
new parts of the world. The process increased oceanic currents, altering climatic conditions on classic example of a communal breeder, nesting
rapidly with the Age of Exploration, and the land. Over the longer term, it makes the oceans in colonies many square miles in extent. Even
result—hundreds of years later—is that the more acid, threatening shelled animals and coral when many thousands were left, it had already
wildlife of isolated regions has been overwhelmed reefs. It also makes sea levels rise, both by melting stepped over the threshold into oblivion.
by a host of intruders, from rats and cats to ice caps, and by making seawater expand. This
mosquitoes. Some of these introduced species expansion happens very slowly, but once started,
cause problems by actively preying on local will take centuries to reverse.
wildlife. Others harm native animals indirectly, by The United Nations Framework Convention on
competing with them for food, or by transmitting Climate Change negotiated the so-called Paris
diseases such as avian malaria. Agreement for cutting greenhouse gas emissions.
In Australia, introduced species have disrupted It entered into force in November 2016 and has, to
the ecology of an entire continent. Kangaroos still date, been ratified by 132 parties. Many see this as
INTRODUCTION
thrive, but many small marsupials now live in a tiny the critical turning point in reducing global warming. EXTINCT IN THE WILD: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED:
SCIMITAR-HORNED ORYX BLACK RHINOCEROS
fraction of their original range, in marginal habitats
that introduced species find difficult to reach.
Similar problems affect New Zealand and Animals on the brink
Madagascar, and on much smaller oceanic The International Union for Conservation of
islands, the situation is often more severe. Their Nature (IUCN) maintains The IUCN Red List
native birds are often wiped out by cats and of Threatened Species™ (see panel, below), which
rats—tenacious newcomers that are extremely is constantly updated by the work of scientists
worldwide. In 2017, nearly 76,000 species were ENDANGERED: QUEEN VULNERABLE: WANDERING
assessed, representing about 3 percent of those ALEXANDRA’S BIRDWING ALBATROSS
that have been formally classified. Although this
is only a small portion of the world’s species,
this sample indicates how life on earth is faring,
how little is known, and how urgent the need
is to assess more species. Comprehensive
assessments have been carried out for birds,
mammals, amphibians, sharks, reef-building
NEAR THREATENED: LEAST CONCERN:
coral, cycads, and conifers, and the statistics RED-EARED SLIDER RUFOUS BETTONG
are disturbing, with 1 in 8 birds, 1 in 4 mammals,
1 in 3 corals, and more than 1 in 3 amphibians THREAT CATEGORIES
UNWELCOME ARRIVALS at risk of extinction. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species places animals in one
Rabbits were introduced to Australia in the mid-19th century for Being “on the brink” means different things for of 8 categories according to the degree of risk they face: the
food and their fur. They quickly spread inland, displacing native different species. Some animals—particularly most threatened species (such as the orangutan and the black
animals and destroying vegetation. In dry areas, soil erosion set invertebrates—can reproduce rapidly when rhinoceros) are “critically endangered”; the next category
in, permanently changing the landscape. conditions are good, which means that they (including the Queen Alexandra’s birdwing) are “endangered,”
have the potential to make a fast comeback. and so on. Details of the categories—which are also used
difficult to eradicate. In this age of rapid travel and But many species on the IUCN Red List are in this book—can be found on page 10.
expanding tourism, the threat from introduced slow breeders, and take a
species is never far away. long time to recover if their
numbers fall. Albatrosses THE IUCN RED LIST
are typical examples: they The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is published by the International
Global warming take up to 7 years to Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The IUCN, founded in 1948 by the
The world’s climate has always changed, but become mature, lay just United Nations, carries out a range of activities aimed at safeguarding the
the current period of rapid warming is without one egg, and often breed natural world. Part of its work is the regular compilation of the IUCN Red
precedent in modern times. Most scientists believe only in alternate years. List, which draws together information provided by over 10,000 scientists
that the cause is increasing levels of atmospheric To make matters more from all over the world; this list has become a global directory to the state
greenhouse gases, caused by human activities. complex, animals cannot of living things on our planet.
Greenhouse gases include water vapor, necessarily breed if they The current IUCN Red List shows that threatened species are often
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and carbon dioxide. find a suitable habitat, and grouped in particular parts of the world. Today’s “hot spots” include East
They make the atmosphere trap outgoing heat, a partner of the opposite Africa, Southeast Asia, and the American tropics. One of the reasons for this
warming up the earth. sex. This is because many is that these regions have a much greater diversity of species than regions
Wildlife has coped with changes in the past, but species breed in groups, farther north or south: the American tropics, for example, are particularly
the speed and severity of this episode could result and rely on the stimulus rich in bird species. In recent years, these areas have seen rapid habitat
in extinction on a worldwide scale. Atmospheric of others around them to change—particularly deforestation—which has come about partly because
warming, in itself, is only part of the story, because trigger essential behavior, an expanding human population needs more land on which to grow food.
global warming has dozens of knock-on effects. It such as courtship and
34 CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION
Using DNA technology, there is even a possibility
that recently extinct species could be “brought
back to life”. However, most conservationists
believe that these techniques—on their own—are
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The negative impact that human beings have on wildlife grows day by day, but not long-term routes to survival. This is partly
because they require a large commitment of time,
so, too, does the impact of conservation. Across the world, organizations big and money, and space. But a more significant problem
small are engaged in a concerted effort to protect nature in its original state, or lies in their outcome: if a species’ natural habitat is
disappearing, captive animals will have no home to
to ensure that we use it in a sustainable way. It is a huge task, and one that raises go to if they are released.
some difficult practical and philosophical questions. Which is the best way of
safeguarding species? How do you go about saving an animal that is on the verge Controlling incomers
of extinction? And, if resources are limited, are some animals more “important” In isolated parts of the world, introduced, or “alien,”
species make life extremely difficult for native
than others? Experts do not always agree on the answers, but there is no doubt animals. Cats, foxes, and rats head the list of these
that conservation is an urgent priority if today’s threatened species are to survive. problematic incomers, although plant-eating
Habitat protection condor, when only about 24 birds were left in

By far the most effective way of safeguarding the wild. During the 1980s, a breeding program
animals is to protect their natural habitats. An was initiated, and all the remaining birds were
animal’s habitat provides everything necessary for caught—a drastic measure that caused
its survival, and in its natural state it can continue considerable controversy at the time. Three
to do this indefinitely as food and energy is passed decades later, the intervention has been vindicated:
from one species to another. the total population has reached over 430, with
This is the thinking behind national parks and more than half this number flying free.
wildlife reserves. Even small parks can be In recent years, new technology has played
effective—particularly when they protect breeding an increasing part in this kind of conservation
grounds—but, in general, the larger the area that work. Satellite tracking of released animals helps
is protected, the more species benefit and the show where they feed and where they breed. EXCLUDING INTRUDERS
INTRODUCTION
greater are the chances that the habitat is truly In Western Australia, this electric fence protects the Peron
self-sustaining. For example, Manú National Peninsula from introduced mammals, such as cats. The entire
READY FOR RELEASE
Park—one of the largest in Peru—includes an peninsula—covering 390 square miles (1,000 square km)—is
Raised in captivity, this California condor may
extraordinary range of habitats from high-altitude to become an “alien-free” haven for endangered marsupials.
one day help swell the population in the wild.
Andean grassland to lowland Amazonian
However, in comparison with life in
rainforest. It is home to more than 200 species of mammals can also cause immense damage. In
captivity, life in the wild can
mammals, over 1,000 species of birds, and even some of the worst-affected regions, such as
be difficult and even
more species of butterflies, making it one of the Australia and New Zealand, conservation
hazardous.
richest tropical reserves in the world. Its success programs are now under way to reduce
is partly due to its remote location, which has this threat.
restricted human settlement, unlike many parts In an island as vast as Australia,
of the Amazon farther east. eradicating feral cats or foxes is not a
feasible goal. But in some parts of the country,
large areas have been fenced off to protect
bandicoots, bilbies, and other vulnerable
marsupials. In these giant enclosures, alien
species are either trapped or controlled by
poison bait. The poisons are substances
ANIMAL APPEAL
One problem with animal conservation
is that our reactions to species differ. For
example, everyone loves giant pandas, but
far fewer like “creepy crawlies”—the
invertebrates that underpin every ecosystem
WATERSIDE VANTAGE POINT on land, and also in the sea. Invertebrates are GIANT
Specially constructed blinds allow visitors to watch birds in essential for making life work, particularly as PANDA
a wetland reserve. After centuries of drainage for agriculture, many of them recycle nutrients on which so
reserves like these are vitally important to many wetland species. many other living things depend. To be
effective, conservation has to protect all
In other parts of the world, national parks and animals in a habitat. These range from
reserves can suffer from their own popularity, so-called “charismatic megafauna”—big
and also from the pressure for resources. In the animals with star-appeal—right down to
Galapagos Islands, for example, conservationists animals that few people see, and that
are engaged in an often difficult struggle to even fewer can name.
balance the needs of wildlife against the needs of
an expanding human population, and increasing
numbers of visitors. POLES APART
The giant panda and the European
longhorn beetle are at opposite ends
Techniques and technology of the spectrum of public interest and
When a species is in immediate danger of concern. While the panda attracts
EUROPEAN
extinction, captive breeding can be a highly funds and media attention, the beetle LONGHORN
effective way of bringing it back from the brink. and its like rarely arouse comment. BEETLE
In 1982, this was the situation with the California
CONSERVATION 35
from native plants, which affect alien species,

but leave native ones unharmed. Killing for
conservation is a difficult and divisive issue,
particularly when the victims are cats that have
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run wild. However, there is no doubt—as far as

Australian marsupials are concerned—that it is
a highly effective measure.
Introduced species are even more of a problem
on offshore islands, where they can devastate land
animals and colonies of nesting birds. Many of the
world’s remotest islands, such as Kerguelen in
the southern Indian Ocean, have been overrun by
rats, which arrived aboard ships several centuries
ago. Rats can be extremely difficult to control and
on Kerguelen at least, eradication programs have
not succeeded. However, on several islands off the
coast of New Zealand, rats have been eradicated
to create safe havens for tuataras—among the
most endangered reptiles in the world. The small
size of these islands makes them ideal “arks,”
because they are relatively easy to keep alien-free.
Legal protection
A host of national laws and international
agreements serve to protect wildlife and
reduce the risk of species being driven toward
extinction. The Convention on International Trade very valuable on the black market, fueling TOURIST ATTRACTION
in Endangered Species (CITES) came into force poaching and illicit trade. Since 1960, a 90 Watched by a group of tourists, a cheetah relaxes in the evening
in 1975, in order to curb trade of living plants percent drop in numbers of black rhinoceroses sunshine. Its tameness is unusual and is a sign that tourism’s
and animals or their products. It protects 35,000 is almost entirely due to poaching—making it intrusion into its habitat is affecting its natural behavior.
species, assigning each to one of three lists (the critically endangered.
INTRODUCTION
so-called Appendices), depending upon the level sharply divided about the use of animals as a
of threat and degree of protection needed. Other resource. In recent years, the African elephant has
international bodies have more specific concerns. Commercial exploitation been a case in point, with different conservation
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was Few people would condone the sale of rhino bodies at odds about the exploitation of ivory. In
set up in 1946 to oversee “sustainable harvesting” horn or tiger bones, but some conservationists this debate, one side believes that the legal sale
of whales, but—in the face of plummeting do believe that—where possible—wild animals of ivory is bound to have a damaging effect on
numbers—introduced a moratorium on should be made to “pay their way”. According elephant numbers. The other side believes that
commercial whaling in 1986. Countries that are to this viewpoint, animals are best conserved if it is carefully controlled, the sale of ivory could
party to international agreements, such as CITES, if they generate income, as this provides actually safeguard the species by generating
have domestic legislation to regulate at a national an incentive for protecting them. There are 2 money to protect it.
level. At the same time national legislation is used main ways by which this can happen; wildlife At present, no one knows whether commerce
to help enforce conservation in protected areas, tourism can be encouraged, with some of the has a real place in wildlife conservation. If it does,
such as national parks. Nearly 15 percent of revenue being used for conservation work; one factor is certain: the income generated by wild
land and just over 1 percent of ocean areas alternatively, animals themselves can be animals will have to benefit local people, as they
are protected by restricting hunting and habitat managed as a resource. are the ones who can make conservation work.
clearing. Illegal activity, nevertheless, continues Wildlife tourism is a booming business, although
to frustrate efforts to conserve some habitats or it has undeniable drawbacks, such as increasing
species. Some wildlife—or their products—are habitat disturbance. But wildlife experts are often CITES
The Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES) has over 120
signatories, and is the most important piece of
international legislation governing the movement
of live animals and animal products across
international borders. CITES completely prohibits
trade in over 400 species, and requires special
permits for trade in others. Some illegally traded
objects are easy to identify, but others can be
distinguished by DNA analysis—a relatively new
technique increasingly used by customs officials.
CITES has been successful in some areas, but
despite increasing vigilance at ports and airports,
smuggling is still
a problem.
BANNED GOODS
All the items shown
in this photograph are
made of turtle shell—
an animal product that
WINNERS AND LOSERS cannot be exported
Almost extinct in the 1930s, the Antarctic fur seal under CITES regulations.
now numbers millions. Its recovery is owed not only to In some countries,
protection from hunting but also to reduced numbers national laws make it
of whales, which compete for krill. illegal to own animals or
objects listed by CITES.
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HABITATS
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The earth is the only place in the

universe known to support life. Like all
other living things, animals occupy a
zone between the lower part of the earth’s
atmosphere and the floors of its oceans.
Although animal life is richest in the warm,
wet conditions of the tropics, some
animals have adapted to life in the hostile
conditions found in arid deserts, high
mountains, and the polar ice caps.
Wherever they live, animals interact with
each other, with other living things, and
with their nonliving surroundings to
produce complex, constantly changing
environments known as habitats. This
section looks at the habitats of the world
and the animals that live in them.
38 WORLD HABITATS
WORLD HABITATS
HABITATS OF THE WORLD
This map shows the distribution of major habitats across the
world, and also cities with populations of 5 million or more. The
habitat distribution shown here is the pattern that would exist
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if man-made changes, resulting from urbanization and the

Seen from space, the most striking feature of the earth is its sheer physical spread of agriculture, had not occurred.
variety. Not only is there dry land and open sea, but there are also mountains,
KEY
plains, rivers, coastal shelves, and deep oceanic trenches. The earth also varies Tropic of Cancer
GRASSLAND
in its climate: in some parts of the world, weeks or months pass by under almost
cloudless skies, while in others, the ground is scoured by icy winds or soaked by DESERT
intense tropical storms. Differences like these create a complex jigsaw puzzle of TROPICAL FOREST
P A C I F I C
varied habitats, enabling the Earth to support a rich diversity of animal life. Some TEMPERATE FOREST Equator
species are highly adaptable, and can survive in a wide range of conditions, but the CONIFEROUS FOREST
O C E A N
vast majority are found in one kind of habitat and nowhere else.
MOUNTAINS
POLAR REGION
What are habitats? RIVERS AND WETLAND
Tropic of Capricorn
In its narrowest sense, a habitat is the environment

in which something lives. For some animals, a CORAL REEF
habitat might be as restricted as a temporary
pool in a desert or as small as a piece of decaying URBAN AREA
wood. In a broader sense—the one used in this
book—a habitat can mean a characteristic
grouping of living things, together with the setting
in which they are found. In ecology, a habitat
defined in this way is known as a biome.
Habitats contain both living and nonliving matter. changes are usually more gradual than they
In some—for example, true desert—living things are inland. However, warmth—or lack of it—still
are thinly scattered, so the nonliving part of the EFFECTS OF CLIMATE determines where some habitats are found. For
environment is dominant. In others, such as forest These two habitats—in Argentina (left) and Chile (right)—are example, reef-building corals do not thrive at
H A B I TAT S
and coral reefs, living things are so abundant that at the same latitude, but they have very different climates, and temperatures of less than about 68º F (20º C), so
they fill all the available space and create habitats therefore very different plant and animal life. The contrast is most reefs are found in the tropics. However, on
for each other. In these habitats, huge numbers of created by the Andes, a mountain barrier that blocks rain- the west coast of Africa and the Americas, reefs
species exist side by side, forming extraordinarily bearing winds. Chile is on the windward side of the Andes. are rare because, although the climate is warm,
complex webs of life. cold currents pass close to the shore. Mangrove
“rainshadow,” to the lee of the mountains, low swamps present a similar pattern: in the Southern
rainfall can produce desert or scrub, where only Hemisphere, they reach as far as South Australia;
Factors that shape habitats drought-tolerant animals can survive. in the Northern Hemisphere, they extend only just
Geology plays a part in shaping habitats, but by Temperature is another climatic factor that has out of the tropics.
far the most important factor is climate. As a result, an important effect both on land and in the sea.
differences in climate—which sometimes occur For example, in the far north, coniferous forest
over remarkably small distances—can have a huge eventually peters out in the face of biting winter Biodiversity
effect on plant and animal life. A classic example frosts. This northern tree line, which runs like a From the earliest days of scientific exploration,
of this occurs where mountain ranges intercept ragged ring around the Arctic, marks the outer naturalists noticed great variations in biodiversity,
rain-bearing winds. On the windward side of the range of crossbills, wood wasps, and many or species richness. In the far north and south,
mountains, heavy rainfall often creates lush forests other animals that depend on conifers for species totals are low compared with the numbers
teeming with all kinds of animal life. But in the survival. On coasts and at sea, temperature found near the equator. Arctic tundra, for example,
is inhabited by just a few hundred species of
insects, while in tropical forests, the total is
CHEMICAL CYCLES probably at least a million. A similar picture—albeit
In all habitats, living things take part in cycles microorganisms plants extract carbon plants and on a smaller scale—is true for mammals and birds.
that shuttle chemical elements between living give off carbon dioxide from air animals give off However, high-latitude habitats make up for their
dioxide during during photosynthesis carbon dioxide
and nonliving matter. About 25 elements are respiration during respiration lack of biodiversity by having some phenomenally
essential to life and, of these, just 4 make up large species populations. The seas around
the bulk of living things. These are hydrogen, Antarctica, for example, possibly harbor tens
oxygen, nitrogen, and—the key element— of millions of crabeater seals—one of the most
carbon. In the nonliving world, carbon can be carbon dioxide numerous wild large mammals on earth.
in atmosphere
found in the atmosphere (as a gas), in water (in
dissolved form), and in the ground (in rocks and
fossil fuels). Plants absorb carbon dioxide from animals
ingest NUMBER OF
the atmosphere, and most other forms of life SPECIES 165
carbon
give off carbon dioxide when they break down compounds 3 110
carbon-containing substances to release from plants
energy. Carbon is also released by burning 10 60
fossil fuels.
55 20
THE CARBON CYCLE 155 1

This diagram shows some of the main pathways in the TROPICAL TREASURY
carbon cycle. The time taken for each part of the cycle The hummingbird family vividly demonstrates the high level
to be completed varies greatly. Carbon may stay in living of species diversity that is to be found in the tropics. Only a
plant and animal carbon compounds
things for only a few days, but it can remain locked up remains broken down enter soil in dead handful of hummingbird species live at high latitudes—and
underground for thousands of years. by microorganisms remains most of these are migrants—but on the equator, the number
of species rises to over 150.
WORLD HABITATS 39
N
O C E A
A R C T I C
Arctic Circl rcle
e Greenland Arctic Ci
surrounded by grassland. Even today, these areas
a
S i b e r i of forest still contain a wider variety of birds than
lai
n
P
tains
na an the relatively new forest that has grown back. Ice

Ca
d ia
n S hiel d pe
E u ro ages also affect sea levels, by locking up water as
N or th
oun
teppe
hiz S
lain s
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irg
ice. When sea levels fall, land habitats expand;
ky M
K
G obi
at P
when they rise, the land is drowned again and

Roc
G re
Mediter ran
ean Hi plants and animals are forced to retreat.
ATLANTIC m
ala
yas Since the last ice age ended, natural
Syrian
Tropic of Cancer changes have not been the only ones that
OCEAN Desert
S a h a ra Arabian have affected the world’s habitats. On a

Peninsula
Ca r ib b e a n local and global scale, human activity
Sea PA C I F I C has had an increasing impact and, as a
Sahel
result, the pattern we now see is partly
OCEAN
man-made. This is especially true of
Equator
Amazon Basin Congo forests, which have been cut back to
Basin make space for agriculture, but it is
INDIAN also true of some grasslands, wetlands,
A and even deserts. In some remote
n
OCEAN
regions—particularly in the far north—the
d
ATLANTIC
e s
Kalahari original pattern still remains, but in

Desert Tropic of Capricorn
OCEAN Great populated regions, it has been
Victoria Desert
Pa
transformed, creating a world where wild
mp
as animals can have difficulty finding a home.
LEVELS OF LIFE
Even in the remotest places on earth, animals
S O U T H E R N O C E A N very rarely live entirely on their own. Instead,
le Antarctic
tic Circ they interact with other individuals, and with
Antarc A N T A R C T I
Ci rcle
C A
other species. Taken together, these interactions
create a range of different ecological levels,
from local populations, communities, and
The reasons for such variation in biodiversity are diving for fish, and needs clear water to spot its ecosystems to the whole biosphere—the sum
still not fully understood, although climate almost prey. The Caribbean is clear, but farther south lies total of all the places where living things can
H A B I TAT S
certainly plays a part. However, in an age in the Amazon River, which pours vast amounts of be found. Because microorganisms are so
which many animal species are endangered, mud-laden water into the sea. For the pelican, this widespread, the biosphere extends high into
biodiversity—and ways of maintaining it—has muddy water is a barrier that cannot be crossed. the atmosphere, and probably several
become an important topic. Tropical forests and Many animals’ distributions are linked to those of miles underground.
coral reefs are especially rich in species, which is particular plants. Extreme examples include the
why so much attention is currently focused on yucca moth, which depends on yucca plants; INDIVIDUAL
preserving them and their animal life. the fig wasp, which develops inside figs; and An individual animal is
countless bees that depend on particular flowers. normally an independent
Not all plant-dependent animals are insects,
Animal distributions however. The robber crab—the largest and
unit that finds its own
food. It often lives within
A glance at the map on this page shows that heaviest terrestrial crustacean—feeds a set home range.
various types of habitat are spread across large predominantly on rotting coconuts, which it
expanses of the world. However, with a few scavenges along the shore. As a result, it is found
POPULATION
exceptions, most of their animals are not. Instead, only where coconuts grow. Mammals can be just
A population is a group
each species has a characteristic distribution, as particular. The giant panda—one of the most
of individuals that belong
which comes about partly through its evolutionary famous examples—depends on about 2 dozen
to the same species,
history (see p.17), and partly as a result of its species of bamboo, which are found only at
live in one area,
way of life. mid-altitudes in the mountains of central China.
and interbreed.
In many cases, an animal’s lifestyle shapes its
distribution in unexpectedly subtle ways. For
example, in the Americas, the brown pelican is Changing habitats COMMUNITY
found all along the western coast, apart from the In nature, habitats change all the time. Forest and A community is a
far north and south; in the east, it does not reach grassland catch fire, rivers burst their banks, collection of populations.
south of the Caribbean. The reason for this is that, and storms batter coral reefs and coasts. Such Although they belong to
unlike its relatives, the brown pelican feeds by unpredictable occurrences are facts of life, and different species, they
animals—along with other living things—have depend on each other
evolved ways of surviving them. Habitats can also for survival.
change in much more profound ways, over much
longer periods of time. Here, the driving force is ECOSYSTEM
usually climate change, a natural process that is An ecosystem is made
triggered by a host of factors, including up of a community and
continental drift. On several occasions in the its physical surroundings.
distant past—most recently about 12,000 years Characteristic ecosystem
ago—the polar ice caps expanded, destroying types are known as
existing habitats and evicting their animals. On biomes (or habitats).
each occasion, when the ice eventually melted,
plants moved back into the empty landscape, and BIOSPHERE
animals followed suit. The biosphere consists
1950 2020 The world’s climates are interrelated, which of all the ecosystems on
IMPOVERISHED RAINFOREST means that changes in one area can have Earth, and therefore all the
Borneo—an island of extraordinary biological richness—had long-term effects all over the globe. For example, places—from the Earth’s
extensive rainforest 60 years ago (left). Deforestation (projected 2020 during the last ice age, the climate in the tropics crust to the atmosphere—
cover, right) not only endangers many species and renders others became drier, and the Amazon rainforest shrank that living things inhabit.
extinct, but can cause erosion and even change local climate. to form scattered “refugia”—islands of forest
40 GRASSLAND
Grassland
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In parts of the world where it is too dry for

trees to grow, yet moist enough to prevent
the land from becoming desert, grasses
are the dominant plants. Grasses are
unusual in that their stems grow from a
point near the ground. This means that GRASSLAND SONGBIRDS,
unlike most other plants, which grow such as the skylark, have
no trees to perch on, so they
from their tips, grasses are unharmed broadcast their songs and
by grazing. In fact, grazing animals calls from the air.
help grasses to maintain their
dominance by stunting the growth
of competing plants. This creates a
vast, open habitat in which there is plenty
of plant food—for those that can digest it—
but little shelter from the elements.
SAIGAS form large herds.
They look and live like true
Temperate grassland antelopes (of which there are
few in temperate grassland).
Before the advent of farming, grassland covered large
parts of the temperate world, notably in the northern
hemisphere. These vast grasslands—which
include the prairies of North America, and
H A B I TAT S
the steppes of Europe and central Asia—

are nearly all in the center of large
landmasses, far away from coasts and their
moisture-laden winds. Summers are often
warm, but winters can be long and cold,
with biting winds.
An unusual feature of this kind of habitat is that THE AMERICAN BISON,
GROUND
now relatively rare, is a large,

the majority of the plant matter is hidden away below
heavy grazer that once had
ground—the exact opposite of the situation elsewhere a profound effect on the
on land. This is because ecology of the prairies.
grass plants direct much
more energy into growing
roots than into producing
leaves, and their roots form
a continuous mat that protects
the surface of the ground by
holding the soil in place. If
THE LARGEST AREAS of grassland is burned, or hit by
temperate grassland are drought, it can soon recover GRASSLAND
found in North America, South because the grass can draw REPTILES, such as this
America, eastern Europe, on its buried reserves in sand lizard, spend the
and central and eastern Asia. order to start growing again. winter underground and
are active in summer.
The root mat makes a
useful source of food for insects and other small
animals. It is also a perfect medium for burrowers,
because it is easy to dig through and, unlike loose
soil, rarely caves in.
Above ground, the food supply is closely tied to the
seasons. In temperate grassland, most of the year’s
water usually comes in the form of spring rain or
melting snow. This creates a flush of growth during
spring and early summer, which is the time that most
grazing animals breed. By late summer, the grass is
brown and dry, although for a while grass seeds make
SOME BIRDS, such as
a valuable fall harvest. Winter is a difficult time for all
this burrowing owl, lay
grassland animals, but particularly for grazers because their eggs in underground
they often have to survive on low-grade food that is burrows because there are
hidden under snow. no trees to provide nest holes.
GRASSLAND 41
Savanna
Savanna is tropical or subtropical grassland that
contains scattered shrubs and trees. The grasslands
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of east Africa are a familiar example, with their diverse

wildlife and distinctive vegetation (particularly the
flat-topped acacia trees). Compared with temperate
grassland, savanna is very variable: in some savanna
habitats, trees are few and far between; in others, they
form scattered thickets, merging into open woodland.
AERIAL SCAVENGERS, such Trees have a major impact on the savanna’s animal
as this African white-backed life. This is because they
TREES AND SHRUBS

vulture, exploit produce a wide variety of
the savanna’s food, including wood, leaves,
strong thermals, flowers, and seeds; and they
uninterrupted views,
also create shelter and
and abundance
of wildlife. breeding sites for animals
that live off the ground. The
balance between trees and
grass is a delicate one that SAVANNA IS FOUND mainly
is sometimes changed by in Central and South America,
the animals themselves. For tropical Africa, southern Asia,
example, elephants destroy and northern Australia.
trees by pushing them over
so that they can reach their leaves. However,
elephants also help trees reproduce because
they ingest the trees’ seeds, which are then passed
in their dung—an ideal medium for promoting seed
growth. Browsing mammals often keep trees in
check by nibbling saplings before they have had
H A B I TAT S
a chance to become established. Fire also helps
THE GIRAFFE’S extraordinary
reach is responsible for the hold back trees, and its effect is most apparent
umbrella-like shape of many in places where trees grow close together.
African grassland trees. Unlike temperate grassland habitats, savanna is
usually warm all year round. There is often a long
dry season, when most trees lose their leaves,
followed by a wet, or “rainy,” season, which produces
a rapid burst of growth that turns the landscape
green. During this wet season, plant-eating animals
rarely have to contend with a shortage of food; in
the dry season, the threat of starvation is never far
away, and many animals travel long distances to
find water and food.
FLIGHTLESS SOIL EROSION

birds, such as the At one time, natural grassland covered about two-fifths
ostrich, thrive in savanna, of the earth’s land surface. With the spread of agriculture,
where running is an effective much of this has been taken over for growing crops or raising
means of escape. livestock, leaving only small remnants with their original
vegetation and wildlife. One of the side effects of this process
has been a great increase in soil erosion. Grasses gradually
build up soil, and hold it together with their fibrous, matlike
roots. If they are removed, the soil is exposed to the wind and
rain, which can strip it
away. Erosion is a major
problem for agriculture,
because soil takes so long
to form. In the short term,
THE CHEETAH attacks
it cannot be replaced.
in the open, so it relies on
GROUND
speed, rather than stalking,

to enable it to make a kill.
DEEP CUTS
Seen here in Africa,
soil erosion can form
characterstic V-shaped
TERMITES gullies several yards deep.
carry plant matter Trees fall in when their
below ground, helping roots are undermined.
to recycle vital nutrients.
42 LIFE IN GRASSLAND
Life in grassland
Despite centuries of human disturbance, grassland supports
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some of the largest concentrations of animal life on earth.

Survival in grassland habitats is far from easy, however: aside
from the lack of shelter and plant diversity, there are hazards
such as drought and fire to contend with. Added to this is
the ever-present risk of attack by some of the world’s
fastest and most powerful predators.
Herding
Life in open grassland is often dangerous
because there are few places to hide. To
increase their chances of survival, many large
plant eaters live in herds. This makes it more
difficult for predators to attack, because while
most members of the herd are eating, some
are always on the lookout for danger.
Today’s largest herds are found on Africa’s
plains. Here, migrating wildebeest can form
herds over a quarter of a million strong, and 25
miles (40 km) long, although even these herds
are small compared with some that existed in
the past. During the 19th century, springbok Movement
herds in southern Africa sometimes contained In grassland and
more than 10 million animals. In North America, savanna, there is a
H A B I TAT S
bison herds probably reached similar sizes premium on speed. It is no

before hunting brought the species to the accident that the world’s fastest
edge of extinction. land animals, such as the cheetah and
Life in herds does have the pronghorn, are found in this habitat.
its problems, one of which Natural selection favours predators that are
is the risk that an animal fast enough to catch food, and prey animals Living underground
might wander off and become that are fast enough to escape. Some grassland animals find safety not by
lost. Most herding species have Most of the fast runners are mammals; running away but by retreating into burrows
scent glands on their hooves however, grassland also has nature’s fastest- below ground. There, they can stay out of
so that if an animal becomes running birds, including ostriches, rheas, and reach of most predators and find some
isolated it can follow the emus—giant species that have lost the ability protection from the worst of the elements.
scent tracks to rejoin the herd. to fly. These birds can reach speeds of up to Subterranean animals include a wide variety
Another problem is giving birth. 44 mph (70 kph). More importantly, they are of species, ranging from mammals to insects.
To prevent their young able to maintain such speeds for up to 30 Some animals, particularly snakes, do not
from being trampled minutes—long enough to outrun most of their excavate their own burrows; instead, they
or attacked, many enemies unless a predator launches an attack adopt existing ones. The largest burrows,
grazers give birth from a very close range. made by African aardvarks, are big enough
in cover, and rejoin Despite the many fast runners, grassland to accomodate a person, and are a serious
the herd a few life often appears tranquil. This is because hazard to vehicles; the most extensive are
weeks later. Some, running is extremely energy-intensive, and made by prairie dogs and other rodents.
however, are born animals run only when they absolutely have Before farming became widespread in North
in the open and have to. Prey animals have invisible “security
to be able to keep up thresholds” that vary according to the threat MAKING A HOME
with the herd when they they face. For example, gazelles often let BELOW GROUND
A black-tailed prairie
are just a few hours old. lions approach to within about 650 ft (200 m)
dog collects grass to
because they are instinctively aware line a nesting chamber.
that lions that are visible at this distance The colony, or town,
are unlikely to be stalking prey. consists of tunnels
A solitary cheetah, on the other up to 16 ft (5 m) deep.
hand, will send a gazelle herd
entrance entrance nest chamber passing
sprinting, even if it is seen to mound place
be 4 times farther away.
FLIGHTLESS BIRDS
Standing guard over its chicks, a greater rhea
watches for danger. Like other flightless birds
that live in grassland, it uses its height and
large eyes to spot potential predators at a
distance so that it has time to run for safety. PRAIRIE-DOG BURROWS
LIFE IN GRASSLAND 43
MIGRATING WILDEBEEST FIRE

In Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park, Fires, ignited by lightning, are a natural feature
wildebeest migrate in a cyclical path to take of grassland life, clearing away dead growth,
advantage of fresh plant growth at different
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and allowing fresh grass to sprout. In the long

times of the year. They spend the wet season run, fires help grassland wildlife, but while they
in open grassland, and the dry season in are burning they can be lethal. As the flame front
wooded savanna. advances, most animals react by running or flying
for safety, often abandoning their usual caution in
an urgent bid to escape. Some animals, such as
bustards and storks, have learned to make the
most of this frenzied exodus from the flames. They
gather close to fires and snap up insects and other FEEDING BY THE FLAMES
small animals as they scurry away; and once the A European white stork searches for small animals fleeing
fire has moved on, they pick over the charred before an advancing fire. Soaring high over the plains, the
ground for casualties. stork will have been attracted by the fire’s smoke.
America’s prairies, some prairie-dog burrow INSECT EATER

systems covered several thousand square The giant anteater uses its powerful
claws to break open termite mounds
miles and housed millions of animals.
and reach the insects inside.
Termites are also accomplished builders,
constructing giant, elaborate, subterranean
nests that extend high above ground level.
These nests house large, cooperative
communities that can contain over 30 million
inhabitants. Along with ants, they make up
a very large part of the habitat’s animal life,
and provide food for the large insect eaters.
Feeding
H A B I TAT S
Although grass is rich in nutrients and easy
to find, it is difficult to digest. Many mammals,
including humans, cannot break it down
at all because it contains large amounts of
cellulose—a carbohydrate that most animals COLLECTING DUNG
cannot digest. Grazing mammals, however, Dung beetles make use
have special microorganisms in the gut that of the large amount of
dung produced by
break down cellulose so that the body is able
grazing mammals. They
to use it. Some nonmammal species also use gather the dung into
microbes to digest plant material. In tropical balls, which they then
savanna, for example, termites rely on them roll away and bury
to break down dead leaves and wood. below ground where it
The animals that are most efficient at using is used as food for the
cellulose are ruminant mammals—antelopes, beetles’ grubs.
buffaloes, and giraffes, for example—which
helps to explain why these animals dominate Scavengers, which also play an important
grasslands. The ruminant’s complex stomach part in the habitat’s ecology, include birds
acts like a fermentation tank, working to as well as coyotes, jackals, and hyenas. Most
extract the maximum amount of nutrients airborne scavengers are vultures, but there
from food. The animal assists in the process are several species of scavenging storks,
by regurgitating its food and chewing it a one of which is the marabou stork.
second time, making it even easier to break
esophagus reticulum
down. Nonruminant plant eaters, such as
rumen omasum
zebras, have less efficient digestive systems
and must therefore eat more to survive. abomasum cecum
In pure grassland, plant eaters compete
for the same food, although each may have
a preference for a different type of grass.
In savanna, the presence of trees and
shrubs makes for a wider range of food,
and browsing mammals have minimized
competition further by evolving specific ways
of feeding. This means that a remarkable
number of species can live side by side. For DIGESTING GRASS
The largest of the 4 chambers in a buffalo’s stomach, the rumen,
example, the small Kirk’s dik dik antelope
REACHING FOR FOOD contains millions of bacteria and protozoans. These simple
Unlike most antelopes, the gerenuk can stand on its back legs.
feeds on shoots and fruit, and rarely touches organisms produce cellulose-splitting enzymes that turn cellulose
This means that although it measures only about 39 in (1 m) grass, while the much larger eland will eat into simple nutrients that can then be absorbed. The blue arrows
at the shoulder, it can browse leaves over 61⁄2 ft (2 m) up— almost anything from fruit and seeds to roots show passage of food through the rumen, before regurgitation.
much higher than the reach of other antelopes of similar size. scraped up from the ground. Then it is passed on for final digestion, as shown by the red arrows.
44 DESERT
Desert
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Deserts are places of extremes.

Besides being dry, they experience SANDGROUSE
intense sunshine, and a greater daily overcome the
problem of supplying
temperature range than any other land water to nestlings by
habitat. Rain—when it comes—typically transporting it in their
breast feathers.
falls in brief but torrential downpours,
while strong winds pick up sand and grit,
carrying it almost horizontally through the
air. Although no 2 deserts are identical,
true desert is usually defined as having
less than 6 in (15 cm) of rainfall a year.
Semidesert has more rainfall—up to 16 in
(40 cm) a year—which typically falls
during a relatively short spring or wet THE SCIMITAR-HORNED ORYX,
season followed by months of drought. like other nondrinkers, can get
all the water it needs from
its food.
True desert
Most of the world’s true desert is found
in 2 belts, one straddling each of the
tropics. Here, zones of high atmospheric
pressure persist for months at a time,
H A B I TAT S
preventing low-pressure air from bringing

in rain. Desert also forms where mountains
block rain-bearing winds, and where cold,
GROUND
THE FENNEC FOX is the smallest

coastal currents chill the air so that it carries member of the dog family and
very little moisture inland. survives in the Sahara and Sahel
In true desert, the amount of rain is so meager, regions of Africa.
and so unpredictable, that very few plants
can survive. The ones that do—such as cacti
and other succulents—are highly effective at
collecting and conserving what little water nature
provides: they have large
networks of shallow roots, THE THORNY DEVIL has
which drain the surrounding protective spines in addition
ground so thoroughly that, to the good camouflage that
often, nothing else can other slow-moving ground
dwellers often depend
grow near by.
on for survival.
For animals, this arid
environment creates
TRUE DESERT occurs at some interesting
midlatitudes in the northern effects. With so few
and southern hemispheres, plants, there is very
and it can have less than 2 in little soil, which
(5 cm) of rain a year. severely limits
invertebrate life. Most DESERT
small animals, such as insects, are found either SNAKES, such as
on the plants themselves or in the debris that the desert horned viper,
accumulates immediately beneath them. Larger will pursue their prey into
animals, such as reptiles and rodents, venture away their burrows.
from these pockets of greenery, but even they have
to be careful to avoid the worst of the daytime heat.
Lack of vegetation means that most of the ground
is exposed. Bare ground absorbs warmth very quickly
when the sun rises, and reradiates it once the sun
has set. The dry air accentuates this effect, allowing
daytime surface temperatures to soar to over 158º F COUCH’S SPADEFOOT TOAD is
(70° C). As a result, most animals living in true desert one of the desert frogs and
are active after dark. During the day, they hide away, toads that spend most of their
leaving little sign of themselves other than their tracks. lives underground.
DESERT 45
Semidesert
Compared with true desert, semidesert is more
widespread, and it is also much more biologically
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productive. It is found in every continent, including

some regions far outside the tropics.
The modest but nevertheless reliable rainfall that
semidesert receives has a dramatic effect on the
DESERT BATS play a vital
landscape and the types of animals that it can support.
ecological role
because they feed Plants often grow in profusion, creating tangled
on insects and thickets of vegetation that
pollinate flowers. provide plenty of cover.
There are woody species,
which store most of their
water in underground roots,
and fleshy succulents, which
store it above ground in their
PLANT LAYER
stems and leaves. Most of
these desert species are well SEMIDESERT is most
SEMIDESERT BIRDS, such
protected from plant eaters— widespread in the world’s
as the roadrunner, often nest
among spiny plants to protect
cacti, for example, have major landmasses, and it
their young from predators. extremely sharp spines, while extends well into the temperate
spurges exude a poisonous zone in both hemispheres.
milky sap when they are
damaged—but, for animals that can overcome
these defenses, they are an important source of
food. Semidesert also has plants known as desert
ephemerals, which spring up rapidly after rain, flower,
set seed, and then die. This short life cycle produces
extra fresh food for animals, and adds to the stock of
H A B I TAT S
seeds scattered over the desert floor.
While some semideserts are warm or hot throughout
the year, others are surprisingly cold in winter. In the
deserts of central Asia, and in the northern parts of
America’s Great Basin—the desert region between
the Rocky Mountains and the coastal ranges farther
west—temperatures can fall to -22º F (-30º C). In these
areas, animals need protection against winter cold as
well as against summer heat: small animals, such
as insects, usually become dormant in winter, and
many burrowing mammals hibernate until the spring.
THE MEERKAT lives in large
colonies. Its varied diet and
cooperative foraging technique
help it survive when food DESERTIFICATION
is scarce. The world’s desert regions constantly shift, because
rainfall patterns change as time goes by. These changes
are generally very slow, which gives wildlife time to adjust.
However, deserts can also be created by human activities—
particularly poor farming practices, such as overstocking
with cattle or goats. This result, called desertification,
currently affects many parts of the world, from China and
California to the Sahel—the arid region to the south of
the Sahara Desert.
Desertification
THE LOCUST’S migratory reduces plant cover
lifestyle is an adaptation to a and speeds up
habitat where food supplies erosion, driving out
are erratic and unpredictable.
GROUND
animals that normally

survive in dry
habitats. Once it
has occurred, it is
difficult to reverse.
SAND STORM
Looming high into the
sky, a vast cloud of sand
approaches a desert
town. A powerful storm
TARANTULAS hunt mainly by can displace millions of
touch, enabling them to find tons of sand.
their prey after dark.
46 LIFE IN DESERT
Life in desert
example, constructs underground granaries
that contain up to 11 lb (5 kg) of seeds. But for
predators, and for animals that browse on
In a habitat where moisture is scarce, obtaining and conserving water are every shrubs, creating such larders is not possible.
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Their food is difficult to collect and to transport,

animal’s top priorities. Desert animals practice a tight “water economy,” which and even if it could be hoarded it would be
means collecting water wherever they can, and minimizing water loss wherever unlikely to remain usable for more than just
possible. However, being economical with water is not in itself enough to a few days. The answer is to store food inside
guarantee survival: desert species have had to evolve various other adaptations the body. The classic example of this is the
camel, which stores surplus food, in the form
to enable them to cope with a wide range of temperatures and the ever-present of fat, in its hump. Several other species, such
threat of food shortage. As a result, these animals are able to live in some of the as the Gila monster and fat-tailed dunnart,
driest places on earth. store food in their tails.
Coping with heat and cold

Conserving water For drinkers and nondrinkers alike, water In desert, the temperature rarely stays steady
Most deserts have a scattering of oases, has to be eked out to make sure that it lasts. for more than a few hours, and it can reach
where animals gather to drink. Some species Compared with animals from other habitats, extremes of both heat and cold very quickly.
need to drink daily, which restricts how far they desert species lose very little moisture in their Humans lose excess heat by sweating, but
can roam from an oasis. Others can survive urine and droppings, and only a small amount at very high temperatures, this cooling system
on their on-board reserves for days or even is released from their skin and in their breath. can use as much as 35 fl. oz (1 liter) of water
weeks, depending on the temperature. A Desert species are also good at withstanding an hour—far more than any desert animal
remarkable feature of desert life is that some dehydration. The dromedary, or one-humped could afford.
animals can manage without drinking at all. camel, can lose nearly one half of its body Desert animals tackle the heat problem
Instead, they get all their water from their food. water and survive. For humans, losing just in 2 ways: by reducing the heat they absorb,
Some extract it from the moisture contained a fifth can be fatal. and by increasing the heat they give out.
in food; but most use the food to manufacture Light-colored skin or fur reflects some of the
metabolic water, which is created by chemical Storing food sun’s rays, minimizing heat absorption; but a
reactions when the energy in food is released. To enable them to cope with erratic food much more effective method—used by many
H A B I TAT S
Seed-eating rodents are expert at this: although supplies, many animals keep their own desert animals—is to avoid the most intense
their food looks dry, they are able to metabolize food reserves. Some do this by hiding food heat by being nocturnal, spending the day
all the water they need. away. The North American kangaroo rat, for sheltering underground. Burrows do not have
to be very deep to make a difference: while the
moisture in water from metabolism (such as desert surface may be too hot to touch, the
food (10%) oxidation) inside cells (90%) RAPID REFILL
ground just a few inches below it will be
After going without water for several days, a camel can
drink over 11 gallons (50 liters) in just a few minutes. It also
relatively cool.
WATER IN metabolizes water from surplus food, laid down as fat in its Getting rid of excess heat is more difficult,
hump. Its salt tolerance is high, which is useful in a habitat particularly when an animal’s body temperature
where water is often brackish. is dangerously high. Lizards and snakes are
urine moisture in moisture lost from skin
(23%) droppings (4%) and in breath (73%)
WATER OUT
WATER BALANCE
This diagram illustrates how a kangaroo rat survives entirely on
the water in its food. The water taken in has to balance that which
is lost to prevent the animal from becoming dehydrated.
WATER-STORING FROG
The Australian water-holding frog stores water in its bladder and
beneath its skin. To prevent this water from drying out, the frog
then seals itself in a semipermeable cocoon underground.
LIFE IN DESERT 47
˚F ˚C COLD DESERT extremely cold. Animals have various ways of shrimp eggs hatch. Once active, these animals
86 30
77 25 This graph shows coping with this. Most reptiles hibernate, while immediately set about finding mates because
68 20 the average annual birds often fly to warmer climates. Mammals they have to complete their life cycles before
59 15 temperature on the keep warm by growing thick fur, or by the pools dry up again.
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50 10 western edge of
41 -5 sheltering underground.
the Gobi Desert.
32 -10 MOVING ON SAND
From November
23
14
-15
-20 through to March, Explosive breeding Flaps of skin between the web-footed
gecko’s toes make for snowshoelike
5 -25 temperatures fall
Desert animals often have highly variable feet that allow it to run across dunes.
-15J F M A M J J A S O N D below freezing.
breeding seasons. Instead of reproducing
at a fixed time of year, many produce young ATTACK FROM BELOW
when there is the best chance of finding food. Guided by vibrations overhead, this
Female kangaroos, for example, give birth marsupial mole has emerged from
extremely regularly when food is plentiful, its burrow to ambush a gecko.
but when food is scarce they stop breeding
entirely. This flexible system is an efficient way
of using resources because it prevents parents
having to tend hungry youngsters when they
are hungry themselves.
Some desert species carry irregular breeding
to extremes. Desert wildlife includes a number
of animals that, paradoxically, live or breed in
water and, for those species, reproducing is
a highly unpredictable and time-sensitive
business. Such animals include burrowing
frogs and toads, and also freshwater shrimps
that live in temporary pools. For months or
even years at a time, they are an invisible part Movement
of desert wildlife, with the amphibian species Desert sand makes life difficult for animals on
CHANGING COAT
In the deserts of central Asia, freezing winters are followed lying hidden underground, and the shrimps the move. Large animals sink into it, while small
H A B I TAT S
by soaring temperatures in spring. The Bactrian camel manages present only as eggs in dried-up ground. But ones struggle to climb up and down slopes of
by growing a thick coat that falls off as soon as the spring warm immediately after a heavy storm, the frogs and shifting grains. To combat the problem, some
up begins. This camel is about halfway through this process. toads dig their way to the surface, and the animals, such as golden and marsupial moles,
move through the sand rather than above it.
often described as “cold-blooded,” but this Others, such as camels and geckos, have
actually means that their body temperature extra large feet, which help to spread their
rises and falls with that of their surroundings. body weight over the surface of the sand and
Although they thrive in warm habitats, and can so increase stability. Sidewinding snakes have
survive with a body temperature of up to 111° F a different solution: they throw themselves
(44° C), they often have to sit out the hottest forwards in a succession of sideways jumps,
part of the day in shade. Some desert birds leaving a characteristic pattern of J-shaped
cool down by panting, which involves fluttering tracks. In addition to saving energy, this method
the flap of skin over their throats. Desert helps to minimize contact with hot ground.
kangaroos and wallabies lick their front legs, Some insects and lizards have learned to
covering them with saliva. As the saliva tolerate hot ground by alternating the feet that
LIFE IN BRIEF
evaporates, the animal’s blood cools down. Trapped in a rapidly shrinking desert pool, these adult tadpole
are in contact with the ground at any one time.
In high-latitude desert regions, such as shrimps have only a few days to live, but the eggs they leave Having long legs also helps as they hold the
the Gobi Desert of central Asia and the Great behind can survive in a dried-out state for several years—long animal’s body away from the sand’s surface,
Basin Desert of North America, winter can be enough to last until the next heavy storm, when they will hatch. where the heat is fiercest.
NOMADIC ANIMALS
Where food and water supply is patchy,
some animals adopt a wandering lifestyle.
This is common in desert habitats,
especially in animals that can fly. Desert
locusts are famous for their huge
nomadic swarms, and some desert
birds, particularly seed eaters, form
large nomadic flocks. Unlike migrants,
nomadic animals do not follow fixed
routes—the weather often dictates
their course—and they breed erratically,
wherever they find a good food supply.
WILD BUDGERIGARS
NOCTURNAL ACTIVITY Australia’s nomadic birds include the budgerigar, the cockatiel,
Desert jerboas are typical of the small rodents that live in dry and several pigeon species. Budgerigars can breed when just
habitats. They are entirely nocturnal, and feed mainly on seeds. one month old; and, since parents can raise several families
Jerboas can travel over 6 miles (10 km) in their search for food, in quick succession, flocks can build to prodigious numbers.
hopping on their long back legs and balancing with their tails.
48 TROPICAL FOREST
Tropical
EMERGENTS
forest
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FOREST EAGLES have broad

Forests have flourished in the tropics
wings that enable them to
for longer than they have existed glide through the canopy
anywhere else on earth, which in their search for prey.
helps to explain why the animal

species that live there outnumber
those of all other land habitats
combined. Most large tropical
forest animals have been identified
and classified, but the invertebrate life is
so diverse that the task of cataloguing it
SLOTHS spend most of their
will never be complete. There are 2 main lives suspended from branches
types of tropical forests: rain forest, which in the forest canopy, relying on
CANOPY
camouflage to avoid attack.
is closest to the equator; and seasonal,
or monsoon, forest, which grows toward
the edges of the tropical belt.
Tropical rain forest

Near the equator, the climate is warm and moist all
H A B I TAT S
year round, creating ideal conditions for plant growth. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
As a result, trees and other forest plants grow almost harbors a greater variety
of tree frogs than any
incessantly in an endless competition for light. Some
other habitat.
plants put all their resources into growing towering
trunks, while others are adapted for survival in partial
shade. As a result of these different growth patterns,
the forest is divided into clearly defined layers, each
with its own characteristic animal species.
The highest layer, at about 245 ft (75 m), consists of
giant, isolated trees called emergents. These provide
nest sites for predatory birds and feeding platforms
for monkeys. Beneath this
level is the canopy, where
copious light, combined with
some protection provided by HOWLER MONKEYS
the emergents, results in a of South America’s rain forest
continuous layer of branches are among the few primates
UNDERSTORY
and lush foliage up to 65 ft that survive

on leaves.
(20 m) deep. This layer feeds
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST or harbors most of the forest’s
is found near the equator, animal life. Below the canopy
where annual rainfall exceeds is the understory—a more
81⁄4 ft (2.5 m) and is spread open layer made up of
throughout the year. LEAFCUTTER ANTS
shade-tolerant trees. On the are found at all levels in rain
forest floor, leaf litter is food for forest, from the ground
some very small animals as well as support for plants to the highest tree tops.
and saplings that grow where sufficient light filters
through from above.
This zonal pattern is characteristic of lowland rain
forest (the most common rain forest type). At
higher altitudes, the trees are lower and the
layers are more compressed—an effect that is
exacerbated as altitude increases until eventually
the trees form elfin forests little more than head
high. Soil is also an important factor in shaping the
FOREST FLOOR
TAPIRS, and other hoofed

forest. In some parts of the tropics, such as the Rio mammals, gather fallen
Negro region of South America, infertile sand results fruit from the tropical
in the growth of stunted trees with leathery leaves. forest floor.
TROPICAL FOREST 49
Seasonal (monsoon) forest

Unlike rain forest, where the climate is very stable,
seasonal forest grows where rainfall is concentrated
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into a wet, or rainy season, which is known as a

monsoon. Up to 81⁄4 ft (2.5 m) of rain can fall in just
3 months—as much as some tropical rain forests
receive throughout the whole year. As a consequence,
seasonal forest is not as tall as tropical rain forest and,
CANOPY
typically, the canopy is more open and extends farther
HORNBILLS use their
long bill to collect fruit toward the forest floor.
growing on the high branches Immediately after the
in seasonal forest. In tropical monsoon, seasonal forest
rain forest, toucans feed in is lush and green; but in the
the same way. long dry season that follows,
many of the trees shed their
leaves, and the piercing
sunlight is able to reach
through the bare SEASONAL FOREST grows
branches to the on either side of the equator.
ground. Some The dry season lasts longer
seasonal forest trees are the farther the region is from
unusual in that they flower the equator.
FOR STICK INSECTS
and fruit after losing their
and leaf insects,
highly developed leaves. Where this happens, birds, insects, and
camouflage is the mammals congregate in large numbers to feed. In
key to survival in the rainy season, the forest’s animals are well hidden
seasonal forest. by the foliage; once the leaves have fallen, they
become much easier to find.
FRUIT BATS, the
Despite the yearly cycle of deluge and drought,
H A B I TAT S
world’s largest
bats, are almost the animal life of seasonal forest is some of the
all found most numerous and varied in the world. In
in tropical southern Asia, which has the largest area of this
forest habitats. type of forest, the habitat supports elephants,
monkeys, leopards, and also tigers. In Asia’s seasonal
forests, there are some spectacular birds, including
giant hornbills, and some of the world’s largest snakes.
In Africa, seasonal forests abound with browsing
UNDERSTORY
antelopes while, in Central America, they are inhabited

by pumas, coatis, and white-tailed deer. Most of these
animals breed during the wet season, when they can
THE ATLAS MOTH is found in
seasonal forest, as are many take advantage of the abundant supply of fresh leaves.
of the world’s other large,
winged insects.
DEFORESTATION
The world’s tropical forests are being cleared at a
rate unparalleled in human history. About half the
original cover has been destroyed in the last 50
years, reducing the amount of carbon locked up
in trees, which in turn boosts climate change. In many
tropical countries, large areas of forest now have legal
protection, but with growing pressure for farmland
and lumber, controls are often difficult to enforce.
Tropical deforestation is also fueled by the
FOREST CATS make up
international demand for commodities such as cocoa,
more than half of the world’s
rubber, and palm oil—an ingredient of biofuels, soap, and
cat species. The tiger is the
many processed
largest and one of the
foods. These are
most endangered.
often grown in
plantations on
formerly forested land.
FORMER FOREST
FOREST FLOOR
Tropical forest clearance

follows the pattern set
in forests in other parts of
the world, but its impact
SNAKES in seasonal forest on plants and animals is
include species that hunt on greater because there are
the ground, and those that so many species at stake.
climb trees to search for prey.
50 LIFE IN TROPICAL FOREST
Life in tropical forest inflated

vocal sac
Some tropical forest animals spend all their time on the ground. For most,
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however, daily life involves getting around among trees. The canopy holds most
of the forest’s food, so an animal that is good at moving around in the tree tops
has the greatest chance of thriving. Some animals are so well adapted to life
in the trees—breeding as well as feeding there—that they very rarely have to
visit the forest floor.
Moving in trees travel underneath the branches by swinging

Small animals need relatively few special hand-over-hand in a breathtakingly acrobatic
adaptations for moving about in trees. Ants, manner. This unusual but highly effective form PRIVATE CALL
for example, are so light that it makes little of movement is called brachiation. With its vocal sac inflated, a male tree frog calls to deter rival
difference to them whether they are traveling Tropical forest harbors a huge variety of flying males and to attract potential mates. Female frogs react only
up and down trees or across the forest floor. animals—birds, bats, and flying insects—that to the call sign of their own species; and the louder and
But for larger animals, such as apes, monkeys, swoop or hover among the tree tops. However, longer a male calls, the more likely females are to respond.
and other primates, climbing is a dangerous during the course of evolution, many unrelated
occupation: if they lose their grip—as animals, including mammals, frogs, and even mammals and birds, each species of tree frog
occasionally happens—they risk a fatal fall. snakes, have developed winglike flaps of skin has its own characteristic call: some produce
Most primates climb by running or leaping that enable them to glide. Some of these a short metallic “tink”; others generate a
along the tops of branches, often using familiar gliders can travel over 330 ft (100 m) from tree sustained trilling that sounds like machinery.
routes that act like highways through the trees. to tree and, remarkably, many of them are Signaling with sound can be dangerous
Monkeys follow these routes mainly by sight, most active after dark. because it can attract predators as well as
but many of the more primitive primates, such potential mates. Tree frogs and cicadas
as bushbabies, move Communication minimize the problem by pitching their calls so
around after dark, In any kind of forest, animals face problems that the source is very difficult to locate. Other
H A B I TAT S
identifying their keeping in touch. In the canopy, leaves and animals, including many mammals and flying
pathways partly by branches make it difficult to see for more than insects, avoid the problem by using scent to
smell. Gibbons are a few yards, while tree trunks get in the way on stay in touch. One great advantage of scent
different again: they the ground. As a result, many forest animals is that it lingers: for example, in marking its
rely on sound and scent, rather than visual territory, a jaguar or okapi leaves a signal
PREHENSILE TAILS that will last for several days.
Climbing snakes—such signals, to claim territories and attract partners.
as this emerald tree boa—use Some of the loudest animals in the world live in
their tails to clamp themselves tropical forest. They include howler Keeping out of danger
to branches. The front of monkeys, bellbirds, parrots, Tropical forest abounds with camouflaged
the snake’s body folds up, cicadas, and an animals as well as species that mimic others.
ready to straighten out as
enormous variety of Animals that use camouflage—chiefly insects
it strikes anything that
comes within reach.
tree frogs. Like and spiders, but also snakes, lizards, frogs, and
toads—resemble a huge variety of inanimate
objects, from bark, thorns, and bird droppings
to branches and fallen leaves. Many animals
use camouflage to avoid being spotted and
eaten, but some predators also use it to enable
them to ambush their prey.
Mimicry, in which one species “pretends”
to be another, is a subtler means of avoiding
attack. It involves a relatively harmless species
evolving to look like one that is dangerous,
and it is most common in invertebrates.
Some tropical forest spiders, for example,
closely resemble stinging ants and even move
like them. Matters are complicated where
several species come to look alike. Some
groups of unrelated butterflies, which contain
poisons that are distasteful to birds, imitate
each other; thus they have evolved the insect
equivalent of a shared warning trademark.
ARM OVER ARM Warning signals are most developed in
Swinging, or “brachiation,” is a highly extremely toxic animals. For example, unlike
efficient way of moving around in trees. other frogs, tiny poison dart frogs hop
This lar gibbon can leap over 16 ft (5 m) nonchalantly about the forest floor, relying
between hand holds and can easily on their extraordinarily vivid colors to warn
overtake someone running on the ground.
other animals that they are not merely
unpalatable but highly dangerous to eat.
LIFE IN TROPICAL FOREST 51
DOUBLE PROTECTION have had a chance to build up inside them.

South American thorn bugs not only Insects are the most prolific leaf eaters, but
look like thorns but feel like them, some of the forest’s larger animals also rely
too. The thornlike extension
on this difficult diet. They include several kinds
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on the thorax both disguises

them and makes them of monkeys and sloths, and the hoatzin—a
difficult to swallow. highly unusual bird from South America. The
hoatzin processes its food much as a grazing
mammal does; after eating, it is often so heavy
that it can barely fly.
DECEPTIVE “EYES”
Peanut-headed bugs rely Tropical forest predators range from some
primarily on camouflage for of the world’s smallest insects to the largest
protection but, if threatened, cats. In an environment that provides lots of
they display a pair of alarming- cover, most of them stalk their prey rather
looking eye-spots. This is a than running it down. Army and driver ants
bluff, suggesting it is much are the most remarkable exceptions: they
larger than it actually is.
hunt in “packs” over 50,000 strong,
overpowering and eating anything that
cannot escape.
Reproduction
For animals that live in trees, breeding can
sometimes involve unusual adaptations. Some
tree frogs come down to the forest floor to lay
their eggs, but many lay them high up in the
Feeding canopy, either in water-filled tree holes or in
Near the equator, trees grow, flower, and set the pools of water that gather in plants. Some
seed all year round, generating a nonstop frog species are more creative, laying their
supply of food. Many forest animals—including eggs in nests of foam that keep their eggs
bats, birds, and insects—live almost exclusively moist until the tadpoles are ready to hatch. PROTECTIVE NEST
H A B I TAT S
on the abundant nectar and fruit. Some of Many tropical birds start life in the safety These African treefrogs have grouped together to make a giant
these animals help trees spread their pollen of tree holes, but climbing mammals rarely foam nest hanging from a branch. The nest’s exterior hardens
and seeds. Quetzals, for example, swallow fruit build nests, and many of their young start life to protect the eggs and to keep the interior foam moist. When
whole, and then regurgitate the pits onto the in the open. Young monkeys often cling to the tadpoles hatch, they break out and drop into water below.
forest floor where they can germinate. their mothers’ chests, keeping a tight grip
Compared with flowers and fruit, tropical as the parent runs along branches or leaps ANT FOLLOWERS
forest leaves are difficult to digest. Animals that through the air. For young murine (mouselike) In Central and South American forests, a single
feed on these leaves generally pick them while opossums, which live in the American tropics, column of marauding army ants attracts up to
they are still young—before protective toxins early life is even more precarious because their 30 different kinds of birds, all swooping down
mothers do not have well-developed pouches. to catch the tiny animals that burst out of the leaf
This means that until their feet have developed litter to escape the ants. Some birds flutter ahead
of the ant column; others dart among the ants
the ability to cling, these tiny marsupials hang
themselves. Some are full-time ant followers, while
from their mothers’ teats by their mouths, their others follow the throng only for as long as the
legs dangling in the air. ants are marching through their territories. A few
small animals, including wasps and rove beetles,
travel with the army on the ground. Although this
sounds dangerous, these animals mimic the ants
very closely—an adaptation that prevents them
from being attacked while gaining them protection
and a supply of free food. Army ants also attract
lizards and frogs, as well as parasitic flies that lay
their eggs on the fleeing animals.
ARMY ANTS
NECTAR FEEDERS
A bat laps up flower nectar. Flowers
pollinated by bats and birds have to
be robust if they are not to be damaged
by their visitors. Birds are attracted to
certain flowers mainly by their bright
colors, bats by their pungent scent. AERIAL ATTACK
The blue-crowned motmot, a part-time
RODENT OPPORTUNISTS ant follower, is distantly related to
Agoutis and other small, ground- kingfishers. Like them, it swoops
dwelling mammals often follow the down on its prey, carries it back
progress of parrots and monkeys through to a perch, and hits it against
the trees, gathering the pieces of food a branch before eating it.
that accidentally fall to the ground.
52 TEMPERATE FOREST
Temperate
forest
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MOTHS lay their eggs on leaves,
CANOPY
Temperate forest grows in regions that buds, or bark. Their caterpillars
have a wide range of climates. In some, are often the most numerous
leaf eaters in the forest.
winters are cold and summers are cool; in
others, the winter is relatively mild, and the
summer heat rivals that in the tropics. Where
winters are cold, temperate forest trees are
usually deciduous, shedding their leaves in
winter and growing a new set in spring;
TREECREEPERS patrol
in warmer regions, many trees keep their tree trunks in search of
leaves all year. Although temperate forest small insects hidden in
bark crevices.
does not have as many animal species as
tropical forest, it is still among the richest
wildlife habitats on land.
Deciduous forest
In the depths of winter, deciduous forest can seem
SQUIRRELS spend the autumn
gaunt and empty, and largely devoid of animal life. collecting food, which they
But as the days lengthen in spring, and buds begin
H A B I TAT S
then store away for use in

to burst, the habitat becomes alive with birdsong the winter.
and animals on the move. This transformation is
triggered by a sudden abundance of plant food—
one that nourishes large numbers of both the plant-
eating insects as well as the animals that feed on them.
Many of these forest animals are permanent residents,
UNDERSTORY
but they also include migratory birds that fly in from

distant parts of the world.
Compared with tropical forest, temperate deciduous
forest has relatively few tree species: the maximum
number—found in some of the forests of eastern North
America—is several hundred, while tropical forest
might contain several thousand. Nevertheless, DEER feed on leaves in
temperate forest trees are powerhouses of life. Large summer; in winter, they often
oak trees, for example, can produce over a quarter of a strip bark from shrubs and
million leaves a year—enough young understory trees.
to sustain the army of
weevils, gall wasps, and
moth caterpillars that
feed rapidly in spring
and early summer
while the leaf crop is
at its freshest and
LARGE AREAS of temperate
most nutritious.
WILD BOAR dig up the
deciduous forest are found in Like tropical forest, deciduous leaf litter with their snouts,
the Northern Hemisphere; most forest has a clear, vertically feeding on animals, nuts,
temperate forest in the Southern layered structure, but there and roots.
Hemisphere is evergreen. are some important
differences. The trees are
rarely more than 100 ft (30 m) tall, and the canopy layer
is usually deep but open, allowing light to reach the
understory and encourage plant growth. Fallen
leaves rot slowly in cool conditions, so deciduous
forest has an unusually deep layer of leaf litter that
insects, woodlice, and millipedes use as food and cover. IN THE MOIST conditions
GROUND
This means that while many small animals live in the of the forest floor, lungless
cracks and crevices in bark, the place that is richest salamanders can absorb
in invertebrate life is not the trees but the ground. oxygen through their skin.
TEMPERATE FOREST 53
Evergreen forest
In warm parts of the temperate world, many broad-
leaved trees are evergreen. Unlike trees of deciduous
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forest, which grow in spring and summer, evergreens

grow in winter and spring, when temperatures are low
but not cold, and when water is readily available.
CANOPY
Described by botanists as sclerophyllous (meaning
hard-leaved) forest, this habitat is found in several
widely scattered regions of the world, including parts
of California and western
THE RINGTAILED
South America, the
POSSUM has a prehensile
tail, which helps it climb Mediterranean region in
along high branches to Europe, and large areas of
reach flowers and fruit. eastern and southwestern
Australia. In some of these
places, the forest is low-
growing, but in Australia,
where eucalyptus is the TEMPERATE EVERGREEN
dominant species, it includes FOREST is found in regions with
the tallest broad-leaved trees a Mediterranean-type climate:
in the world. mild, damp winters, and warm,
Temperate evergreen trees dry summers.
usually have open crowns,
which means that the vertical layers are often less
pronounced than they are in forests in cooler regions,
and plenty of light is able to reach the forest floor.
KOALAS
As a result, these forests are rich in ground-based
live in the forest wildlife, and warmth-loving animals—such as lizards
canopy, but also walk and butterflies, which are usually associated with
H A B I TAT S
across the ground to reach higher levels—can often be seen sunbathing on the
isolated clumps of trees. floor. The open structure also makes it easy for birds,
such as kookaburras and other forest kingfishers
and rollers to swoop down on animals moving
around on the ground.
The air in evergreen forest often smells pleasantly
aromatic because most of the leaves are filled with
pungent oils. These oils help to stop the leaves from
drying out, and they also protect them from animals.
They are a highly effective deterrent, as relatively
UNDERSTORY
few animals—apart from specialists such as the

THE AUSTRALIAN GREEN
TREEFROG has exceptionally koala—include these leaves in their diet.
thick skin to minimize moisture
loss and enable it to deal
with the dry conditions SALINIZATION
in evergreen forest. In Australia, the arrival of Europeans has brought
huge changes to the continent’s forests, with their
unique plants and wildlife. Millions of acres have
been cut for lumber, claiming some of the world’s tallest
broad-leaved trees, and displacing woodland animals.
Even more land has been cleared for grazing and for
crops, sometimes with unintended consequences.
One of them is salinization—a process that mobilizes
subterranean salts when native vegetation is removed.
BUSH CRICKETS Salinization often kills surviving trees, turning them into
and other insects, such gaunt skeletons
as beetles, provide food for that take many
reptiles and mammals that years to decay.
live on the ground.
SALTY SOIL
These Australian
eucalyptuses have been
killed by salinization—
rising salt levels in the
GROUND
ground. Salinization
is caused by forest
clearance, which changes
SUN-SEEKING lizards and the water balance of the
snakes often bask in the ground. Salinized land is
warm sunlight that bathes useless for agriculture.
the forest floor.
54 LIFE IN TEMPERATE FOREST
Life in temperate forest TREE GALLS

Common in broad-leaved forest, galls are growths
whose development is triggered by insects and other
The factor that most affects life in temperate forest is the variable food supply.
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organisms. Galls often look like berries or buttons on

At all levels—from the tree tops to the forest floor—the life cycles of forest animals leaves and twigs. They act as both home and larder,
or nursery, allowing their occupants to feed unseen.
living in temperate forest move in step with the seasons so that they produce their In broad-leaved forest, most galls are produced by
young when food is easiest to find. Life is relatively easy in spring and summer; tiny wasps and flies. Each species of insect affects
a particular tree, and each produces galls of a
but in winter, when the food supply is at its lowest, special adaptations are characteristic shape, making them easy to identify.
needed for survival.
OAK GALLS
Oak marble galls are produced by
Feeding acorns in
Andricus kollari, a wasp belonging
to the family Cynipidae. The wasp’s
crevices
As a habitat, deciduous temperate forest— larvae develop inside the galls. They
the kind of forest found across much of the then chew an exit hole through the
outer surface
northern hemisphere—has one very useful
to emerge
feature. The trees that grow in it, such as as adults.
oak and beech, produce leaves that are
designed to last for just one growing season.
As a result, these leaves are usually thin and
easy to eat, which is why vast numbers of
insects feast on them from the moment they
begin to appear in spring.
This sudden explosion of insect life attracts WINTER GRANARY
an army of highly specialized avian predators. In western North America, wasp larvae
In Europe, northern Asia, and North America, acorn woodpeckers store inside gall
acorns in trees, cramming them
dozens of warbler species migrate north as the
into holes that they have previously
buds open. These birds have extremely acute drilled in the bark. These storage woodpeckers store them in trees. Squirrels
eyesight, enabling them to scour leaves for the trees are called granaries. A single bury seeds of all kinds, and red foxes bury
H A B I TAT S
tiniest grubs and caterpillars, which they then granary may hold up to 50,000 acorns anything that is even faintly edible, from
pick up with their tweezerlike beaks. Other and may be stocked by up to a dozen half-eaten remains to food wrappers and
birds, including treecreepers, woodpeckers, woodpeckers working and nesting together. discarded shoes. Some animals locate their
and nuthatches, concentrate on the bark, The woodpeckers will also store acorns in stores by scent, but most are very good at
fence posts and telephone poles.
seeking out and pecking at the tiny animals pinpointing them by memory alone, finding
hidden among the crevices. and digging up their food even when it is
By midsummer, leaves stop growing and means that they do not produce enticing covered by snow.
animal feeding behavior changes. Most nectar-rich flowers. However, these trees do Seed-caching has an important impact
temperate trees are pollinated by wind, which produce large crops of nuts and other seeds, on forest ecology. Although animals that bury
which are extremely important foods for animals seeds have good memories, some of what
because, unlike leaves, they can be stored they hide is always forgotten about. This means
FOREST-FLOOR FORAGERS
Watching over their piglets, adult wild boars root in the leaf litter
away and used when other food is scarce. that provided the seeds are not discovered by
for food. Wild boars feed on acorns and other nuts, and they also Food storage, or “caching,” is practiced rodents or other animals, they remain effectively
use their spadelike snouts to dig up roots, fungi, and small by many forest birds and mammals. Jays planted and ready to germinate, helping the
animals hidden in soil or among fallen leaves. bury acorns in the ground, while acorn forest’s trees to reproduce.
55
Hibernation NIGHT FLIGHT

Unlike most squirrels, North American
In the fall, many insect-eating birds migrate to flying squirrels feed at night. The elastic
warmer climes, leaving the forest’s remaining skin flaps between their legs enable
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animals to face the winter cold. Animals that them to glide for over 165 ft (50 m). They
steer with their front legs, and use their
store food can remain active throughout this
large eyes to navigate safely in the dark.
difficult time of year, but others use a very
different survival strategy: they hibernate, living
on the fat reserves they have built up during nest and into another. But forest
the summer months. hibernators have to be careful not to do
How long and how deeply an animal this too often: activity uses up their bodily
hibernates depends on where it lives. In the food reserves, and it therefore puts them at
forests of northwest Europe, hedgehogs may risk of running out before the winter is truly
hibernate for up to 6 months, whereas farther over. Many insects also hibernate, often hidden
south, their winter sleep is much shorter. In under bark; but in some species, the adults die
eastern North America, woodchucks—or out, leaving behind tough, overwintering eggs
groundhogs—typically hibernate from October that will hatch in spring.
to February; their wanderings early in the year by emitting high-
are a traditional sign that spring is not far off. Movement pitched pulses of
Some hibernating animals, such as the While monkeys and gibbons are the most sound. These signals
common dormouse, hardly ever interrupt impressive climbers in tropical forest, squirrels bounce back from nearby objects
their winter break, even if they are picked are the experts in temperate forest. Unlike in the same way as those sent
many climbing mammals, they can run head- out by a bat’s sonar system.
first down tree trunks, as well as up them, by
hooking their long, curved hind claws into Living in leaf litter
bark. Squirrels have excellent eyesight, and The leaf litter in temperate forest is one
they instinctively scuttle to the back of a tree of the world’s richest animal micro-habitats.
if they spot a potential predator—a simple This deep layer of decomposing matter
behavior that makes them difficult to catch. harbors vertebrates, including mammals and
H A B I TAT S
Temperate forest is inhabited by gliding salamanders, but its principal inhabitants are
rodents, and also—in Australasia—by gliding invertebrates that feed on leaf fragments, on
marsupials. But for precise maneuvering fungi and bacteria, or on each other. Some
among trees, owls and birds of prey are of these animals—such as centipedes and
unrivaled. Unlike their relatives in open habitats, woodlice—are large enough to be easily seen,
most of these aerial hunters have relatively but many others are microscopic. Animals that
short, broad wings that enable them to twist live deep in leaf litter exist in total
and turn effectively. A prime example of this darkness, so most of them rely on
adaptation to woodland life is the Eurasian their sense of touch to find food.
sparrowhawk: rather than soaring and then This is especially true of predators:
swooping, it speeds among trees and along centipedes locate their prey with
hedgerows—sometimes only a yard or so long antennae, while tiny
SLEEPING THROUGH THE COLD above ground—ambushing small birds in pseudoscorpions use the
Common dormice use leaves and moss to make well-insulated midair and carrying them away in its talons.
winter nests among brambles and other plants. Here, part of the Temperate forest provides ground-dwelling HUNTER IN THE LEAVES
nest has been temporarily removed to reveal the hibernating
animals with lots of cover. As a result, small Lithobiid centipedes, such as
animal, fast asleep with its tail wrapped tightly around its body.
mammals, such as voles and shrews, abound this one, have flattened bodies
on the forest floor. To avoid being seen as they that allow them to crawl under
leaves and fallen logs as well
up. However, many hibernators behave in a move around, these animals often use runways
as on the ground surface.
different way. If the weather turns warm, they partly covered by grass or fallen leaves. Voles Geophilid centipedes live
briefly rouse themselves: bats, for example, use a combination of vision, smell, and touch permanently underground,
take to the air for feeding flights, while to find their way along these runs, but shrews, and therefore have narrow,
hedgehogs often move out of one hibernation which have very poor eyesight, navigate partly almost wormlike bodies.
sensory hairs
INSECT ENGRAVERS that cover their
Female bark beetles tunnel through the sapwood pincers. Like true
beneath living bark, laying eggs at intervals along scorpions, pseudoscorpions are venomous;
the way. The hatched larvae eat their way out
but they are so small that they pose no threat to
at right angles to the original tunnel, creating
distinctive “galleries” that can be seen when anything much bigger than themselves. This is
dead bark falls away. The side tunnels end fortunate because in just a few square yards of
in exit holes, from which the developed leaf litter their numbers can run into millions.
beetle emerges and flies away. Common Dead leaves are a useful screen, hiding
in deciduous forest, bark beetles can BARK GALLERIES leaf-litter dwellers from other animals foraging
be highly destructive because they often The adult bark beetle on the forest floor. However, it is not totally
infect trees with fungi. One species— has a cylindrical body and
secure. Some temperate forest birds,
the elm bark beetle—spreads Dutch a round-fronted thorax hiding
elm disease, a fungus that has wiped out most of the head. The gallery patterns particularly thrushes, pick up leaves and toss
elms in parts of Europe and North America. vary from one species to another. them aside, snapping up leaf-litter animals as
they try to rush away from the light.
56 CONIFEROUS FOREST
Coniferous
forest
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Conifers are the world’s toughest trees.
CANOPY
Their small, needle-shaped leaves can THE ANIMAL LIFE in
withstand extreme cold and are impervious to coniferous forest provides birds
of prey, such as the northern
strong sunshine and wind, and their relatively goshawk, with a year-round
narrow, upright habit enables them to grow food supply.
closely together to form dense, sheltered
forest. As a result, conifers thrive where few
broad-leaved trees can survive, such as the
far north and in mountain ranges. They also
flourish in places that have very heavy rainfall.
TREE TRUNKS provide the
In such areas they form temperate rain forest, growing larvae of horntails
home to some of the largest trees in the world. and other wood wasps with
protection from the worst
of the winter cold.
Boreal forest
Named after Boreas, the Greek god of the north
wind, boreal forest, or taiga, is the largest
continuous expanse of forest on earth. It covers
about 6 million square miles (15 million square km)
and stretches in an almost unbroken belt across
H A B I TAT S
the far north, often reaching deep into the Arctic.

In some places, the belt is over 1,000 miles
(1,600 km) wide. Across the boreal forest belt as a
UNDERSTORY
whole, winter temperatures routinely drop below

-13º F (-25º C), but in some of the coldest regions,
such as northeast Siberia, temperatures can fall
below -49º F (-45º C). Summers in boreal forest
are brief but can be warm.
Compared with the types of forest that occur THE BROWN BEAR can climb
at lower latitudes, boreal forest has only a handful trees, but it finds most of its
of tree species and therefore provides only a food on the ground.
limited variety of food for
herbivores. Plant diversity
is also restricted both by
the amount of light that
can reach the forest floor
and by the high acidity
of pine needles.
Even in summer, the
interior of the forest is GRAY WOLVES hunt in packs,
BOREAL FOREST
often dark, with a thick a strategy that enables them
stretches across much of
to kill animals larger than
the far north. There is no layer of dead needles
themselves. This is particularly
equivalent habitat in the carpeting the floor. important during winter, when
Southern Hemisphere. Fungi thrive in these food is scarce.
conditions, but the
only forest-floor plants that live here are the
ones that can tolerate low light levels and
acidic soil conditions.
Other than insects, few animals can digest
conifer leaves or wood, so most plant eaters
GROUND
concentrate on seeds, buds, and bark, or on

berries from low-growing shrubs. However, what
this habitat lacks in variety, it more than makes up
for in quantity, especially as there is relatively little
FOR MOOSE and other hoofed
competition for food. This is one of the reasons mammals, boreal forest
why many boreal forest animals, from birds to offers protection from the
bears, have far more extensive ranges than cold winds and blizzard
species that live in warmer parts of the world. conditions of winter.
CONIFEROUS FOREST 57
Temperate rain forest

The world’s largest areas of rain forest are found
in the tropics, but rain forest also exists in parts of
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the temperate world. It grows where west-facing

THE GOLDEN-CROWNED
mountains intercept moist air blowing in from the sea
KINGLET is one of many and, unlike boreal forest, it experiences relatively mild
small insect eaters that temperatures all year round.
feed and nest high above Compared with boreal forest, temperate rain forest
the ground. is a rare habitat, occurring in a few widely separated
areas. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is found in the
CANOPY
South Island of New
Zealand, and in parts
of southern Chile. In
both of these places,
most rain forest trees are
broad-leaved species, but in
America’s Pacific northwest—
where the largest temperate
OWLS, such as this great rain forest in the world can be TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST is
horned owl, fly at night, found—the trees are almost found on west-facing coasts,
hunting the many small
entirely conifers. Some are where heavy rain falls
mammals and birds that
live in temperate rain forest.
over nearly 250 ft (75 m) high, throughout much of the year.
and more than 500 years old.
This kind of coniferous forest looks unlike any other.
On the ground, and in the understory, every surface
is draped with ferns or waterlogged moss. Densely
packed trunks, some over 9 3 ⁄4 ft (3 m) across, rise up
to the canopy high overhead, where the sky is always
laden with rain.
H A B I TAT S
Temperate rain forest supports many animals that are
found in coniferous forest all over the world, but it has
some additional features that set it apart: the mild,
damp conditions, which make it a haven for slugs
and salamanders, and the immense amount of fallen
THE NORTH AMERICAN lumber, which creates opportunities for insects that
PORCUPINE is a slow and feed on dead wood. In its natural state, the forest
awkward tree climber, but it teems with mammals, as well as with owls and
UNDERSTORY
manages to reach the tree other birds that need large, old trees as nest sites.
tops to eat buds and bark.
Unfortunately, these trees are in great demand by the
lumber industry and, as a result, untouched temperate
rain forest is increasingly rare.
CLEAR CUTTING
Conifers are essential in lumber production and paper
making, but harvesting them has far-reaching effects on
wildlife. Many animals—particularly hole-nesting birds—rely
on old trees, and are rare in planted forests that are routinely
THE FISHER belies its name clear cut. On the other hand, where smaller blocks are cut at
in that it rarely catches fish. different times, clear cutting can be used to create a
It is one of the few animals patchwork of
that includes porcupines forest habitats.
among its prey. This helps forest
animals, although
plantations are
still no match
for original or
“old-growth”
forest, which has
THE STOAT’S slim body never been felled.
enables it to pursue animals
into their burrows, leaving
them little chance of escape. COMPLETE
CLEARANCE
Total clear cutting
removes all the
trees in large areas
SLUGS in temperate rain of forest, forcing the
GROUND
forest include plant-eating animal inhabitants

species and some that prey to move out.
on other slugs.
58 LIFE IN CONIFEROUS FOREST
Life in coniferous forest

For animals and trees alike, life in boreal forest is dominated by the need to
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survive long and extremely cold winters. Animals that remain active in winter,
such as wolves, need a constant supply of food simply to avoid freezing. Conifers
are difficult to exploit for food, which means that animals that rely on them have
developed some highly specialized physical and behavioral characteristics.
Feeding lay its eggs on the sawfly larvae. It is thought

Compared with many broad-leaved trees, that the wasp locates the larvae by smell.
conifers are well protected against attack. In When the eggs hatch, the ichneumon grubs
addition to tough leaves, they often have oily eat their host larvae alive.
resins that make both their leaves and their Some animals, such as the capercaillie and
wood difficult to digest. Furthermore, if the North American porcupine, eat large quantities
sapwood is injured, this resin oozes out and of conifer needles, but moth caterpillars are
traps insects and spiders as effectively as glue. the leading leaf eaters: as always in coniferous
Despite these defenses, some animals forest, the number of species involved is
manage to live entirely on coniferous trees. small, but the damage they inflict can be
Among the most successful are sawfly larvae.
These caterpillarlike grubs bore deep inside the
trunks, leaving cylindrical tunnels in the wood. EXTRACTING SEEDS
A crossbill’s beak
They do not eat the wood itself; instead, they
overlaps at its tips,
feed on a fungus that grows on the walls of the making it an ideal
tunnels they have built. Female sawflies carry tool for extracting cone
small amounts of this fungus with them when seeds. For short periods,
they emerge as adults, and they infect new
H A B I TAT S
crossbill nestlings can

trees when they lay their eggs. This kind of survive temperatures as
mutualistic partnership is vital to sawflies, low as -31° F (-35° C).
but it is not entirely unique: in other habitats,
particularly in the tropics, ants and termites
also “cultivate” fungi as food. vast. This is especially true of species
Although wood-boring grubs are safe from such as the gypsy moth, which has been
most predators, they are not entirely immune accidentally introduced to many parts
from attack. Coniferous forest is the habitat of the world.
of some of the world’s largest woodpeckers,
which hammer their way into tree trunks to Finding winter food
reach the grubs inside. Sawflies also face a Conifers do not have flowers, but they
threat from the ichneumon wasp, which drills nevertheless produce seeds. For birds and
through the wood with its long ovipositor to small mammals, this seed crop is a valuable
winter fuel. However, accessing conifer seeds
BROWSING DEER
MOTH ATTACK is not easy: they develop inside woody cones,
Deer have a major impact on coniferous forest by eating young
Although the gypsy moth and the cones stay tightly closed until the tree shoots and bark. Where deer are numerous, such browsing
itself does no damage, its seeds inside are mature. can kill small saplings (inset). However, this creates open glades,
caterpillars feed voraciously
Coniferous forest animals have developed a which are useful to other animals because they let in light,
on conifers as well as on
a range of deciduous trees. variety of ways of removing these seeds before allowing fruit-forming plants—a good food source—to grow.
the trees scatter them on the forest floor.
Squirrels gnaw through the soft, unripe cone
while it is still attached to the branch, eating Coping with cold
DRILLING THROUGH WOOD the seeds and dropping the remains of the Coniferous forest has its share of seasonal
Bracing itself with its feet, a female cone on the ground below. Woodpeckers visitors: principally insect-eating birds that
ichneumon wasp bores into a branch
often take fallen cones and wedge them into arrive in spring and then leave for the south
to lay eggs on a sawfly grub.
tree holes or broken stumps, using these to once they have raised their young. But for
hold the cone firm while they peck out all the the rest of its animals, long winters are an
seeds. Crossbills are even more proficient: inescapable fact of forest life. Some species
their beaks are uniquely adapted for dealing hibernate, but many remain active even during
with cones, enabling them to extract the seeds the coldest months, relying on their insulation
with surgical precision. for survival.
Compared with seeds, bark is a low-quality One group of forest animals, mustelids, have
food, but in winter it is vital to some species’ coats that are exceptionally well insulating.
survival. Deer strip it away from the base This group includes pine martens, wolverines,
of young saplings, while bank voles and minks, and sables, all of them agile hunters
porcupines often climb trees to attack the bark renowned for their thick and luxurious fur. As
higher up. Bark stripping often stunts a tree’s with most mammals, their coats contain two
growth, and a severe attack can kill it. different kinds of hair: long, outer guard hairs
LIFE IN CONIFEROUS FOREST 59
Population cycles
COUP DE GRACE Since there are relatively few animal species
At the end of a high-speed chase, in the northern coniferous forests, the lives
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a Canadian lynx catches a snowshoe of predators and prey are very closely linked.
hare. Population cycles of both species During mild years, strong tree growth can
are thought to be closely linked. trigger a population explosion among small
animals; as a result, the predators that feed
on them begin to increase in number. These
conditions never last for long, though: as the
plant eaters begin to outstrip the food supply,
their numbers start to fall again. And as the
rate of the fall accelerates, the predators
soon follow suit.
Despite the unpredictability of the northern
climate, these ups and downs occur with
surprising regularity. In North America, fur
trappers’ records dating back over a century
provide some long-term evidence of population
swings. For example, they show that the
snowshoe hare population roughly follows
a 10-year cycle, with 2 or 3 good years,
followed by a lengthy slump. The Canadian
lynx—one of the snowshoe hare’s main
predators—follows the same pattern, but
with a one- or 2-year time-lag. Similar cycles
involving lemmings and other small mammals
take place in tundra (see p.67).
While there is little that they can do to
prevent this boom-and-bust pattern from
H A B I TAT S
occurring, animals like the snowshoe hare
are able to make a fairly fast recovery from
form the coat’s water-repellent surface, while its limits. Voles and other rodents can hide in a population slump by breeding quickly
shorter, much denser, hairs—the underfur—trap burrows, but birds spend most of their lives when conditions are favorable.
a layer of air close to the body, keeping the in the open. For wrens and tits, which often
animal warm. Northern species all grow an weigh less than 3 ⁄8 oz (10 g), winter nights are a
extra-thick coat after their late-summer molt; particularly dangerous time. With such minute IRRUPTIONS
and some species, such as the stoat, use this bodies, their fuel reserves are tiny, and so In the northern coniferous forests, food supplies
molt to change color, developing a white coat they must make special provision if they are to are affected by the weather and the degree of
competition. In winters that follow cool summers,
that provides better camouflage for the winter. stay alive until dawn when the search for food
the supply of seeds and berries can be thin,
Keeping warm is relatively easy for large can resume. Some of them make the most of leaving seed- and fruit-eating birds with little to
mammals because their bodies contain what body heat they have by huddling survive on. Rather than starve, these birds fly
a large store of heat. But for the smallest together in tree holes, but a few, such as the south in waves, called irruptions, which may
warm-blooded inhabitants of coniferous forest, Siberian tit, bed down in the snow, using it as involve traveling beyond their normal winter range
winter conditions test their cold tolerance to an insulating material. by as much as 930 miles (1,500 km). Species that
frequently irrupt include crossbills, waxwings,
and tits, as well as nutcrackers and other
seed-eating members of the crow family.
RUNNING ON SNOW FLYING SOUTH

Cold winters actually make it easier for the A flock of Bohemian waxwings pause during their southward
wolverine to catch food: its ability to run at high flight. Like other irrupting species, waxwings usually spread
speed over frozen snow enables it to catch large south when their population reaches a high level. Shortage
animals, such as reindeer, which can outpace it of winter food can trigger a mass exodus.
during the summer months.
60 MOUNTAINS
Mountains
HIGH ELEVATION
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In many land habitats, climatic

conditions vary only slightly within
THE SNOW LEOPARD spends
a region. In mountains, however, its summers above the
the average air temperature drops by about treeline, but during winter
follows hoofed animal prey
1.8° F (1° C) for every 650 ft (200 m) gained in to lower elevations.
height, oxygen becomes more scarce, and the
air becomes less effective at screening out
ultraviolet light. As a result, mountains can be
divided into distinct zones, each supporting
plant and animal life that is very different from
that of the zone above and below. A wide range
of animals live in the low-elevation foothills, but
only the hardiest survive year-round in the harsh
environment above the tree line.
THE EURASIAN BLACK
MIDELEVATION
VULTURE is wide-ranging
Temperate mountains across open country,
scavenging on carrion, but
In temperate regions, a mountain’s climate is occasionally taking live prey,
relatively cool throughout the year. However, such as rabbits.
seasonal changes are much more marked than
they are in the tropics. At high elevation, above
the tree line, there is a sudden burst of plant
growth in spring and summer. Some animals
H A B I TAT S
migrate upward to make use of this brief

abundance of food, but others, such as the
marmot, are permanent residents between
mid and high elevation, surviving the winter
cold by living in burrows, and by hibernating
for up to 8 months a year. High-elevation insects
spend many months in a dormant state, coming
to life when warm weather arrives. For many, this BIGHORN SHEEP live on
rugged terrain, from precipitous
dormant period is
slopes of cliffs and rocky
spent inside the egg, outcrops down to hot canyons
which hatches when and desert valleys.
the days lengthen and
the temperatures rise.
At lower elevations,
the climate is warmer,
and generally more like
THE NORTHERN that of the surrounding
temperate zone’s mountain land. However,
ranges include the highest because the sloping,
peaks on earth. In the Southern
rocky ground is
Hemisphere, mountains are
smaller and more isolated. difficult to farm, the
mountainsides often
LOW ELEVATION
retain more of their tree cover than does flatter

ground. In undisturbed conditions, these
ALPINE MARMOTS can spend
montane forests are the natural habitat of half the year in hibernation—
large mammals, such as pumas, bears, and one of the longest periods of
deer, and also of a wide range of seed- dormancy for any mammal.
and insect-eating birds.
Temperate mountains abound in birds of
prey. Some, such as the peregrine falcon,
pursue their prey on fast-flapping wings,
while eagles and buzzards soar high up,
riding on updrafts. One characteristic mountain
species, a vulture called the lammergeier,
A DIVERSITY OF mountain frogs
turns the mountain landscape to its advantage thrives around streams in moist,
by carrying carrion bones aloft and dropping humid foothill forests—with
them onto the rocks to expose the edible many species restricted to
marrow inside. isolated ranges.
MOUNTAINS 61
Tropical mountains
In the tropics, the generally warm climate means that
MOUNTAIN mountain vegetation zones extend much higher than
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HUMMINGBIRDS they do in montane habitats elsewhere in the world.

survive low For example, near the equator, trees often grow at
nighttime elevations of up to 13,200 ft (4,000 m), which is why
temperatures in the Andes
by becoming torpid—a form
many tropical mountains are forested to their summits.
of overnight hibernation. Above this elevation is the tropical alpine zone, an
open landscape dominated by grass and some highly
specialized plants. This zone
is often above the clouds,
which means that nights are
cold and frosty and yet the
sunshine is fierce.
ALPINE ZONE
Many tropical animals have
successfully adapted to life at
high elevation. They include
the vicuna, which can be TROPICAL MOUNTAINS include
found up to 18,100 ft (5,500 m) a major chain, the Andes, and
THE VICUNA’S blood is in the South American Andes, isolated ranges in East Africa
and Southeast Asia.
especially good at gathering and the yak, which reaches a
oxygen at high elevations. record 19,800 ft (6,000 m) just
north of the tropics in the Himalayas. Birds also live at
great heights: in South America, for example, mountain
hummingbirds called Andean hillstars often feed at
over 13,200 ft (4,000 m). The Andean hillstar’s minute
size means it has difficulty storing enough energy
to enable it to survive the cold nights. To combat the
problem, its nocturnal heartbeat slows down and its
H A B I TAT S
temperature plummets, conserving energy.
THE NORTHERN PUDU is The cloud-covered forest below the alpine zone is
the smallest species of deer
the habitat of some of the world’s most endangered
and occurs across Andean
mountain habitats—from animals. They include the eastern gorilla—a species
FOREST ZONE
montane rainforests up to restricted to the mountains of central Africa—and the

paramo grassland. resplendent quetzal, a bird that lives in the cloud
forests of Central America. The abundant moisture
means that the forest zone also teems with many
different species of frogs, living both on the ground
and in trees.
MINING AND QUARRYING

Once isolated from human activities, mountain wildlife now
faces many changes. The greatest of all is global warming,
which alters the natural pattern of vegetation zones. Some
mountain animals can benefit from this, but others face
steadily shrinking habitats, because they live in a narrow
GELADAS are ground-living range of elevations, or on isolated ranges or peaks. More
monkeys allied to baboons. specific threats to
They are confined to high mountain animals
elevations of Ethiopia, where include hydroelectric
they graze on grassland projects, and the
plateaus. rapid expansion of
mines and quarries.
Dust, pollution, and
LOW ELEVATION
the dumping of waste

can all have a
harmful effect on
mountain wildlife.
ROCK REMOVAL
In some parts of the
world, quarrying has
destroyed important
wildlife habitats. As road
building and construction
projects continue to
THE EASTERN GORILLA uses the increase, the demand for
dense vegetation of the forest rock continues to grow.
zone for both food and cover.
62 LIFE IN MOUNTAINS
Life in mountains Compared with mammals, cold-blooded

animals, such as reptiles, have fewer problems
with thin air because they use oxygen more
Life at high altitude can be harsh. Food is often scarce, the weather can be slowly. For them, the main problem with
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treacherous, and the thin air can make it difficult to breathe. However, there is also mountain life is cold: if the temperature is too
low, their body processes slow down, and
more space, relatively little interference from humans, and fewer predators than
their muscles have difficulty working.
there are lower down. Many animals are “incomers,” using high ground as an
extension of their normal range, but there are also some that live only on high Movement
ground. In large mountain chains, many animals have a wide distribution; but Mountains seem almost purposely made for
isolated peaks are often inhabited by animals that are found nowhere else. soaring birds because strong air currents make
it easy for them to gain height. For animals on
or close to the ground, moving around is not so
Breathing thin air Birds are unusual in being able to cope with easy. Many insects are wingless, and species
At 19,800 ft (6,000 m), air is half as dense as it rapid changes in altitude without experiencing that do fly usually keep close to the rock to
is at sea level. As a result, it contains only half any ill effects. For mammals, moving from reduce the risk of being blown away by the wind.
the normal amount of oxygen—so little that one elevation to another necessitates special For larger animals, the situation is even more
anyone trying to breathe at this height would adjustment by the body, which is achieved by hazardous, for a single misjudged move can
have difficulty remaining conscious. Yet some acclimatization—a process that can take several lead to a fatal fall. Many rock-dwelling mammals
mountain animals live even higher than this weeks to complete. During acclimatization, therefore have feet designed to prevent slipping.
because they have evolved specialized body the number of red cells in the blood slowly In Africa and the Middle East, hyraxes—rabbit-
systems that enable them to get the maximum increases, boosting its oxygen-carrying sized grazing mammals—run over rocks
amount of oxygen into their blood. capacity. This physical adjustment, which is and boulders with the help of
In the vertebrate world, birds are the shown by a broad range of mammals—including specialized soles. The underside
unrivaled experts at high-altitude living. This is humans—is temporary. If an animal moves of each foot has a bare,
because air passes through their lungs in only back to lower ground, the process is reversed. rubbery pad slightly
one direction, not in and out, which ensures However, for mountain mammals, such as raised in the center
that a high proportion of the air’s oxygen the vicuna and ibex, adaptation to life high up
enters the blood—far more than enters a is a permanent state, not something that can
H A B I TAT S
mammal’s bloodstream in the same be switched on and off. When measured as

conditions. This fact is apparent from the a proportion of volume, vicunas have 3 times
height at which birds are capable of flying. more red cells in their blood than most other
In the Himalayas, choughs have been seen mammals, and the hemoglobin in their red
fluttering around campsites at over 26,400 ft cells is unusually good at collecting oxygen.
(8,000 m), and there are records of vultures As a result, vicunas can run almost effortlessly
colliding with planes at over 36,300 ft on the altiplano—the high-elevation plateau
(11,000 m)—far higher than Mount Everest. that runs the length of the Andes.
NONSLIP FEET
The hyrax’s small, adhesive feet are perfect for negotiating
rock, although some species also use them for climbing trees.
In addition to living high up, rock hyraxes inhabit kopjes—miniature
mountains of eroded boulders scattered on the African savanna.
and moistened by sweat. As a result, each foot

works like a suction cup so the hyrax can cling
to the surface of smooth rocks without slipping.
Hooves may seem far from ideal for climbing,
and it is true that some hoofed mammals, such
as horses, have great difficulty moving around
on rocky slopes. But in climbing mammals,
such as mountain goats and klipspringers,
spiraling flight hooves have evolved into perfect aids for
wind path
moving about in mountains: they are small
direction
and compact, allowing them to fit onto narrow
ledges, and they have hard edges surrounding
rough, nonslip pads. These combined
characteristics make for good grip in all
conditions, including rain and snow.
Getting a firm grip is essential for moving on
rock, but equally important is a strong sense of
balance and head for heights. Most terrestrial
mammals are instinctively afraid of steep drops
SOARING
Updrafts provide an almost effortless means of travel
but, from an early age, mountain dwellers show
for birds like the Andean condor, which can cover hundreds what appears to be a reckless disregard for
of miles in a day by riding waves of rising air. their own safety. Adult chamois take 20 ft (6 m)
leaps, and can run down nearly vertical slopes
LIFE IN MOUNTAINS 63
mountaintop to the forests lower down, but

some mountain forest species also migrate.
Among these latter migrants are birds such
as nutcrackers, which feed on conifer seeds.
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If the seed crop fails, they fly downhill in a form

of sporadic migration called an irruption (see
p.59). Clark’s nutcracker, from the Rocky
Mountains, is a typical example: normally
found at up to 8,200 ft (2,500 m), it descends
as low as sea level when food becomes
hard to find.
Finding food
As in most land habitats, a mountain’s animal
life depends ultimately on plants, for plants
provide food for herbivorous animals, which,
in turn, are eaten by a wide range of predators.
However, some mountain animals make use
of a very different food source—the cargo of
small animals, mainly insects, that are carried
uphill by the wind to be stranded among the
rocks, snow, and ice.
Most of these wind-blown animals are so
tiny that they are practically invisible; yet they
as easily as they can run up them; and their VERTICAL MIGRANTS
provide useful nourishment for scavengers
young are able to keep up with them when just In mountainous regions, red deer spend the summer high up,
where food is plentiful and there are relatively few biting flies. that live above the snow line. They consist
a few weeks old. almost entirely of invertebrates, such as
Their downhill migration in fall often coincides with the start
of the rutting season, when males grow a mane of hair on the springtails and snow fleas, which can survive
Coping with winter neck and compete with each other for the right to mate. the very low temperatures of high-altitude
H A B I TAT S
In tropical mountains, conditions are often winters. During the depths of winter, they
much the same all year-round, which means life in temperate regions, and they are hide among rocks and moss, but when the
that animals can stay at one elevation all their demonstrated by a wide range of mammals weather warms up, they can often be seen
lives. But in temperate mountains, seasonal and birds, from mountain sheep and deer hopping across banks of snow, feasting
changes affect the food supply. Winter is the to choughs and grouse. In many cases, the on the debris that the wind has brought
critical time: anything that cannot survive the migration involves moving from the exposed up from lower ground.
cold weather conditions and the shortage of
food has to move to lower ground or hibernate
until the return of spring. LIFE IN CAVES the water. The cave fish has a row of pressure sensors
Animals that are resident at high elevation have Many animals use caves temporarily, but some along each side of its body that enables it to detect
a variety of ways of dealing with the changes. have adapted to spend their entire lives in them. other animals several yards away.
These permanent cave dwellers, called Although food is scarce, animals exist many miles
Insects often enter a dormant state, called
troglodytes, feed either on each other or on the underground and have even been found in pothole
diapause, which puts their development on hold. droppings deposited by roosting bats and birds. systems that have no direct
Many small mammals, such as marmots, survive As a habitat, deep caves have the advantage that contact with the surface
mountain winters by hibernating, while many of temperatures remain fairly constant throughout the except via water trickling its
those that remain active live on food stores year. However, they are also completely dark,
hard, waterproof
way underground.
accumulated earlier in the year. Pikas, for which means that eyes are useless. Bats, oilbirds, exoskeleton
and swiftlets use echolocation to navigate while
example, gather up leaves and grass and build
underground, but permanent cave dwellers sense
them into “haystacks” among the broken rocks their surroundings largely by touch, often using
around their homes. Before adding fresh supplies smell to track down food. Cave crickets detect food
to a stack, they sometimes spread them out to using antennae, while spiders and harvestmen use
dry in the sunshine, which reduces the chances their feet. In subterranean streams and pools, cave
of the food from rotting. salamanders, such as the olm, sense vibrations in
For other animals, the first fall snows are
the signal to move downhill. These vertical
migrations are a common feature of mountain
FLEXIBLE MIGRANT
Like many temperate
mountain animals, GIANT ANTENNAE
the nutcracker lives Cave crickets’ antennae, which can be 2 or 3 times
at various altitudes, the body length, locate the dead remains and bat
depending on the droppings that make up the animal’s diet.
conditions: severe cold
drives it downhill, but UNDERWATER LIFE
because there is more Like most aquatic vertebrates in caves, the olm
competition for food on has very little pigment in its skin. Its eyes are
low ground it returns vestigial and covered with skin. Olms breed
uphill as soon as the in water and remain in it throughout adult life.
weather improves.
64 POLAR REGIONS
Polar
regions
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SNOWY OWLS are

The Arctic and Antarctic are the coldest
forced to hunt by
places on earth. The Arctic is a partly frozen daylight during
ocean, hemmed in by large expanses of the weeks of
high summer.
windswept tundra; the Antarctic is an ice-
covered continent, surrounded by the world’s
stormiest seas. They are similar to each other—
and unlike any other habitat—in that they have
24-hour daylight in summer and perpetual
WILLOW GROUSE, like many
darkness in winter, but they are physically other animals, turn white
different in ways that have important effects in winter to blend in with
the snow.
on animal life. In the Arctic, many animals live
on land; in the Antarctic, animal life is based
almost entirely in the ocean.
LAND
Arctic and tundra
Covering about 4.6 million square miles (12
million square km), the Arctic Ocean is both the
smallest and the shallowest ocean in the world.
For several months in summer, permanent daylight
H A B I TAT S
produces a constant supply of energy, which is

harnessed by vast quantities of planktonic algae. MUSK OXEN and other
These form the first link in the Arctic Ocean’s food tundra grazers reach food
chain, which ultimately nourishes animals as large by scraping away snow
with their hooves.
as whales and polar bears.
Sea ice—or the lack of it—is a major factor in
determining where large mammals live, especially
during winter when the surface area of the ice is
at its greatest. Polar bears and Arctic foxes can
traverse the ice to find
food, but seals and some
other marine mammals LEMMINGS
provide food for
must maintain breathing
many of the Arctic’s predators,
holes to survive. including foxes.
Despite the icy
conditions, sea life is
plentiful in the Arctic
TRUE TUNDRA is found because cold water is rich
north of the Arctic Circle, but in oxygen and the seabed
MOSQUITOES, which emerge
tundralike conditions exist on sediment is rich in nutrients.
in early summer, make life
some mountains elsewhere. On land, though, intense uncomfortable for mammals
winter cold means that and birds.
trees cannot survive. The result is tundra—an open,
often featureless, landscape, scraped smooth by
glaciers during the last ice age. Today, Arctic
glaciers are restricted mainly to mountains and to
the ice cap that covers Greenland, but large areas
of tundra remain permanently frozen underground.
This frozen zone—the permafrost layer—prevents
spring melt water from draining away, creating
FRESH WATER
waterlogged landscapes in a region where rainfall,

or snow, is paradoxically very low.
In late spring and early summer, tundra plants
grow, and flower, very rapidly. Geese and other
migratory birds arrive to breed, and vast numbers THE POLAR BEAR is a superb
of mosquitoes emerge from tundra pools. The swimmer, and it is as much at
migrants’ departure, when the short summer draws home on shifting pack ice as
to a close, marks the end of another biological year. it is on tundra.
POLAR REGIONS 65
Antarctic
Unlike the Arctic, mainland Antarctica is isolated
from the rest of the world. It is covered with ice,
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up to 13,200 ft (4,000 m) thick, which continues out

to sea forming large ice shelves. On the Antarctic
Peninsula—a finger of land pointing toward South
SKUAS, found in both the America—summer temperatures rise to a few degrees
Arctic and the Antarctic, feed above freezing point, but in the rest of the continent,
LAND
on carrion and on other birds’ average temperatures are below freezing all year- round.
eggs and chicks.
Algae and lichens grow on
bare rocks in many parts of
the Antarctic coastline, but the
Antarctic Peninsula is the only
part of the continent where
terrestrial plants can survive.
This is also the only place that
has a significant range of
terrestrial animals, although MOST OF ANTARCTICA,
these are chiefly springtails, excluding the relatively mild
mites, and nematode worms— Antarctic Peninsula, lies south
few of which are over 1⁄5 in of the Antarctic Circle.
(5 mm) long. The rest of
Antarctica’s land-based animal life consists of species
NESTING COLONIES of that feed in the sea and come ashore to breed, such
some birds, such as Adelie as penguins, or those that scavenge food at these
penguins, can contain over
animals’ breeding grounds, such as skuas. With the
a million members.
exception of emperor penguins, vertebrates desert
the ice at the end of summer to spend the winter at sea.
The Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica,
H A B I TAT S
is one of the most biologically productive seas in the
world. Although species numbers are relatively low,
population sizes are often enormous because the
nonstop summer daylight generates a vast food
supply. Krill—small crustaceans that form the diet of
SPRINGTAILS eat decaying seals and whales—are especially prolific: some of their
plant remains—unlike most swarms are estimated to weigh in excess of 10 million
Antarctic animals, which rely tons and are large enough to be seen by satellites
on food from the sea. in space. Although the Southern Ocean is always cold,
it maintains a minimum temperature of about 28.8º F
( -1.8º C ); below this, sea water freezes. As a result, the
ocean is quite warm compared with Antarctica itself.
CLIMATE CHANGE
KRILL harvest plankton,
SEA
The polar regions are uniquely sensitive to climate change,

forming the basis of many because global warming—or cooling—has a direct effect
Antarctic food chains. on their ice cover, both on land and at sea. Sea ice is rarely
more than 16 1 ⁄ 2 ft (5 m) thick, and spreads and retreats
with the seasons. It is a vital platform for “ice seals,” the
approximately 10 species that haul out onto ice to breed,
and it is also used
by polar bears and
some penguins to
get near their food.
LEOPARD SEALS feed

on krill, fish, and seabirds.
This predatory lifestyle has
GAPS IN THE ICE
no direct equivalent
in the Arctic. The Arctics’s summer
sea ice is currently
shrinking fast, and may
disappear altogether by
the middle of the 21st
century. Paradoxically,
Antarctica’s sea ice
is slowly increasing—
BALEEN WHALES play a a trend that may be
major part in the Southern linked to changes in
Ocean’s ecology by eating wind patterns.
vast amounts of plankton.
66 LIFE IN POLAR REGIONS
Life in polar regions Whales rarely make breathing holes. Instead,

they head for polynias, where they can come
up for air in open water. This less laborious
Although they live at opposite ends of the earth, the animals that inhabit the
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strategy means they are not tied to one place,

Arctic and Antarctic share many adaptations. Resilience to extreme cold is first but it does have its dangers: groups of whales
and foremost among these, but almost as important is the ability to cope with can become ensnared in shrinking polynias,
unable to reach the next stretch of open
a highly seasonal food supply. For some animals, winter is a good time for
water. There are records of narwhals—the
catching food but, for most, hunger and cold make the long winter months a world’s most northerly whales—being
critical time of year. Such testing conditions mean that, in comparison with other trapped in their hundreds, making them
parts of the world, the poles are inhabited by very few animal species. However, easy targets for hunters.
those that do thrive can be extraordinarily numerous.
Changing color
In the treeless Arctic tundra, camouflage
Coping with cold is one of the most effective ways both of
Warm-blooded animals have to maintain a avoiding attack and of making an attack
constant body temperature, which means that unseen. The summer and winter landscapes
combating heat loss is a major priority in the look so different that many tundra animals
polar environment. Cold-blooded animals can change their camouflage twice a year. The
function with a fluctuating body temperature, Arctic fox is a classic example: its summer
but even they have limits—in subzero coat is usually brownish gray, but in early fall
conditions, they can freeze solid. Fish are it turns white; in spring, the process is
particularly at risk of freezing, for while their reversed so that the fox blends with the
body fluids normally freeze at about 30.6º F rapidly thawing tundra. In some parts of the
(-0.8º C) polar sea water is often slightly colder far north—particularly western Alaska and
still. To help prevent freezing, the blood of many northern Greenland—Arctic foxes develop a
cold-blooded species contains proteins that bluish winter coat instead. Some researchers
lower its normal freezing point. Some insects have suggested that this blue coat is an
can survive at -49º F (-45º C) without any ice SLEEPING ON ICE adaptation to coastal landscapes, where there
H A B I TAT S
A polar bear cub rests at its mother’s side. Polar bears have long
forming in their bodies. is less winter snow, but as these foxes have
body fur, and their feet have furry soles. This keeps them warm
Since mammals and birds cannot afford to on the ice, while a thick layer of blubber enables them to retain been widely introduced by fur farmers, the
let their internal temperature fall even slightly, body heat while swimming in the ocean. theory is difficult to prove.
they need insulation to keep warm. Fur and The stoat, a member of the weasel
feathers are among the finest insulating family, changes coat color in a similar way,
Surviving under ice as do ptarmigans and many other tundra
Whales and seals face problems during the birds. Some, such as the snowy owl,
long polar winter because sea ice restricts their keep their white plumage all year round,
access to air. They dive under the ice to feed, which suggests that good camouflage
but they must then surface to breathe. Some is most important in winter and
species avoid the problem by moving to lower less so in summer when food
latitudes. Those that remain behind survive is easier to find.
either by maintaining breathing holes or by
congregating in polynias—areas where the
wind and currents keep the water ice free.
Seals start making breathing holes when
the ice is thin, rasping away at it with their
teeth. As the depth of the ice increases with
THE ANTARCTIC’S ICE FISH the progress of winter, they continue to visit
In the Antarctic, fish live in a world that is often roofed by ice. and work on their holes to ensure they
The high level of oxygen in cold water allows some Antarctic
remain clear. The Weddell seal, which
fish to survive without any hemoglobin in their blood. As a
result, their blood is almost colorless rather than red. lives farther south than any other
species, spends so much time
materials that nature has devised, but many keeping its breathing holes open
polar animals, such as whales, seals, and that its teeth develop distinctive
penguins, have additional insulation in the patterns of wear, and by late
form of blubber—a layer of yellowish fat that is winter, its breathing holes can
laid down under the skin. Blubber, which can be 61⁄2 ft (2 m) deep. The seals
be up to 12 in (30 cm) thick, is such an have to find their holes in almost
effective insulator that all these animals feel complete darkness because
cold to the touch even when their internal during the Antarctic winter the sun
body temperature is above 100.5º F (38º C). stays below the horizon for weeks.
Blubber is particularly useful in the sea
PAUSE FOR BREATH
because water conducts heat away from the
A Weddell seal heads up toward a
body 25 times faster than air. It also has breathing hole in the ice. Weddell seals
another valuable function: because fat can stay underwater for over an hour, making
contains lots of energy, blubber can be used return trips of up to 6 miles (10 km) before
as a food reserve when supplies are low. they have to come up for air.
LIFE IN POLAR REGIONS 67
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LONG-DISTANCE MIGRANTS
In Alaska and northern Canada, vast herds of reindeer migrate between their summer
grounds on open tundra and their winter grounds in coniferous forest. Some travel
over 620 miles (1,000 km) each way, swimming across rivers and sea inlets en route.
Pregnant females lead the herd during the spring leg of the journey.
it is on the surface, the lemmings

enjoy a benign micro-climate that allows
WINTER COAT Instead, they put on weight and then return them to feed all year. In Antarctica, there are
to warmer waters to give birth. During the very few terrestrial plants, which means that
breeding season, they often do not feed at all. almost no animals stay active in winter on food
gathered from land. With so much ice, even
H A B I TAT S
food from the ocean can be difficult to reach.
Winter food Male emperor penguins, guarding their eggs,
Although the food supply in polar seas slowly do not even attempt to find it: huddling on the
falls in the fall, there is still a reasonable ice through the long night of winter, they go
amount for animals to eat. On land, life is not without food until spring.
SUMMER so easy. The growth of tundra plants comes to
COAT a complete halt and, to make matters more
difficult, the plants themselves are often
covered by deep snow. For herbivores, this
lack of accessibility is a major problem at a
critical time of year. In the Arctic tundra,
plant-eating animals reach plants in one of 2
different ways. Reindeer (caribou) and musk
oxen use their hooves to clear away the snow
to reveal the lichens and dwarf willows
RUNWAYS UNDER THE SNOW
SEASONAL COATS
underneath. Lemmings turn the snow to their Lemmings need cover to survive. In winter, they develop enlarged
When the Arctic fox changes color, the consistency of its coat advantage by burrowing in it. The snow front claws that enable them to tunnel in snow. The tunnels keep
changes as well. Its white winter coat has long guard hairs and protects them from predators and from the them secure, although they must still contend with sparse winter
thick underfur, making for superb insulation. Its brown summer weather outside: no matter how cold or windy food supplies. When the snow melts, they move underground.
coat is shorter, with thinner underfur, to help prevent overheating.
TUNDRA INSECTS
Summer migrants Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic tundra teems with insect
life, including aphids, bumble bees, damselflies, and
Near the poles, 24-hour daylight in summer unimaginable numbers of mosquitoes. The mosquitoes
creates the ideal conditions for rapid plant spend their larval and pupal stages in tundra pools,
growth. This short-lived but profuse supply emerging as adults in early summer. For warm-blooded
of food has a dramatic effect on tundra life, animals, tundra mosquitoes are a serious problem. The
females need blood before they can breed, and they are
attracting vast numbers of migrants. Geese
relentless in their attempts to get it. When the mosquito
come to crop the plants with their beaks, waders season is at its height, some animals head for high
arrive to feed on worms and insects that live in ground, but most have no alternative but to sit it out.
swampy ground, while terns find food both on Mosquitoes do bring some benefits: the larvae and pupae
the tundra and in water close to the shore. are a useful source of protein for waterfowl and waders.
This annual influx of visitors is mirrored in
CLOUD OF MOSQUITOES
the ocean. Many of the world’s baleen whales
Adult tundra mosquitoes live for only a few weeks once they
head toward polar waters during summer to have emerged from their aquatic nurseries—just long enough
make use of the annual upsurge in planktonic to feed, mate, and lay eggs, before fall frosts glaze their
life. However, unlike migratory birds, these breeding pools with ice.
huge mammals do not breed at high latitudes.
68 FRESHWATER
Freshwater
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Every year, about 24,000 cubic miles

(100,000 cubic km) of water evaporates
from the world’s oceans, condenses, and
then falls as rain or snow. Most of this water
disappears back into the atmosphere to
continue this cycle, but about a third returns
to the oceans by flowing either over ground HERONS hunt by stealth,
or beneath the land surface. This steady waiting along riverbanks
and lake shores for fish
supply of freshwater sustains all the world’s to come within range.
land-based life, as well as creating highly
SURFACE
diverse habitats—from streams,
rivers, and lakes to reedbeds,
marshes, and swamps—in which
a wide range of different animal
and plant life can thrive.
Lakes and rivers DRAGONFLIES, like many

other insects, spend the early
For permanent water dwellers, life in lakes and rivers part of their lives in freshwater,
is shaped by many different factors. One of these is leaving it only when they are
the water’s chemical makeup, which is often dictated ready to breed.
by the type of rock that forms the bed of a river or
H A B I TAT S
lake. Hard water, for example, is good for animals that

grow shells because it contains calcium that can
be used as shell-building material, while water that
is especially rich in oxygen is important for highly
active predatory fish, such as salmon and trout.
Water that is very deficient in oxygen, on the other
hand, provides a poor environment for animal life FROGS vary in their affinity
for water. The American
as a whole because relatively few aquatic species,
bullfrog rarely leaves it,
other than specialized worms, can survive in it. even as an adult.
In lakes and rivers, aquatic animals usually occupy
clearly defined zones. The brightly lit water close
to the surface often teems with water-fleas,
copepods, and other
microscopic forms of
animal life. They live here
in order to feed on
MIDWATER
phytoplankton—the
microscopic algae that MANY AMPHIBIANS, such as
the great crested newt, use
become extremely
still or slowly flowing water
abundant during the summer containing plenty of plants
IN GEOLOGICAL TERMS, months. Feeding in the as a repository for their eggs.
lakes and rivers are highly middle zone and near the
changeable. Lakes gradually water’s surface are larger
fill with sediment, while rivers animals, such as fish, that
often change course. are able to hold their own
against the strength of the
SMALL CRUSTACEANS such
current. Weak swimmers live near the banks, where
as this cyclops copepod, are
the current is slower, or among stones and sediment part of the animal plankton
on the bottom. In still and slow-flowing water, surface in ponds and lakes.
tension supports insects that hunt by walking or
running over the water.
Some animals that are associated
with freshwater habitats are not
necessarily permanent water
BOTTOM
PIKE are sit-and-wait

dwellers; instead, they divide their predators, using dense
time between water and the adjacent waterside vegetation
land, entering the lake or river to hunt or as cover from which
breed, or using it as a nursery for their young. to ambush their prey.
FRESHWATER 69
Wetland
A wetland is any waterlogged or flooded
area with a covering of water plants. In some
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wetlands—reedbeds and bogs, for example—the

plants hide the water completely. However, in most
EMERGENT VEGETATION
wetland, areas of open water and dense vegetation are
mixed, creating a rich and complex habitat that can be
FISH EAGLES use their long exploited by animals of almost every kind.
talons to snatch fish from Biologically, wetland is among the most productive
the surface of the water. inland habitats, sometimes surpassing even rain forest
in the amount of food that it generates for animals. In
temperate parts of the world, this productivity reaches
a peak during spring and summer, but in the tropics
and subtropics, it is more affected by the water supply.
Some tropical wetlands—South America’s Pantanal, for
example—largely dry out
during the dry season, but
then look like vast lakes once
it has rained.
In many wetlands, the water
is no more than a yard (31/4 ft)
or so deep, which means that
THE JACANA, or lilytrotter, bottom-living animals and
has long toes that spread surface dwellers are rarely FRESHWATER WETLANDS
the bird’s weight so that it far apart. This kind of include the Pantanal,
can stand on floating leaves.
environment is ideal for South America, and the
air-breathing swimmers, such Okavango, an inland delta
as snakes and turtles, and in southern Africa.
also for land-based animals
H A B I TAT S
that use water as a temporary refuge from danger.
Unlike large lakes, wetlands have an extra dimension
in the form of emergent plants, which grow up through
the water’s surface and into the air. These plants range
in size from small grasses and rushes just tall enough
THE CAPYBARA, the world’s to keep insects clear of the water, to water-loving trees
SURFACE
largest rodent, feeds on land, that grow to over 115 ft (35 m) high. Trees act as
but uses water as a refuge important roosting and breeding sites for waterbirds,
from attack by predators. providing them with shelter and relative safety from
predators as well as keeping them close to the source
of their food.
POLLUTION AND ABSTRACTION

Freshwater habitats are affected by human activities
in many ways. Water pollution is a general problem that has
CAIMANS, and many profound consequences for a wide range of animal life.
other crocodilians, can However, in addition, large areas of wetland have been
survive for many weeks drained for agricultural use, often because wetland
when wetlands dry out by conditions produce highly fertile soil. Water abstraction,
MIDWATER
wallowing in moist mud. both for agriculture and for domestic use, is also an
increasing threat to freshwater habitats. Efforts to protect
wetlands have
produced several
international
agreements. One
THE COMMON SNAKE- of these, the Ramsar
NECKED TURTLE can stay Convention, adopted
underwater for long periods in 1971, focuses on
due to its slow metabolism. wetlands used by
migrating waterfowl.
HIGH AND DRY

In central Asia, the
Aral Sea—a giant
inland lake—has shrunk
dramatically because
LUNGFISH survive times incoming river water
BOTTOM
of drought by lying dormant has been diverted

in mud, protected by their to irrigate fields.
waterproof cocoons.
70 LIFE IN FRESHWATER
Life in freshwater Living in and out of water

Most amphibians, such as frogs and toads,
develop in freshwater habitats and then, as
Freshwater is an essential resource for all land-dwelling animals, but it is
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they approach adulthood, take up life on land,

also an important habitat in its own right. Freshwater habitats vary immensely, returning to water to breed. However, insects
from temporary pools to giant lakes, and from tiny streams to rivers thousands evolved amphibious lifestyles long before the
first true amphibians appeared. Today, almost
of miles long. As a result, the problems that animals must overcome in
every patch of freshwater, from the smallest
order to survive in their environment can be very different from one freshwater puddle to the largest lake, is inhabited by
habitat to another. Strong currents, periodic drought, and intense competition insects. Mosquito larvae feed on microscopic
for food are some of the difficulties for which animals must find solutions. freshwater life, whereas the larvae of
dragonflies and damselflies stalk larger prey,
catching it with a set of extensible jaws called
Staying in place because the food supply in freshwater is a mask. These insects leave the water when
Animals living in fast-flowing rivers face a limited, the young eventually make for the they become adult, but water beetles and
constant battle with the current, and they much more dangerous, but also more fruitful, bugs remain in it for life, although their ability
deal with it in one of 2 main ways. The first environment of the open sea. The advantages to fly makes it easy for them to spread from
is to avoid the problem by staying close to the of this are apparent where some, but not all, one pool to another.
riverbed, where the current is relatively slow. members of a species migrate: those that Some larger animals have developed
Many invertebrates, such as stonefly and swim out to sea usually grow much bigger lifestyles that straddle water and land. Snakes
mayfly larvae, never venture into open water; than those that stay behind. are good swimmers,
and to improve their staying power they often Like migrating birds, migrating fish are often and a number
have a flat profile, so that if they position remarkably accurate in pinpointing the place of species,
themselves with their heads facing upstream, of their birth, returning there to spawn even
the current presses down on their backs, though it might mean an inland journey of over
helping them to stay in place. Dippers are the 1,500 miles (2,500 km). Each river has its own
only songbirds that feed underwater, and can characteristic chemical fingerprint and, with
stay submerged even when moving against the their acute sense of smell, migratory fish are
current. They use their flapping wings to keep able to identify the estuary that they left as
H A B I TAT S
themselves in position, while their feet grip the young fish. By monitoring the scent of the
substrate of the river bed. water as they progress upriver, they home
The second solution is to compete with the in on their own spawning ground.
current by swimming against it. Species that Migrating fish often meet barriers to their
cannot avoid the current match their swimming progress. Salmon are famous for jumping
speed to the water flow, enabling them to stay waterfalls and rapids, while eels tackle
in place—and they keep swimming even when obstacles by slithering around them over A DAYTIME REFUGE
Hippos lounge in rivers and lakes by day and emerge at night,
they are asleep. land. Eels usually do this after dark, in damp
sometimes traveling over 9 miles (15 km) to find good grazing.
conditions, when they can survive out of water Their skin is thin and almost hairless, but it exudes a special
by breathing through their skin. secretion that helps to protect them from the daytime sun.
JOURNEY’S END
Most migratory fish travel upriver to breed several times
during their lives. Sockeye salmon, however, almost always
die once the adults have spawned. Sockeyes that are ready
to breed typically develop hooked jaws and humped backs.
COPING WITH THE CURRENT

Brown trout live in cool, fast-flowing streams, where it takes
a lot of energy simply to stay in place. Trout can hold their own
because fast-moving water is usually rich in oxygen—exactly
what the fish need to keep their muscles working.
Migration
In addition to supporting freshwater residents,
rivers and lakes receive visitors from the sea.
These are migratory fish, which divide their
time between fresh- and saltwater habitats.
Anadromous species, such as salmon, breed
in rivers but spend most of their adult lives
offshore. Catadromous species, such as some
eels, do exactly the opposite: they live in
freshwater, but swim out to sea to breed.
For most fish, freshwater makes a much safer
nursery than the ocean, and this justifies their
long journey upriver to lay their eggs. However,
LIFE IN FRESHWATER 71
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BREATHING AT THE SURFACE

Mosquito larvae hang upside down at the water’s surface,
breathing through snorkel-like tubes. The tubes are tipped
with water-repellent hairs that break through the surface film.
such as the grass snake, specialize in catching DRY TIMES Coming up for air
Two staring yellow eyes identify a common caiman in the mud
aquatic animals. The anaconda, the heaviest Freshwater animals need to breathe oxygen.
of a dried-out lake. During drought, caimans can survive being
snake in the world, uses water for cover and entombed for many months as long as the mud stays moist. Fish use gills to extract it from the water, but
for support: despite its size, water buoys it up, many invertebrates collect it from the air.
reducing its effective weight to almost nothing Caimans and turtles also hide away in this way, These air breathers include many water snails,
and enabling it to swim at considerable speed. although their scaly, waterproof skins mean that many insects, and the water spider—the only
In addition to providing food, freshwater is cocoons are not needed. Being “cold-blooded,” spider to have evolved a fully aquatic lifestyle.
a valuable resource for some land-based or ectothermic, they need relatively little energy For animals living at the water’s surface, air
H A B I TAT S
animals seeking refuge from predators or to stay alive, so they can survive drought- is easy to reach. For fully submerged ones,
induced food shortages for months. breathing requires periodic trips to the surface
Animals that cannot survive drought often to replenish air reserves, which are stored in
ROOSTING AMONG
leave behind drought-resistant eggs, which or on the insect’s body, often forming a film-
THE REEDS
Swallows, starlings, hatch when water returns—an effective way like bubble that gives the animal a silvery
and other flock- of bridging the gap between one wet period sheen. The water spider has an exceptionally
forming songbirds and the next. This survival strategy is used by elaborate storage system. It constructs a
often use reeds as water fleas, rotifers, tardigrades, and many “diving bell” from strands of silk, trapping a
overnight roosts. The other “micro-animals,” as well as some kinds large bubble of air inside it. The bell acts as
sleeping birds are of fish, which live in temporary pools or in the both lair and nursery—a unique example of
relatively safe from
film of freshwater that covers mosses and an animal creating a submerged habitat that
predators because
reeds are usually other plants. resembles dry land.
surrounded by water.
daytime heat. At dusk, birds often roost on LIVING IN SALT LAKES

lakes and reservoirs while, during the day, Salt and soda lakes are the most saline habitats on earth, with up to 10
times as much dissolved salt as the sea. They form where rainfall is low and
hippos, capybaras, and beavers spend a lot
evaporation rates are high because temperatures often climb to over 104° F
of time in the water, emerging under the cover (40° C). Relatively few animals can deal with these extreme conditions, but
of darkness to feed on land. the ones that do can be extremely numerous because they face very little
competition. Salt-lake food chains are based on cyanobacteria—plantlike
Surviving drought microorganisms that harness the energy in sunlight, turning it into food.
In warm parts of the world—particularly in

the tropics—rivers and lakes often dry out
completely for several months each year. In
these conditions, freshwater animals need LIVING IN BRINE
some unusual adaptations to survive. Brine shrimps are small
When a lake’s water level drops, its crustaceans that thrive in
salt-rich desert lakes. They
temperature increases. Warm, stagnant water
breed rapidly, producing eggs
often contains so little oxygen that many fish that can withstand several
suffocate, but lungfish—characteristic years of drought.
inhabitants of tropical lakes and wetlands—
are experts at dealing with drought. They gulp FILTER FEEDERS
air at the surface and, when their home starts Lesser flamingos use
to dry out, they burrow into the mud, sealing their beaks to filter
microorganisms out of the
themselves inside mucous cocoons. Later
water. A large colony can
in the year, when heavy rain falls and soaks consume more than one ton
the mud, the cocoon breaks down, and of cyanobacteria a day.
the fish wiggle away.
72 OCEANS
Oceans
SURFACE
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The oceans form by far the largest

continuous habitat on earth, and they were
almost certainly the environment in which life PLANKTONIC LIFE near
first evolved. The underwater landscape is the surface of inshore waters
consists partly of sea animals
made up of mountains and volcanoes, cliffs,
starting their lives as larvae.
deep valleys, and vast, flat plains, many of
them far larger than any found on land. The
oceans are so immense—they cover more than
three-quarters of the earth’s surface—and
difficult to explore that scientific knowledge
of ocean wildlife lags behind that of life on
land. However, research has shown that life is
found at all levels, from the sunlit surface to the
deepest trenches over 7 miles (11 km) down. JELLYFISH, the largest
MIDWATER
individual planktonic animals,
can swim as well as drift near
Inshore waters the surface. Some are over
Some inshore waters are so shallow that if the world’s 61⁄2 ft (2 m) across.
oceans were lowered by just 245 ft (75 m), huge areas
of seabed would be exposed. Off Western
Europe, for example, the coast would
be extended by about 125 miles
(200 km), and in parts of Siberia,
H A B I TAT S
by more than 435 miles (700 km). MOST SHARKS live in the
relatively shallow water of the
These shallow waters owe their existence to
continental shelves rather than
continental shelves—the gently sloping plateaux in the deep sea.
that flank many of the deep ocean basins.
Continental shelves are a key habitat for sea life,
supporting large schools of fish and a diverse
collection of other animals, from lobsters
and crabs to mollusks and burrowing
worms. This wealth of life is possible
FISH such as cod shed vast
because, in shallow water, sunlight can reach the
numbers of eggs near the
seabed, promoting the growth of algae, seagrasses, seabed. The eggs
and countless other organisms that need energy from float gradually
light to survive. Just like plants upward, and
on land, these provide animals the young fish
with a year-round supply live near the surface.
of food, as well as with
plenty of cover and
places to breed.
Some inshore animals, such
as lobsters and flatfish, spend
most of their lives on the
CONTINENTAL SHELVES vary in
seabed, while a few live entirely
width from a few miles—in
coasts close to deep-sea in midwater or at the surface. LOBSTERS are common
Others live in quite different seabed scavengers, crawling
trenches—to over 620 miles
over the bottom in search of
(1,000 km). habitats at different stages of
live prey and dead remains.
SEABED
their lives. For example, some

larvae develop as part of the surface plankton, then
move to midwater or the seabed as adults.
Inshore waters are also visited by animals from
the open sea—most often by passive drifters,
such as jellyfish, but also by powerful swimmers,
such as whales and sharks. Some come to
breed, while others arrive by accident and then
return to deeper water. Occasionally, the latter get
into difficulties: jellyfish often end up on the shore, LIKE MANY FLATFISH, the
and whales can become stranded when their European plaice lives on the
navigation systems guide them into shallow water seabed. It is camouflaged
instead of safely out to sea. to match the sediment.
OCEANS 73
Open sea
Even in the clearest sea water, light penetrates no
SURFACE
farther than about 825 ft (250 m) below the surface.
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OCEAN
More than any other factor, this has a crucial effect
WANDERERS, on sea life because it determines what there is to
such as tropicbirds, eat. In the brightly lit surface zone, microscopic
spend most of their lives far algae grow by harnessing the energy in
out at sea, returning to land sunlight, creating an invisible harvest for planktonic
only to breed. animals. This food is passed on when the plankton
are themselves eaten in food
chains that eventually end
with sharks and other large
predators. Below the point
where the light fades and
finally disappears, there is no
home-grown supply of food.
At this depth, and further
below, animals feed either
IF THE CONTINENTAL shelves
on each other or on the are excluded, the average
supply of dead remains depth of the world’s ocean
MIDWATER
THE HUGE OCEAN SUNFISH that constantly drifts down basins is about 13,200 ft
is a typical open water, or from the surface. (4,000 m).
“pelagic” species: it spends Despite the unimaginable
its life often hundreds of volume of the oceans, few of the world’s animal
miles from land. species—perhaps 5 percent—live in open water. Since
most of these stay near the surface, where they
can take advantage of the relatively plentiful food
supply, animal life in the huge midwater zone and
the deeper abyssal zone is comparatively sparse.
H A B I TAT S
MARINE In contrast with these central zones, much of the
TURTLES ocean floor abounds with animals. Those that live on
often migrate long distances the seabed are called benthic animals and include
between their feeding species that swim or crawl over the seabed as well
grounds and the beaches as those that burrow through the soft sediment for
where they breed.
food. Many appear to have changed little over
millions of years, for although the water is very cold,
and the pressure intense, the deep seabed is not
subjected to the changeable conditions that
DOLPHINS have
can affect the surface. It is thus one of the
ABYSSAL ZONE
streamlined bodies that most stable habitats on earth.

give them exceptional
swimming ability. They often
roam far out of sight of land.
OVERFISHING
The world’s total fish catch currently stands at nearly
103 million tons (93.4 million tonnes) a year, with about
nine-tenths coming from the sea. This colossal harvest
has a major impact on marine ecosystems, with fishing
THE VIPERFISH is one of spreading from traditional grounds to polar waters and
many deep-sea species the deep seabed. Managed appropriately, marine fish
that produce light in order can be sustainably harvested, whereas overfishing can
to attract their prey. disrupt breeding, pushing stocks to the point of collapse.
It is estimated that close to 30 percent of the world’s
commercial fish
stocks are overfished
and only 10 percent
are classed as
underfished.
SURE CATCH
Using sonar and global
SEABED
positioning systems,
modern trawlers can
track down schools with
pinpoint accuracy. Without
DEEP-SEA SCAVENGERS, such strict controls, far fewer
as brittlestars, feed on organic adult fish are left
matter that drifts down to the to breed.
seabed.
74 LIFE IN OCEANS
Life in oceans BIOLUMINESCENCE

A variety of marine animals produce light—some
to maintain contact with their own kind, others to
In the billion or more years since the first animal species evolved, competition
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lure prey. In some species, notably planktonic

for survival in the sea has become ever more intense. Today, the oceans are home invertebrates, the value of light is less easy to
explain. Bioluminescence is most common in
to the largest predators on the planet, as well as to vast numbers of microscopic bathypelagic species (those that live in very deep,
animals that drift by unseen. As on land, ocean wildlife is affected by local open water). Typically, the light is produced by
skin organs called photophores. Light production
conditions, the most important being the supply of food. For many, survival also is not always confined to the animal itself: some
depends on being able to defend themselves against attack. In some regions, fish can eject luminous clouds to distract
predators while they make an escape.
life is thinly spread, but in others, animals are found in greater numbers than they
are anywhere else on earth.
Feeding at sea of them therefore have gigantic mouths and

elastic stomachs that enable them to swallow
The oceans are so huge that, although
prey that is almost as large as themselves.
they contain plenty of nutritious food, marine
animals face a challenge in finding enough to
eat without expending too much energy in Controlling buoyancy
the process. Very few marine animals—with the exception of
Some concentrate on large prey. The sperm deep-diving mammals—are found at all levels
whale, for example, hunts giant squid at in the sea. Instead, most are adapted for life at
depths of over 3,300 ft (1,000 m), although a particular depth, and have buoyancy devices
most pursuit hunters search for food near the that help to keep them there. Surface drifters,
surface rather than in the depths. Other large such as the violet sea snail, have simple floats:
LIGHTS IN THE DARK
sea animals eat smaller fare, scooping it up filled with material that is lighter than water, Bristlemouths have photophores that emit a yellowish green
in huge amounts, often straining it with their they ensure that the animal stays at the light. As in most luminous fish, the photophores are arranged
gills. This technique, known as filter feeding, surface, even in a heavy swell. in characteristic patterns that enable members of a species to
H A B I TAT S
is used by baleen whales and some of the For animals that spend their lives fully recognize each other in the dark. Photophores may shine for
largest sharks and rays. Most filter feeders immersed, remaining at one level requires extended periods or they may be flashed on and off.
live on plankton, which is so abundant that more complex apparatus. They have to be
it allows them to reach a gigantic size. Drifting neutrally buoyant at their optimal depth and example, have a gas-filled chamber, called
animals also feed on plankton, although on yet able to rise or sink as the need arises. To the swim bladder, just below the backbone. If
a much smaller scale. Comb jellies or sea do this, some use adjustable buoyancy aids the fish needs to sink, it removes some of the
gooseberries, for example, haul it in with hidden inside their bodies. Bony fish, for gas from the swim bladder by pumping it into
sticky cells that work like fishing nets. the bloodstream; if it needs to rise, it pumps it
On the seabed, animal life depends almost back into the bladder. Cartilaginous fish, such
entirely on the dead organic matter that drifts as sharks, do not have swim bladders; instead,
steadily down from above. Brittlestars are they rely on their large, oily liver to keep them
typical of these scavengers, collecting food afloat. Many sharks are actually slightly heavier
particles with their arms. However, there are than sea water: swimming provides the lift that
also predators—bizarre fish, for example—that allows them to control their depth.
hunt in the total darkness, on or near the
seabed. Animal life at the bottom of the sea Avoiding predators
can be sparse, so these predators cannot In the open sea, there is nowhere to hide,
afford to miss any opportunity to feed. Many ANIMALS ADRIFT which leaves animals highly vulnerable to
The violet sea snail hangs from a raft made of hardened bubbles predators. To survive, some rely on camouflage
of mucus. To improve buoyancy, its shell is unusually thin. It drifts or disguise; others behave in ways that make
FILTER FEEDING
with the currents, feeding on other surface animals.
Using large flaps on either side of its head, a them difficult to attack.
manta ray channels plankton into its mouth. For slow-moving invertebrates, such as those
Filter feeders like the manta are indiscriminate that make up plankton, one of the most
eaters, swallowing anything that becomes effective disguises is transparency. Planktonic
trapped by their strainerlike gills.
animals are often as clear as glass, which
makes them difficult to see, even at close
quarters. Most of these animals are only a few
millimeters long, although some tunicates form
translucent, tube-shaped colonies that can be
over 93 ⁄4 ft (3 m) in length.
Some fish are transparent when they are very
small, but then use camouflage of a different
kind as they get older. Almost all species that
live in brightly lit, open water have dark backs
but much paler undersides. This pattern,
known as countershading, protects fish in
2 ways: it hides them from predators deeper
down by disguising their silhouette against the
LIFE IN OCEANS 75
SYNCHRONIZED SWIMMING HYDROTHERMAL VENTS

A school of silversides scatters from a First seen in 1977, off the Galapagos Islands,
predator. Their extraordinary degree of hydrothermal vents are remarkable ecological
coordination makes it seem as though they
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oases on the deep seabed. Vents are created

are obeying a central command. In reality, by volcanic activity releasing streams of intensely
each fish simply responds to the others. hot, mineral-laden water into the ocean. They are
among the few habitats where life does not rely on
energy from the sun—specialized bacteria use the
minerals to produce energy, and vent animals
either consume food created by the bacteria or
eat each other. Hundreds of animal species have
been discovered around vents; most of these
are not found elsewhere.
GHOSTLY ANIMALS
Like most vent animals, these crabs and clams—caught
in the powerful lights of a submersible—have very little
pigmentation, which explains their white appearance.
after year to lay their eggs. This is all the more

remarkable because it takes 2 or 3 decades
H A B I TAT S
for the animal to mature: during this time, a
A few animals, such as turtle remembers precisely where it hatched
dolphins, live in sophisticated social so that when it is ready to breed it can make
bright sky, and it conceals them from surface groups. Dolphins use cholocation to locate the long journey back.
hunters, including seabirds, by making them prey, to warn each other of danger, and to On a smaller scale, many fish swim inshore
blend in with the dark water beneath. organize themselves during hunting. to spawn, while other slow-moving animals
migrate across the seabed. Caribbean spiny
Migration lobsters travel between shallow reefs, where
Many marine animals—including most of the they breed, and deeper water, where they
largest whales—migrate between breeding overwinter; they set off in single file, each
grounds in the tropics and feeding grounds one following the tail of the animal in front.
at higher latitudes. The gray whale probably Journeys like these are usually annual
travels the greatest distances: its lifetime events. But some animals migrate daily to
annual migrations total up to 500,000 miles feed. Planktonic animals often rise to the
(800,000 km)—twice the distance to the moon. surface at night, sinking back into the depths
Tuna are also known to undertake immense by day. Some of the plankton’s predators copy
journeys: some schools travel the length of the this pattern, creating a 24-hour cycle involving
TRANSPARENT LIFE Mediterranean; in the Pacific, one fish tagged many animals. These vertical migrations are
Barrel-shaped salps have clear, jellylike bodies that are in Mexico was recovered off Japan. Turtles clearly revealed by shipboard sonar, which
difficult for predators to see. Up to 4 in (10 cm) long, they show very precise migration patterns, shows a reflective layer rising at sunset and
live in swarms that can extend hundreds of miles returning to the same stretch of beach year sinking at dawn.
across the ocean’s surface.
Living in groups
On land, animal groups can be very large, but
none rivals the size of those that can occur at
sea. Fish often live in schools thousands or
even millions strong, while some planktonic
animals form swarms that can be over 60
miles (100 km) long. MAIN MIGRATION ROUTES
These giant aggregations of underwater life WINTER RANGE
often seem easy targets for predators. Whales SUMMER RANGE
gorge on krill with almost nonchalant ease,
WHALES ON THE MOVE
while other predators make huge inroads into
North American gray whales make an annual
schools of fish. But, in general, animals living return trip between their winter breeding grounds
in groups are safer than they would be alone: off northwest Mexico and their summer feeding
they are more difficult to single out and much grounds around the Bering Sea. A smaller number
more difficult to take by surprise. migrate between Korea and eastern Siberia.
76 COASTS AND CORAL REEFS
Coasts and Coasts

Some habitats look much the same from one year to the next,
but the seashore is always changing. Waves pound away at
CLIFFS are
important nesting
coral reefs
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rocks, undermining them and breaking them up, while coastal sites for many
currents reshape the shore in a less dramatic way by moving seabirds,
although
pebbles and sand. Superimposed on this is the rhythmic
some, such as
movement of the tides—a twice-daily cycle that has a profound terns, nest on the ground
In the natural world, the boundaries between impact on seashore wildlife. above the high-tide line.
different environments are often rich habitats Tides vary enormously in different parts of the world. Around
for wildlife. The world’s coasts are the ultimate islands in mid-ocean, the total rise and fall is often less than 12 in
SUPRALITTORAL
(30 cm), while in deep bays and inlets on continental coasts, it can
example of this meeting of habitats because they be over 33 ft (10 m). Whatever its height range, the tide divides
bring together animals that live on the land and the shore into 3 different zones, each with its own distinctive
those that live in the sea. Coastal wildlife varies animal life.
according to local conditions but, on rocky The highest of these zones is the supralittoral, which is the part
of the shore just beyond the reach of the highest tides. Although
coasts as well as sandy ones, shore animals are this zone is never actually submerged, it is affected by salt spray,
associated with clear-cut zones that are usually which means that animals that are sensitive to salt—and also
determined by the tides. Coral reefs are a salt-intolerant plants—are rarely found in this zone. Below this is
special kind of coastal habitat. Famed for their the eulittoral, a zone that is regularly covered and then exposed as
the tide floods and recedes. The animals found here, such as
spectacular shape and color, they can grow mussels and limpets, lead a double life in that they have to be able
to vast proportions and are unrivaled in the to survive both in water and in air. The next zone, or sublittoral, is
immense variety of aquatic life that they support. always submerged, even during the lowest tides. Most of the
animals that live in this zone are fully marine, although a few leave
Reef-building corals require specific conditions,
the water to breed.
the most important being warmth and bright Coastal wildlife is also affected by the geology of the shore.
sunlight all year round. As a result, coral reefs Many animals live on rocky coasts, while others specialize in living
are largely restricted to the tropics. in sand or coastal mud. Compared with these, shingle is a difficult
H A B I TAT S
habitat for animals, although some shoreline waders use it as a

place to nest.
MARINE POLLUTION
With their abundant wildlife, coasts and coral reefs are easily
damaged by pollution. Among the most visible pollutants are Coral reefs
crude oil, which can be fatal to surface-dwelling animals, and
There are 2 types of corals: hard and soft. Coral reefs are formed
nonbiodegradable plastics, which litter shallows and shores.
Pollution can also affect the water invisibly, when contaminants by hard corals. The individual coral animals, called polyps, secrete
such as industrial effluents are washed into the sea. On a global external skeletons that persist after they die. Soft corals are found
scale, marine life faces larger problems: the gradual warming all over the world, but hard, reef-building corals grow in clear,
and acidification of seawater, caused by increasing levels of nutrient-poor water, where their mutualistic algae can use the
carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. In coral reefs, periodic energy in sunlight. Deep-water coral reefs do not rely on algae.
warming sometimes triggers bleaching, which occurs when Such is the richness of the habitat created by coral reefs that
corals expel the symbiotic algae that provide them with much of
a huge number of animals are able to live side by side without
their food. Corals often recover from bleaching, but acidification
is a more long-term and pervasive change. It makes it harder for competing for the same food.
marine animals to extract calcium carbonate—the key mineral There are 3 main types of
that they use for building skeletons and shells. reefs: fringing reefs, which
grow close to the shore;
barrier reefs, which are
separated from the coast by
deep channels, sometimes
over 62 miles (100 km) wide;
and atolls, which are ring- or
CORAL REEFS are found in parts of the world
horseshoe-shaped reefs that where the sea temperature never drops below
grow around oceanic islands, about 64º F (18º C). The world’s largest reefs
often where volcanoes have are in the Indo-Pacific region.
LAGOON
subsided into the sea.
Although every reef is unique, reefs share a common structure.
RAYS, and many other bottom-
Depth and exposure are 2 important factors that influence this dwelling fish, feed on animals
because corals vary in their need for light and in their ability to buried in the coral sand of
withstand the force of the waves. The fastest-growing corals, reef lagoons. Most are
which need lots of light and relatively calm water, typically form well camouflaged.
the central zone of the reef, projecting just above the surface at
the lowest tides. On its inshore edge, the central zone is often
BLEACHED CORALS
backed by lagoons—large pools of open water lying over coral
Reaching upward like skeletal fingers, bleached Acropora coral contrasts
with the living coral around it. Bleaching is not necessarily fatal to corals, but
sand. By contrast, the seaward edge of the reef often forms a
it is a sign of a reef under stress—something that is becoming more common submarine cliff that drops steeply into the depths. The corals in
as global sea temperatures rise. this zone are solid and resilient because they have to withstand
heavy breakers rolling in from the open sea.
COASTS AND CORAL REEFS 77
STARFISH are common BIVALVES are found on all types of

predators in the eulittoral zone, shore; some, such as mussels, fasten
particularly on rocky shores themselves to rocks, while others
with plenty of bivalves to eat. live buried in mud.
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THE LUMPFISH stays in place SEALS spend most of their time SEASHORE WORMS, including
by sticking itself to submerged in the water but have to come ashore ragworms, hunt and scavenge on
rocks with its suckerlike to breed. Some breeding colonies the seabed. Many species burrow,
pelvic fins. contain thousands of animals. filtering food from the water.
EULITTORAL SUBLITTORAL
H A B I TAT S
REEF SEAWARD SHELF
PARROTFISH use beaklike jaws

to feed on corals. The chewed-up
skeletons are excreted as sand,
which builds up on the reef.
TURTLES use their MANY SEA SNAKES BRANCHING CORALS, mainly of the
toothless beaks to feed on live in inshore waters. genus Acropora, are characteristic SPONGES filter food from water
algae and the various small Some hunt among coral of the central zone of most reefs. around reefs. Some are minute,
animals that live in all actively reefs, preying upon small Some can gain 6 in (15 cm) in height but deep-water forms can reach
growing parts of reefs. fish and eels. each year. 39 in (1 m) in height.
78 LIFE ON COASTS AND CORAL REEFS
Life on coasts Feeding on the shore

Coasts provide a much greater variety of food
and coral reefs

than the open sea. High up the shore, an
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abundance of animal and plant remains left in

strandlines by the retreating tide are consumed
by beach-hoppers, springtails, and other
Compared with the open sea, coasts and coral reefs are disproportionately
scavengers, which are then preyed upon
rich in marine wildlife. Rocky coasts and mudflats abound with seabirds and by gulls and waders.
invertebrates, while coral reefs probably contain at least a third of the world’s fish In the intertidal zone, filter feeders are
species. Conditions in coasts and reefs are variable, so the animals that use them common. Unlike the giant filter feeders of the
open sea (see p.74), coastal ones are generally
are often extremely specialized. Some roam over large areas of the shore, but for
small and often spend their entire adult lives
most, a distance of just a few yards makes the difference between an ideal fixed in one place. Mussels and other bivalves,
habitat and one in which it is impossible to survive. which filter particles of food using modified gills,
are examples of these. Barnacles have a
different filtering technique: despite their
Adapting to tides resemblance to mollusks, barnacles are
For coastal animals, life is governed by crustaceans, with a set of feathery legs. At
the rhythm of the tides. As well as adapting high tide, the legs protrude from the barnacle’s
to the twice-daily ebb and flow, they have to case to collect food particles.
adapt to the drawn-out rhythm of extra-large Rocky shores are home to some fast-moving
spring tides, which are normally 14 days apart. swimmers as well as to many other animals
Knowing where the tide stands is important CLOSED ANEMONE OPEN ANEMONE that take a more leisurely approach to finding
because animals caught unprepared run
PREVENTING WATER LOSS
the risk of either drying out or drowning. To protect themselves from drying out at low tide, many
Some shore animals, such as barnacles, sea anemones withdraw their tentacles, turning into jellylike
adjust their behavior according to whether or blobs that can be seen on coastal rocks. They often live under
not they are submerged. Most aquatic animals, overhangs, which keeps them out of direct sunlight.
however, are much more sophisticated,
H A B I TAT S
reacting to their internal biological clocks, which march in step with the tides. Even if
they are taken away from the shore and placed
in a tank, their tidal clocks continue to tick.
spring tide neap tide spring tide This built-in ability to keep time enables
6
animals to anticipate events. For example,
submerged limpets crawl over rocks to graze
4
TIDAL HEIGHT (M)
on microscopic algae. But since they are

2 vulnerable away from their niche on the rock,
they have to return home before the sea ebbs FEEDING AT THE SHORE
away. Their biological clocks tell them when to Sandpipers wade into the sea in their search for food. Like many
0
coastal waders, they follow each wave as it retreats, and then they
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 head back, ensuring that they are securely in
scuttle back up the shore as the next one breaks.
DAYS place, and airtight, before the tide goes out.
TIDAL RHYTHMS
Conversely, the fiddler crab’s biological clock food. Starfish and sea urchins are among the
When the sun and moon line up with the earth, extra high and prompts it to come out and feed at low tide slowest, crawling over rocks on hundreds of
low “spring” tides occur. When they are at right angles, the and then return to its underground burrow fluid-filled feet.
result is a neap tide, with minimal variation. before the incoming tide engulfs it.
Living in mud and sand
MANGROVE SWAMPS Compared with rocky shores, coastal mud
Mangrove swamps are formed by trees that are and sand seem to harbor only a limited amount
adapted for life in salty intertidal mud. Found only of animal life. But appearances are deceptive.
in the tropics and subtropics, they play an important
Mud in particular often teems with hidden
ecological role by stabilizing the coast and providing
inshore nurseries for fish and other marine animals.
life feeding on organic matter brought in by
Most mangroves develop arching prop roots, which the tide.
are exposed when the tide is out and submerged One of the advantages of living below ground
when it is in. These provide anchorage for mollusks, is that despite the attacks of curlews and other
and act as convenient perches for mudskippers— long-billed birds, it provides good protection
the air-breathing fish that thrive in this habitat. from predators. The chief disadvantage is that
Mangrove foliage is tough and leathery, and eaten
the surface is constantly shifting, cutting off
mainly by insects; but the dense canopy attracts
large numbers of birds, which use mangroves as buried animals from the water above—and
breeding sites and overnight roosts. The mud in from oxygen and food.
mangrove swamps is deep and often foul smelling, Some of these buried animals have
but it is rich in organic matter that is replenished specialized body parts that enable them to
each day by the tide. connect with the surface. Clams, for example,
Until the late 20th century, mangroves escaped SWAMP VEGETATION
have leathery tubes or siphons. In many
much of the large-scale deforestation in the tropics. Mangroves are the only trees that can grow in mud periodically
But, with the increase in shrimp farming, large areas flooded by the tide. Few animals eat the trees’ leaves, partly
species, the siphons can be retracted inside
of mangroves have been cut down, raising concerns because they are often rich in salt, but these coastal forests the shell, but in some, they are too long to be
about the long-term impact on coastal wildlife. are important breeding grounds for birds and marine animals. stowed away. Species that do not have such
accessories often live in burrows. The lugworm
LIFE ON COASTS AND CORAL REEFS 79
NEW GENERATION
A giant clam expels eggs into the
sea. The larvae will drift away to
settle on distant parts of the reef.
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Giant clams live on the food

generated by the mutualistic algae
harboring in their fleshy lips.
LUGWORM CASTS
Lugworm burrows have 2 holes—one for incoming water and
another for ejected waste. The waste forms a pile, or “cast,” that
looks like muddy toothpaste squirted out of a tube.
is an example: it makes a U-shaped burrow,

lining it with mucus to keep it intact so that
seawater does not make it collapse.
Mutualistic partnerships
Mutualism is a feature of life in all habitats, but
it is particularly apparent on coasts. In some
cases, the mutualistic partners are animals;
but, in many others, one is an animal and the
other is microscopic algae that live inside its
body. These algae, known as zooxanthellae,
can be found in thousands of coastal animals,
including corals, jellyfish, and giant clams.
Zooxanthellae live by photosynthesis—the
H A B I TAT S
same process by which plants grow. Through
a complex series of chemical reactions, they
harness the energy in sunlight and use it to coral and algae to work, the corals have to
build up organic matter. The host animal encourage algae growth, which means they
provides the zooxanthellae with protection must live in bright sunshine near the water
from the outside and, in return, the algae surface. However, this limits their upward
surrender some of their manufactured food. growth because few corals can survive more
These partnerships are very important to than an hour of exposure at low tide.
reef-building corals because they allow them
to live in places where the supply of food is Reproduction
otherwise low. For the partnership between Many land animals have adapted to life at sea.
Some are now fully marine, but others—such A LIFE IN THE SEA
MUTUAL BENEFIT The sea otter is the only otter to live entirely in water: it gives birth
as turtles, some sea snakes, and seals and
Rather than harming clownfish, the sea anemone’s stinging tentacles in the sea, and floats upside down to suckle its young. This female
protect them from predators, while the fish probably help keep the
their relatives—must come ashore to breed.
is swimming with her cub on her chest.
anemone clean. However, the partnership is not entirely equal, for These animals are often scattered over a wide
while anemones can live alone, area, so they tend to form colonies during in the same place each year to maximize their
clownfish cannot. the breeding season, congregating chances of finding a mate. Many coastal
invertebrates, on the other hand, spend their
entire adult lives in one place. For them,
reproduction is an opportunity not only to
multiply but also to disperse. Their eggs hatch
into planktonic larvae, which may then drift
long distances in coastal currents before
eventually settling down. For some species,
such as barnacles, choosing a home is an
irrevocable decision because a larva cannot
detach itself once it has settled. Chemical cues
help it to “make up its mind” before it takes this
momentous step.
Some fish come inshore to breed because
the shoreline offers plenty of hiding places for
their eggs. An extreme example of such a fish
is the California grunion, which lays its eggs
not in water but in damp sand on beaches.
Grunions stage mass spawnings during high
spring tides at night. At the next spring tide,
the eggs hatch and the young are washed
into the sea.
80 URBAN AREAS
Urban areas
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Two hundred years ago, only about 3 percent

of the world’s population lived in cities.
Today, the figure is rapidly approaching 50 FERAL PIGEONS,
ROOFTOPS
percent even in previously rural countries, a familiar sight in the
city, are descended from
and the human population has increased domestic birds that
nearly sevenfold. This phenomenal growth in escaped into the wild.
urban living has transformed large areas of the

planet. It has created a wide range of artificial
habitats—both in and out of doors—that
animals can use as their homes, as well
as vast amounts of waste that form the basis
THE HOUSE SPARROW’S
of animal food chains. As a result, there is a
exploitation of urban areas
wealth of wildlife living with and among us. has enabled it to spread from
Europe, Africa, and Asia, to
CITIES that have a other parts of the world.
population of more
than one million
people are spread
throughout the world.
There are more than
250 of these cities,
and the total is
rapidly increasing.
H A B I TAT S
Outdoors
For animals that can deal with disturbance, cities THE BRUSH-TAILED POSSUM
and towns can be good places to live. They have thrives in gardens and parks,
plenty of suitable places for sheltering or raising and sometimes breeds
young, from trees and window ledges to in buildings.
LIVING AREAS
underground passageways, and for omnivorous

species, they provide a constant supply of leftover
food. In winter, the artificial heat that escapes from
buildings offers additional benefit. Even better,
cities are relatively safe: cats and dogs aside, they
are free of many of the predators that animals would
encounter in their natural homes.
MANY BUTTERFLIES breed
Animals have adapted to urban expansion with
in urban areas, but the
different degrees of success. Some species are Camberwell beauty is only
never found in cities, always retreating as the a visitor in search of nectar
concrete advances. Others, such as migrating and fallen fruit.
birds and insects, are occasional visitors,
touching down briefly before moving on. More
adaptable animals—raccoons and red foxes, for
example—are equally at home in town or country,
and treat built-up areas as extensions of their
natural habitat. True urban specialists, such as
the ubiquitous feral pigeon and the house sparrow,
are now so fully adapted to city living that they
are rarely seen anywhere else. THE RED FOX is active at
While feral pigeons can survive in the busiest night, reducing the risk of its
city centers, many urban animals are found chiefly being disturbed while foraging.
in parks and gardens—the small-scale versions
GROUND
of their habitats in the wild. These animals vary

from one part of the world to another, but they
include tree-dwelling mammals, such as squirrels
and opossums, and a wide range of birds.
The spread of suburbia is normally a threat to
wildlife, but for these species it can actually THE BROWN RAT’S burrowing
be a help because it creates a patchwork of lifestyle enables it to live
suitable habitats, sometimes with the bonus close to people without
of food hand outs. being easily seen.
URBAN AREAS 81
Indoors
In the natural world, many animals inadvertently
create habitats for other species when they build
THE HOUSE MOUSE, originally
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from central Asia, has spread

their nests. Humans do exactly the same. However,
all over the world. Other because our “nests” are so extensive and complex,
household rodents include they can host an exceptionally wide range of animal
rats and some species life. Much of it is harmless, but some can cause
of dormice. problems or at least inconvenience.
Most indoor animals are small and nocturnal, which
helps them to avoid being noticed by their human
hosts. This is especially true of species that share
daily living areas and that scavenge leftover food.
Silverfish, for example, emerge after dark to
FOR GECKOS, search for flour and other starchy produce,
ROOF SPACES
house walls scuttling away if cupboards or drawers are
make good suddenly opened, exposing them to the
nocturnal hunting
light. Cockroaches behave in a similar way,
grounds—especially
if there are lights nearby but they are more of a nuisance because
to attract flying insects. they spread disease. At dawn, nocturnal
animals hide away, leaving the day shift to
take over. Houseflies, for example, are most
active during the day because they navigate by sight.
In basements and attics, wildlife is less affected by the
cycle of light and dark, and it is less frequently disturbed
by human comings and goings. For wild animals, attics
resemble extra-large tree holes, while basements
resemble caves. Wasps, birds, and house mice will all
HOUSEFLIES enter buildings nest in attics—if they can get in—and they sometimes
to find food, but some other share this habitat with roosting bats. Basements and
H A B I TAT S
species—such as the cluster cellars provide a haven for spiders, which can survive
fly—use attics and undisturbed for long periods without food and, in many cases, catch
empty rooms
their prey in total darkness.
for hibernation.
LIVING AREAS
The advent of central heating has been an important

factor in the increase in the number of animals that
choose to share our homes. For example, cockroaches,
which were originally found mainly in warm parts of the
world, are now widespread in cooler regions. Soft
furnishings and carpeting also play a part: as well as
helping keep the home warm, they provide hiding
places and nesting material for various animals.
COCKROACHES can become
a serious pest in warm parts
of the world and in houses URBAN HAZARDS
with central heating. Urban animals face a form of “unnatural selection” in that
any species that are not suited to city life are ruthlessly
weeded out, regardless of how successful they would
be in the wild. Shortage of space, combined with noise
and pollution prevent many animals from establishing
SILVERFISH are widespread themselves in cities, while other environmental factors,
but largely harmless. They such as bright street lighting, deter many more. Such
feed nocturnally on all kinds are the hazards of city life that even experienced, and
of starchy substances, from otherwise successful, urban animals sometimes succumb
flour to wallpaper paste. to the dangers. Traffic, of course, is a major hazard that
claims the lives of
thousands of animals
(including humans)
every day.
BASEMENTS
PARTING OF THE WAYS

Urban traffic is a major
hazard to animals, but
roads are just as much
of a threat in rural areas.
THE DADDY-LONG-LEGS They divide natural
SPIDER is found in caves habitats, separating
in the wild. Cellars and animal populations that
dark rooms make perfect normally interbreed.
artificial alternatives.
82 LIFE IN URBAN AREAS
Life in urban areas INTRODUCED SPECIES

Species that have set up home in unfamiliar
parts of the world are plentiful in urban areas.
Animals have had millions of years to adapt to earth’s natural habitats, but
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Some have been introduced deliberately, while

only a fraction of that time to adjust to life in cities. Despite this, animals are never others arrive with imported food. Pets, also, are
sometimes released, or manage to escape, into
far away in built-up places. Their success is due mainly to “preadaptation”— the wild. Some of these animals remain urban,
characteristics that evolved to suit one way of life, or habitat, but that accidentally but a few—such as the starling in North America—
have gone on to colonize entire continents.
turn out to be useful for another. Thus, some animals thrive in man-made habitats
that resemble the ones they would use in nature. Others succeed because FAR FROM HOME
The rose-ringed
they are highly adaptable and can exploit the opportunities that we parakeet from tropical
inadvertently provide. Africa and southern
Asia is good at
dealing with cold, so
Feeding that attack other organic materials, such as it can thrive in parts
Some outdoor urban animals live on the same wool. In many parts of the world, these animals of North America
are serious pests. and Europe.
foods that they eat in the wild, but for
scavenging species—such as raccoons, foxes,
and pigeons—the daily fare is often very Light and warmth spring. Extra warmth is appreciated by a range
different than that of their natural homes. In cities, streetlights light up the night sky, while of animals, from butterflies to birds. In some
These versatile creatures will try any kind of heat from buildings and traffic makes them far regions, starlings commute into cities on winter
leftover food, however unfamiliar it looks and warmer than nearby countryside. Artificial afternoons to roost on buildings where they are
smells, and this highly opportunistic streak is lights confuse insect navigation systems and relatively warm.
the secret of their great success. Modern food interfere with birds’ biological clocks. As a
packaging can sometimes present problems, result, songbirds sometimes sing late at night, Rooftop animals
but they quickly learn how to tear or peck and some species start building nests in For birds and bats, the tops of buildings can
away at plastic and paper to get at the edible winter, convinced by the bright light that it is make ideal homes. High above the ground,
contents within. and relatively undisturbed by people, animals
H A B I TAT S
Indoor animals get their food from one of 3 light bulb feed and breed undisturbed. Some species
sources: the things we eat, the animals that eat nest in attics or under eaves, while others favor
those things, and the fabric of our homes. The the tops of chimneys. Swifts, swallows, and
first category contains a wide range of martins are foremost among rooftop dwellers
household pests, such as rats, mice, and are prime examples of preadaptation at
houseflies, and cockroaches; the second work: they naturally nest on cliffs or in crevices,
category consists chiefly of spiders, but also but the rapid spread of towns and cities has
centipedes and geckos in warm parts of the provided alternatives that have enabled them
moon
world. Spiders are almost perfectly adapted to to extend their range to places where they
indoor life, and although widely disliked, they would otherwise be rare.
make a positive contribution by keeping indoor DRAWN TO THE LIGHT
Moths navigate by maintaining a set angle to the moon, which,
insect numbers in check. Animals in the third LIFE ON THE ROOFTOPS
because it is so far away, works like a compass, enabling the A pair of European white
category are the least welcome of these moth to follow a straight line. With closer lights, such as street storks look down on a town
uninvited guests. They include wood eaters lamps, the “compass” appears to the moth to drift. The moth from their chimney-top nest.
such as termites and beetles, adjusts its path accordingly, and ends up spiraling inward. Although they often nest on
as well as insects buildings, they feed in fields.
DAWN RAID They were once common
Alert for signs of danger, and using its keen sense urban visitors in northern
of smell and highly dexterous front paws, a Europe, but changing
raccoon sorts through trash from a container agricultural practices have
that it has overturned. reduced their numbers.
STRUCTURAL PESTS
Since humans first started to build wood houses, wood-eating insects
have been a problem. Wood-eating beetles are common in temperate
regions, while termites attack timber in the tropics. At one time, little
could be done to control severe attacks; today, insecticides are
effective at keeping them in check. Even so, many of these animals,
especially wood-boring beetles, are far more widespread than they
were because they have been exported in the lumber shipped all over
the world.
EATEN FROM INSIDE

Deathwatch beetle larvae chew
tunnels through old lumber.
During the 5 years they take
to turn into adults, they can
weaken lumber so much that it
eventually collapses. A related
species attacks furniture wood.
83
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H A B I TAT S
URBAN HUNTER
The peregrine falcon is one of the most adaptable of
all birds of prey. It feeds mainly on other birds, which it
usually catches in midair. City rooftops and ledges provide
an excellent vantage point for the falcon to pick out its
quarry before launching into a high-speed downward
dive, known as a stoop.
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K INGDOM
THE ANIMAL
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Almost two million species of animals

have so far been identified—and it is
thought that the true number may be
several times greater than this. Members
of the animal kingdom range from
invertebrates that are too small to be seen
with the naked eye to the blue whale,
which is more than 100 ft (30 m) long.
The variety of lifestyles is equally immense,
from animals that filter food from water
while permanently fixed to the seafloor to
agile predators that can travel across the
ground at more than 60 mph (100 kph).
This section reflects the great diversity of
the animal kingdom, profiling over 2,000
species, from the largest and best known
to the tiniest and most obscure.
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MAMMALS
88 MAMMALS
mammals
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PHYLUM Chordata Mammals, the most familiar group of vertebrates, all

CLASSMammalia nourish their young on milk produced by the female’s
ORDERS 29 mammary glands (the unique skin structures after which the
153
FAMILIES
class is named). Most also give birth to live young and, with
5,916
SPECIES
only a few exceptions, have a covering of hair on their body.
Mammals are most widespread and diverse on land, but they
have also colonized the water. Their success is largely due to their ability to
maintain a constant internal body temperature, regardless of changing external
conditions. Most mammals are also highly adaptable and often modify their
behavior to suit changing circumstances. Some mammals, especially
primates (the group that includes humans), form complex societies.
Evolution structure (see panel, left), the

therapsids evolved a lighter, more
YOUNG MAMMALS
One of the key features that sets mammals
The ancestors of mammals were flexible skeleton. Another significant apart from other animals is the way that
a group of reptiles known as the change was the alignment of the limbs females suckle their young on milk
therapsids. These small, active beneath rather than at the sides of the from their mammary glands. Some
carnivores lived during the Triassic body, which helped the early mammals mammals look after their young
MAMMALS
Period (which began 251 million years become faster and more agile. until they are several years old.
ago). The various features that now The transition from reptiles to
separate reptiles and mammals in fact mammals was completed toward other reptiles, the bodies of
developed over a long period of time the end of the Triassic Period (195 most species of dinosaurs would
and at different rates. In addition to million years ago), although some have tended to shut down in low which reflects and facilitates their
several important differences in skull early mammals (multituberculates) temperatures. Mammals, however, varied diet. All mammals have 3 types
are said to have started evolving and were unaffected by these fluctuations of teeth: incisors, which are used
diversifying 20–40 million years before in temperature and so were better for biting; canines for gripping and
DENTARY
BONE
dinosaurs became extinct. These able to survive the change in climate. tearing; and cheek teeth (molars
reptiles were the dominant animals and premolars), which are used for
hinge at back
of skull
on Earth during the Mesozoic Era
(251 – 65 million years ago), before
Anatomy grinding. The shape and size of each
type varies according to diet.
uniform they were ousted by modern Several differences between the Most mammals, unlike other
EARLY REPTILE mammals that outcompeted them skeletons of mammals and other
teeth animals, have mobile external ears
for food. Mammals’ ability to regulate vertebrates can be seen in the (pinnae) to locate sounds and then
their internal temperature may explain skull. Mammals are unique in funnel them to the eardrum, where
zygomatic arch
why they outlasted the dinosaurs. having a lower jaw that is hinged
During the Mesozoic Era, directly to the rest of the skull—in
hinge farther molars premolars canine incisors
forward than the climate became other vertebrates the connection
in early reptile TRIASSIC MAMMAL cooler and daily is indirect, with at least one other
temperatures were bone between the 2 parts of the
large more variable. Like jaw. This direct articulation, and
zygomatic the fact that the lower jaw is made
arch
of a single bone (see panel, left),
specialized JAWS makes the jaw a powerful tool
teeth Mammals have a unique for cutting and dismembering food.
MODERN MAMMAL jaw, in which the Unlike other vertebrates, mammals TEETH OF A RACCOON
lower jaw is hinged also have a set of specialized teeth,
EVOLVING SKULL directly to the skull. sharp broad, grinding multicusped
cutting surface chewing surface
Mammals’ reptilian ancestors had The hippopotamus edge
uniform teeth and a jaw that was has an unusually
made of several bones and limited large mouth and a
to an up-and-down movement. By wide jaw extension.
the Triassic Period, mammal skulls
CARNIVORE HERBIVORE OMNIVORE
had both a zygomatic arch to house CHEEK TOOTH CHEEK TOOTH CHEEK TOOTH
powerful jaw muscles and only one
jawbone (the dentary). Modern TEETH IN MAMMALS
skulls have specialized teeth and Many mammals, such as raccoons (top),
a single jawbone often capable have incisors, canines, and premolars and
of complex movements. These molars (cheek teeth) that reflect their diet.
features, in combination with strong Carnivores have sharp cheek teeth for
jaw muscles, allow mammals to cutting bones, while herbivores have
chew their food—a unique feature broad cheek teeth to grind up vegetation.
of the group. Omnivore cheek teeth are broad and
multicusped for chewing a variety of foods.
MAMMALS 89
The juveniles of all mammals necessary. Body temperature can be

HAIR are fed on milk secreted by the altered by increasing or decreasing
Mammals are the only animals mother’s mammary glands, which the metabolic rate, widening or
with a covering of hair on the become active after the young are constricting blood vessels that carry
hair
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body. A hair consists of a rod of born. Except in monotremes, the milk heat to the skin’s surface, raising or
cells strengthened by the protein sebaceous is delivered through teats. As well as lowering body hair to trap or release
keratin. Hair can take several gland providing nourishment (it is rich in an insulating layer of air, and causing
forms, including whiskers, spines, erector proteins and fats), the milk contains shivering (to gain heat) or evaporation
prickles, and even horns (as in muscle antibodies that help establish via sweating or panting (to lose heat).
rhinoceroses). Most common is sweat resistance to infection. Being Mammals can also control their body
fur, which usually consists of an gland nourished on milk during the early temperature by adopting special
insulating layer of underfur and a weeks of life also means that young body postures: a monkey, for
projecting guard coat that protects mammals do not have to forage for example, will hunch up in the cold
the skin and gives hair its color follicle their own food, which greatly (and many mammals huddle
(which may aid camouflage). Hairs increases their chances of survival. together in small groups to keep
blood
such as whiskers may also have supply Litter sizes vary from 20 (Virginia warm); lemurs warm up in the early
a sensory function. to follicle opossum) to only 1 (orangutan); and morning sun by sitting up and
SKIN SECTION gestation periods range from 12 days
Each hair arises from a pocket in the skin (short-nosed bandicoot) to 22 months
called the follicle. Next to the follicle is an (African savanna elephant).
erector muscle that raises or lowers the hair,
changing the insulating properties of the coat.
Temperature control
MODIFIED HAIR Mammals, like birds, are endothermic,
Porcupines have whiskers, long body hairs, meaning that they maintain a constant
and defensive spines (which are modified hairs). body temperature and can therefore
remain active at extremely high or low
external temperatures. This is why
they are transmitted to the inner ear Prototheria and Theria—that is, the mammals are able to occupy every
by 3 tiny bones, and so to the brain. egg-layers and those that give birth to major habitat and are more
The fennec fox has enormous, live young. Theria is subdivided into 2 widespread than any other vertebrates STAYING WARM
sensitive pinnae; by contrast, true further groups—infraclass Metatheria (except birds). Many species, such as Large animals, such as red deer, remain active
seals have lost their pinnae. (the marsupials) and infraclass the seals and whales of the Antarctic, all winter. They survive and keep warm by using
MAMMALS
One of the most distinctive parts Eutheria (other mammals). Marsupials live in regions where the temperature fat reserves built up during the summer. Over
of a mammal’s body is its skin. This complete their development while is well below freezing for much or all time, this leads to weight loss.
consists of 2 layers: a protective outer being nourished by their mother’s of the year. An area of the brain known
layer of dead cells (the epidermis) and milk, whereas placental mammals as the hypothalamus monitors body
an inner layer (the dermis) that contains develop within the body of the mother temperature and
blood vessels, nerve-endings, and and nourishment is supplied to adjusts it if
glands. It is the glands in the dermis the fetus through the placenta.
that are particularly unusual: the Marsupials have no true placenta (see
sebaceous (or scent) glands secrete below) and produce young at a very
chemicals that mammals use to early stage of their development. In
communicate with one another, the some species, the young are kept in a
mammary glands produce the milk pouch on the outside of the mother’s
used to nourish newborn young, and body until they are more fully grown.
the sweat glands—together with the The largest reproductive group is the
hair, which also arises from the dermis infraclass Eutheria, which contains
(see panel, above)—play an important the placental mammals. The unborn
part in regulating temperature. young develop in the mother’s uterus.
During pregnancy, food and oxygen
Reproduction pass from mother to fetus through
an organ known as the placenta,
Depending on the way they while waste substances move in
reproduce, mammals are divided the opposite direction. When KEEPING COOL
into 2 groups or subclasses— born, infant placental mammals In hot climates, mammals avoid overheating by resting in the hottest part of the day. They
are more highly developed than may also keep cool by panting, as this puma is doing. Panting helps lower the body
umbilical cord placenta (on wall those of marsupials. temperature through the evaporation of water from internal surfaces, such as the tongue.
connects fetus of uterus)
to placenta amniotic
fluid HIBERNATION COLD SLEEP
Some mammals, especially small species, conserve energy Many bats that live in temperate
during the cold months by hibernating, just as some reptiles regions hibernate over the winter.
(for example, the garter snake) do. Their temperature and While sleeping, the temperature of
heart rate fall, their breathing slows, their metabolism drops their body falls to that of the roost
to almost imperceptible levels, and they fast, drawing on site, as shown by the dew on this
stored fat reserves. When hibernating, the animal is difficult Daubenton’s bat, right.
to rouse. A West European hedgehog begins hibernation
when the outside temperature falls below 59° F (15° C), and
in midwinter its body temperature lowers to about 43° F
fetus uterus (6° C). In some bats, rectal temperatures of 32° F (0° C) have
been recorded during hibernation. Larger animals, such as
PLACENTAL MAMMALS the American black bear, do not truly hibernate—they sleep.
The fertilized egg of a placental mammal, such Their body temperature drops only a few degrees and they WINTER HIDEAWAY
as a horse, divides many times and eventually can rouse more easily. Related to hibernation is estivation, For hedgehogs, effective
becomes a fetus. As the fetus grows, the uterus which is torpidity during the summer. Like hibernation, camouflage is an important
expands in size and weight. In the horse, estivation saves energy when food is short. part of winter hibernation.
pregnancy lasts about 11 months.
90 MAMMALS
available for digestion. The

AQUATIC MAMMALS LIVING IN THE SEA bacteria are housed either in a
Three groups of mammals have adapted Aquatic mammals, such multichambered stomach or in a large
to aquatic life, developing a streamlined as this humpback whale, cecum (a blind-ending sac in the
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body and the ability to stay underwater evolved from land-living large intestine). The size of an animal
for long periods (although all of them mammals. Although the is a factor in determining diet type.
return to the surface to breathe). The back limbs have been Small mammals have a high ratio
largest group, the whales and dolphins, lost, some whales retain of heat-losing surface area to
are the most specialized. They have lost a vestigial pelvic girdle. heat-generating volume, which
their body hair and spend their entire life means that they tend to have high
in water. Like whales, seals and sea lions energy requirements and a high
rely on subcutaneous fat to keep warm, metabolic rate. Because they cannot
but have retained their fur, which is tolerate the slow, complex digestive
kept waterproof by an oily secretion process of a herbivore, mammals that
from the sebaceous glands. Sirenians weigh less than about 18 oz (500 g)
(the manatees and dugong) live in warm GRACEFUL MOVERS are mostly insectivorous. Larger
coastal waters and estuaries and are Seals, such as this harbor seal, are highly mammals, on the other hand,
the only herbivorous aquatic mammals. acrobatic swimmers, with front and back generate more heat and less of this
The sea otter is the only other mammal limbs that have been modified into heat is lost. They can therefore
that spends most of its life in water. It webbed flippers. Ungainly on land, they tolerate either a slower collection
lacks subcutaneous fat and instead keeps rarely venture far from the water, even process (those that prey on large
itself warm by trapping air in its dense fur. to give birth to their young. vertebrates) or a slower digestive
process (herbivores). Furthermore,
mammals that weigh more than about
spreading their arms to expose heat; light colors reflect it. Desert nutritious and plentiful diet. While 18 oz (500 g) usually cannot collect
their thinly haired undersurface. mammals are therefore often light fawn the earliest mammals were probably enough insects during their waking
Behavioral patterns also help in color, while those living in cool predators, different species have hours to sustain themselves. The only
regulate body temperature. For climates are dark. This arrangement since adapted to meet their dietary large insectivorous mammals are
example, in the desert and in tropical may conflict with the need for requirements in a variety of ways. those that feed on huge quantities of
grasslands, in the heat of the day camouflage—where there is winter Some eat animal prey—this is a colonial insects (ants or termites).
rodents retreat into cool, moist snow, mammals may turn white carnivorous diet (and includes
burrows, while larger mammals rest in
the shade in cool depressions in the
(stoats) or have a permanently white
coloration (polar bears), and possess
insect-eating). Other mammals,
called herbivores, eat plants. A
Social structures
MAMMALS
ground. Body coloring is another extra-thick fur to compensate. herbivorous diet includes sub-types Mammals communicate socially by
important factor: dark colors absorb such as fruit-eating and grass- scent, either from glands (which may
Feeding eating. An omnivore eats both
animal prey and plants.
be located in the face, in the feet, or
To maintain a high, constant body Carnivorous mammals

temperature is “energy expensive”— have a short, simple
mammals therefore need a digestive tract, because the
proteins, lipids, and minerals
FEEDING HIGH UP found in meat require little in
Mammals avoid competing with the way of specialized
one another by eating different digestion. Plants, on the
foods or by getting the same other hand, contain FEAR SUBMISSION EXCITEMENT
food in different ways. For complex carbohydrates, FACIAL EXPRESSION
example, the long neck of a such as cellulose. The Some mammals communicate using facial expressions.
giraffe allows it to feed at a digestive tract of a herbivore This ability is well developed in primates, such as the
height beyond the reach is long and bulky and hosts chimpanzee. Fear is shown by baring the teeth, submission
of other herbivores. bacteria that ferment these by a pouting smile, and excitement by exposed teeth
substances and make them and an open mouth.
PLAY
A great deal of a young mammal’s learning occurs
through play, when infants experiment with adult
behaviors, such as fighting and hunting. Play can
also take the form of exploring and displaying
to one another. Hoofed mammals, such as
deer, establish dominance rankings
when young to avoid conflict as
adults. This reduces the risk of
serious injury that would make
them vulnerable to predators.
Predators must learn to stalk and
kill prey to survive as adults.
SURVIVAL SKILLS
Potential predators, such as these lion
cubs, use play to practice pouncing,
biting, and raking with the back feet,
stopping before real damage is done.
FINDING THEIR PLACE

Like many herbivores, these elephant
calves use play to establish their rank in
the herd. Young elephants also use their
trunks to examine novel objects.
MAMMALS 91
successful males are usually the foot comes into contact with the
INTELLIGENCE largest and strongest individuals that ground varies in one of 3 different ways
Intelligence itself is not easy to define, but also have the best weapons (antlers, (see below). Locomotion is also related
indications of intelligence include the ability to horns, or tusks). In elephant seals and to the lifestyle of the animal. Predators,
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learn, matched with behavioral flexibility and sea lions, as the females become which require short, explosive bursts
self-awareness, as well as the relative size of sexually receptive, the males bellow of speed to catch their prey, have a
the brain to body size. Rats, for example, are and display to establish dominance. flexible spine. For example, in the
considered to be highly intelligent because Other species, such as the plains cheetah—the fastest terrestrial
they can learn to perform new tasks, an zebra, form small, permanent harem animal—the backbone coils and
ability that may be important when they RAT IN A MAZE groups, in which one male leads and uncoils with every stride, propeling the
first colonize a fresh habitat. Primates are Animal intelligence is often mates with a group of females. The animal forward. It has been estimated
considered to be the most intelligent of assessed by a creature’s ability subordinate males are relegated that these movements increase the
mammals. In some mammals, food-gathering to complete simple tasks, usually to bachelor bands unless one can cheetah’s speed by about 19 mph
appears to be related to intelligence: a deer using a food incentive. This successfully challenge and expel a (30 kph). In contrast, prey species,
feeding on plants has a brain relatively smaller albino brown rat is finding harem male. such as gazelles, rely on speed and
than a cat that must “think” to outwit its prey. its way through a maze. The final type of larger social group endurance to outrun predators. They
exhibited by mammals is one in which have a rigid back, and the “energy
FOOD FOR THOUGHT the collection of individuals consists cost” of their movement is reduced
Primates are rare among of several males and females. Such as a result of a lengthening of the
mammals in that some can societies are restricted to primates lower segments of the limbs and a
use a variety of objects as and the social carnivores (although concentration of the muscles close
tools, while others clean some other species, such as to the body.
their food prior to eating migrating wildebeests, form temporary
it. This Japanese macaque mixed-sex groups). Among baboons, metapodials calcaneum
has learned to separate for example, several adult males join a
digits
wheat grains from sand by troop of females related to each other
immersing the food in water. (but not to the males) and compete for
The sand sinks; the wheat dominance and the right to mate with
grains float on the surface. the females. These power struggles
calcaneum claws
result in a continual change in the
PLANTIGRADE
dominance hierarchy. In lion prides,
metapodial
in the groin) or in their urine or feces for example, form herds for safety, the males are related to each other
calcaneum
(which contain sexual hormones). because predators are more likely to and cooperate in the defense of the
MAMMALS
They also communicate by body be spotted. Interwoven with social females rather than competing for single
posture or facial gesture, by touch, behavior is the use of space: most them. In wolf packs, only the dominant digit
and by sound, which may develop mammals have a home range (the pair breeds; the other adults are the
into complex messages. area within which an animal, or group, offspring from previous years who, hoof
Socialization begins at birth, when performs most of its activities), and in instead of leaving to form their own UNGULIGRADE
signals between a mother and her some these areas are developed into packs, stay with their parents and help digits
infant facilitate suckling. The process territories (an area that the animal, or rear their younger siblings.
continues throughout the juvenile group, defends against others of the metapodial
claws
period, when the young interact with
each other through play (see panel,
same species).
Solitary mammals, such as
Locomotion DIGITIGRADE
opposite below) and gradually learn aardvarks and most cats, usually Mammals dwell in a huge variety WALKING GAITS
to interpret the behavior of adults. occupy a territory that they defend of habitats and have accordingly When moving, plantigrade mammals,
Some mammals only interact to against members of the same sex. developed a number of different such as bears, keep the calcaneum (heel
mate or to nurture young, but many A tigress, for example, will not permit ways of moving around. While a bone), metapodials, and digits (toes) of
form temporary or other females to enter her territory, quadrupedal (4-footed) gait is the most each foot on the ground. Digitigrade
permanent social whereas the territory of a male tiger common form of mammal locomotion, mammals, such as dogs, move with
groupings beyond overlaps those of several females. some species, such as kangaroos, only the digits touching the ground.
these minimal Some mammals, such as gibbons, have a bipedal (2-footed) gait. As Unguligrade mammals, such as horses,
needs. The live in monogamous pairs (with their mammals move, the way in which the walk and run on the tip of each digit.
hoofed immature offspring), and each pair
mammals, occupies and defends a territory.
However, recent studies indicate that
the assumption of “lifelong
fidelity” is wrong:
surreptitious copulations
outside the pair are
frequent, and many pairs
break up and find new
mates after some years.
AERIAL MAMMAL: LONG-EARED BAT ARBOREAL MAMMAL: BLACK LEMUR
Other mammals form
larger social groups, of
varied composition. In
some species, such as
seals and elephants, the
sexes live separately for
most of the year. Related
females form social
units, and the males
either live alone or form
TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL: SNOW LEOPARD AQUATIC MAMMAL: DOLPHIN
small bachelor groups.
BENEFITS OF COMMUNAL LIVING In mammals living under ADAPTABLE MAMMALS
Living in a group has several advantages for small mammals, such this system there is Over time, the limbs of some mammals have evolved into wings, flippers, or grasping hands
as these dwarf mongooses. For example, there is more chance of ferocious competition and feet, enabling bats to take to the air, whales and dolphins to adopt an aquatic existence, and
spotting predators, the burden of rearing young can be shared, among the males for the primates to move freely through the trees. Predatory land mammals, such as cats, have developed
and the territory can be defended collectively. right to mate. The most a flexible spine for speed and maneuverability, and a long tail for balance.
92 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS
Egg-laying mammals
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AQUATIC LIFE
Chordata Also known as monotremes, this group
PHYLUM The duck-billed platypus
comprises the duck-billed platypus and is a strong swimmer.
CLASS Mammalia
the echidnas. Monotremes are the only Its coat is waterproof
ORDER Monotremata
mammals that lay eggs. The duck-billed and has a dense underfur
FAMILIES 2 for insulation. When
platypus has a ducklike bill, a beaverlike
SPECIES 5 diving, the eyes and ears
tail, and webbed feet. Echidnas have
are closed.
a tubular beak, huge claws for digging,
and spines. The duck-billed platypus lives in freshwater
in eastern Australia; echidnas exist in varied habitats in
Australia and New Guinea.
Feeding
The platypus uses its sensitive
Anatomy bill to probe the beds of rivers or
Monotremes are short-legged animals lakes for crustaceans and insect
with a small head and tiny eyes. In larvae. The short-nosed echidna
all species, the digestive, urinary, digs with its powerful claws for
PLATYPUS and reproductive tracts empty into ants, termites, or earthworms;
a common chamber (the cloaca), long-nosed echidnas mainly eat
which terminates in a single exit earthworms. Adult monotremes
(“monotreme” means “one hole”). lack teeth: food is ground between
plates or spines in the mouth.
webbing
between
ECHIDNA digits
DIFFERENT SNOUTS STICKY CATCH

The platypus (top) has a flattened bill, WEBBED FEET The short-nosed echidna uses
MAMMALS
covered with sensitive skin. Echidnas, In water, the duck-billed its long, slender tongue to catch
however, have a cylindrical beak. In platypus is propelled by termites and ants. A sticky
both, the snout is used to probe for powerful thrusts of its coating of saliva ensures that
and locate food. fully webbed front feet. the insects do not escape.
Tachyglossus aculeatus Zaglossus bartoni Ornithorhynchus anatinus brown to silvery cream underneath. The
probing bill is very sensitive to both touch
Short-beaked Eastern long-beaked Duck-billed platypus and water-borne electrical signals from
the muscles of its small aquatic prey.
echidna echidna Length 16 – 231⁄2 in
(40 – 60 cm)
It has an unusually high density of red
blood cells to enable it to make deep
Tail 31⁄4 – 6 in
Length 12 – 18 in Length 19 – 27 in
(8.5 – 15 cm) dives in pursuit of its quarry. Platypuses
(30 – 45 cm) (48 – 68 cm)
Weight 13⁄4 – 51⁄2 lb are solitary, yet occupy overlapping
Tail 3⁄8 in Tail None
(1cm) (0.8 – 2.5 kg) home ranges. However, males in the
Weight 8 ⁄4 – 14 lb
3
Location E. Australia,
Weight 51⁄2 – 15 lb (4.2 – 6.5 kg) Social unit Individual breeding season defend these territories.
Tasmania
(2.5 – 7 kg) Social unit Individual Status Near threatened The male has a venomous spur on each
Location Australia Social unit Individual Location New Guinea hind foot, with which he attempts to
(including Tasmania), Status Vulnerable
New Guinea Status Least concern wound his rivals. Home is a bankside
burrow, usually about 16 ft (5 m) long
The ducklike, beak-shaped mouth, but it may reach up to 98 ft (30 m). After
sprawling, reptile-type gait, and flattened, a gestation period of one month, the
The spines of this species, also called the almost scaly, beaverlike tail make the female incubates her clutch of 1 – 3 soft,
spiny anteater, are longer than the fur duck-billed platypus an unmistakable leathery-shelled eggs here for 10 days.
between them. Active both day and animal. Its waterproof body fur has a After the young hatch, she suckles them
night, this echidna is solitary and can plush texture that is reminiscent of that for 4 months in the burrow, leaving them
become torpid in very cold or hot of a mole. The color of the body is dark walled in for periods of up to 38 hours
weather, when its temperature falls from brown to reddish brown on top and pale while she forages.
the normal 88 – 92° F (31 – 33° C) to as
low as 39° F (4° C). It eats a variety of
ants, termites, grubs, and worms. These
are detected by smell and perhaps by partially
sensors on the long snout that detect The downcurved snout of this species webbed
back feet
electric signals. The head is small and may exceed 8 in (20 cm) in length,
there is no discernible neck. with a tiny mouth at the tip and small,
close-set eyes at its base. One of the
largest monotremes, it is slow-moving,
rolling into a spiny ball for defense. The
spines are often only just visible through
its long black fur. The female lays 4–6
eggs into her pouch in July. Hatching
occurs 10 days later, and the infants
remain in the pouch for 6–7 weeks, or fully webbed
until their spines develop. front feet
MARSUPIALS 93
Marsupials
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PHYLUM Chordata Like other mammals (apart from the Early life
CLASS Mammalia monotremes), marsupials bear live offspring. Marsupial offspring are born in an
They are, however, distinct from all other almost embryonic state after a very short
INFRACLASS Marsupialia
gestation (only 12 days in some bandicoot
ORDERS 7 live-bearers (together described as placental species). The newborn makes its way to
FAMILIES 19 mammals), in that they give birth at a very early one of the mother’s nipples, where it
remains attached for several weeks. Larger
SPECIES 363 stage of the embryo’s development and nourish species have single births, but the small
the newborn on milk rather than by a placenta. quolls and dunnarts have litters of up to
8. In many kangaroo species, the female
Marsupials are, therefore, classified as infraclass mates again while pregnant, but the new
CLASSIFICATION NOTE
Marsupialia (or Metatheria), while the placental embryo remains dormant until the previous AMAZING JOURNEY
The taxonomic rank of
young leaves the pouch. This tiny tammar wallaby
Marsupialia has changed. It is mammals are placed in the infraclass Eutheria.
now an infraclass containing baby is hauling itself over
7 orders: Didelphinomorphia Marsupials are amazingly diverse, including its mother’s fur to reach a
(the American opossums),
animals such as kangaroos, possums, and OVERCROWDING nipple, to which it will firmly
Dasyuromorphia (the Australian
carnivorous marsupials), The mother’s pouch attach itself. As in most
Peramelemorphia (bandicoots bandicoots. The Australasian marsupials, may be too small marsupials, the nipples are
and bilbies), Notoryctemorphia
(marsupial “moles”), through a lack of competing species, have to carry numerous protected by a pouch. The
offspring as they grow joey will not relinquish the
Diprotodontia (kangaroos, koala,
and relatives), Paucituberculata
diversified and become specialized insectivores, and so she has no nipple until, months later,
(“shrew” opossums), and carnivores, and herbivores. In South America, option but to carry it begins to explore the
Microbiotheria (the monito del her babies externally. outside world.
monte). Because of their shared the marsupials are small and mostly arboreal;
reproductive biology, the orders
are not being treated separately only one species, the Virginia opossum, has
but as infraclass Marsupialia.
spread to North America. SPECIAL POUCHES
Most marsupials have a pouch to carry
MAMMALS
Anatomy their young. This western gray kangaroo
has a forward-facing pouch, from which
Externally, marsupials are highly varied, her joey’s head is protruding. Some
although many have long back legs and pouches face backward.
feet (for example, kangaroos) and elongated
snouts; almost all have large eyes and
ears. Female marsupials have a unique
“doubled” reproductive tract (see below),
and in some males the penis is forked.
The testes are held in a pendulous
scrotum with a long, thin stalk, which
swings in front of the penis. Apart from
their specialized reproductive system,
marsupials also differ from placental
mammals in that their brain is relatively
smaller and lacks a corpus callosum (the
nerve tract connecting the two cerebral
hemispheres). The group that contains the
kangaroos, possums, wombats, and
the koala, and the group containing the
bandicoots, have an
arrangement called
syndactyly: the second
and third toes of the back
foot are combined to form
a single digit with 2 claws.
HOPPING
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Unlike placental ovary
Movement The faster a large
kangaroo (such as
mammals, which uterus Although most marsupials run or this red kangaroo)
have a single uterus scurry, there are several variations. moves, the more
and vagina (far right), uterus ovary For example, wombats waddle, while energy efficient
female marsupials lateral lateral koalas and possums climb. Kangaroos it becomes.
have a double system vagina vagina and wallabies hop on their long back
with 2 uteri, each with its uterus legs, using the extended middle toe as
own lateral vagina (right). an extra limb segment. Although hopping
The young is born through a at low speeds uses more energy than GLIDING
separate, central birth canal. birth running on all fours, above approximately Some possums, known
In some marsupials, this canal canal 6 ft (1.8 m) per second, the larger species as gliders, have a
forms before each birth. In others, begin to conserve energy. This is because membrane between
it remains after the first birth vagina energy is stored in the tendons of the foot, their front and back
(but sometimes fills with PLACENTAL and the heavy tail swings up and down like legs, which they use
connective tissue). MARSUPIAL MAMMAL a pendulum, providing momentum. as a parachute.
94 MARSUPIALS
Marmosa murina Found near forest streams and human Didelphis virginiana when breeding. The female bears up
habitation, this opossum is pale buff to 21 per litter, yet has only enough
Common mouse to gray on the upperparts, creamy
white below, with a black face mask.
Virginia opossum teats for 13. The survivors attach to
the teats for 48 – 65 days, leaving the
opossum
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Its diet includes small invertebrates, Length 13 – 20 in pouch at 70 days.

(33 – 50 cm)
such as insects and spiders, small
Tail 10 – 211⁄2 in
Length 41⁄4 – 53⁄4 in vertebrates such as lizards, birds’ (25 – 54 cm)
(11 – 14.5 cm)
eggs, and chicks, and some fruit. It is a “PLAYING POSSUM”
Tail 51⁄4 – 81⁄2 in Weight 1 – 13 lb
(13.5 – 21 cm)
fast, agile climber and rests by day in (0.5 – 6 kg)
a tree-hole, old bird’s nest, or tangle of Location W., C., and E. Social unit Individual
Weight 9⁄16 – 15⁄8 oz USA, Mexico, Central
(15 – 45 g) twigs among the branches. The 5 – 8 America Status Least concern
Location N., C., and Social unit Individual young are weaned at 60 – 80 days.
E. South America
Status Least concern
strongly
prehensile tail The highly adaptable Virginia opossum
is actively expanding its range in North
short, fine, America. It benefits from human
velvety fur habitation, both for shelter because it
nests in piles of debris or outbuildings,
prominent and for food because it scavenges When threatened, the Virginia
eyes for scraps. A true omnivore, its diet opossum feigns death in an attempt
ranges from grubs and eggs to to make predators lose interest. It
flowers, fruits, and carrion; it may may lie immobile, partly curled on its
Chironectes minimus fur, long, webbed toes on its rear raid farm poultry and damage garden side, for up to 6 hours. The mouth
feet, and—in both male and female— plants. The largest American marsupial, and eyes are open, and it does not
Water opossum a pouch with a muscular opening
that can close tight underwater.
the Virginia opossum is nocturnal and
usually terrestrial,
respond to stimuli, including touch.
It may void a foul-smelling fluid from
Length 10 – 16 in The diet includes fish, frogs, and but also climbs well its anus for added effect.
(26 – 40 cm)
similar freshwater prey, detected and and swims strongly.
Tail 12 – 17 in
(31 – 43 cm) grabbed by the dextrous, clawless Although not territorial,
Weight 20 – 29 oz front toes. It rests by day in a leaf-lined individuals avoid
pale gray-
(550 – 800 g) river-bank den. each other except white face
Location S. Mexico to C. Social unit Individual
South America
MAMMALS
Also called the yapok, white-

this is the only aquatic tipped tail
marsupial. It has fine,
dense, water-repellent
Caluromysiops irrupta Neophascogale lorentzii
Black-shouldered Long-clawed
opossum marsupial mouse
Length 10 – 13 in Length 61⁄2 – 9 in
(25 – 33 cm) (16 – 23 cm) SCRUFFY APPEARANCE
Tail 9 – 12 in Tail 61⁄2 – 9 in 5 long-clawed toes The Virginia opossum’s fur
(22 – 31 cm) (17 – 22 cm) per foot varies from gray to red, brown,
Weight 7 – 21 oz Weight 7 – 9 oz and black. Long, white-tipped
(200 – 600 g) (200 – 250 g) hairless, partly guard hairs with thick underfur
Location W. South Social unit Variable Location New Guinea Social unit Individual prehensile tail make it look unkempt.
America
Status Least concern Status Least concern
Ningauri ridei in clumps of spinifex (hummock grass),

resting by day in thick undergrowth or an
Also called the speckled dasyure
because of the sprinkling of long, white
Inland ningaui old hole dug by a lizard, rodent, or large
spider. After an incubation of 13 – 21
hairs in the dark gray upper fur, this Length 2 – 3 in days, 5 – 8 young ningaui attach to the
(5 – 7.5 cm)
species has short, powerful limbs with female’s teats in her relatively open
Tail 2 – 23⁄4 in
very long claws on all toes. It digs by (5 – 7 cm) pouch area for 6 weeks. They are
day for grubs, worms, and similar prey. Weight 7⁄32 – 7⁄16 oz weaned by 13 weeks.
Information on nesting and breeding (6 – 12 g)
is very sparse; 4 young have been Location C. Australia Social unit Individual
recorded in the female’s pouch. Status Least concern
A broad, black stripe from shoulders

to front legs distinguishes this woolly Formally described for science
furred opossum. It forages by night only in 1975, the inland or wongai
in trees for a wide diet, including fruits ningaui is a small, fierce, solitary,
and grubs. Its densely furred tail is nocturnal, shrewlike predator of
gray, turning white at the end, with invertebrates, such as beetles, crickets,
a hairless underside. Gestation is and spiders, mostly less than 3 ⁄8 in (1 cm)
13 – 14 days and the litter size is 2. long. It hunts mainly by smell and hearing
MARSUPIALS 95
Sminthopsis crassicaudata Antechinomys laniger similar small invertebrates. It bounds Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis
on its relatively large, 4-toed rear feet,
Fat-tailed dunnart Kultarr but lands on its front legs (like a rabbit).
It has large ears and dark-ringed eyes,
Fat-tailed false
antechinus
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Length 21⁄4 – 31⁄2 in Length 23⁄4 – 4 in a thin, pointed face, and a compact
(6 – 9 cm) (7 – 10 cm)
body. Its long tail has a dark-tufted tip.
Tail 11⁄2 – 23⁄4 in Tail 4 – 6 in
(4 – 7 cm) (10 – 15 cm) The fur is fawn or brown above and Length 33⁄4 – 41⁄4 in
(9.5 – 10.5 cm)
Weight ⁄8 – ⁄16 oz
3 11
Weight ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄4 oz
7 1 white underneath.
Tail 3 – 31⁄4 in
(10 – 20 g) (25 – 35 g) (7.5 – 8.5 cm)
Location Australia Social unit Individual Location C. and S. Social unit Individual
Australia Weight 11 ⁄16 – 15⁄8 oz
Status Least concern Status Least concern (20 – 45 g)
Location W. and C. Social unit Individual
Australia
Widespread in wood, scrub, and dry Well adapted to a range of habitats,

grassland, the fat-tailed dunnart has from scattered woodland to scrubby
benefited from the spread of grazing semidesert, the kultarr preys When well fed, this insectivorous,
farmland. It has fawn or brown upper at night on grubs and nocturnal species, also called
fur and white underparts. It actively the red-eared antechinus, has a
searches by night across open soil carrot-shaped tail swollen with fat
and leaf litter for grubs, worms, and Parantechinus apicalis features include a white eye-ring, (as a food store). Its fur is gray-brown,
similar small invertebrates. It is solitary white-flecked “grizzled” gray-brown fur, with red patches behind the ears and
during the breeding season of August
to March, but at other times small
Dibbler a well-haired, short, tapering tail, and
large canine teeth for killing prey. This
gray-white underparts. It prefers dry,
rocky areas with clumped bushes and
groups, of less than 10, may huddle Length 4 – 61⁄2 in includes small vertebrates, such as mice, grass. After a gestation of 45 – 55 days,
(10 – 16 cm)
together in sheltered crevices, logs, birds, and lizards, as well as insects the female carries 6 young, one on each
Tail 3 – 43⁄4 in
or burrows during cold periods. (7.5 – 12 cm) and other invertebrates. teat in her pouch, for 40 days. She
Weight 17⁄ 16 – 4 oz suckles them in a nest until 14 weeks.
wide tail (40 – 125 g)
base to Location S.W. Australia Social unit Individual
store fat
Status Endangered
MAMMALS
After a gap of some 80 years, this
species was rediscovered in 1967
in extreme southwest Australia and in
1985 on 2 offshore islands. Distinctive
Dasycercus byrnei kowari is solitary and extends its Dasyurus viverrinus

burrow after rain, which softens MATERNAL CARE
Kowari the stony soil in its harsh, sparsely
vegetated desert habitat. It marks
Eastern quoll
Length 51⁄4 – 7 in its burrow and home range with urine, Length 11 – 18 in
(13.5 – 18 cm) (28 – 45 cm)
feces, and chin- and chest-gland
Tail 41⁄4 – 51⁄2 in Tail 61 ⁄2 – 11 in
(11 – 14 cm) scents, and communicates with (17 – 28 cm)
Weight 21⁄2 – 6 oz neighbors through chatters, hisses, Weight 11⁄2 – 41⁄ 2 lb
(70 – 175 g) and flicks of its tail. (0.7 – 2 kg)
Location C. Australia Social unit Individual Location Tasmania Social unit Individual
Status Vulnerable Status Endangered
Like many female marsupials, the

Despite a squirrel-like appearance and Last seen on the Australian mainland quoll has a large litter, up to 30,
bushy, black-tufted tail, the kowari is in the 1960s, in Sydney’s suburbs, this but only 6 nipples in her pouch, so
a burrow-dwelling carnivore. It kills catlike marsupial (sometimes called only 6 young can survive. They
large prey, such as lizards, birds, and the spotted native cat) now survives attach for 8 weeks, then remain in
rodents, by holding them in its front only in Tasmania. It hunts on the the den as the mother goes off to
paws and biting repeatedly and rapidly. ground by night for small mammals, feed and returns to suckle. She
It also eats insects and similar creatures, birds, and other vertebrates, and large regularly takes them to new dens,
mostly more than 3 ⁄8 in (1 cm) long. The insects; it also eats fruit, grass, and often by piggyback.
carrion. Quolls occupy varied woody,
shrubby, and grassy habitats, as SPOTTED COAT
Dasycercus cristicauda This inhabitant of sandy desert with provided by mixed agriculture. Slim and agile, the eastern
scattered spinifex (hummock grass) The male is longer and quoll has white spots on
Crest-tailed mulgara resembles the kowari (above) in body
form and, like several similar species,
50 percent heavier
than the female.
its brown or black body, but
not on the tail. The ears are
Length 43⁄4 – 8 in has a fat-swollen tail base. Its fur large and erect.
(12 – 20 cm)
is sandy brown on the upperparts,
Tail 3 – 41⁄ 4 in
(7.5 – 11 cm) off-white below, with a crest of black
Weight 25⁄8 – 63⁄8 oz hairs on the tail’s upper surface toward
(76 – 185 g) the tip. Its burrow varies from single,
Location C. Australia Social unit Individual simple, and short to a system of tunnels
Status Near threatened with 5 – 6 entrances. At night, the
crest-tailed mulgara hunts small rodents,
lizards, birds, and large insects, and
may also tackle large centipedes.
96 MARSUPIALS
Sarcophilus harrisii COMPETING AT A KILL Myrmecobius fasciatus Perameles gunnii
Tasmanian devil Numbat Eastern barred

bandicoot
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Length 221⁄2 – 263⁄16 in Length 8 – 11 in

(57 – 65.5 cm) (20 – 28 cm)
Tail 91⁄2 – 10 in Tail 61⁄2 – 81⁄2 in Length 101⁄2 – 14 in
(24 – 26 cm) (16 – 21 cm) (27 – 35 cm)
Weight 11 – 31 lb Weight 11 – 26 oz Tail 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 in
(5 – 14 kg) (300 – 725 g) (7 – 11 cm)
Location Tasmania Social unit Individual Location S.W. Australia Social unit Individual Weight 1 – 31⁄4 lb
Status Endangered Status Endangered (0.5 – 1.5 kg)
Location S.E. Australia, Social unit Individual
Tasmania
Status Vulnerable
The Tasmanian devil is normally
The largest marsupial carnivore, it hunts solitary, but its excellent sense of The numbat, or banded anteater,
prey of varied sizes and also scavenges. smell leads to many converging has a long (4 in/10 cm) tongue to lick
Nocturnal, it screeches and rears up if on a large carcass. Its powerful up termites, or very rarely ants, after
alarmed. It makes its den in a burrow or jaws and sharp, sturdy teeth rip it has ripped open the nest using the
among rocks. Born after a gestation of up the hide and crush gristle and large-clawed, powerful forefeet. They
30 – 31 days, the young attach to the bone. The devils growl and snarl have 50–52 teeth—more than any other
female’s 4 teats in her shallow, rear- at each other for the prime parts, land mammal—even though they are
opening pouch. Facial tumor disease but stop short of physical clashes. small and poorly developed. Day-active
has caused an 80 percent decline in and solitary, the numbat chases
its population in less than 20 years. same-sex intruders from its territory.
However, in a few places, some Offspring attach to the female’s 4 teats
WHITE ON BLACK
groups have become resistant for 4 months, then are suckled in the A few hundred of these bandicoots
The devil has long,
to the disease. white patches on nest for a further survive in mainland Australia, in
its chest and rump. 2 – 3 months. Victoria, the majority being found
white patch
on rump in Tasmania. This omnivorous
bushy opportunist forages alone at night
tail
and shelters by day in a simple nest
of grasses, leaves, and twigs. The
eastern barred bandicoot has rabbitlike
MAMMALS
ears, 3 – 4 whitish back stripes, and a

white tail. Its life cycle is rapid: 13-day
gestation, weaning by 60 days. Females
are sexually mature at age 3 months,
males at 4–5 months.
Echymipera kalubu Macrotis lagotis Notoryctes typhlops MOLE FOOD

Common Greater bilby Southern marsupial
echymipera Length 12 – 22 in
(30 – 55 cm)
mole
Length 93⁄16 – 15 in Tail 8 – 111⁄2 in Length 31⁄4 – 33⁄4 in
(22.5 – 38 cm) (20 – 29 cm) (8.5 – 9.5 cm)
Tail 21⁄4 – 4 in Weight 2 ⁄4 – 5 ⁄2 lb
1 1
Tail 17⁄32 – 5⁄8 in
(6 – 10 cm) (1 – 2.5 kg) (1.6 – 1.8 cm)
Location W. and C. Social unit Pair
Weight 7⁄8 – 311⁄16 lb Australia Weight 11⁄16 – 13⁄4 oz
(0.4 – 1.8 kg) Status Vulnerable (30 – 50 g)
Location New Guinea and Social unit Individual Location N., N.W., and Social unit Individual
surrounding islands S. Australia
The southern marsupial mole

eats soil-dwelling worms, grubs,
Bandicoots are mostly insectivorous, The southern marsupial mole tunnels centipedes, and even small lizards,
rat- to rabbit-sized marsupials. The down to 8 ft (2.5 m) in sandy deserts, such as the gecko held here by the
common echymipara has a long, mobile loose-soiled grassland, and scrubby huge front claws. Using smell and
snout, an outer coat of stiff, stout hairs bush. It “swims” through light sand, touch, it follows small tunnels made
in shades of brown, copper, yellow, and which collapses behind leaving no by potential prey in order to catch
black, buff underparts, and a hairless permanent tunnel. Food includes its victims. It may forage on the
tail. It forages alone at night for prey, fungi and tubers as well as animal prey, surface after rain.
takes fruits, berries, and other plant which is eaten whenever encountered.
matter, and aggressively repels others The silky, off-white to cinnamon fur is
of its kind. It shelters by day in a hollow rubbed shiny by burrowing, tiny eyes and small
ears hidden in fur
log, leaf pile, or self-dug burrow. Also known as the rabbit-eared and may be stained
bandicoot, this omnivorous species is deep red by iron
recognized by its huge ears, long hind minerals in the soil.
feet, and tricolored tail: blue-gray at The female’s pouch, in
the base (as on the body), then black, which she carries 1 – 2
with the last half white and feathery. It young, opens rearward
digs powerfully to shelter by day in a so it does not fill with soil.
burrow 10 ft (3 m) long and some 7 ft
(2 m) deep. Pairs associate for the BURROWING MACHINE
breeding season and the 1 – 3 offspring, Sand and soil are probed by the horny nose pad,
born after 13 – 16 days’ gestation, leave scooped aside by the front feet, and kicked up twin, spadelike
the pouch after 75 – 80 days. and back by the 3 large claws on each rear foot. front claws
MARSUPIALS 97
Phascolarctos cinereus to change trees or promote

large, rounded,
digestion by eating soil, bark, white-tufted ears
Koala and gravel. Individuals bellow
to each other during the
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Length 26 – 32 in breeding season and dominant

(65 – 82 cm)
males mate with more females
Tail 3⁄8 – 3⁄4 in
(1 – 2 cm) than do junior males. Copulation is
Weight 83⁄4 – 33 lb brief and often accompanied by bites
(4 – 15 kg) and scratches. After a gestation of
Location E. Australia Social unit Individual 35 days, the single offspring crawls BEARLIKE MARSUPIAL
Status Least concern into the pouch, where it is suckled The koala’s face is large and
wide, like that of a bear, with a
for 6 months. It then clings to
smooth black muzzle; the body
the mother’s back. Among its is compact and thick set. The
early solid food is the mother’s fur is soft, long, and mainly
The koala lives nearly all its life in droppings, which carry helpful gray to gray-brown, with
eucalyptus trees. It feeds for about food-digesting and disease- slightly paler underparts,
4 hours at night, eating some 1 lb fighting microbes. Despite and mottling on the rump.
(500 g) of leaves, and dozes for the a placid appearance,
remaining time, wedged securely in the koala readily bites
a branch fork. Occasionally, it descends and scratches. HOLDING ON
CONSERVATION
Once common in Australia’s
eastern forests, the koala is in
decline in some regions,
mainly as a result of forest
fragmentation, parasitic
disease, and traffic accidents.
Veterinary aid (see left) can be
vital in saving lives. However, The koala’s short, powerful limbs
conservation measures have to have sharp claws (except on the
be carried out with care, as koala first rear toe) and granular paw
MAMMALS
populations can rise steeply given pads, to grip bark and branches.
sufficient food. On Kangaroo Island, Toes 1 and 2 on the front foot can
where koalas have been introduced, oppose the other 3, allowing a
the species is now a major forest pest. pincerlike grasp of thin boughs.
Vombatus ursinus graze or sunbathe by day. Although Lasiorhinus latifrons

wombats are generally solitary, and OUT OF THE POUCH
Common wombat adult males tend to chase intruders
from their home areas, they also
Southern hairy-nosed
Length 28 – 47 in
(70 – 120 cm)
seem to visit each other’s burrows on wombat
occasion. After the offspring has left
Tail 3⁄4 – 11⁄4 in
(2 – 3 cm) its mother’s pouch, it stays at first in a Length 30 – 37 in
(77 – 95 cm)
Weight 55 – 88 lb nest chamber lined with dry grass and
Tail 11⁄4 – 21⁄4 in
(25 – 40 kg) leaves, inside the burrow. The common (3 – 6 cm)
Location E. Australia, Social unit Individual wombat is not dangerous to humans,
Tasmania Weight 42 – 71 lb
Status Least concern but its holes may trip horses, harbor (19 – 32 kg)
dingoes, undermine banks, and Location S. Australia Social unit Group
damage rabbit-proof fences. Status Least concern
The common wombat has a hairless coarse, dense, The common wombat usually
nose and remarkably bearlike form. gray-tinged, brown fur produces a single offspring,
A prolific burrower, its tunnel system which remains in the mother’s Even stockier and shorter-limbed
generally has only one entrance pouch for about 10 months, than the common wombat (see left), this
but many underground although it may return species has longer ears, long, silky fur
branches, with a total there occasionally to mottled brown and gray, and gray-white
length of up to 650 ft suckle or seek shelter. hairs on the snout. It is colonial, groups
(200 m). Preferred sites Weaning occurs at of 5 – 10 occupying a burrow system
are slopes above about 15 months. (warren) covering several hundred
creeks and valleys, square yards. This wombat grazes at
where the wombat night on grass and other low vegetation.
grazes, mainly at BROAD BURROWER Senior males repel strangers of their
night, on grasses, The common wombat’s broad, kind unless these are receptive females
sedges, roots, angular head, compact body, at breeding time.
and tubers. In and strong limbs with wide,
large-clawed feet make it an
winter, it may
accomplished digger.
98 MARSUPIALS
Trichosurus vulpecula Phalanger orientalis Gymnobelideus leadbeateri
Common brush-tailed Northern common Leadbeater’s possum

possum cuscus
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Length 6 – 7 in
(15 – 17 cm)
Length 14 – 153⁄4 in Length 12 – 20 in Tail 6 – 8 in (14.5 – 20 cm)
(35 – 58 cm) (30 – 50 cm) Weight 35⁄8 – 6 oz
Tail 10 – 16 in Tail 11 – 17 in (100 – 175 g)
(25 – 40 cm) (28 – 43 cm) Social unit Group
Weight 31⁄4 – 11 lb Location S.E. Australia
Weight 31⁄4 – 10 lb (Central Highlands, Status Critically
(1.5 – 4.5 kg) (1.6 – 5 kg) endangered
Victoria)
Location Australia Social unit Individual Location New Guinea, Social unit Individual
(including Tasmania) Solomon Islands
Familiar in many habitats, including The coloring of the northern common

parks and gardens, the common cuscus varies across its range of
brush-tailed possum has mainly sharp, many islands, from almost white to
silver-gray body fur, which is short curved black. There is generally, however,
claws
and tinged red in the north of its a stripe along the back, and part of
range, and longer and darker gray in the tail is always hairless and white.
the south. It bounds and climbs with opposable first Resembling a combination of sloth
ease as it forages for eucalypt, acacia, toe on rear foot and monkey, it has deliberate but
and other leaves, as well as flowers, agile climbing habits as it forages
fruit, and, occasionally, birds’ eggs for leaves, fruit, and other plant
and chicks. This vocal possum, with its material. Docile by nature, it is a Notable for its rediscovery in 1961,
range of hisses, chitters, grunts, and common household pet. after 52 years of presumed extinction,
growls, is solitary apart from the brief Leadbeater’s possum has a gray
mating season. It lives in a crevice or back with a dark central stripe from
hollow in a tree, log, rock, or roof. partly prehensile head to tail, and off-white underside.
The usually single young remains tail Speedy and elusive in trees, it
in the pouch for 5 months. feeds at night on small invertebrates
MAMMALS
and tree juices, such as gum, sap, and

nectar. Colonies of 10–12 individuals
Petaurus norfolcensis Dactylopsila trivirgata comprise a senior breeding pair and
their offspring, mainly males. Females
Squirrel glider Striped possum defend the group’s territory.
Length 7 – 9 in Length 91⁄2 – 11 in

(18 – 23 cm) (24 – 28 cm)
Tail 83⁄4 – 12 in Tail 12 – 151⁄3 in Hemibelideus lemuroides Pseudocheirus peregrinus
(22 – 30 cm) (30 – 39 cm)
Weight 7 – 11 oz
(200 – 300 g)
Weight 113⁄8 – 20 oz
(310 – 545 g)
Lemuroid ring-tailed Common ringtail
Location E. Australia Social unit Group Location N.E. Australia,
New Guinea
Social unit Variable possum Length 12 – 14 in
(30 – 35 cm)
Length 12 – 16 in Tail 12 – 14 in
(30 – 40 cm) (30 – 35 cm)
Tail 121⁄2 – 141⁄2 in Weight 25 – 39 oz
(32 – 37 cm) (700 – 1,100 g)
Location E. Australia, Social unit Group
Weight 29 – 43 oz Tasmania
(800 – 1,200 g) Status Least concern
Location N.E. Australia Social unit Variable
Status Near threatened
Lemurlike
in the face
and body
The squirrel proportions
glider’s furry gliding (see pp.138–9),
membrane extends the brushy-tailed
from each fifth front ringtail has a long,
toe to the back foot. charcoal-colored
The long, bushy, tail with a hairless
soft-furred, squirrel-like Skunklike black and white stripes tip. Strongly prehensile,
tail acts as a rudder when and a bushy, black, white-tipped the tail is used to grip
parachuting as far as 165 ft tail are the distinguishing features boughs and to steer as this The common ringtail’s reddish or
(50 m) to other trees or to of the striped possum. Like the nocturnal possum makes gray-brown fur extends to the base
escape enemies. This possum skunk (see panel, p.186), it can “free-fall” leaps of some 9 ft of the tapering, strongly prehensile
lives in small groups of one emit a foul, penetrating odor from (3 m) through the rainforest tail, becomes darker along the first
adult male, 1 – 3 females, and glands in the genital region. At canopy. The main diet is leaves, half of the tail, then changes to white.
their offspring of the season. It night, it forages alone through tree with also some flowers and Found in many habitats, including
feeds on insects and similar small branches, probing for wood-boring fruit. Social life is flexible, with parks and gardens, the main food of
tree creatures, as well as sap, gum, grubs, ants, and termites with the male–female pairs, mother– this group-dwelling mammal is leaves,
pollen, and seeds. The 1 – 2 young extra-long claw on its front fourth young duos, or larger groups. especially eucalypts and acacia. In the
remain in the pouch for up to 3 toe. It also eats fruit, birds, and The single offspring leaves the north of its range, it nests in a tree-hole;
months and are weaned by 4 months. small mammals. pouch after 6 – 7 weeks. in the south, in a squirrel-like drey.
MARSUPIALS 99
Petauroides volans This nocturnal forager feeds in eucalypt Cercartetus lepidus Acrobates pygmaeus
woodland (not rain forest), preferring
Greater glider the tender young leaves of just a few
eucalypt species. It forms female–male
Little pygmy-possum Pygmy glider
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Length 14 – 19 in pairs, which share the same tree-hollow Length 2 – 23⁄4 in Length 23⁄4 – 3 in
(35 – 48 cm) (5 – 6.5 cm) (6.5 – 8 cm)
den for most of the year. The young
Tail 18 – 231⁄2 in Tail 21⁄2 – 3 in Tail 23⁄4 – 3 in
(45 – 60 cm) spend 3–4 months in the pouch and (6 – 7.5 cm) (7 – 8 cm)
Weight 2 – 31⁄2 lb then about 3 more being carried on Weight 3⁄16 – 11⁄32 oz Weight 11⁄32 – 9⁄16 oz
(0.9 – 1.5 kg) their mother’s back, before gradually (5 – 9 g) (9 – 15 g)
Location E. Australia Social unit Pair becoming independent at about 10 Location S.E. Australia, Social unit Individual Location E. Australia Social unit Group
Tasmania
Status Vulnerable to 11 months. Status Least concern Status Least concern
Groups of scratch marks on tree Also called the feather-tailed glider,

trunks betray regular landing this tiny, agile marsupial has a long
sites of the greater glider, the tail with a row of stiff hairs on either
largest gliding marsupial. furred gliding side. The gliding membrane extends
membrane
Like other tree-dwelling between elbow between the front and rear limbs, and
marsupials, it has and rear foot the “dual-purpose” toes have sharp
sharp claws to claws to dig into bark. Expanded,
grip bark, and padlike tips on the toes grip smooth,
2 toes on the shiny surfaces such as leaves—even
front foot oppose glass windows. The tongue is long
the other 3, giving and brush-tipped, to gather nectar,
a pincerlike grip. The smallest possum species, with pollen, and small insects from flowers.
a thumb-sized body, this is the only
underparts pygmy-possum with gray fur on the
FACING THE FRONT underside; the upperparts are fawn
off-white in
both color or brown. It has a short, blunt face
phases
and large, erect ears. The prehensile
tail can support the animal’s entire
weight, and expands at its base to
MAMMALS
store excess food as fat. Nocturnal
non-prehensile
tail used for and usually solitary, this marsupial
steering during feeds in low bushes and shrubs, or
glides on the ground, on a variety of small
animals from insects to lizards.
Hypsiprymnodon moschatus Potorous longipes

The greater glider’s large eyes COLOR PHASES
and huge ears face the front, so
it can judge distances accurately
The greater glider occurs
in 2 color forms or phases, Musky rat-kangaroo Long-footed potoroo
often in the same area. One
by stereoscopic vision and Length 61⁄2 – 11 in Length 15 – 161⁄2 in
is charcoal-gray to black, (16 – 28 cm) (38 – 42 cm)
stereophonic sound. This enables tinged with brown (as seen Tail 43⁄4 – 7 in Tail 12 – 13 in
the glider to parachute horizontal here); the other is very pale (12 – 17 cm) (30 – 33 cm)
distances of more than 330 ft gray or mottled cream. Weight 13 – 24 oz Weight 31⁄4 – 5 lb
(100 m) at night and yet land (375 – 675 g) (1.6 – 2.2 kg)
precisely on a tree trunk. Location N.E. Australia Social unit Individual Location S.E. Australia Social unit Individual
Status Least concern Status Vulnerable
Distoechurus pennatus gripping with the sharp claws on all

toes, and consumes insects (especially This potoroo (“rat-kangaroo”) is an
Feather-tailed cicadas), as well as flowers, nectar, and
fruit. These possums appear to live in
active, solitary, nocturnal fungus-eater.
It bounds at high speed, kangaroolike,
possum groups of 2 – 3, and the female carries on its large back feet, and scrabbles
1 – 2 young in her pouch, then riding for food with the shorter but strong
Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄4 in on her back near the nest. Details front limbs. Some 30 fungus species
(9 – 11 cm)
of the social and breeding habits make up four-fifths of its diet. It also
Tail 41⁄2 – 6 in
(11.5 – 15 cm)
are, however, lacking. eats insects and green plant matter.
Weight 11⁄16 – 15⁄8 oz
After an incubation period of 38 days,
(30 – 45 g) the single young suckles in the pouch
Location New Guinea Social unit Group for up to 5 months, and remains with
Status Least concern its mother for a further 2 – 3 months.
Neither rat nor kangaroo, this is a
potoroid marsupial (see right). Its
preferred habitat is thick rain forest.
The feather-tailed possum is It forages alone by day, mainly on
identified by its white face, the ground for fallen fruit such as figs,
with 4 black stripes, and as well as palm nuts, seeds, and fungi.
its feather- or quill-like It also hoards food at scattered sites—
tail with a prehensile unusual behavior among marsupials—
black stripes
tip. It moves over eye and and bounds on all fours, gripping with
through the behind ear the opposable big toe on each rear
tree branches sharp, curved foot. Both sexes produce a musky
by darting leaps, claws odor, particularly during breeding.
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MAMMALS 100
MARSUPIALS 101
Osphranter rufus DEFENSIVE MEASURES

Red kangaroo The dominant male of a group of red
kangaroos will fight off any challenge
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Length 21⁄4 – 41⁄2 ft for supremacy from other males. If

ALERT TO DANGER (0.7 – 1.4 m)
one of a group spies a potential
Red kangaroos usually browse and graze Tail 25 – 39 ft
(64 – 100 cm) predator, it will warn the rest by
head down, but remain alert, looking and stamping its foot or thumping its tail
listening for predators. Their sharp eyes can Weight 37 – 200 lb
(17 – 92 kg) on the ground. The group will then
spot a dingo 1,150 ft (350 m) away, and Location Australia
their large ears are very sensitive. Social unit Group flee, taking refuge in water
Status Least concern if possible.
The largest living marsupial, the red

kangaroo is found over much of
Australia, with the highest numbers
living in open savanna woodland. Its
population varies greatly from year to
year: when rainfall is high, numbers may
reach as many as 12 million, falling to
5 million in times of drought. Females
will conceive only if there has been
enough rain to produce plenty of green
vegetation. In a prolonged drought, the PLAY FIGHTING
males no longer produce sperm. Red When playing or fighting among themselves,
kangaroos use a highly developed kangaroos may stand up and spar, but
sense of smell to detect water, and if their normal defense is to deliver a
it is scarce will migrate up to 125 miles powerful kick.
(200 km) from their usual grazing
grounds to find it. They forage mainly
at night, eating succulent grass shoots,
herbs, and leaves. Groups frequently
MAMMALS
change composition and size. They may
hold as many as 25 individuals but the
average group size is 2 to 3, although
1,500 or so may gather at a water hole
during a drought. The dominant male of
the group mates with several females.
The red kangaroo is regarded as a pest IN FULL FLIGHT
in its native Australia, and is hunted for Fleeing from danger, the red kangaroo bounds
its meat and skin. Apart from humans on its hind legs. It can reach 30 mph (50 kph)
and occasionally the wedge-tailed for short periods.
eagle, its only predator is the dingo.
IN MOTHER’S POUCH
The young spends 7.5 to 8 months in the pouch,
before making its first foray outside. It becomes
independent when a year old.
RUFOUS MALE
Males, which may be more
than double the weight of
females, are usually
orange-red, while
females are blue-
gray—although
coloration varies.
short
forelegs
very long,
strong tail
large hind
limbs
102 MARSUPIALS
Bettongia penicillata Aepyprymnus rufescens Lagorchestes conspicillatus member of the kangaroo family the name
of spectacled hare wallaby. It grazes by
Brush-tailed bettong Rufous bettong Spectacled hare night, usually alone, on grasses and herbs,
and hides in a burrow or thicket by day.
wallaby
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Length 12 – 15 in Length 131⁄2 – 19 in After 29 – 31 days’ gestation, the single

(30 – 38 cm) (34 – 48 cm)
young stays in the pouch for 5 months,
Tail 111⁄2 – 14 in Tail 12 – 16 in
(29 – 36 cm) (31 – 41 cm)
Length 16 – 19 in and is weaned by 7 months.
(40 – 48 cm)
Weight 1 ⁄4 – 3 ⁄4 lb
3 1
Weight 3 ⁄4 – 6 ⁄2 lb
1 1
Tail 141⁄2 – 20 in
(0.8 – 1.8 kg) (1.3 – 3 kg) (37 – 50 cm)
Location S.W. Australia Social unit Individual Location E. Australia Social unit Variable Weight 31⁄4 – 10 lb
Status Critically endangered Status Least concern (1.5 – 4.5 kg)
Location N. Australia Social unit Individual
Like the potoroo family (see p.99), the

brush-tailed bettong—also called
the woylie—is a fungivore. It forages in A conspicuous orange eye patch in
woodland soil by night, scraping earth pale the generally shaggy, white-grizzled,
to find the fungi, which form 90 percent underparts gray-brown coat gives this small
of its diet. The remainder of its diet
comprises roots, bulbs, tubers, and
worms. This bettong has a tail almost Setonix brachyurus dense vegetation, it feeds at night on
as long as its head and body, with a leaves, grasses, and fruit. Small family
crest of black fur along the upper side.
By day, it shelters in a large, domed
Quokka groups associate as larger gatherings,
which maintain a group territory.
nest of bark, leaves, and grass. Length 16 – 211⁄2 in Gestation is 27 days; the single young
(40 – 54 cm)
Grizzled red-brown fur over the body leaves the pouch after 6 months.
Tail 10 – 14 in
gives this rat-kangaroo its name of (25 – 35 cm)
rufous bettong, although some fur Weight 31⁄4 – 10 lb CONSERVATION
is white. It uses its grasping tail to (1.5 – 4.5 kg)
gather grasses and stems for its tall, Location S.W. Australia Social unit Group Between 5,000 and 15,000 quokkas
(Rottnest and Bald islands)
cone-shaped nest, which it builds on Status Vulnerable live on Rottnest Island. As well as
the woodland floor, often against a log being a popular tourist attraction,
MAMMALS
or tree; one individual may have 5 such they have enabled scientists to carry
refuges. The diet is fungi, grass, roots, out detailed research into marsupial
leaves, flowers, seeds, and small Very rare on mainland Australia, the biology—essential knowledge for
invertebrates. The single young leaves quokka survives on 2 islands off their future conservation.
the pouch after 16 weeks. the southwest coast, mainly because
introduced predators such as foxes
are absent. This small wallaby frequents
Thylogale stigmatica Petrogale penicillata thick forest, open woodland, low scrub,
and swamp edges or river banks
Red-legged Brush-tailed rock where available. After
resting by day in
pademelon wallaby
Length 15 – 23 in Length 20 – 231⁄2 in
(38 – 58 cm) (50 – 60 cm)
Tail 12 – 181⁄2 in Tail 20 – 28 in
(30 – 47 cm) (50 – 70 cm)
1
Weight 81⁄2 – 24 lb
(2.5 – 7 kg) (4 – 11 kg) COMPACT SHAPE
Location N. and E. Social unit Individual Location S.E. Australia Social unit Group The quokka has a rounded body, short ears and
Australia, New Guinea snout, and a stout tail. Its dense, coarse fur is
Status Least concern Status Near threatened
brown, tinged red around the face and neck.
This slender-headed, stout-bodied,

thick-tailed pademelon (a type of
small wallaby) tends to be brown-gray dark brown
tail
in rain forests but paler fawn in open
woodland. Active both day and night,
it is usually solitary but may gather in
groups at a fruiting tree to feed. Other
foods include leaves and seeds.
Petrogale concinna Similar to the brush-tailed rock
wallaby (see left) in form and habits,
The rock wallaby is specialized for

Little rock wallaby this species—also called the nabarlek—
has short, silky, reddish brown fur with
leaping and scrambling over boulders, Length 111⁄2 – 14 in a dark shoulder stripe and brush-tipped
(29 – 35 cm)
cliffs, ledges, and outcrops. It can make tail. It grazes alone by night on grass
Tail 9 – 12 in
single bounds of 13 ft (4 m), and the soles (22 – 31 cm) and sedge, but its main food in the dry
of the rear feet are enlarged, padded, Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb season is nardoo (a tough fern). To cope
and roughened, providing excellent (1 – 1.5 kg) with this abrasive food, the wallaby’s
grip. By day, this wallaby rests in a Location N. Australia Social unit Individual molar teeth slowly move forward in
cool rock crevice or cave, occasionally Status Data deficient the jaw as they wear, and are then
sunbathing. At night, it feeds on replaced by another set—a process
grasses, ferns, bush leaves, and fruit. of repeated tooth replacement unique
Colonies may exceed 70 in number. among marsupials.
WMARSUPIALS 103
Dendrolagus dorianus although it can walk and bound quickly Macropus fulginosus
on the ground. Doria’s tree kangaroo is “BOXING” KANGAROOS
Doria’s tree one of the largest and, like most other
species in its genus, is mostly solitary
Western gray
kangaroo kangaroo
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and nocturnal, with a diet of various

leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit. It has
Length 20 – 31 in black ears, a whorled fur pattern in the Length 26 – 87 ft
(51 – 78 cm) (67 – 223 m)
middle of the back, and a pale brown
Tail 171⁄2 – 26 in Tail 161⁄2 – 39 in
(44 – 66 cm)
or cream tail. After a gestation period (42 – 100 cm)
Weight 14 – 32 lb
of approximately 30 days, the single Weight 37 – 160 lb
(6.5 – 14.5 kg) young attaches to the mother’s teat (17 – 72 kg)
Location New Guinea Social unit Individual in her pouch and suckles for up to Location S. Australia Social unit Group
Status Vulnerable 10 months. Like other tree kangaroos, Status Least concern
Doria’s is dependent on a
forest habitat and is Male kangaroos battle for
therefore threatened females during the mating
by logging and other One of the largest, most abundant season, and also for food
forms of forest kangaroos, the western gray or resting sites if these are
rounded,
well-furred clearance, as well kangaroo has thick, coarse fur limited. The antagonists lock
muzzle as by hunting for that varies from pale gray-brown arms and attempt to push
its meat. to chocolate-brown, with a paler each other over. They may
long, chest and belly. It lopes like also lean back on their tails
dense, a rabbit when moving slowly, and kick with the rear feet.
brown fur using all 4 limbs, with the As in most such contests,
front limbs
almost as long tail as a brace, but bounds serious injury is rare.
as rear limbs on its back legs at high speed.
Males are up to twice the
JOEY ON BOARD
Ten species of tree size of females and can cover
The young spends around
kangaroo occur chiefly across 33 ft (10 m) in one leap. This 11 months in the pouch.
New Guinea and northeast species grazes primarily at From about 250 days, it
Australia. They have short, broad, night, mainly on grasses, begins to leave the pouch
stout feet and long claws, for climbing padded, but it also browses on leafy for short periods, but quickly
through branches, using the long tail roughened shrubs and low trees. It lives returns if danger threatens.
soles on
MAMMALS
as a counterbalance. Unlike other rear feet in stable groups of up to 15.
kangaroos, the tree kangaroo can The dominant male is usually
move each back leg independently. It the only male to breed. The
spends most of its time in trees, moving nonprehensile gestation period is powerful
relatively slowly but with great precision, tail for balance 30 – 31 days. tail
Notamacropus parma Osphranter robustus piles. It shelters there by day, thereby Tarsipes rostratus
surviving very hot, dry conditions, and
Parma wallaby Common wallaroo by late afternoon moves out to forage on
grasses, sedges, and other leafy foods.
Honey possum
Length 18 – 21 in Length 221⁄2 – 43 ft This wallaroo resembles other brown Length 21⁄2 – 31⁄2 in
(45 – 53 cm) (57 – 109 m) (6.5 – 9 cm)
wallabies but may adopt
Tail 16 – 211⁄2 in Tail 21 – 35 in Tail 23 ⁄4 – 41⁄4 in
(41 – 54 cm) (53 – 90 cm) a distinctive pose (7 – 10.5 cm)
Weight 73⁄4 – 13 lb Weight 62 – 130 lb with shoulders Weight 1⁄4 – 9⁄16 oz
(3.5 – 6 kg) (28 – 60 kg) back, elbows (7 – 16 g)
Location E. Australia Social unit Individual Location Australia Social unit Individual together, and Location S.W. Australia Social unit Group
Status Near threatened Status Least concern wrists raised. Status Least concern
The parma wallaby’s distinguishing Also called the euro or hill kangaroo,
marks are a black stripe in the center the common wallaroo is found in a range
of the red- or gray-brown fur on the back, of habitats, but usually in and around
from the neck to the middle of the back, rocky outcrops, cliffs, and boulder
and a white stripe on the side of the
muzzle and cheek. Solitary, shy, and
well camouflaged in dense vegetation, Wallabia bicolor face, snout, front and back feet, and
for a century it was believed to be tail. Also called the stinker or black
extinct on the Australian mainland, but
was rediscovered in 1967. This night-
Swamp wallaby orange-
wallaby, it feeds at
night on a wide diet
tinged
time grazer and browser feeds on a Length 26 – 34 in
under- of plant material,
(66 – 85 cm)
very wide range of plants. parts including toxic
Tail 26 – 34 in
(66 – 85 cm) types such as One of the smallest possums, this tiny,
Weight 23 – 45 lb hemlock. agile, nocturnal species has a long,
(10.5 – 20.5 kg) pointed, well-whiskered snout and a
Location E. Australia Social unit Individual long, prehensile tail. It lives in small
Status Least concern groups, and its toes have soft, padlike
tips and small, sharp claws, to grip
both bark and glossy leaves. The 1-in
(2.5-cm) long bristle-tipped tongue
Unlike other wallabies, this species gathers pollen and nectar (“honey”)
moves with its head low and its tail from flowers, which are then scraped
held out straight behind. It has coarse, onto the much-reduced teeth (upper
brown-black fur and a much darker canines and lower incisors only).
104 SENGIS
Sengis
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Chordata
The long, pointed snout, which is flexible
PHYLUM BURROWS AND TRAILS
and highly sensitive, gives sengis their Sengis are strictly terrestrial and live
CLASS Mammalia
alternative name of elephant-shrew. They in a variety of habitats. The Karoo rock
ORDER Macroscelidea
have keen senses of hearing and vision, and sengi (right) favors rocky areas where it
FAMILIES 1 (Macroscelididae) will either dig its own burrow or occupy
long, powerful back legs for running swiftly
SPECIES 15 one that has been abandoned. It
around their territory. Sengis are found only
maintains a system of trails that lead
in Africa, where their habitat ranges from from the burrow to feeding areas. This
stony ground and grassland to forest undergrowth. They behavioral pattern is seen in several
forage mostly by day, feeding on invertebrates. sengi species.
Elephantulus rufescens days. A male–female pair defend their Rhynchocyon chrysopygus

territory by drumming their back feet
Rufous sengi and chasing away the intruder. The
male chases out other males, and
Golden-rumped sengi
Length 43⁄4 – 5 in the female other females. Length 101⁄2 – 111⁄2 in
(12 – 12.5 cm) (27 – 29 cm)
Tail 5 – 51⁄2 in Tail 9 – 10 in
(13 – 13.5 cm) (23 – 26 cm)
Weight 13⁄4 – 21⁄8 oz Weight 11⁄4 lb
(50 – 60 g) (525 – 550 g)
Location E. Africa Social unit Individual/Pair Location E. Africa Social unit Individual/Group
Status Least concern Status Endangered
Gray to brown with white underparts, This colorful species has hairless black as worms, insects, and centipedes.
MAMMALS
this species has a white eye-ring with feet, legs, and ears, a mainly black, When threatened, this sengi slaps its
a dark patch on the outer edge. In white-tipped, sparsely furred tail, tail on the leaves to warn others, then
addition to small creatures, it eats soft russet-colored head and body, and a bounds away at great speed, often
fruit, seeds, and buds. The 1 – 2 young golden patch on the rump. Its diet with a stiff-legged leap to demonstrate
are born after a gestation period of 60 consists of small invertebrates, such its vigor.
Elephantulus pilicaudus Rhynchocyon udzungwensis Mountain in Tanzania. It is the largest Rhynchocyon petersi
member of a genus of “giant sengis”
Karoo rock sengi Gray-faced sengi and is distinguished by a gray face,
yellow chest, orange sides, maroon
Black and
Length 4 – 51⁄2 in
(10.5 – 14.5 cm)
Length 113⁄4 – 121⁄2 in
(30 – 32 cm)
back, and black thighs. It is known rufous sengi
from only 2 populations, covering
Tail 41⁄4 – 6 in Tail 91⁄2 – 10 in
(11.2 – 15.1 cm) (24 – 26 cm) a combined forest area of scarcely Length 9 – 121⁄2 in
(23 – 32 cm)
Weight 1 ⁄4 – 1 ⁄4oz
3 3
Weight 1 ⁄2 lb
1 115 square miles (300 square km)—
Tail 71⁄2 – 101⁄2 in
(38 – 52 g) (710 g) with around 50 – 80 individuals per (19 – 27 cm)
Location South Africa Social unit Individual/Pair Location E. Africa Social unit Individual/Pair square km. This makes this species Weight c.7⁄8 lb
Status Data deficient Status Vulnerable vulnerable to natural disasters—such as (400 g)
fires (whether natural or human-caused). Location E. Africa Social unit Individual/Pair
Global warming could reduce its cool Status Vulnerable
montane habitat too. Like related
This species was distinguished from the Initially found in 2005 by camera- species, it builds a nest consisting
closely allied Cape sengi in 2008. It is trapping, this animal is one of many new of a cup in soil lined with dry leaves,
restricted to the Nama-Karoo region of species discovered in the exceptionally topped with a cryptic dome of One of four brightly colored “giant” or
South Africa, and is distinguished by a diverse communities of Udzungwa leaf litter. “checkered” sengis, this species has an
tufted tail and subtle features of its body orange head and upper body, graduating
pattern, such as mottled underparts and through red on the back to black on
buff-colored cheeks. It lives among the rump—and with an orange-brown
boulders in scattered rocky habitats tail. It occurs in southeastern Kenya
on mountain slopes above 4,265 ft and northeastern Tanzania, including
(1,300 m)—a landscape unsuitable for Zanzibar Island. “Giant” sengis of
agriculture or development. However, it the genus Rhynchocyon are nervous,
is known from only 17 specimens, so twitchy forest-dwelling animals and do
probably has low population density. not bound as much as other members
of the family.
TENRECS AND GOLDEN MOLES 105
Tenrecs and golden moles

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Chordata
Genetic studies show that tenrecs and golden moles,
PHYLUM NOCTURNAL HUNTER
which were once classified with shrews, moles, and At night, Grant’s golden
CLASS Mammalia
hedgehogs, are actually unrelated to them. The moles forage for food
ORDER Afrosoricida
Madagascan tenrecs (and semiaquatic African otter on the surface, feeding
FAMILIES 2 mainly on termites. They
shrews) include species that are unusual among
SPECIES 51 will, however, eat a wide
mammals in having a reptilian cloaca: a common
variety of invertebrates,
opening to the anus and the urinogenital tract. They and small lizards too,
feed mainly on invertebrates. The African golden moles have strong limbs if they can catch them.
for burrowing, tiny skin-covered eyes, and lack external ears. They prey Here, Grant’s golden
on underground animals, such as earthworms and burrowing lizards. mole feasts on a locust.
Tenrec ecaudatus common tenrec is the largest land- Micropotamogale lamottei Hemicentetes semispinosus
dwelling species. It has coarse, gray
Common tenrec to reddish gray fur and sharp spines.
Using its long, mobile snout, it grubs
Nimba otter-shrew Lowland
(26 – 39 cm)
among leaves for worms and other small Length 43⁄4 – 8 in
(12 – 20 cm)
streaked-tenrec
creatures. It also scavenges and hunts
Tail 3⁄8 – 1⁄2 in Tail 4 – 6 in
(1 – 1.5 cm) frogs and mice. In defense, a tenrec (10 – 15 cm)
Length 61⁄2 – 71⁄2 in
(16 – 19 m)
Weight 3 ⁄4 – 5 ⁄2 lb
1 1 squeals, erects the spiny hairs on its Weight 4 ⁄8 oz
3
Tail None
(1.5 – 2.5 kg) neck into a crest, jumps and bucks, and (135 g)
Location Madagascar Location W. Africa (Mount Weight 27⁄8 – 103⁄16 oz
Social unit Individual readily bites. It shelters by day in a nest Social unit Individual (80 – 280 g)
Nimba area)
Status Least concern of grass and leaves under a log, rock, or Status Near threatened Social unit Group
bush. After a gestation of 56 – 64 days, a Location Madagascar
litter of 1–32 is born, averaging at about
MAMMALS
18. When young, common tenrecs are
The 30 species of tenrecs are mainly striped black and white.
from central Africa and Madagascar. This species is distinguished from
Most resemble other tenrecs by its two-tone color of
a combination background black with variable stripes
of shrew and of white, yellow, or brown. The fur is
hedgehog. coarse with scattered spines and a
The nocturnal, patch of spiky hairs on the crown,
which is erect as a crest. The main
foods are worms and grubs. The
streaked tenrec lives in groups of 15
or more, and all help to protect each
female’s litter of 2 – 11 young.
This otter-shrew is largely restricted
to upland forest streams in an area of
about 580 square miles (1,500 square km)
around Mount Nimba in West Africa.
It has a fleshy nose, rounded head,
compact body, and long tail. Long, gray
or dark brown fur usually hides the
eyes and most of the ears. It is mostly
nocturnal, catching small fish, crabs,
water insects, and similar prey on short
Limnogale mergulus rear feet with sharp claws, used to dives or along river banks, and eating
grip slippery rocks and prey. Compared them on land. It digs a short nesting
Web-footed tenrec to other tenrecs, it has a broad,
round-muzzled head. The short, dense,
burrow in soft soil.
Length 43⁄4 – 61⁄2 in water-repellent fur is reddish brown.

(12 – 17 cm)
The web-footed tenrec noses among Potamogale velox has a rounded muzzle, a long,
Tail 43⁄4 – 61⁄2 in
(12 – 16 cm) stones and weeds for water insects, flexible body, and a long, muscular
Weight 21⁄8 – 31⁄4 oz
(62 – 90 g)
crabs, and crayfish, propelled mainly
by means of its long, scantily haired tail.
Giant otter-shrew tail flattened from side to side, which
it uses to propel itself through water.
Location E. Madagascar Social unit Individual Length 111⁄2 – 14 in This species inhabits a variety of
(29 – 35 cm)
Status Vulnerable ears barely freshwater habitats, from still pools
Tail 91⁄2 – 35 in
visible in fur (24 – 90 cm) to mountain torrents at altitudes of
Weight 129⁄16 – 14 oz 6,000 ft (1,800 m). The eyes and ears
(340 – 397 g) are small and high-set, for swimming
Once believed extinct, the Location W. and C. Africa Social unit Individual low in the water; yet, unlike an otter, the
only aquatic species of Status Least concern toes lack webs. Mainly nocturnal and
tenrec has been relocated solitary outside the breeding season,
in the wild but information the giant otter-shrew hunts primarily
is very scarce. It has an at night for fish, frogs, shellfish, and
otterlike form, with long Easily mistaken at a glance for a small other freshwater animals. Its bankside
whiskers, small high-set otter (which is a mustelid rather than burrow, where it shelters by day, has
eyes and ears, and webbed an insectivore), the giant otter-shrew an underwater entrance.
106 TENRECS AND GOLDEN MOLES
Setifer setosus Chrysochloris asiatica Eremitalpa granti invisible eyes and ears, a hard, hairless
nose pad, and 3 long, broad claws on
Greater hedgehog- Cape golden mole Grant’s golden mole each foot. It pushes through loose sand
as though “swimming,” making more
tenrec
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Length 31⁄2 – 51⁄2 in Length 3 – 31⁄2 in permanent tunnels deeper down in

(9 – 14 cm) (7.6 – 8.8 cm)
sand or near the surface in harder,
Tail None Tail None
Length 6 – 9 in more compacted soil. The main
(15 – 22 cm) Weight Not recorded Weight 9⁄16 – 11⁄16 lb
(15 – 30 g) components of its diet are various
Tail ⁄2 in
1
(1.5 cm) Social unit Individual
small desert animals, from ants,
Location Southern Africa Status Least concern Location Southern Africa
Weight 6 ⁄16 – 10 oz
3
termites, and beetles to lizards and
(180 – 270 g) snakes. Grant’s golden mole is solitary,
Location Madagascar Social unit Individual and probably active for short periods
Status Least concern throughout the day and night. It hardly,
African golden moles (chrysochlorids) Long, soft, silky fur covers almost the if ever, comes to the surface except
belong to a different order from the true entire body of Grant’s golden mole, to locate a mate. The specialized
moles (Soricomorpha). The Cape and varies from steel-gray to buff desert habitat of this species is
golden mole has the soft, dense fur or white. This mole has tiny, almost under increasing threat from mining
typical of moles, which may appear and other human activities.
olive, brown, or gray depending on gray or buff upperparts
the direction of the light. Its snout has
a hairless nose pad, its eyes and ears
are tiny, and each front leg has two
large digging claws—all adaptations
for a tunneling lifestyle. It is solitary
and eats worms, grubs and other
soil creatures found when burrowing
This hedgehoglike tenrec has short, or that have fallen into its more
pointed, white-tipped spines on its long permanent tunnels. dense,
body and coarse hair, varying from gray shiny fur
to black, on the head and legs. It is
nocturnal and, like true hedgehogs,
it also rolls into a prickly ball when
threatened. It climbs well and
MAMMALS
eats a wide variety of worms,

amphibians, reptiles, insects,
carrion, fruit, and berries. It
becomes torpid for several weeks
in adverse conditions.
Orycteropus afer
Aardvark
SEASONAL DIET
Aardvark
Length 37 – 55 ft
PHYLUM Chordata
The only surviving member of the order (94 – 142 m)
Tubulidentata, the aardvark is a solitary Tail 171⁄2 – 25 in
CLASS Mammalia (44 – 63 cm)
animal found in Africa. It is characterized Weight 88 – 145 lb
ORDER Tubulidentata
by nonfunctional, columnar cheek teeth, (40 – 65 kg)
FAMILIES 1 (Orycteropodidae) Location Africa (south of
a long snout, large ears, a piglike body, the Sahara)
SPECIES 1 Status Least concern
and powerful limbs and shovel-shaped
claws for digging. Ears that can be folded The aardvark favors ants as its
back (and a profusion of nostril food, which are more abundant in
hairs) help keep out dirt when Also known as an ant-bear, the summer, but it also eats termites at
burrowing. The aardvark has aardvark is one of the most powerful times when ants are not available. It
mammal diggers, excavating burrows breaks into a nest or mound using its
a primitive brain and poor
up to 33 ft (10 m) long around its home front feet, which are armed with long,
eyesight. It does, however, range of 3 ⁄4 – 2 square miles (2 – 5 square sharp claws. The dense mat of hairs
have an excellent sense km). The single young is born after an that surrounds the aardvark’s nostrils
of smell. This is used to average gestation period of 225 days effectively filters dust as it digs.
locate termites and ants, and weighs 3 3 ⁄4 lb (1.7 kg). Aardvarks
chew one species of ant with their molar
which are then captured, HUNCHED BACK
teeth, but other species of ant and
using the animal’s long, termites are swallowed whole and The aardvark has a distinctive
sticky tongue. probably ground up in curved back, and its snout,
their muscular ears, and tail are long
and tapering. The
stomach.
bristly, scant, brown
MASTER BURROWER fur is tinged with
The aardvark is a fast and prolific large ears for
acute hearing yellows and grays.
burrower, using its strong, clawed front
limbs to dig and its back feet to push
away excavated soil. Some aardvark
burrows consist of an extensive tunnel
network; others are shorter and provide
temporary refuge. The aardvark always
exits its burrow head first, as shown here.
DUGONGS AND MANATEES 107
Dugongs and manatees

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PHYLUM Chordata
Sirenians—the dugong and manatees—are Feeding
large, slow-moving creatures with a streamlined Sirenians strip vegetation using their
CLASS Mammalia
body. They are the only marine mammals that large, mobile upper lip. Food is then
ORDER Sirenia
feed primarily on plants. Sirenians must rise crushed between horny plates on the
FAMILIES 2 front part of the palate and on the
to the surface to breathe, but they can remain
lower jaw, and finally ground
SPECIES 4 submerged for up to 20 minutes. Even though
between the teeth.
they have no enemies apart from
humans, sirenians may number fewer than
150,000—making them among the least FORAGING ON THE SEA BED
abundant of any mammal order. Sirenians, such as this dugong, frequently
search the sea bed for the rhizomes
(underground stems) of sea grasses, which
Anatomy have high concentrations of carbohydrates.
Sirenians have paddlelike
front limbs and a flat tail
CONSERVATION
to aid propulsion. Their
skin is thick and tough, In the past, sirenians were
and they have a hunted extensively for their
relatively small brain. meat, hide, and oil. Today, they
Due to the large volume are vulnerable to injury or death
of gas given off during caused by boat propellers
the digestion of plant (below), fishing nets, and the
matter, sirenians are highly pollution of coastal waters.
buoyant. To compensate, their
bones are heavy and dense. angled snout MOTHER AND CALF
Underwater, sirenians DUGONG SKULL Sirenians are slow breeders:
can close their nostrils. They lack The steeply angled snout usually only one calf is produced
MAMMALS
well-defined eyelids and protect the bearing a single pair of tusks every 2 years. The “mouthing”
eye surface with secretions and by and a marked indentation in molars contact between this manatee
drawing the nictitating membrane the lower jaw are characteristic incisor mother and calf helps preserve
across the eye. features of a dugong skull. (tusk) indentation the family bond.
Dugong dugon marine plant growth and avoid Trichechus manatus

cold-water currents. Dugongs form FOOD INTAKE
Dugong transient herds averaging 10 – 20,
exceptionally 100 or more, with little
West Indian manatee
Length 61⁄2 – 11 ft social structure. Members may gather Length 81⁄4 – 93⁄4 ft
(2 – 3.3 m) (2.5 – 3 m)
to intimidate and butt predators such
Weight 1,257 lb Weight Up to 15⁄8 ton
(570 kg) as sharks. Males compete for females (1.6 tonne)
Social unit Group by sounds and pushes. Courtship and Social unit Variable
Status Vulnerable
mating (which is monogamous) are Status Vulnerable
Location E. Africa, similarly auditory and tactile. One Location S.E. USA to N.E.
W. Asia, S. Asia, S.E. Asia, South America, Caribbean
Australia, Pacific islands offspring, up to 4 ft (1.2 m) long and
77 lb (35 kg) in weight, is born after a
gestation of 14 months. It is cared for Feeding occurs from the surface
by the mother, with help from older down about 13 ft (4 m). The
The dugong has a crescent-shaped siblings and female relatives, and is Best known of the 3 manatee species manatee holds food with its
tail, and short foreflippers. Primarily weaned by 18 months. A dugong may (the other 2 being the Amazonian flippers, and directs it into the
diurnal, it moves regularly each day live for about 60 years. and West African), the West Indian mouth using its flexible lips. Daily
between on- and offshore areas manatee lives along shallow shores food intake is up to a quarter
depending on the tides and food and estuaries, and in nearby rivers and of its body weight, and may
supply; in some areas, it undertakes crescent-shaped freshwater lagoons. Groups of up to include a few fish (for protein).
tail
longer seasonal migrations—perhaps 20 swell to 100 or more where food
hundreds of kilometres—to follow is plentiful; however, there is little BLUNT FRONT
cohesion, and individuals come and go, Like other sirenians, this species has tiny eyes
ranging widely. Reproduction is similar and no external ear flaps. Its gray or gray-brown
to the dugong’s (see left), although the skin, paler below, may harbor growths of algae.
manatee is polygynous.
gray or gray-brown,
generally hairless
skin
short, paddle-shaped
foreflipper
108 ELEPHANTS
Elephants
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PHYLUM Chordata The largest living animals on land—the male African Feeding
CLASS Mammalia savanna elephant may be as tall as 13 ft (4 m) and Elephants have large, ridged cheek
weigh nearly 11 tons (10 tonnes)—elephants are teeth (molars and premolars) to
ORDER Proboscidea
deal with their coarse diet of bark,
FAMILIES 1 (Elephantidae) characterized by pillarlike legs, a thick-set body with leaves, branches, and grass (African
SPECIES 3 a convexly curved spine, large ears (relatively smaller forest elephants also eat fruit). In
eating these foods, elephants cause
in Asian elephants), and a heavy head with a long, enormous damage: grass is pulled
mobile trunk. African and Asian elephants live in savanna and lighwt up in tufts, branches are broken off,
bark is stripped, and small trees are
forest; African forest elephants (recently given species status) mainly sometimes uprooted. Some areas STRIPPING FOLIAGE
live deep in the African rain forest (they occasionally venture on to the have alternated between closed Elephants use their mobile
woodland and open savanna, trunk to pull down branches.
savanna). Elephants live for about 65 – 70
depending on the number An adult needs to eat about
years—longer than any other of elephants living there. 350 lb (160 kg) of food daily.
mammals except humans.
Previously, elephants were
thought to grow throughout
their lives, but this is not
considered true today.
Anatomy
Perhaps the most distinctive feature
is the trunk, a flexible elongation of
MAMMALS
the upper lip and nose that consists

of thousands of muscle fibers. It is used like a
“5th limb” to pluck grass, pull down branches,
lift logs, or squirt water or dust. Also immediately
noticeable are the tusks (upper incisors), which
are large, thick, and curved in most bull elephants;
cows have smaller tusks (in female Asian elephants
they do not protrude beyond the lip). Their tusks are
known to grow throughout life. The skeleton consists
of thick, heavy bones, which are able to support the
animal’s great weight. The large, fan-shaped ears,
which contain a network of blood vessels, are
constantly in motion to aid heat loss. In aggressive
displays, the ears are spread sideways. The skin is
thick, finely wrinkled, and sparsely haired.
air cells upper single
process process
LIGHTENED SKULL DIGGING FOR SALT

The skull is filled with air cells to lighten the weight Elephants often need to lower
of the bone. The long incisors (tusks) have deep, supplement their diet with process
downward-pointing sockets. The lower jaw has extra salt. This juvenile AFRICAN ASIAN
a spoutlike chin that, unlike in most African elephant is loosening TRUNK SHAPE
mammals, moves horizontally fragments of salt-rich soil with African elephants have 2 opposing, fingerlike
during chewing. its tusks. Juveniles learn from outgrowths called processes at the tip of the
molar long chin
older members of the herd trunk; Asian elephants have one. In both, the
AFRICAN ELEPHANT SKULL incisor (tusk) where to find salt. processes are used to pick up small objects.
TAKING A DUST-BATH
1 2 3 4
DAILY ROUTINE SUCKING UP THE DUST PROTECTION REPELLING INSECTS
To keep the skin healthy, African Dust is sucked up into the trunk, which The dust acts as a sunscreen, protecting the Dust is also a good insect repellent,
elephants take a daily dust-bath. is a tubular extension of the upper lip. elephant’s skin from the direct rays of the sun. deterring insects from biting the sensitive skin.
ELEPHANTS 109
Social group Loxodonta africana Although it is also called the African bush
or savanna elephant, this species—the
Elephants live in family groups that consist of the oldest, most experienced
female (the matriarch) and other females of various ages (and their young).
African savanna largest of the 3 elephant species—lives
in varied habitats from desert to high
elephant
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For protection, or when feeding in lush areas, small herds of African rain forest. It has larger ears than the
elephants may join together to form groups made up of several hundred Asian elephant, a concave curve to its
individuals. African forest elephants and Asian elephants live in small Length 13 – 16 ft back, and 2 processes on the tip of
(4 – 5 m)
family groups only. Males, however, only join the herd when a female is the trunk rather than one (see opposite).
Tail 31⁄4 – 5 ft
sexually receptive and are otherwise either solitary (older bulls) or live (1 – 1.5 m)
Both male and female African savanna
in bachelor groups (young bulls). Adult bull Asian elephants have annual Weight 23⁄4 – 57⁄8 tons
elephants have forward-curving tusks
periods of sexual excitement, called “musth” (bull African elephants have (2.8 – 6 tonnes) (incisor teeth), which are sometimes
an equivalent condition, about which less is known). Location Africa Social unit Group used as tools to loosen mineral-rich soil
Status Vulnerable that is then eaten. Requiring substantial
PROTECTING YOUNG amounts of food and a large area in
Elephant calves are protected from predators which to forage for it, a herd of African
and other dangers by all members of the savanna elephants may
herd, which are usually blood relatives. cause dramatic changes
This Asian elephant calf is only a few to the environment,
weeks old and remains close to its mother. especially during
Two smaller females are close by, ready prolonged periods
to assist the mother if necessary. of drought.
CONSERVATION
forward-
The Asian elephant is endangered curving tusk
due to competition with a growing
human population, and its expanding
need for land. The same is true of
African elephants, where their original
habitat of forest and savanna is
MAMMALS
becoming increasingly fragmented
and farmed. African elephants also
face the hazard of hunting—a
traditional practice that is a source
of meat, and of highly valuable ivory.
During the 20th century, ivory prices
soared, and commercial hunting
became widespread. Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis Elephas maximus
numbers crashed—an effect spurred
on by periodic droughts. In 1989,
the Kenyan authorities acted, burning
African forest Asiatic elephant
a stockpile of seized ivory that sent a elephant Length Up to 11 ft
(3.5 m)
worldwide message. In 1990, the
Tail 4 – 5 ft
international sale of ivory was banned, Length 93⁄4 – 13 ft
(1.2 – 1.5 m)
(3 – 4 m)
although in the 21st century, strong Weight 25⁄8 – 41⁄8 tons
Tail 31⁄4 – 5 ft
demand for it remains. (1 – 1.5 m) (2.7 – 4.2 tonnes)
Location S. and S.E. Asia Social unit Group
Weight 25⁄8 –57⁄8 tons
LIVING TOGETHER (2.7 – 6 tonnes) Status Endangered
This is a typical African elephant Location C. Africa Social unit Group
family group. Communication within Status Endangered
a herd takes many forms, including
vocalizations (some of which are
below the range of human hearing),
touch, foot stamping, and body Formerly regarded as a subspecies
postures. Cooperative behavior— of the African savanna elephant, this
such as employing a system of species is smaller, has darker skin, more
lookouts while bathing—is common. rounded ears, and a hairier trunk. The
yellow or brownish tusks are parallel and
point downward, adaptations that allow
the African forest elephant to move freely
through dense vegetation.
Asiatic elephants have smaller ears than

the African species, and a unique tip
to their trunk (see opposite). The tusks
are small and may be absent in females
(above). The molar teeth are very like
those of the extinct mammoth, which
suggests a close relationship between
them. The Asiatic elephant has a long
5 6
association with humans, and animals
DEPOSITING THE DUST KEEPING THE SKIN HEALTHY from all 3 subspecies—Sumatran,
The elephant blows out the dust through the To maintain good skin condition, regular Sri Lankan, and those from India and
trunk, depositing it on the back and head. dust-baths are as important as water-baths. Malaysia—have been domesticated.
110 HYRAXES
Procavia capensis Dendrohyrax arboreus
Hyraxes Rock hyrax Southern tree hyrax

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Length 151⁄2 – 23 in Length 121⁄2 – 231⁄2 in

PHYLUM Chordata
Although hyraxes resemble rabbits in size (39 – 58 cm) (32 – 60 cm)
and shape, genetic evidence suggests that Tail 8 – 12 in Tail 3 ⁄8 – 11⁄4 in
CLASS Mammalia (20 – 31 cm) (1 – 3 cm)
they are more closely related to primitive Weight 4 – 12 lb Weight 33⁄4 – 10 lb
ORDER Hyracoidea
hoofed mammals. The pads of their feet are (1.8 – 5.4 kg) (1.7 – 4.5 kg)
FAMILIES 1 (Procaviidae) Location W., S., and Location E. and southern
moistened by glandular secretions, which E. Africa, W. Asia
Social unit Group
Africa
Social unit Variable
SPECIES 5 Status Least concern Status Least concern
make the soles more adhesive. This, along
with the opposable toe on each back foot,
enables hyraxes to climb steep rock faces. They are found
in Africa and parts of the Middle East. Some species inhabit The rock hyrax has a plump body and
rocky outcrops; others are arboreal. They can survive food short, dense, gray or gray-brown fur,
which is paler below. Also called the
shortages because they eat almost every type of vegetation
rock dassie, it lives in colonies of up to
and require very little water (their kidneys are highly efficient). 80 individuals, usually of one dominant
male, other males, and females and
KEEPING WARM young. Although found in a wide variety
Hyraxes have poor temperature of habitats, it usually lives in rocky
control. These rock hyraxes outcrops and crags, among boulders,
are huddling together where it makes a grass-lined nest. The southern tree hyrax or tree dassie
for warmth. has a yellowish patch on the back near
small, the rump, but is otherwise gray-brown
rounded ears
with buff underparts. The head, legs,
and tail seem almost too small for the
stocky body. True to its name, the
southern tree hyrax lives among trees,
shrubs, and creepers, and nests in a
tree hole. It feeds on the ground only
occasionally. Like all hyraxes, this
MAMMALS
species has poor control of body

temperature, so groups often sunbathe
to warm up, or rest in shade to cool
down. Litters of 1 – 2 are born after a
gestation period of 7 – 8 months.
Priodontes maximus yellow-white head, tail, and band along
Armadillos Giant armadillo

the lower edges of the plates. The
especially large third front claw is used
to rip up soil for small food items—
Length 30 – 39 in mainly termites, ants, worms, spiders,
PHYLUM Chordata Instantly recognized by their protective (75 – 100 cm)
small snakes, and lizards. The front
CLASS Mammalia armorlike covering of hardened skin on their Tail 20 in
claws also dig a burrow in which the
(50 cm)
ORDER Cingulata
head, back, sides, and limbs, and reduced Weight 411⁄2–7111⁄16 lb giant armadillo shelters by day. It feeds
FAMILIES 1
fur, armadillos are ground-living animals (18.7 – 32.3 kg) in an area for 2 – 3 weeks, then moves
Location N. and C. South on. Like most other armadillos, it shows
SPECIES 21
allied to anteaters and sloths. They have America
Status Vulnerable little social or territorial behavior. The
simple peglike teeth and short, strong limbs
gestation period is 4 months, and the
for digging. They also have unusual special 1 – 2 offspring are weaned by 6 weeks
articulations of the lower vertebral column (a feature shared and are sexually mature by 12 months.
with nonburrowing anteaters and sloths), which may be an By far the largest armadillo, this species
adaptation for burrowing. Armadillos are mainly insect-eaters, has 11 – 13 bands of slightly flexible,
rounded
hinged plates over its body, and 3 – 4 muzzle
but also eat a wide range of other items, including plant
bands over its neck. The long,
materials, eggs, and tapering tail is likewise
carrion. Most species armored. The main
occur in open habitats body color is brown,
of South America, with a pale
but one can also
be found in the
United States.
ARMADILLOS
Contrary to popular
belief, not all
armadillos can roll
in a ball to defend
themselves. Only
species of the
genus Tolypeutes
can do this.
SLOTHS AND ANTEATERS 111
Chaetophractus villosus Dasypus novemcinctus Zaedyus pichiy domed body armor for protection, or
it wedges itself into a burrow with its
Big hairy armadillo Nine-banded armadillo Pichi armor facing outward. This small
armadillo digs a short tunnel for shelter
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Length 9 – 16 in Length 14 – 221⁄2 in Length 10 – 131⁄2 in and eats various small insects, worms,
(22 – 40 cm) (35 – 57 cm) (26 – 34 cm)
other invertebrates, and sometimes
Tail 31⁄2 – 61⁄2 in Tail 91⁄2 – 18 in Tail 4 – 43⁄4 in
(9 – 17 cm) (24 – 45 cm) (10 – 12 cm) also carrion.
Weight 21⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb Weight 73⁄4 – 161⁄2 lb Weight 25 – 54 oz
(1 – 3 kg) (3.6 – 7.7 kg) (700 – 1,500 g)
Location S. South America Social unit Individual Location S. USA, Mexico, Social unit Individual Location S. South America Social unit Individual
Caribbean, Central
Status Least concern America, South America Status Least concern Status Near threatened
The most commonly seen armadillo, When threatened, the pichi

this species has 8 – 10 bony bands squats down and draws its
around its middle, which allows some sharp-clawed feet under its
flexibility. The bony armor and leathery body, relying on its wide, low,
skin account for one-sixth of the total
weight. Like most armadillos, it digs
an extensive burrow system. It takes Cabassous centralis shelter in by day. It also has a long, sticky
most foods, from ants and birds to tongue to lick up termites and ants in the
fruit and roots, and is solitary yet may
share a burrow with others of its kind.
Northern naked-tailed manner of an anteater. In common with
other armadillos, it is mainly silent,
Offspring are nearly always identical armadillo perhaps growling when threatened, as it
This armadillo of arid habitats has quadruplets as they develop from tries to dig itself into the ground so only
long, coarse hairs projecting between the splitting of a single egg into 4 Length 12 – 16 in the armored upper body is exposed.
(30 – 40 cm)
the 18 or so distinct bands of bony, identical embryos.
Tail 5 – 7 in
skin-covered armor on its body. Some (13 – 18 cm)
of the 7 or 8 bands are hinged. When Weight 2 – 3.5 kg
threatened and unable to burrow, it (41⁄2 – 73⁄4 lb)
tucks in its feet and presses its armored Location Central America Social unit Individual
and N. South America
body into the ground. This protects its Status Data deficient
MAMMALS
softer, white- or brown-furred underside
and provides an effective defense
against both canids and birds of prey. In
summer, it is mainly nocturnal and eats Occupying a wide range of habitats,
varied small prey, from grubs to rodents. this big-eared armadillo has large claws,
In winter, activity is mainly by day and especially the middle forefoot claw, for
the diet includes more plant matter. digging up prey and making a burrow to
Bradypus torquatus metabolism is less rapid than most
Sloths and anteaters Maned sloth

other mammals, giving a low body
temperature of just above 86° F (30° C).
Its main defense is to stay still and
Length 18 – 20 in unnoticed or to lash out with its
Chordata Sloths and anteaters are a tropical American (45 – 50 cm)
PHYLUM formidable claws. After 5 – 6 months’
group of mammals united by a coarse coat Tail 11⁄2 – 2 in
gestation, one offspring is born,
CLASS Mammalia (4 – 5 cm)
and a highly specialized diet: tubular-snouted Weight 73⁄4 – 83⁄4 lb weighing about 9 oz (250 g). It clings to
ORDER Pilosa
anteaters are insectivorous and slow-moving. (3.5 – 4 kg) its mother’s abdomen with its well-
FAMILIES 4 Location E. South America Social unit Individual
Sloths are vegetarian, mainly eating leaves of formed, hook-shaped claws. The young
SPECIES 10 Status Endangered suckles for up to 4 weeks and after
a limited number of tree species. They have
weaning stays with her, being carried
reduced dentition: sloths have only cheek and learning feeding patterns, for a
teeth, and anteaters lack teeth altogether. Anteaters rip apart further 6 months.
nests of ants and termites using enlarged front claws, and lap This species has the
dark mane
up prey with a long tongue and sticky saliva. Giant anteaters typical sloth’s small head,
tiny eyes and ears, and
are ground-dwellers, but other species climb. Sloths are entirely
small tail hidden in the fur, which
arboreal: they have long, slender forelimbs for climbing through contrasts with the large body and
branches, long claws for grasping, and have complex digestive powerful limbs. Algae, mites, ticks,
systems for digesting foliage. beetles, and even moths live in the
coarse outer coat, which is longer,
darker, and manelike around the head,
GIANT ANTEATER neck, and shoulders. The underfur is
The termite mound being inspected by this fine, dense, and pale. The maned sloth
giant anteater is incredibly hard and strong, eats the leaves, buds, and soft twigs of
but the giant anteater inspecting it will have a few forest trees, notably Cecropia. It
no problem breaking into it if it is hungry. comes to the ground only to defecate,
or to move to another tree if it cannot
travel through the branches. On the
ground, the sloth drags itself along
by its longer, stronger front legs and
claws. Surprisingly, it can swim well. In
addition to its physical slowness, the
sloth’s muscles are small and weak for
its overall body size, and even its
112 SLOTHS AND ANTEATERS
Bradypus pygmaeus Choloepus didactylus Tamandua tetradactyla SELF-DEFENSE

Pygmy three-toed Linnaeus’ two-toed Southern tamandua
sloth sloth
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Length 21 – 35 in
(53 – 88 cm)
Length 183⁄4 – 201⁄2 in Length 18 – 34 in Tail 16 in
(48 – 53 cm) (46 – 86 cm) (40 cm)
Tail 13⁄4 – 21⁄4 in Tail 1 ⁄2 – 11⁄2 in Weight 73⁄4 – 19 lb
(4.5 – 6 cm) (1.5 – 3.5 cm) (3.5 – 8.5 kg)
Location N. and E. South Social unit Individual
Weight 51⁄2 – 73⁄4 lb Weight 83⁄4 – 19 lb America
(2.5 – 3.5 kg) (4 – 8.5 kg) Status Least concern
Location Central Social unit Individual Location N. South Social unit Individual
America America
Status Critically Status Least concern
endangered
Also called the collared anteater, the
southern tamandua, has a long, narrow
head and sparsely haired, prehensile
Confined to Isla Escudo de Veraguas tail. It climbs well and feeds both in the
off the Caribbean coast of Panama, this branches and on the ground, breaking When threatened, a southern
diminutive sloth evolved in isolation from into the nests of ants, termites, and tamandua backs against a trunk or
its larger mainland ancestors. It is the bees. It is active for 8-hour periods, rock, rears up onto its hind legs,
only sloth that subsists entirely on red day or night. A single offspring is props itself up by its tail, and holds
mangrove leaves—an adaptation that born after 4 – 5 months’ gestation its powerful front legs outstretched.
restricts it to mangrove forest beside and rides on the mother. In this position it can slash out at
foreleg
the sea. This critically endangered longer than its attacker with the long, sharp
species is threatened by poaching hind leg BLACK VEST claws on its front feet.
from visiting fishermen and potential The southern tamandua is pale yellow
tourism development. Linnaeus’ two-toed sloth has 2 with a black “vest” over
hook-clawed toes on each front foot the shoulders, chest,
but 3 on each rear one. Its coarse fur sides, and
lower back.
is gray-brown, paler on the face, but,
like other sloths, it may be tinged green
by algae growing on the hairs. It eats
MAMMALS
a typical sloth’s diet of leaves and

fruit and, in common with all sloths,
is solitary, moves extremely slowly,
and descends to the ground only
to defecate (about once a week).
Cyclopes didactylus Myrmecophaga tridactyla ANTS’-EYE VIEW

Silky anteater Giant anteater This anteater rips open ant nests
and termite mounds with its
Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄2 in Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft big-clawed front feet, and then
(16 – 21 cm) (1 – 2 m)
uses its tongue, which can protrude
Tail 61⁄2 – 9 in Tail 25 – 35 in
(16 – 23 cm) (64 – 90 cm) more than 2 ft (60 cm), to take its
Weight 5 – 10 oz Weight 49 – 86 lb prey. The tongue is covered with
(150 – 275 g) (22 – 39 kg) minute, backward-pointing spines
Location Central America Social unit Individual Location Central to South Social unit Individual and sticky saliva, to which tiny prey
to N. South America America
Status Least concern Status Vulnerable adhere. The remaining termites
then repair the nest.
underside of tail The giant anteater has a long and and night, this species wanders its It sleeps in a hollow or in the shelter of
bare at tip tubular snout that widens to a small home range, which may cover up bush, its tail draped over its head and
face with tiny ears and eyes. With to 10 square miles (25 square km), body. This species is threatened by
its massive front legs and smaller rear depending on the availability of food. hunting and habitat destruction.
legs, it walks with an ambling gait,
black, white-centered
protecting its large front claws stripe along each side NARROW BODY AND BUSHY TAIL
from wear by walking The giant anteater has long, coarse fur on its
on its knuckles. narrow body. Its coloration is mainly
Active day gray with black and white
markings. Its brown tail
is very bushy.
brown body stripe
Solitary and nocturnal, this anteater

has long, dense, fine fur, usually
smoky gray with a silver sheen and
a variable brown stripe on the side
of the body. Specialized for arboreal
life, it grips strongly with its feet and
hooklike claws, supported by its
prehensile tail, which is bare on the
underside near the tip. It breaks open
tree-ant nests and licks out the ants
with its long, saliva-coated tongue.
RABBITS, HARES, AND PIKAS 113
Rabbits, hares, and pikas

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PHYLUM Chordata Although these small to medium-sized gnawing Feeding

CLASS Mammalia animals are similar to rodents in many ways Lagomorphs are herbivorous
ORDER Lagomorpha (for example, both groups have large incisors), and generally eat grass and other
succulent plants. Matter that cannot
FAMILIES 2 they differ in several respects, including the be digested initially is expelled in
SPECIES 92 presence of a second set of upper incisors and the form of a moist pellet and eaten,
usually straight from the anus. It
a lighter skull structure. Rabbits, hares, and pikas is then held in the stomach to be
(also termed “calling hares” on account of their varied vocalizations)— mixed with other food for second
digestion before being excreted as
the lagomorphs—are among the most hunted of all animals. a dry pellet. In this way, most food PLANT-EATERS
Their natural predators are carnivores and birds, and they travels through the digestive system All lagomorphs, such as this
twice, enabling the animal to derive North American pika, spend
are also hunted by humans for sport, for food, and for their
maximum nutrition from its much of their time feeding.
fur. All species are terrestrial and are found worldwide diet. This process is During the summer, the
(except the West Indies, the southern parts of South called refection. pika also gathers and stores
food for winter, creating a
America, Madagascar, and several islands of “haystack” of dried foliage
Southeast Asia) in habitats ranging from arctic outside its rocky shelter.
tundra to semidesert.
AERIAL BOXING
Anatomy During the mating season, fights between

hares occur frequently. The front feet are used
The physical features of rabbits and hares reflect their for boxing, and the powerful back feet are
need to perceive danger and elude predators. Large used for kicking. Males battle for access to
ears provide excellent hearing, eyes positioned high females, and a female will drive off a male
on each side of the head give almost 360-degree vision, if she is not ready to mate (as shown here).
MAMMALS
and elongated back legs enable impressive running
speeds—hares can reach up to 35 mph (56 kph). Unlike
rodents, rabbits and hares have tails that are small and
spherical, and they have well-furred feet with hair on
the soles, which provides grip when running. Pikas
tend to hide in crevices or burrows when threatened,
and are more mouselike in appearance, having
legs of approximately the same length (they
cannot run as swiftly). They also have shorter,
rounded ears and no visible tail. All species
have slitlike nostrils that can be closed
completely. Unusual for mammals,
the females of some species are
larger than the males.
eye socket molars
premolars
upper
incisor
peg
tooth
diastema lower incisor
RABBIT SKULL
Lagomorphs have well-developed, continually
growing incisor teeth. Behind the upper incisors
is a second pair of smaller incisors (“peg teeth”). Reproduction
There is a large gap between the incisors and Although lagomorphs are hunted intensely
premolars in both jaws, called the diastema. by many predators, they are able to maintain
healthy population levels through a high
reproductive rate. Because ovulation is not
FLEXIBLE NECK cyclical but is instead triggered in response
In the lagomorphs, self- to copulation, females can become pregnant FEEDING TIME
grooming is important: directly after giving birth. Rabbits, the most Although some rabbits
mutual grooming between prolific breeders of all the lagomorphs, can give birth in their burrows,
individuals is rare. Great produce litters of up to 12 young as many all hares are born above
flexibility in the neck— as 6 times a year. Furthermore, rabbits are ground. These young
this European rabbit is sexually mature at a young age (the European brown hares remain hidden
able to rotate its head rabbit is able to conceive when only 3 months during the day but are
through 180 degrees— old), and the gestation period may be very collected together at
allows them to reach the short (the Florida cottontail rabbit, for example, sunset when the mother
fur on the back. gestates for as little as 26 days). visits to nurse them.
114 RABBITS, HARES, AND PIKAS
Ochotona princeps Ochotona curzoniae occupies each burrow system and

READY FOR WINTER members are sociable. In some areas
American pika Black-lipped pika this pika is so numerous as to be
considered a pest. Females can have
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Length 61⁄2 – 8 in Length 51⁄2 – 81⁄2 in up to 5 litters of 8 young per year,

(16 – 20 cm) (14 – 21 cm)
which are cared for by both parents.
Tail None Tail None
Weight 4 – 6 oz Weight 31⁄4 – 73⁄8 oz
(125 – 175 g) (90 – 210 g)
Social unit Individual Social unit Group
Location S.W. Canada, Location E. Asia
W. USA Status Least concern Status Least concern
Found at high altitudes, this pika lives on During late summer, each pika This pika is sandy brown above and
a talus—an area of piled, broken rocks gathers a “hay pile” near its burrow dull yellow-white on the underside, with
fringed by alpine meadows and low, that serves as food when there is a rust-hued patch behind the ear and a
grassy vegetation. At each talus, solitary snow. These hay piles contain plants dark nose and lips. An extended family
pikas use whistling calls to defend with high levels of toxins that act as
territories that alternate across the natural preservatives, making them
area by gender, giving a female–male last longer. Pikas eventually eat these Romerolagus diazi Pentalagus furnessi
patchwork. A typical territory is in late winter, after the toxins
6,500 square ft (600 square m),
and it has a foraging area and a
have broken down. Volcano rabbit Amami rabbit
den in a burrow or Length 9 – 14 in Length 161⁄2 – 20 in
dark ears, (23 – 35 cm) (42 – 50cm)
rock crevice.
furred on Tail 3⁄8 – 11⁄4 in Tail 3⁄8 – 11⁄2 in
both (1 – 3 cm) (1 – 3.5 cm)
surfaces Weight 13 – 21 oz Weight 41⁄2 – 61⁄2 lb
EGG-SHAPED MAMMAL
(375 – 600 g) (2 – 3 kg)
A crouched pika has Location C. Mexico Location Amami and
Social unit Group Social unit Individual/Group
a rounded outline Tokuno islands (Japan)
resembling an Status Endangered Status Endangered
egg. The fur is
varying shades
MAMMALS
of brown.
Restricted to open pine forests on Found only on 2 small Japanese
volcanic peaks near Mexico City, the islands, this rabbit’s many distinctive
Brachylagus idahoensis Sylvilagus aquaticus volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 – 5. It features include an all-black coat,
has very short, rounded ears for a rabbit, pointed snout, small eyes and ears,
Pygmy rabbit Swamp rabbit relatively small back legs and feet, and
communicates by means of penetrating
and short, long-nailed limbs for
digging nest-holes. Nocturnal in habit,
Length 9 – 12 in Length 18 – 22 in whistles. Its diet is mainly the tall, dense it eats forest plants, such as pampas
(23 – 31 cm) (45 – 55 cm)
grass in which grass leaves, sweet potato runners,
Tail 1⁄2 – 1 in Tail 2 – 3 in
(1.5 – 2.5 cm) (5 – 7.5 cm) it also makes bamboo sprouts, nuts, and bark.
Weight 9 – 161⁄8 oz Weight 31⁄2 – 6 lb coat of its burrow. Social and breeding habits are little
(246 – 458 g) (1.6 – 2.7 kg) yellow known, although it communicates by
Location W. USA Location S.E. USA and black
Social unit Individual Social unit Group guard means of clicking sounds. The female
Status Least concern Status Least concern hairs has 2 litters of 2 – 3 young each year.
The world’s smallest rabbit, this arid-

adapted species digs a large burrow
cinnamon eye rings
system and feeds on big sagebrush
and closely related species. The long,
silky fur on its back is gray in winter
and brown in summer; the abdomen
is whitish. Unlike most rabbits, it climbs
well into bushes to feed, and, although
solitary, it also makes pikalike whistling
calls to warn neighbors of approaching
predators. Breeding details are poorly Sylvilagus floridanus rabbit body form with a reddish-topped
known: the gestation period may be white tail. In summer, it feeds on lush
26 – 28 days, and litter size 4 – 8, with
up to 3 litters Always associated with water, in
Eastern cottontail green vegetation; bark and twigs
predominate in winter. Groups have
per year. marshes, creeks, and pools, the Length 113⁄4 – 183⁄4 in established dominance hierarchies.
short ears, (30 – 48 cm)
furred on inside swamp rabbit has black to rusty Average litter size ranges
Tail 1 – 21⁄2 in
edge only brown fur. It swims well and readily, (2.5 – 6.6 cm) from 5 in North
especially if threatened, and feeds by Weight 13⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb America to 2 in
day or night on sedges, rushes, and (0.8 – 1.5 kg) South America.
other aquatic plants, including swamp Location Central America Social unit Group
to N. South America
bamboos (Arundinaria). The swamp Status Least concern
rabbit lives in small groups, usually
controlled by a dominant territorial
male, and builds an above-ground nest
of plant stalks and stems. The female Widely distributed in many habitats
lines the breeding nest with her fur, in over its natural range, and introduced
the typical rabbit manner. The average to new areas of North America and
litter size is 3. Europe, the cottontail has the typical
RABBITS, HARES, AND PIKAS 115
Oryctolagus cuniculus Caprolagus hispidus Also called the bristly rabbit after
FAST BREEDER its coarse, dark brown fur, the hispid
European rabbit Hispid hare hare lives in tall “elephant grass”
country, feeding by night on the
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Length 131⁄2 – 20 in Length 19 in soft shoots and roots of the grass.

(34 – 50 cm) (48 cm)
It has short ears, and its back legs
Tail 11⁄2 – 31⁄4 in Tail 21⁄8 in
(4 – 8 cm) (5.3 cm) are not much larger than its front
Weight 21⁄4 – 51⁄2 lb Weight 4 – 61⁄2 lbs legs. It does not burrow but shelters
(1 – 2.5 kg) (1.8 – 3.2 kg) in surface vegetation, living alone or
Location Europe, Social unit Group Location S. Asia Social unit Individual/Pair as a female–male pair. Reproductive
N.W. Africa, S. South
America Status Near threatened Status Endangered information is scant but the suspected
litter size is small for a lagomorph,
perhaps 2 – 5, with 2 or possibly
The rabbit’s legendary powers of 3 litters produced each year.
Originally from southwest Europe and reproduction include a gestation
perhaps northwest Africa, where it is now period of 28 – 33 days and, in good
rare, this species has been introduced conditions, a litter size of up to 8 Lepus europaeus courting pairs or groups in late winter and
to many other regions and has reached (average 5), with as many as 6 litters spring. At this time, “boxing” may occur
severe pest status in some, devastating
farmland and wildlife. It is the ancestor of
a year. The newborn are helpless
with eyes closed, and for warmth
Brown hare between rival males or unreceptive
females and rejected males. The young
all breeds of domestic rabbits. Nocturnal the mother lines the nursery Length 22 – 27 in (litter size 1 – 10) are
(55 – 68 cm)
and very sociable, this European rabbit chamber with dry grass, moss, and reared in a shallow
Tail 23⁄4 – 5 in
lives in colonies and digs complex fur plucked from her own belly. She (7 – 13 cm) depression (form)
tunnel systems (warrens) with many visits to suckle them Weight 73⁄4 – 11 lb in grass or bushes.
entrances and exits. It eats grass, for only a few (3.5 – 5 kg)
herbs, twigs, and some bark. Senior minutes daily. Location Europe Social unit Individual
long, curly, tawny
females nest in the main warren but Status Least concern or rusty fur
lower-ranking mothers may dig
separate short long, black-
burrows (stops) tipped ears
for their This hare has a conspicuous tail, black
young. on top and white below. The gray ears
mixed black and brown have a black patch near the outer tip.
MAMMALS
hairs in upper fur This species has been introduced
from Europe and West Asia to many
other regions, and adapts to open
BUFF PATCHES
The European rabbit is buff- colored woods, bush, mixed farmland, and
between the shoulders, and has even scrubby semi-desert. Its diet is
a pale buff eye-ring, inner limb grass, herbs, bark, and, rarely, carrion.
surfaces, and underside. Nocturnal and solitary, hares gather in
Lepus californicus Lepus arcticus WINTER COAT

Black-tailed Arctic hare The Arctic hare’s thick winter coat
is almost pure white with black ear
jackrabbit Length 22 – 26 in
(56 – 66 cm)
tips. It provides both warmth and
camouflage in snow and ice. In most
Tail 13⁄4– 4 in
Length 201⁄2 – 24 in
(4.5 – 10 cm) regions the spring molt produces
(52 – 61 cm)
Weight 51⁄2 – 143⁄4 lb the gray-brown summer coat,
Tail 3 – 41⁄16 in
(7.5 – 10.1 cm) (2.5 – 6.8 kg) although in some areas this is also
Location N. Canada, Social unit Variable white. The timing of the molt depends
Weight 31⁄4 – 73 ⁄4 lb Greenland
(1.5 – 3.6 kg) Status Least concern on the number of daylight hours,
Location W., C., and S. Social unit Individual detected by the eyes and
USA to N. Mexico
Status Least concern then controlled via the body’s
hormonal (endocrine) system.
The Arctic hare (sometimes confused
with a similar white-in-winter species,
This lean, long-legged hare’s the snowshoe hare, Lepus americanus) that bleeding occurs. Litter COMPACT BODY
huge ears (up to 6 in/15 cm) is a true tundra species. It can survive size is 1 – 8 with 1 – 3 litters The relatively large, compact
detect the faint sounds of in an open, treeless habitat through per year. The young hares body, with short ears and other
predators, and also rid the the long and bitter cold season. (leverets) stay in their nest extremities, helps to reduce heat
loss in cold conditions. The ears are
body of excess warmth in the Preferred sites are rocky outcrops (form), a hollow near rocks,
darker in front than
hot summers of its generally arid or hillsides with crevices and crannies lined with grass, moss, at the rear.
habitat. It prefers succulent grass for shelter. This hare may be solitary and fur. The mother
and herbs, but can survive on but, especially in winter, and uniquely visits to suckle them
woody twigs during winter among lagomorphs, it shows “flocking” for only 2 minutes
or drought. One of behaviour in which large groups of up every 18 hours.
the speediest to 300 gather, move, run, and change
lagomorphs, direction almost as one. The diet is a large feet spread body
it can run at variety of low-growing grasses, herbs, weight on soft snow
35 mph (56 kph). and shrubs, including lichens, mosses,
The complex and most parts of the arctic dwarf
courtship willow. However, these opportunistic
involves the hares may also eat small animals or
pair jumping, larger carrion. During the aggressive
chasing, spring courtship, the male follows the
and fighting. female and may bite her neck so hard
116 RODENTS
Rodents
large,
tubular
ears
large eyes
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PHYLUM Chordata
Representing over 40 percent of all mammal
Senses elongated
snout
CLASS Mammalia species, rodents form a successful and highly Most rodents enjoy acute
ORDER Rodentia adaptable order. They are found worldwide (except senses of smell and hearing,
which, in combination with
FAMILIES 34 Antarctica) in almost every habitat: lemmings, their long and numerous
SPECIES 2,478 for example, favor the cold climate of the arctic touch-sensitive whiskers,
provide them with a
tundra, while gundis prefer the heat of African heightened awareness of
CLASSIFICATION NOTE
desert regions. Despite the variety of lifestyles and their surroundings. Nocturnal
Some mammalogists prefer to species have larger eyes than long whiskers
divide the order Rodentia into habitats exhibited by members of this order, there
diurnal species, to maximize the
2 suborders: (Sciurognathi and
Hystricognathi). Others advocate
are many common characteristics: most rodents are amount of light received by the HIGHLY TUNED
a division into 5 suborders, small quadrupeds with a long tail, clawed feet, long retina (the greater the amount of Well-developed sense organs are
which are defined by jaw light, the brighter and clearer the present in most rodents and may
musculature: Sciuromorpha whiskers, and teeth (especially the long incisors) image). Rodents communicate by contribute to the adaptability of species,
(squirrel-like rodents),
Castorimorpha (beaverlike and jaws specialized for gnawing. Although smell (odors are secreted from such as this brown rat. The large eyes
rodents), Myomorpha (mouselike scent glands on the body) and by and ears, elongated snout, and long
rodents), Histricomorpha generally terrestrial, some species are arboreal an extensive range of vocalizations. whiskers are typical of many rodents.
(cavylike rodents), and
Anomaluromorpha (springhare). (such as tree squirrels), burrowing (mole-
For greater ease of reference,
the latter division is used here. rats, for instance, live almost wholly
Squirrel-like rodents
see pp.118 – 21
underground), or semiaquatic
Beaverlike rodents
see pp.121 – 2
(such as beavers). Some
Mouselike rodents species, such as the
see pp.123 – 8
Cavylike rodents woodchuck, are solitary, but
see pp.129 – 31
Springhares most are highly social and
see p.132
MAMMALS
form large communities.
Anatomy
While the anatomy of rodents is more uniform
than that of most other orders of mammals, some
characteristics, such as a compact body and a long
tail and whiskers, are shared by many species. The
front foot usually has 5 digits (although the thumb
may be vestigial or absent), the back foot has 3 – 5
digits, and the method of locomotion is generally
plantigrade. Different species use their tail to
perform distinct functions: beavers have a flat, wide
tail that is used for steering when swimming, while
the Eurasian harvest mouse uses its prehensile tail
when climbing in long grass. In some species,
part of the tail skin, or the tail itself, will break off
if caught, enabling the animal to escape. Because
rodent anatomy is more generalized than that of
other mammals, they can adapt easily and are
able to thrive in many different habitats.
temporal zygomatic temporal eye socket

arch
JAW MUSCLES
masseter masseter masseter masseter Rodents have an enlarged
(upper part) (deep part) (upper part) (deep part) chewing muscle (the masseter),
SQUIRREL- LIKE CAVYLIKE which permits both a vertical
temporal and a back and forth motion of
the lower jaw. In squirrel- and beaverlike rodents, the upper part
of the masseter reaches the back of the skull, the deep part extends
to the zygomatic arch, and the temporal muscle is small. This LARGE INCISORS
system allows a strong forward motion when biting. In mouselike The 4 huge incisors (seen here in a marmot) distinguish
rodents, the deep part of the masseter extends onto the upper rodents from most other mammal orders. These teeth are
jaw, the upper part is located forward, and the temporal is large. long, curved, and grow continually. Only the front surface of
masseter masseter This permits a versatile chewing action. In cavylike rodents and these teeth has enamel, however—the back surface consists
(upper part) (deep part) the springhare, the deep part of the masseter extends in front of of softer dentine, which is eroded by constant gnawing to
MOUSELIKE the eye, and the temporal is small. This gives a strong forward bite. ensure that the teeth remain sharp.
RODENTS 117
Feeding OMNIVOROUS DIET

Some rodents are Reproduction
Most rodents have a plant-based diet that may omnivorous: they feed on The high birth rate among rodents enables them
include leaves, fruit, seeds, and roots. However, both plants and animals, to maintain stable population levels in adverse
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many species have alternative diets: water rats depending on availability. conditions. This means that predation and human
and the wood mouse eat snails; rice rats take This spiny mouse eats controls (such as poisoning) have little effect on the
young turtles; muskrats eat clams and crayfish; mainly vegetation but will survival of a species, and in favorable conditions
the southern grasshopper mouse eats ants and also feed on insects. numbers may increase rapidly. A brown rat, for
scorpions; and the black rat scavenges in human example, is able to breed at only 2 months of age
food supplies. To assist digestion, rodents have and may yield litters of more than 10 young every
a large cecum, a blind-ending sac in the large month or so. Voles are also prolific breeders: some
intestine. This contains bacteria that break down species may produce more than 13 litters annually.
cellulose, the main component of plant cell HERBIVOROUS DIET Smaller rodents tend to produce more young than
walls, into digestible carbohydrates. In some Most rodents are larger species (such as the capybara)—as a result,
rodents, after food is processed in the cecum, herbivorous, eating small rodents form the staple diet of a wider range
it is ejected from the anus and is eaten again. only plants. The European of animals. In rodents, the complete cycle of
Once in the stomach, the carbohydrates water vole shown here reproduction, from sexual attraction right through
(amounting to 80 percent of the energy contained feeds on aquatic and land to raising young, is influenced by the emission of
in the food) are absorbed. This highly efficient plants. Food may be stored pungent glandular secretions. Female rats, for
process, known as refection, leaves only a dry for consumption during example, produce a pheromone about 8 days
fecal pellet to be excreted. winter shortages. after giving birth. This scented chemical is secreted
into the mother’s feces and helps prevent the
offspring from becoming separated
from her.
MAMMALS
CAPYBARA FAMILY
Not all rodent species breed as prolifically as mice and rats do.
The capybara, for example, usually produces only one litter a
year unless conditions are particularly favorable. Litter size varies
between one and 8 but is usually 5. Capybara offspring are well
developed at birth and are soon able to follow their mother and
eat solid food.
SOCIAL ANIMALS
Among rodents, many species live in organized communities,
although some are solitary. These black-tailed prairie dogs, like
most ground squirrels, are highly sociable. They live in a system
of burrows called “towns,” each of which may cover an area up
to 2⁄ 5 square mile ( 1 square km). The interconnected burrows
in a town provide a refuge from predators and a safe place
to rear young. Within the town, prairie dogs form subgroups
known as coteries. Members of a coterie act cooperatively;
for example, to defend their territory.
GREAT OPPORTUNISTS
Rodents are highly gregarious animals
and have successfully colonized many
habitats, especially those created by human
settlement, such as garbage dumps and
Rodents and people sewers. These brown rats are scavenging for
food among the garbage.
Some rodents, mainly rats and mice, are considered pests by people because
they are often in direct competition with humankind (they occupy the same
habitats and eat the same food) and are highly adaptable. Rodents consume
over 39 million tons (40 million tonnes) of human food every year, contaminate
stored food with their urine and fecal pellets, and are known to transmit more
than 20 disease-causing organisms. Although some control of rodent populations
is brought about by the use of traps and poisons, many species are sufficiently GNAWING DAMAGE
intelligent to learn to avoid such measures. Only a few of the 2,478 species All rodents use their well-developed incisor
of rodents, however, are genuine pests: many benefit people, for example, teeth to gnaw. A beaver can fell trees, such
by destroying insects and weeds or by maintaining the health of forests by as this birch, by gnawing through the trunk.
spreading fungi. Beavers and chinchillas are farmed for their fur, while rats, mice, Branches and smaller trunks from the tree
and guinea pigs are kept as pets and are used extensively in medical research. are used to build a lodge or to dam a river.
118 RODENTS
Squirrel-like rodents
This group, which is defined by
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PHYLUM Chordata BALANCING ACT

the arrangement of the jaw muscles The Eurasian red squirrel uses its tail
CLASS Mammalia
(see p.116), embraces a variety for balance when running
ORDER Rodentia
of rodents, such as marmots and along branches.
SUBORDER Sciuromorpha
squirrels. Members of the squirrel
FAMILIES 3
family all have long whiskers, a
SPECIES 332
cylindrical body, and a well-haired
tail. Species from other families
vary anatomically from the ground-dwelling
mountain beaver to the mouselike dormouse.
Squirrel-like rodents are distributed worldwide,
in a variety of habitats.
Aplodontia rufa openings lead directly to food such Marmota flaviventer short-muzzled,
as bark, twigs, shoots, and soft plants, broad head
Mountain beaver which it brings back to eat or store.
Also known as the sewellel, it climbs
Yellow-bellied
Length 9 – 17 in
(23 – 43 cm)
well and destroys many small trees. marmot small,
The long fur is black to red-brown furred ears
Tail 3⁄4 – 21⁄4 in
(2 – 5.5 cm) above, yellow-brown beneath, with Length 181⁄2 – 28 in
(47 – 70 cm)
Weight 1 ⁄4 – 3 ⁄4 lb
3 1 a white spot below each ear.
Tail 5 – 9 in
(0.8 – 1.5 kg) (13 – 22 cm) yellow-brown
Location S.W. Canada to Social unit Individual to tawny fur
S.W. USA Weight 31⁄4 – 11 lb
Status Least concern (1.5 – 5 kg)
Location S.W. Canada to Social unit Group
W. USA
MAMMALS
pale-tipped
This rodent digs its tunnels and home hairs
(lodge) under felled trees, and so is
increasing where commercial logging Adaptable in habitat, the yellow-bellied
occurs. It lives alone and its tunnel marmot takes a wide diet of grasses,
flowers, herbs, and seeds. It feeds
mainly in the morning and late
Marmota monax makes up about 20 percent of its body afternoon, then grooms with others
weight. In North America, February 2 is in its colony—usually one male and
Woodchuck Groundhog Day, when the woodchuck
supposedly peers from its winter burrow
several females. Its long hibernation
lasts up to 8 months. The 4 – 5 young
Length 163⁄16 – 263⁄16 in to assess the weather. The woodchuck are weaned after 20 – 30 days.
(41.5 – 66.5 cm)
regularly shows aggressive behavior to
Tail 4 – 6 in
(10 – 15.5 cm) its own kind, especially as males fight for
Weight 73⁄4 – 83⁄4 lb dominance in the spring mating season. Tamias striatus frequents mainly deciduous woods,
(3.4 – 4.1 kg) It also vigorously defends its burrow by especially birch, as well as woody
Location Alaska and
W. Canada to E. Canada
Social unit Variable arching its back, jumping,
flicking its stiffened tail,
Eastern chipmunk areas containing abundant rock
crevices. It can climb but forages
and E. USA Status Least concern
and chattering its bared Length 53⁄4 – 6 in mainly on the ground for seeds and
(14.5 – 15 cm)
teeth. When frightened, nuts, especially during mid-morning
Tail 31⁄4 – 33⁄4 in
it makes a sharp (8.7 – 9.3 cm) and midafternoon, carrying food
Also called the groundhog, this whistling alarm call. Weight 33⁄8 – 35⁄8 oz items in its cheek pouches. The basic
is one of the largest, strongest (93 – 101 g) coloring of the eastern chipmunk is
ground squirrels. It feeds mainly Location S.E Canada to Social unit Individual grayish or reddish brown, becoming
C. and E. USA
in the afternoon, often in a white area Status Least concern paler red on the rump. It lives alone
loose group with others of its around nose in its burrow system and hibernates
kind, on a variety of seeds, during winter, although it may emerge
grasses, clovers, fruit, on mild days to feed. The noisy “chip”
white-tipped,
and small animals such “grizzled” hairs The eastern chipmunk, occasionally and “cuk” calls act as alarm signals
as grasshoppers and snails. on upperparts kept as a pet, is also familiar in the wild, for fellow chipmunks and other small
Despite its size, it is an able as a bold visitor to picnic sites. It animals living nearby.
climber and swims well.
In autumn, it excavates a POWERFUL BUILD
deeper burrow for its long The woodchuck has
winter hibernation. During a stout body, small pale eye and
this period it survives on ears, short legs, and ear borders
stored body fat, which a bushy tail.
pale-bordered
body stripes
SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS 119
Urocitellus columbianus Cynomys ludovicianus crops, and their burrows tripped

horses and farm stock. As a result, COTERIES AND WARD
Columbian ground Black-tailed prairie dogs were subject to
extermination campaigns, which
squirrel prairie dog
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were very successful. In recent times,

the rodents have been restricted mainly
Length 923⁄32 – 10 in Length 141⁄2 in to parks and reserves. Their drastic
(24.7 – 25.8 cm) (37.3 cm)
reduction in numbers has seriously
Tail 31⁄4 – 4 in Tail 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 in
(8.4 – 10 cm) (8.4 – 8.7 cm)
threatened the black-footed ferret
Weight 157⁄8 – 177⁄16 oz Weight 2911⁄16 – 32 oz
(see p.190), for which they were
(441 – 490 g) (819 – 905 g) virtually sole prey.
Location W. Canada to Social unit Group Location S.W. Canada to Social unit Group The basic prairie dog social unit is the
N.W. USA N. Mexico
Status Least concern Status Least concern coterie of one male, several females,
and their young. Several coteries
form a ward, members guarding
their territories and burrows with an
The Columbian ground squirrel Preference for a grassy habitat and energetic “jump-yip” display, bared
(“Columbia” being British Columbia, a barklike, doggy “yip” give 5 species of chattering teeth, and fluffed-up tails.
Canada) comes from mountain ground squirrels their common name of Many ward form a township of up
meadows and hilly grassland. Its diet prairie dogs. The black-tailed or plains to 160 acres (65 hectares).
consists of fruit, prairie dog dwells at altitudes of
seeds, flowers, 4,300 – 6,600 ft (1,300 – 2,000 m) across
COLORATION
bulbs, and on the Great Plains of North America and
The black-tailed prairie dog is
occasions insects south into the more arid, extreme north generally brown or reddish
caught in midair. of Mexico. The body hairs of the brown on the upperparts,
Living in a small black-tailed prairie dog are tipped black shading to white on the
colony, it “kisses” in winter but white in summer, and the underparts. The whiskers
when it meets whiskers and end third of the tail are and tail tip are black.
other Columbian black. This rodent eats a range of
ground squirrels, seasonal plants, such as wheat grass,
tilting its head to buffalo grass, globe mallow, and rabbit
sniff the oral scent brush in summer, and thistles, cacti such small eyes
glands near the as prickly pear, and underground roots
MAMMALS
mouth. and bulbs in winter. Prairie dogs breed
rapidly, with up to 8 young born after a
gestation period of 34 – 35 days. In the
past, their feeding habits led to massive
destruction of wheat and other cereal
Geosciurus inauris Heliosciurus gambianus Ratufa indica FEEDING POSITION

This squirrel shows the typical feeding
South African ground Gambian sun Indian giant posture of this species. Its long tail
provides stability while it eats its food,
squirrel squirrel squirrel which is skillfully manipulated by
dexterous front paws.
Length 8 – 12 in Length 6 – 81⁄2 in Length 131⁄2 – 18 in
(20 – 30 cm) (15.5 – 21 cm) (35 – 45 cm) brown, black,
Tail 71⁄2 – 81⁄2 in Tail 6 – 12 in Tail 15 – 191⁄2 in
or dark red
(19.4 – 21 cm) (15.5 – 30 cm) (38 – 49 cm) upperparts
Weight 15 – 23 oz Weight 9 – 13 oz Weight 2 – 51⁄2 lb
(423 – 649 g) (250 – 350 g) (0.9 – 2.3 kg)
Location Southern Africa Social unit Group Location Africa Social unit Individual/Pair Location C. and S. India Social unit Individual/Pair
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Least concern
The large claws of the South African The huge, bushy tail of the Indian
ground squirrel can burrow in hard, dry, giant squirrel is usually longer than
stony soil. The upper fur is brownish the head and body combined. The
pink with a white flank stripe and belly. upperparts are dark, the head and
The prominent eyes are circled with limbs red-brown, and the underside
broad
white and the muzzle and feet are also whitish. This squirrel, alert and wary, front
white. There are black bands near makes massive leaps of 20 ft (6 m) paws
the base and tip of the tail. Its diet among branches as it forages for
is opportunistic, ranging from seeds, fruit, nuts, bark, insects, and eggs.
bulbs, and roots to insects and birds’ Its characteristic feeding posture is
eggs. This ground not upright but leaning forward or
squirrel lives in Banded hairs in yellows, browns, and down, perched on its back legs with
colonies of 6 – 10, grays give the sun squirrel a speckled the tail as a counterbalance. Its short,
and in some olive-brown appearance. The tail has broad thumbs help it to manipulate
cases up to 30. 14 rings along its length and the eyes food. It builds the typical squirrel-type
are white ringed. In habit, this squirrel nest (drey) for resting and rearing
is a typical ground-and-tree species, young. Reproduction in this species
with a diet ranging from seeds to birds’ is not well known but they are thought
eggs. Its distinctive behaviors include to breed throughout the year. Females
“basking” on sunny branches, as its usually produce 1 – 2 offspring in
name suggests, and relining its nest each litter after a gestation period
each night with freshly plucked leaves. of 28 – 35 days.
120 RODENTS
Callosciurus prevostii thigh. It lives alone or in small family Sciurus carolinensis

groups, communicating by birdlike calls COLOR VARIATION
Prevost’s squirrel and visual displays of the bushy tail. The
diet includes fruit, soft seeds, oily nuts,
Eastern gray squirrel Despite their name, gray squirrels
exhibit variation in fur color: some
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Length 97⁄32 – 91⁄2 in and buds, as well as termites, ants, Length 8 – 123⁄16 in are black; others are reddish. These
(23.7 – 24 cm) (20 – 31.5 cm)
grubs, and birds’ eggs. After 46 – 48 color forms belong to the same
Tail 9 in Tail 6 – 10 in
(23 cm) days’ gestation, the 2 – 3 young are (15 – 26 cm) species and all can freely interbreed;
Weight 13 – 14 oz born in a large nest of twigs and leaves, Weight 11 – 25 oz coat color is passed on to offspring
(353 – 403 g) in a tree hole or (300 – 700 g) following a simple pattern of heredity.
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Variable among branches. Location S. and S.E. Social unit Variable Fur color is determined by the
Canada to S. USA
Status Least concern Status Least concern distribution and types of chemical
pigment in hair—including eumelanin
(black pigment) and pheomelanin
(reddish pigment). Reddish and black
One of the most brightly colored Introduced from North America into squirrels can arise anywhere in a
mammals, this tree-dwelling, parts of Europe, the eastern gray squirrel “wild-type” gray population by
twilight-active squirrel is black on its has a gray back and white or pale random genetic mutation, and the
upperparts and vivid chestnut-red on underparts. The face, back, and forelegs color can spread as they pass their
the underparts, with a broad, gleaming are brown-tinged. This opportunistic genes on when they breed. In North
white band along each side from nose to feeder takes nuts, seeds, flowers, fruit, America, black squirrels are more
buds, and fungi. It may emerge from its common farther north because they
grass- and bark-lined twig nest (drey) in retain heat better in cold climates.
Sciurus vulgaris winter to forage. It also eats food that
BREEDING NEST it stored during the autumn, locating it
Eurasian red squirrel from memory and smell. Breeding
occurs twice a year. The 2 – 4 young
Length 8 – 10 in are helpless at birth, but grow quickly
(20 – 25 cm)
and are fully weaned at 10 weeks.
Tail 6 – 8 in
(15 – 20 cm)
Weight 7 – 17 oz
(200 – 475 g)
Location W. Europe to Social unit Individual
E. Asia
Status Least concern SITTING PRETTY
MAMMALS
The female red squirrel gives birth to When feeding on the ground, gray
1 – 6 blind, naked babies. She nurses squirrels typically sit up in this way
them for 12 weeks in the breeding so that their forepaws are free
The “red” squirrel varies from red to nest, before they are weaned at 8 – 12 to handle food items.
brown, gray, or black on its back, and weeks. The nest may be a larger
may turn gray-brown in winter. The version of the ball-shaped, twig drey
underparts are always pale or white. An in a branch fork, or in a tree hole. It is
excellent climber and leaper, it feeds on lined with soft, fine material, to keep
the ground and in branches on seeds the young warm in her absence.
(especially those of conifers), nuts,
mushrooms and other fungi, shoots,
fruit, soft bark, and a female is nursing young, which she
sap. It lives alone usually does once a year, although
except when some females may produce two litters.
tail is about
the same length
as the head
and body
paler fur
feet are less on underside
BUSHY TAIL, TUFTED EARS hairy during
Although the red squirrel moults the summer thick, bushy tail
twice a year, the tail hair is only months aids balance
replaced once. Its ears are always
tufted, particularly in winter.
Petaurista elegans This squirrel stretches out its limbs pale brown
to extend large patches or buff underparts
Spotted giant flying of thin, loose, furred

skin between front
squirrel and rear legs, in a
parachute-like shape.
Length 113⁄4 – 143⁄4 in A glider rather than a true flier, it can
(29.6 – 37.6 cm)
travel more than 1,300 ft (400 m) at tree hole at
Tail 131⁄2 – 16 in
(34 – 40.5 cm)
a 3-in-1 glide ratio (covering 3 times night to find
Weight 13⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
the distance that it loses in height). It conifer seeds, nuts,
(0.8 – 1.6 kg) changes the glide angle using its front fruit, leaves, shoots, black-tipped
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Pair legs. Glides are generally from high and buds. Fur color tail
Status Least concern in one tree to lower in another, rather varies but is usually
than to the ground, and are often to tawny to reddish brown large gliding
escape danger. Unlike most squirrels, above, with black rings around the large, membrane
this species is nocturnal, leaving its “night-vision” eyes and hairless ears.
BEAVERLIKE RODENTS 121
Muscardinus avellanarius DEEP WINTER SLEEP Glis glis SQUIRREL-LIKE LEAPER

Hazel dormouse Edible dormouse The edible dormouse resembles
a squirrel with its long, bushy tail,
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Length 21⁄2 – 31⁄2 in Length 5 – 71⁄2 in large back legs for leaping in
(6.5 – 9 cm) (13 – 18.5 cm)
branches, and semiupright posture.
Tail 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 in Tail 4 – 61⁄2 in
(5.5 – 8.5 cm) (10 – 17 cm) Rough pads on its hands and feet
Weight 9⁄16 – 11⁄4 oz Weight 27⁄8 – 8 oz also aid climbing. It is highly
(15 – 35 g) (79 – 228 g) arboreal and can
Location Europe Social unit Individual Location C. and S. Europe Social unit Group leap over 23 ft (7 m)
to W. Asia bushy
Status Least concern Status Least concern between branches. tail
Its fine dense fur is
brown or silver-
gray with dark eye
About the size of a house mouse (see Most dormice hibernate deeply in This species inhabits woods and patches and
p.128), the common dormouse is an winter (“dor” meaning “sleeping”). out-buildings, nesting in tree holes white underparts.
excellent climber and jumper. Feeding The hazel dormouse rests for about or crevices in roofs and under floors.
mainly in trees, it changes its diet with 7 months in a nest about 43⁄4 in Native to mainland Europe, it was
the season from flowers, grubs, and (12 cm) in diameter—larger than its introduced to Britain in 1902. It is
birds’ eggs in spring and summer to summer quarters. This nest may usually nocturnal but may also be
seeds, berries, fruit, and nuts in be in a burrow or under moss or active at dawn and dusk (crepuscular).
autumn. Dormice are the only rodents leaves. It stores food both in its As the days become shorter in autumn,
that do not have a cecum (a part of the nest and in its body as fat, to it lays down fat to provide reserves.
large intestine), which may indicate that enable it to survive throughout the The edible dormouse eats leaves,
their diet is low in cellulose. The nest is cold season. seeds, fruit, nuts, bark, mushrooms,
made of grass in a thick bush or tree creatures such as insects, and birds’
hole. Several individuals may live nearby eggs and chicks. Like other dormice,
VARIABLE COLORATION
and share the feeding area. They it forms loose social groups and
The hazel or common dormouse has yellow,
communicate using a wide range red, orange, or brown upperparts and a communicates by squeaks and twitters.
of whistles and growling noises. The white underside. While pregnant, the female is solitary,
female is pregnant for 22 – 24 days giving birth to 1 – 13 young after a
and has a litter of 3 – 6 young, pregnancy of about 25 days. They grow
although the numbers can quickly and hibernate for the first time
MAMMALS
range between 1 – 9, with up aged 8 – 9 weeks.
to 2 litters per year. The
tail is bushy and its skin
can detach if seized
by a predator.
ONCE “EDIBLE”
This dormouse
was kept in
ancient Rome
and fattened
with extra food
in autumn, to
be served at the
dinner table—
hence its name.
Beaverlike rodents Orthogeomys grandis
Giant pocket gopher

Cratogeomys merriami
Merriam’s pocket
PHYLUM Chordata
Despite their superficial differences, Length 9 – 12 in gopher
beavers, pocket gophers, and kangaroo (22 – 30 cm)
CLASS Mammalia
Tail 33⁄4 – 51⁄2 in
rats are classified together on the basis of (9.5 – 14 cm)
ORDER Rodentia (20 – 28.5 cm)
anatomical details, such as skull structure Weight 17 – 35 oz Tail 31⁄4 – 5 in
SUBORDER Castorimorpha (480 – 985 g)
and evidence from DNA. Beavers are large, Location Mexico to
(8 – 12.5 cm)
FAMILIES 3
semiaquatic rodents with webbed back feet Central America
Weight 16 – 25 oz
(450 – 700 g)
SPECIES 109 and a flattened scaly tail and occur across Location E. Mexico Social unit Individual
the Northern Hemisphere. Pocket gophers, Status Least concern
kangaroo rats, and allies have fur-lined cheek pouches (“pockets”)
Like other pocket gophers, the giant
and are confined to the Americas. Pocket gophers
pocket gopher digs a burrow system
are short-legged for burrowing, (lodge) using its strong, large-clawed The pocket gophers have a pocketlike
but kangaroo rats are bipedal forefeet. It feeds on roots, bulbs, pouch of furred skin on each cheek,
with a bounding gait. and other underground plant parts and for carrying food back to the nest.
also comes above ground at night to This species occupies a variety of
forage for stems and shoots, which habitats from sea level up to almost
it carries to its lodge in its fur-lined 13,200 ft (4,000 m). Its front incisor
cheek pouches. Normally solitary, teeth are very long and can cope
DANGER SIGNAL during the breeding season the large with many kinds of plant foods, from
By slapping their pocket gopher forms groups of one spiky cacti and farm crops (gophers
broad, flat tails on the male and 4 females. Two or more sometimes become a pest) to fir tree
surface of the water, young are born to each female in a needles and seeds. The upperparts
beavers warn others of grass-lined nesting chamber at the are yellow, brown, or almost black;
potential danger. lowest level of the lodge. the underside is paler.
122 RODENTS
Thomomys bottae Heteromys catopterius Microdipodops megacephalus The upperparts are gray-brown, the
underparts pure white. The prominent
Botta’s pocket Overlook spiny Dark kangaroo eyes, large ears, long snout, and
bushy whiskers indicate adaptation
gopher pocket mouse mouse
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for a nocturnal lifestyle. Like many

small desert rodents, this species is
Length 31⁄4 – 8 in Length 5 – 51⁄4 in Length 21⁄2 – 3 in a seasonal opportunist. In summer, it
(8 – 20 cm) (13 – 13.5 cm) (6.5 – 7.5 cm)
consumes mainly insects; in winter,
Tail 21⁄4 – 33⁄4 in Tail 61⁄2 in Tail 21⁄2 – 41⁄4 in
(5.5 – 9.5 cm) (16.5 cm) (6.5 – 10.5 cm)
it switches to being a seed-hoarder in
Weight 27⁄8 – 9 oz Weight 23⁄4 – 3 oz Weight 3⁄8 – 5⁄8 oz
its burrow nest, carrying food items
(80 – 250 g) (78 – 86 g) (10 – 17 g) in its external cheek pouches. It also
Location W. USA to Social unit Individual Location N. South America Social unit Group Location S.W. USA Social unit Individual stores food as body fat in its dumpy
N. Mexico
Status Least concern Status Not evaluated Status Least concern tail. Each male dark kangaroo mouse
aggressively defends a territory of
up to 7,900 square yd (6,600 square m)
against others of its species. Female
Botta’s pocket gopher lives mainly Discovered in 2010 in the high, wet The dark kangaroo mouse is named territories tend to be much smaller,
alone. It digs an extensive burrow mountain forests of coastal Venezuela, after its dark-furred, large back legs, only about 480 square yd (400 square
system (lodge) in loose soil, using its the overlook spiny pocket mouse occurs which it uses for hopping and leaping m). Each female produces a litter of
strong forelegs equipped with large from 1,148 to 8,063 ft (350 – 2,450 m). over sand dunes and soft, dry soil. 2 – 7 offspring.
claws. This gopher stays underground It belongs to a group of spiny mice
most of its life, consuming roots, so-called because of their coarse,
tubers, bulbs, and other subsurface spiny fur. This species has darker fur Castor canadensis
plant parts. It is grayish brown above than more widespread relatives of the LAKESIDE LODGE
and browny orange below, and has
adaptations typical of burrowers, such
lowlands, and is adapted to cool, high
altitudes. Scientists speculate that
American beaver
as a flat head, long whiskers, small it may have had a more extensive Length 32 – 35 in
(80 – 90 cm)
eyes, and small ears closed by flaps. distribution during the last Ice Age.
Tail 8 – 12 in
Although it lives in a remote location, (20 – 30 cm)
it is possible that its survival will be Weight 33 – 44 lb
threatened by global warming. Its (15 – 20 kg)
habits are probably similar to other Location North America Social unit Group
Heteromys spiny mice, emerging Status Least concern
MAMMALS
from burrows at night to take seeds

and other plant material—gathered
in cheek pouches for storage in
underground caches. The American beaver is well adapted Beavers rest by day in their
to aquatic life. Its feet are webbed for lodge—a pile of mud and sticks
swimming and the flat, scaly tail slaps built in a pool or lake. The lodge’s
Dipodomys merriami Castor fiber the surface as a loud alarm signal. underwater entrances keep out
Underwater, the ears and nose shut land-based predators. The beaver
Merriam’s Eurasian beaver with valvelike flaps and the lips close
behind the incisor teeth, which can then
digs channels and builds dams of
mud, stones, and branches to
kangaroo rat Length 32 – 35 in
(80 – 90 cm)
be used for nibbling and gnawing. The maintain a system of waterways.
eyes have a third, transparent eyelid These activities are believed by
Tail 8 – 12 in
Length 3 – 4 in
(20 – 30 cm) (known as the nictitating membrane) to some to harm crops and trees, and
(7.5 – 10 cm)
Weight 33 – 44 lb see below the surface. Long whiskers affect local wildlife. An alternate
Tail 43⁄4 – 7 in
(12 – 18.2 cm) (15 – 20 kg) feel the way in the dark. The American view is that beavers reduce local
Location Europe to C. Asia Social unit Group beaver feeds on the leaves, twigs, and floods, and help return the habitat
(32 – 53 g) Status Least concern bark of bankside trees and water to its natural state.
Location S.W. USA to Social unit Group plants. It also gnaws and fells small
N. Mexico
Status Least concern trees to eat the tender shoots and
leaves. It uses the fallen branches and TWO COATS
Similar to the American beaver (see small trunks for building its lodge (see The American beaver’s long guard coat (outer fur)
right) in appearance, habits, and panel) and for dam construction, varies from yellowish brown to black, although
lifestyle, the Eurasian beaver is usually dragging them to the dam site in their it is usually reddish brown. The dense underfur
is dark gray and retains
heavier. As in its close cousin, glands strong jaws. Following a gestation
body heat even in
at the base of the tail produce an oily, period of 107 days, the 1 – 6 kits freezing water.
waterproofing secretion that is spread (young beavers) are born fully furred
through the fur when grooming. and are weaned within 2 months.
In areas with many natural On an average, 2 – 4 kits are born.
water ways, the Eurasian beaver
does not build a sticks-and-
mud lodge but digs tunnels in the bank, flat, scaly
Relatively large back legs and feet, with underwater entrances. It eats bark, tail
for kangaroo-like hopping, and a very leaves, and plants, and can stay
long, slender, tufted tail, for balance, submerged for 20 minutes.
allow Merriam’s kangaroo rat to move
at high speed over sandy soil in its
desert habitat. The silky fur is gray
above and white on the underparts,
with narrow dark gray and white stripes
along the flanks. This kangaroo rat
regularly has energetic dust-baths
to keep its fur and skin clean. It
digs, burrows, or searches for food,
especially cockle- and sand-burr seeds
in winter, and cactus seeds in summer.
MOUSELIKE RODENTS 123
Mouselike rodents PROLIFIC BREEDERS

This suborder—which is distinguished from
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PHYLUM Chordata Mouselike rodents, such

the other 4 rodent suborders by the way the as this harvest mouse,
CLASS Mammalia
jaw muscles are arranged (see p.116)— usually have large litters.
ORDER Rodentia
constitutes over a quarter of all mammal
SUBORDER Myomorpha
species. Within the group are rats and mice
FAMILIES 7
(including voles, lemmings, hamsters, and
SPECIES 1,737
gerbils), and jerboas. Mouselike rodents
often have a pointed face and long whiskers,
and are usually small, nocturnal seed-eaters. They are found
worldwide (except Antarctica), in almost all terrestrial habitats.
Some species, such as the naked mole-rat, live underground;
others, such as the water vole, occupy aquatic habitats. Species
that live in open areas may have longer legs and feet (for quick
escapes), and larger ears to detect danger from a distance.
Oxymycterus nasutus Rhizomys sinensis Tachyoryctes macrocephalus
Long-nosed hocicudo Chinese bamboo rat Ethiopian African

Length 33⁄4 – 61⁄2 in
(9.5 – 17 cm)
Length 9 – 16 in
(22 – 40 cm)
mole rat
Tail 23⁄4 – 53⁄4 in Tail 2 – 33⁄4 in Length 12 in
(7 – 14.5 cm) (5 – 9.5 cm) (31 cm)
Weight 3 ⁄4 oz
1
Weight 2 ⁄4 – 6 ⁄2 lb
1 1
Tail 31⁄2 – 4 in
(90 g) (1 – 3 kg) (9 – 10 cm)
Location E. South America Social unit Individual Location E. Asia Social unit Individual Weight 13 – 36 oz
Status Least concern Status Least concern (350 – 1,000 g)
Location E. Africa
MAMMALS
Status Endangered
This large mouse rarely comes out This beaverlike rat has thick blunt and rounded head, robust body,
into the open. It forages by day under gray-brown fur, a squat snout, and short limbs, small eyes and ears, and
leaves, logs, and stones for creatures short, scaly tail. It lives in bamboo This giant African mole rat lives like thick fur. This mole rat gnaws roots
such as grubs and worms, sniffing thickets, digging tunnels and nest a mole, spending a great deal of and other plant parts with its large,
with its long, flexible, shrewlike chambers between the roots. An time in its burrow. This may exceed projecting, orange-yellow incisors,
snout and scrabbling up prey with excellent climber, it feeds on bamboo 165 ft (50 m) in length and houses one and digs its extensive tunnel system
its large-clawed forefeet. Its back is as well as seeds and fruit. rat. Burrowing adaptations include a in the same way.
black, tinged with red or yellow, and
is darker along the midline; its flanks
are yellow-brown; the underside is Reithrodontomys raviventris Peromyscus leucopus den in a sheltered place under tree
yellow-orange mixed with gray; and roots, below a log or stone, or in a
the short, scaly tail is sparsely haired.
It rarely excavates its own tunnels or
Saltmarsh harvest White-footed mouse thicket; or they may dig a den in soil,
or take over an abandoned burrow.
pathways, using those of other rodents. mouse Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄4 in
(9 – 10.5 cm)
The nest is made from soft, dry plant
matter, including shredded stems. The
Tail 21⁄2 – 4 in
Length 23⁄4 –3 in
(6 – 10 cm) pair forage principally at night for fruit,
(7 – 7.5 cm)
Baiomys taylori Weight 1⁄2 – 11⁄16 oz berries, seeds, and insects, staying
Tail 13⁄4 – 41⁄2 in
(4.5 – 11.5 cm) (14 – 30 g) mainly on the ground even though
Northern pygmy Weight 1⁄4 –2⁄3oz
(6 – 20 g)
Location S.E. Canada to
Mexico
Social unit Paired
they climb well. Food is stored in the
den near the nest, covered with soil.
mouse Location W. USA
(San Francisco Bay area)
Social unit Individual In cold weather, the white-footed
Status Endangered mouse may hibernate for a few hours
Length 2 – 21⁄2 in each day. The female is pregnant
(5 – 6.5 cm)
A widespread and common species, for 22 – 23 days, and the
Tail 11⁄2 – 13⁄4 in
(3.5 – 4.5 cm)
this mouse resembles others in the average litter size is 4 – 5.
Weight 1⁄4 – 11⁄32 oz
Similar to the house mouse (see p.128), deer mouse group, with its white
(7 – 9 g) the saltmarsh harvest mouse has large feet and underparts, and
Location S. USA to Social unit Individual ears and a long tail. It builds a summer brown fur on the
C. Mexico
Status Least concern nest of grass above ground in a bush back. White-footed
or undergrowth, and feeds on seeds, mice usually live
shoots, and insects. In winter, it moves in pairs, which white underfur
into a burrow that has been dug, but occupy a small and feet
The female of this species, North then deserted, by another rodent.
America’s smallest rodent, can
become pregnant at the youngest
age of any New World mouse—just
4 weeks. The fur is mid-brown on the
back and gray underneath. This mouse
occupies a territory up to 100 ft (30 m)
across and feeds at twilight on plants
and seeds. Its nest is in a burrow
under logs or plants.
124 RODENTS
Calomys laucha Sigmodon hispidus on many foods, including plants Kunsia tomentosus
(sometimes ruining crops such as
Little lauca Hispid cotton rat sweet potato and sugar cane), insects,
and grubs. Being a good swimmer, it
Giant South American
water rat
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Length 23⁄4 in Length 5 – 8 in also takes freshwater crabs, crayfish,

(7 cm) (13 – 20 cm)
and frogs, and climbs reeds to eat
Tail 21⁄4 in Tail 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 in
(5.5 cm) (8 – 16.5 cm) birds’ eggs and chicks. It is active Length 111⁄2 in
(29 cm)
Weight ⁄16 oz
7
5 day and night, usually living alone in
Tail 6 in (15 cm)
(13 g) (100 – 225 g) a grassy nest in a sheltered depression
Location C. and E. South Location S. USA Weight Not recorded
Social unit Variable Social unit Individual in the ground or in a burrow up to 30 in
America Social unit Individual
Status Least concern Status Least concern (75 cm) deep. The hispid cotton rat
Location C. South Status Least concern
digs a shallow burrow as it feeds,
America
and establishes well-worn foraging
runways. Its stiff fur is brown to
The little lauca resembles the house This is one of 14 cotton rat species brownish gray on the back, gray-white
mouse (see p.128) not only in in the Americas. Some are extremely underneath. The female becomes
appearance but also in living near rare, others locally numerous, even sexually mature at 6 – 8 weeks, and, A little-known species, this large,
human dwellings and in its occasional increasing to pest status when food after 27 days’ gestation, she gives small-eared, short-tailed rat spends
population surges, when it may is plentiful. The hispid cotton rat feeds birth to up to 10 young. much time burrowing, using its strong
become a pest. It is gray-white feet equipped with long, curved claws.
above and pale to dark brown on the Its upper fur is dark brown with stiff
underside, with a white patch behind hairs, and the underneath hairs are
each medium-sized ear, and a long, gray with white tips. As the giant South
sparsely furred tail. It builds a grassy American water rat tunnels, it consumes
nest in any crevice, such as under roots, tubers, and other underground
a log, rock, floorboards, or even— plant parts. During the flood season,
being a skillful climber—in a tree fork. however, water fills its tunnels, so this
The main diet is plants of all kinds, rat stays mainly above ground, where
supplemented by a few insects its diet changes to mostly grasses
such as beetles and caterpillars. and shoots.
Phodopus roborovskii Cricetus cricetus

MAMMALS
Roborovski’s desert Common hamster

hamster Length 8 – 131⁄2 in
(20 – 34 cm)
Length 21⁄4 – 4 in Tail 11⁄2 – 21⁄4 in
(5.5 – 10 cm) (4 – 6 cm)
Mesocricetus auratus each cheek to the upper neck. Weight 35⁄8 – 32 oz
Tail 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 in
(7 – 11 cm)
The fur pales to gray-white on the (100 – 900 g)
Weight 7⁄8 – 13⁄4 oz
(25 – 50 g)
Golden hamster underside. Grooming is important to
keep the coat in good condition, and
Location Europe to C. Asia Social unit Individual
Location E. Asia Social unit Individual Length 5 – 51⁄4 in both front teeth and claws are used for
(13 – 13.5 cm)
Status Least concern this purpose. This hamster excavates
Tail 1⁄2 in
(1.5 cm) a burrow down to 61⁄ 2 ft (2 m), which it
Weight 35 ⁄ 8 – 4 oz rarely leaves except to feed on a diet The largest hamster, this species
(100 – 125 g) of seeds, nuts, and small creatures has distinctively thick fur, which is
Also called the dwarf hamster, this Location W. Asia Social unit Individual such as ants, flies, cockroaches, bugs, red-brown on the back and mainly black
small, short-tailed, prominent-eared Status Vulnerable and even wasps. It is aggressive toward on the underside, with white patches on
rodent is pale brown on its upperparts other hamsters. the nose, cheeks, throat, flanks, and
with pure white underparts. Its rear feet paws—darker underside coloration
are short and broad, with dense fur on compared to the upperparts is very
SOLITARY GROOMING
the underside for jumping across hot, The golden hamster, familiar around the unusual among mammals. In autumn,
loose desert sand. Like other hamsters, world as a pet, is restricted in the wild the common hamster hoards seeds,
the Roborovski’s desert hamster crams to a small area of western Asia. Its roots, and other plant matter, carrying
seeds into its internal cheek pouches golden coat may show a darker patch items in its large, external cheek
and takes them back to its burrow on the forehead and a black stripe from pouches back to its burrow. It then
for storage. It also eats insects such hibernates until spring, waking every
as beetles, locusts, and earwigs. The rich golden 5 – 7 days to feed. In summer, it also
orange fur
nesting burrow is dug in firm sand and eats grubs, worms, and other creatures.
is lined with hair shed by camels After 18 – 20 days’ gestation, the female
and sheep. produces a litter of up to 12, which
are weaned by 3 weeks and fully
grown by 8 weeks.
Like many other hamsters, the
golden hamster lives alone,
so it has to rid its own coat
of dirt, old fur, tangles, and
pests such as fleas, rather
than relying on mutual
grooming like many
social rodents.
ROBUST RODENT
The golden hamster has a blunt
cheek pouches muzzle, broad face, small eyes,
filled with food prominent ears, and tiny tail.
Microtus arvalis Ondatra zibethicus EXPERT SWIMMER

Common vole Muskrat The largest species of burrowing
vole, the muskrat is well adapted to
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Length 31⁄2 – 43⁄4 in Length 10 – 14 in swimming with large back feet that
(9 – 12 cm) (25 – 35 cm)
have small webs between the toes
Tail 11⁄4 – 13⁄4 in Tail 8 – 10 in
(3 – 4.5 cm) (20 – 25 cm) and a row of stiff hairs along one
Weight 11⁄16 – 15⁄8 oz Weight 11⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb edge, forming a “swimming fringe.”
(20 – 45 g) (0.6 – 2 kg) Its long, furless tail is flattened from
Location W. Europe to Social unit Group Location North America Social unit Group side to side, which enables it to be
W. and C. Asia
Status Least concern Status Least concern used as a rudder. The nostrils and
small ears are closed by flaps during
dives, which may last 20 minutes.
It can swim up to 330 ft (100 m)
The muskrat usually lives in a group underwater without surfacing.
of up to 10, digging tunnels in the bank
or building a beaverlike home (lodge)
from mud, plant stems, and twigs. It fine underfur
eats reeds and other water plants, and with long, coarse
guard hairs
occasionally hunts for crayfish, frogs,
fish, and mollusks. The female builds
a nest in a dry tunnel chamber MUSKY SMELL
or lodge platform, where The muskrat is named after the
the litter of 1 – 3 young are musky-smelling secretions from
born. Musk secretions glands around its genital and anal
are used, with droppings region. The glands are especially
This medium-sized vole is one of and urine, to mark prominent in males and enlarge
the most numerous rodents in grassy out territories. at breeding time.
and farmland habitats. It has short
fur, gray-brown or sandy on the back
changing to gray underneath, a blunt
snout, small eyes and ears, stocky
body, and short, furred tail. It digs
MAMMALS
burrows to make nest chambers and
food stores, and eats chiefly green
plant parts such as grass blades. In
winter, it may take refuge in a barn
or haystack, and gnaw soft bark.
Myodes glareolus Arvicola amphibius Lemmus sibiricus Lagurus lagurus
Bank vole Eurasian water vole Brown lemming Steppe vole

Length 23⁄4 – 51⁄4 in Length 43⁄4 – 9 in Length 43⁄4 – 6 in Length 31⁄4 – 43⁄4 in
(7 – 13.5 cm) (12 – 23 cm) (12 –15 cm) (8 – 12 cm)
Tail 11⁄2 – 21⁄2 in Tail 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 in Tail 3⁄8 – 1⁄2 in (1 – 1.5 cm) Tail 7 ⁄3 – 3 ⁄4 in
(3.5 – 6.5 cm) (7–11 cm) Weight 15⁄8 – 51⁄2 oz (0.7 – 2 cm)
Weight 7⁄16 – 11⁄4 oz Weight 21⁄8 –11 oz (45 – 150 g) Weight 7⁄8 – 11⁄4 oz
(12 – 35 g) (60 – 300 g) Social unit Group (25 – 35 g)
Location W. Europe to Social unit Group Location W. Europe to Social unit Individual/Pair Location N. Asia Location E. Europe to Social unit Variable
N. Asia W. and N. Asia Status Least concern E. Asia
Typically blunt-headed, the bank The brown lemming lives in large Long, waterproof fur, even covering
vole’s upperparts vary from yellowish colonies, breeds prolifically, and feet and ears, keeps the steppe vole
to reddish or brown, with gray flanks, makes small-scale seasonal migrations warm in the cold north Asian steppes.
gray-white rump, white feet, and a between high, shrubby grassland and It has a black stripe along the middle
slightly bushy-tipped tail. The species moors, and sheltered lowlands for of its pale gray or cinnamon back, and
also varies greatly in size, being twice winter. Its migrations are much less pale underparts. Burrows up to 12 in
as long and 3 times as heavy in some spectacular than those of the Norway (30 cm) deep give temporary shelter,
regions compared to others. The lemming (Lemmus lemmus), which is while more permanent ones—3 times
bank vole is very adaptable, nesting sometimes driven by instinct to try to as deep—house grass-lined nests.
in burrows, thickets, and tree stumps, swim rivers or scramble down cliffs. The There are 5 litters per year of up
and eating a huge range of foods, brown lemming eats mosses, sedges, to 12 young.
from fungi and mosses to seeds, herbs, and soft twigs, and sometimes
buds, insects, and birds’ eggs. Water voles that mainly burrow birds’ eggs. The female builds a nest
in meadows and woods are almost from grass and her own fur and, after a
half the size of those that live near gestation period of 18 days, produces
rivers, lakes, and marshes. Both types up to 12 young.
eat plant foods and have thick fur,
which is gray, brown, or black on
the upperparts and dark gray to white blunt snout
below. The rounded tail is half the
body length. This vole is threatened
by pollution, loss of habitat, and
an introduced small, well-
furred ears
predator, mink.
126 RODENTS
Nyctomys sumichrasti Parotomys brantsii Pachyuromys duprasi Meriones unguiculatus
Sumichrast’s Brants’s whistling rat Fat-tailed jird Mongolian jird

vesper rat
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Length 5 – 61⁄2 in Length 33⁄4 – 5 in Length 4 – 5 in

(2.5 – 16.5 cm) (9.5 – 13 cm) (10 – 13 cm)
Length 41⁄4 – 5 in Tail 3 – 41⁄4 in Tail 21⁄4 – 61⁄2 in Tail 33 ⁄ 4 – 41⁄4 in
(11 – 13 cm) (7.5 – 10.5 cm) (5.5 – 16.5 cm) (9.5 – 11 cm)
Tail 31⁄4 – 6 in Weight 3 – 4 oz Weight 11⁄16 – 13⁄ 4 oz Weight 2 – 21⁄8 oz
(8.5 – 15.5 cm) (85 – 125 g) (20 – 50 g) (50 – 60 g)
Location Southern Africa Social unit Group Location N. Africa Social unit Variable Location C. Asia Social unit Group
Weight Not recorded
Social unit Group Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Least concern
Location S. Mexico to
S. Central America Status Least concern
Also known as the karoo rat from its A Sahara dweller, the fat-tailed jird long hind
arid, rocky, saltbrush habitat, this wary, has long, soft fur, a pointed snout, and legs for
leaping
One of the more arboreal and brightly diurnal species feeds on grass and long rear feet. Coloration is chestnut-
colored rats, this species has tawny other low-growing vegetation. It never cinnamon on the back and sides,
or pinkish brown upperparts with darker wanders far from its extensive tunnel with black tips to the hairs,
hairs along the centre of the back. It system, which can be accessed via shading to white underneath.
has pale flanks, white underparts, a numerous entrances. If danger threatens, The club-shaped tail contains a
dark ring around the eye, and a brown, it whistles loudly to warn other members store of body fat for nourishment and
scaly, hairy tail. The ears are short and of the colony. In favorable conditions, it water. This jird emerges from its burrow
finely furred. On each foot the first toe can breed up to 4 times a year, females at dusk to search for insects such as
is almost thumblike, developed for producing up to 4 young in each litter. crickets. It also eats leaves, seeds,
gripping twigs. Sumichrast’s vesper Offspring mature quickly and are capable and other plant matter.
rat lives in a colony, builds squirrel-like of breeding themselves when about Familiar as a pet, this is one of some
nests of twigs, leaves, and creepers, 3 months old. Brants’s whistling rat 17 jird species of the Meriones genus
and rarely descends to the ground. It has a reddish orange nose and small that is native to Central Asia. It burrows
is active mainly at night, eating a variety yellow ears. The fur is patchy yellow and in dry steppes and is active by day
of plants, including figs and avocados. brown-black, with gray-white underparts. and night, summer and winter. It eats
mainly seeds, storing excess in its
elaborate burrow, which it may share
MAMMALS
Hypogeomys antimena Cricetomys gambianus with its mate and up to 12 young.

Family members groom each other
Votsovotsa Northern giant but are quick to attack a stranger.
Mainly brown haired with black tips,
Length 12 – 14 in
(30 – 35 cm)
pouched rat the underparts are gray or white.
Tail 81⁄2 – 10 in Length 14 – 16 in
(21 – 25 cm) (35 – 40 cm)
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb Tail 141⁄2 – 18 in Jaculus jaculus Allactaga tetradactyla
(1 – 1.5 kg) (37 – 45 cm)
Location W. Madagascar Social unit Group
Status Endangered
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(1 – 1.5 kg)
Lesser Egyptian Four-toed jerboa
Location W., C., E., and
southern Africa
Social unit Variable jerboa Length 4 – 43⁄4 in
(10 – 12 cm)
Length 4 – 43⁄4 in Tail 6 – 7 in (15.5 – 18 cm)
(10 – 12 cm) Weight 13⁄4 – 2 oz
Known locally as the votsotsa, this rat (50 – 55 g)
Tail 61⁄2 – 8 in
has tall, rabbitlike ears and large rear (16 – 20 cm) Social unit Individual
feet. Similar to a rabbit in behavior, Location N. Africa
Weight 15⁄8 – 25⁄8 oz Status Vulnerable
too, it hops rather than runs and lives (45 – 75 g)
in a family group of male, female, and Location N. Africa to Social unit Individual
W. Asia
offspring of the past 2 – 3 years. The Status Least concern
votsovotsa digs a burrow system with
up to 6 entrances in the sandy soil of
coastal forests. It eats fruit, shoots, and
soft bark, holding them in the forefeet. Well adapted for desert sand, this
This species is threatened by habitat jerboa has very long hind legs, each
loss and competition from introduced with 3 toes on a pad of hairs. It hops
roof rats. at high speed, balancing with its very
long tail, which has a black band
rabbitlike This rat is solitary, active mainly at night, near the fluffy white tip. The fur is
ears and climbs and swims well. It eats a brown-orange on the back, gray-orange
great variety of moist or fleshy along the sides, and white below with
foods, from termites to a whitish hip band. The lesser Egyptian
avocados, and also peanuts and jerboa feeds at night on seeds, roots,
corn. Its huge cheek pouches and leaves. By day, it plugs the Each back foot of this jerboa has
carry items back to its burrow, entrances to its burrow to keep out an extra, fourth toe, which is small
which has extensive the heat, predators, and other animals. compared to the 3 functional toes.
chambers for food, In other respects it is a typical jerboa,
resting, breeding, and with its huge, hopping back feet and
defecation. Its bristly tall, rabbitlike ears. The upperparts
hair is buff-brown on the are speckled black and orange,
back, fading to white on the rump orange, the sides gray, and the
the throat and underside, with underparts white. The long, balancing
a dark brown eye-ring. This tail has a black band near the white,
well-developed large, big-eared, docile rat is kept both feathery tip. Emerging at night, the jerboa
digging claws as a pet and for meat. eats grass, leaves, and soft seeds.
COLORATION
Apodemus flavicollis Apodemus sylvaticus Micromys minutus The harvest mouse has
Field mouse Long-tailed field mouse Harvest mouse yellowish or reddish brown
upperparts and a mainly white
underside. The face is rounded
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Length 31⁄4 – 5 in Length 3 – 41⁄4 in Length 2 – 3 in

(8.5 – 13 cm) (8 – 11 cm) (5 – 8 cm) but the snout is pointed.
Tail 31⁄2 – 51⁄4 in Tail 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 in Tail 13⁄4 – 3 in
(9 – 13.5 cm) (7 – 11 cm) (4.5 – 7.5 cm)
small ears
Weight 5⁄8 – 13⁄4 oz Weight 9⁄16 – 11⁄16 oz Weight 3⁄16 – 1⁄4 oz
(18 – 50 g) (15 – 30 g) (5 – 7 g)
Location W. Europe to Social unit Individual Location Europe, N. Africa Social unit Individual Location W. Europe to Social unit Individual
W. and C. Asia E. Asia
Sometimes mistaken for a small field This tiny mouse is the only Old World
mouse (see left), the long-tailed field rodent with a prehensile tail. It feeds
mouse may have not only a yellow throat on seeds, including the heads of
but also an orange-brown chest patch. wheat and other farmed cereals,
Its upperparts are gray-brown; the berries, and small animals such as
long,
underparts, gray-white. Fast and agile, insects and spiders. In the breeding grasping
the long-tailed field mouse consumes season, the female gives birth to about tail
many foods, including mushrooms, 1 – 8 young, occasionally 12 or more,
The yellow throat of this large, berries, fruit, worms, and insects. after a pregnancy lasting 21 days.
long-tailed mouse contrasts with It nests in a burrow or tree-hole, marks However, if food becomes scarce, she
broad,
the brown back and yellowish white its territory with urine, and fights may eat them—a self-survival strategy gripping
underparts. The large, prominent intruders violently. that occurs in various rodents. feet
eyes and big ears indicate twilight
and nocturnal habits, and the long
rear feet allow prodigious jumps. The BALL-LIKE NEST
field mouse climbs trees to 66 ft (20 m), The harvest mouse constructs a
searching for seeds, berries, and small spherical nest of finely shredded
creatures such as caterpillars, spiders, grass blades and stems, perhaps
and millipedes. It nests in any suitable using an old bird’s nest as a base, in
MAMMALS
hole, among roots, or high in a tree a thicket or grassy clump. It is about
trunk, and aggressively chases away 3 – 43⁄4 in (8 – 12 cm) across, and is
other mice, including similar long-tailed located some 20 – 51 in (50 – 130 cm)
field mice (see right). above ground level. The female’s
breeding nest is more substantial
than the regular nest.
Lemniscomys striatus stripes along the buff or reddish
orange back; underparts are brown-
Striped grass tinged white. It lives mainly on the
ground with runways leading to This rat, also known as Rothschild’s
Mallomys rothschildi
mouse feeding areas of grass stems, leaves, woolly rat because of its long, thick
Length 4 – 5 1⁄2 in
farm crops, and the occasional insect.
This nervous, jumpy mouse lives
Smooth-tailed fur, has an almost black back, reddish
brown upper parts, and pale underside,
(10 – 14 cm)
Tail 4 – 6 in
alone and may feign death—“play giant rat perhaps with a white band running
(10 – 15.5 cm)
dead”—or shed the skin from its from the belly up each side. Its scaly
Weight 11⁄16 – 21⁄2 oz
tail when caught by a predator. Length 131⁄2 – 15 in tail is brown at the base but turns
(34 – 38 cm)
(20 – 70 g) white about halfway along its length.
Location W. and E. Africa Tail 14 – 161⁄2 in
Social unit Individual (36 – 42 cm)
The smooth-tailed giant rat scampers
Status Least concern dark central
Weight 2 – 31⁄4 lb
through the trees in search of shoots,
stripe down (0.95 – 1.5 kg) leaves, and other plants, gripping
the back Location New Guinea Social unit Individual with its sharp-clawed feet. It usually
Status Least concern lives in a hollow tree but sometimes
The striped grass mouse is inhabits holes in the ground. Females
paler in the west of its range are thought to produce only one
compared to the east, with light offspring per litter.
Rattus rattus It prefers plant brown also occur, with gray to white any material. The fleas carried by roof
matter, such as on the belly, and whitish or pink feet. rats spread diseases among humans,
Roof rat seeds and fruit, but it can survive on
insects, dead animals, feces, and
The female produces 4 – 10 young after
a gestation period of 20 – 24 days. This
including bubonic plague, which has
killed hundreds of millions of people
Length 61⁄2 – 91⁄2 in refuse. Roof rats gather in “packs” rat can run, climb, and swim very well, through the centuries.
(16 – 24 cm)
of 20 – 60 and may intimidate larger and makes a nest of twigs and grass,
Tail 7 – 10 in
(18 – 26 cm) animals such as dogs. The basic but often nests in a roof
Weight 5 – 9 oz coloration is black, but shades of cavity and uses almost
(150 – 250 g)
Location Worldwide Social unit Variable long, hairless tail
(except polar regions) for balance
Also called the ship rat, black rat, or

house rat, in early Roman times the
roof rat spread around the world
from Asia in ships or crates of cargo.
128 RODENTS
tail held out SWIMMING RAT

Rattus norvegicus for balance The brown rat is an exceptional swimmer. It
Leporillus conditor
Brown rat catches small fish and crayfish, and crunches

up water snails and aquatic insects. Greater stick-
nest rat
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Length 8 – 11 in
(20 – 28 cm)
Tail 7 – 9 in Length 7 – 10 in
(17 – 23 cm) (17 – 26 cm)
Weight 10 – 21 oz Tail 53⁄4 – 91⁄2 in
(275 – 575 g) (14.5 – 24 cm)
Location Worldwide Social unit Group
(except polar regions) Weight 51⁄2 – 16 oz
Status Least concern (150 – 450 g)
Location W. and S. Social unit Group
Australia
Status Vulnerable
A hugely varied, opportunistic diet,

sharp senses, and great agility have
enabled the brown rat, also called Occurring naturally on Franklin
the Norway or common rat, to spread Island, W. Australia, and introduced
all around the world. “Packs” of elsewhere, the greater stick-nest
up to 200, dominated by large rat is almost rabbit sized, with long
males, will attack rabbits, ears, a rounded nose, and slim, hairy
large birds, and even fish. After tail. It is gray-brown above and white
a gestation of 22 – 24 days, the below, and builds a strong surface nest
female gives birth to 6 – 9 young of sticks and twigs up to 5 ft (1.5 m)
in a nest of grass, leaves, paper, high. Large nests may contain many
rags, or almost any other material. individuals. Active at night, this species
This species is the ancestor of rats feeds on succulent plants and drinks
bred as pets and for scientific research. little if any water.
COLORATION
The brown rat varies from brown to gray-brown
or black on its back. It is paler on the underside,
and has a long, sparsely haired tail.
MAMMALS
Mus musculus The second most widely distributed Notomys alexis Acomys minous
mammal, after humans, this mouse
House mouse survives on a huge range of foods and
lives in a family group of dominant male
Spinifex hopping Crete spiny mouse
Length 2 ⁄4 – 4 ⁄4 in
3
(7 – 10.5 cm)
1
and several females. They communicate mouse Length 31⁄2 – 43⁄4 in
(9 – 12 cm)
by high-pitched squeaks and mark their
Tail 2 – 4 in Tail 31⁄2 – 43⁄4 in
(5 – 10 cm) territory with scent and urine. Maturity Length 31⁄2 – 7 in
(9 – 12 cm)
(9 – 17 cm)
Weight 3⁄8 – 1 oz is at 8 – 10 weeks, gestation 18 – 24 Weight 3⁄8 – 31⁄4 oz
Tail 5 – 9 in
(10 – 35 g) days, and litter size 3 – 8, with 10 litters (12.5 – 23 cm) (11 – 90 g)
Location Worldwide Social unit Group in favorable years. The species has Location Europe (Crete) Social unit Variable
(except polar regions) Weight 11⁄16 – 13⁄4 oz
Status Least concern been widely bred for pets and (20 – 50 g) Status Data deficient
scientific research. Location W. and C. Social unit Group
Australia
upperparts vary
from gray-black
to red-brown Also called the dargawarra, this large
mouse is named after the bushy, spiky
desert grass called spinifex, where it
mostly hairless tail often lives. It obtains all its moisture
from leaves, seeds, berries, and other
plant foods, never needs to drink,
and produces some of the most
concentrated urine of any rodent.
Very sociable, this mouse lives
Hydromys chrysogaster to golden-yellow, cream, or even white, in mixed-sex groups of up to
and the tail is thick and white-tipped. 10, shares nests, and breeds
Common water rat This water rat is active at dusk and
dawn as a powerful predator of
soon after any rainfall.
Length 111⁄2 – 151⁄2 in shellfish, water snails, fish, frogs,

(29 – 39 cm)
turtles, birds, mice, and even bats.
Tail 9 – 13 in
(23 – 33 cm) Coarse, stiff hairs on the back and tail
1 give this mouse its common name. Its fur
(0.65 – 1.25 kg) varies from yellow to red, gray, or brown
Location New Guinea, Social unit Individual above, and white below. A nocturnal
Australia (including
Tasmania) Status Least concern forager, it takes anything edible—mainly
grass blades and seeds—and builds
only a rudimentary nest. A gregarious
species, gestation is 5 – 6 weeks (long
Australia’s heaviest native rodent has for a mouse). Other females clean and
broad back feet and webbed toes, for assist the mother at the birth, when the
swimming. The upperparts vary from young are already well developed, with
brown to gray, the underparts brown open eyes.
CAVYLIKE RODENTS 129
Cavylike rodents
crest of
Erethizon dorsatum long quills
North American
Included in this “umbrella” group are porcupine
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PHYLUM Chordata
CLASS Mammalia
species as diverse as the semiaquatic
capybara, the largest living rodent; the Length 231⁄2 – 51 in
ORDER Rodentia (60 – 130 cm)
New World porcupines, which are arboreal Tail 61⁄2 – 10 in
SUBORDER Histricomorpha
and possess distinctive spines and a (16 – 25 cm)
FAMILIES 18 Weight 11 – 26 lb
prehensile tail; and African mole-rats, (5 – 12 kg)
SPECIES 301 which live underground. The defining Location Canada, USA Social unit Individual
feature of the suborder is the organization Status Least concern
of the jaw muscles (see p.116), and most species are characterized
by a relatively large head, a sturdy body, a short tail, and slender
legs. Cavylike rodents are found throughout Africa, the The large crest of long quills, up to 3 in
Americas, and Asia. (8 cm) long on the head, identifies this
SAFETY IN NUMBERS stocky, short-limbed porcupine. The
By living in a family group, these strong, broad feet have sharp claws
capybaras greatly increase and naked soles, to aid grip. The North
the chances of spotting American porcupine is very vocal, QUILLS AND FUR
a predator before especially during courtship in early The main quills are yellow-white, with black or
it can attack. winter, when it whines, screeches, brown tips. The rest of the body is furred and
grunts, mews, and hoots. spined in shades of brown.
CLUMSY CLIMBER
The North American porcupine
seems clumsy in trees, yet it climbs
extensively for buds, blossom, shoots,
leaves, berries, and nuts. It also eats
grass and farm crops in summer,
MAMMALS
and soft bark and conifer needles
in winter. Solitary most of the year,
it does not hibernate and may share
a den in cold spells.
Hystrix africaeaustralis These rodents sniff and forage for Coendou prehensilis
distances of up to 9 miles (15 km) at BARBED DEFENSE
Cape porcupine night, alone, in pairs, or in small groups,
seeking roots, bulbs, berries, and fruit.
Stump-tailed
Length 25 – 32 in
(63 – 80 cm)
By day, they rest in caves or rocky porcupine
crevices. After a gestation period of
Tail 41⁄4 – 5 in
(10.5 – 13 cm) 93 – 105 days, the female produces Length 12 – 141⁄2 in
(30 – 37 cm)
Weight 22 – 53 lb 1 – 3 young, and the male helps care
Tail 41⁄4 – 6 in
(10 – 24 kg) for them. The Cape (or crested) (10.5 – 15 cm)
Location C. to southern Social unit Variable porcupine communicates by means of
Africa Weight 11 lb
Status Least concern quill-rattles, piping squeaks, and grunts. (5 kg)
Location N. and E. South Social unit Individual
America, Trinidad
spines The Cape porcupine cannot shoot

intermingled
with ordinary out its quills; but, if alarmed, it raises This large, muscular porcupine climbs
hairs them and charges backward at slowly but surely with curved claws,
the enemy. The quills detach easily naked-soled feet, and prehensile tail,
and their barbed tips work into the which is almost as long as the head
aggressor’s flesh. These defenses and body and lacks fur toward the
effectively deter attacks by other tip. By day, it sleeps in a hole, in a
animals, but these porcupines are tree trunk, or in the ground. At dusk,
killed in large numbers by humans the stump-tailed porcupine forages
because they damage crops, and for leaves, bark, fruit, and shoots,
for their prized meat. and occasionally small animals.
eyes set
far back in SPINES AND WHISKERS
rounded head The back is covered by banded
short, bristle- brown-black and white spines with
covered legs white tips, intermingled with hairs.
The nose has long, stout whiskers.
130 RODENTS
Cavia aperea Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris swimming. It is an excellent swimmer

and diver in rivers, lakes, and swamps. DAILY ROUTINE
Brazilian guinea pig Capybara It forms various groupings, including
male–female pairs, families with young,
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Length 83⁄4 – 151⁄2 in Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄2 ft and larger, mixed herds dominated by
(21.5 – 39 cm) (1.1 – 1.3 m)
one male who mates with all females
Tail None Tail Vestigial
in his group. They roam a home range,
Weight 18 – 29 oz Weight 77 – 145 lb
(500 – 790 g) (35 – 65 kg) marked with scent, and chase away
Social unit Group Social unit Variable
intruders. After a gestation period of
Location N.W. to E. South Location N. and E. South 120 – 150 days, 1 – 7 offspring (usually 5)
America Status Least concern America Status Least concern
are born fully furred and can run, swim,
and dive within hours of birth. The Capybaras rest in the morning,
capybara’s numerous predators include wallow during the midday heat,
humans, who value the meat and hide. feed on water plants, buds, and
A close relative and perhaps ancestor The world’s heaviest rodent, soft tree bark in the evening, rest
of the domestic (pet) guinea pig (Cavia the capybara has partially again around midnight, and resume
porcellus), this is one of the smallest webbed toes, and its coarse fur feeding toward dawn. They move on
cavylike rodents. It has a large head, nostrils, eyes, and to find fresh grazing as necessary
blunt snout, tail-less body, and short ears are set and may raid farm crops, which
legs, with 4-toed front feet and 3-toed on top of makes them pests in some areas.
rear feet. The long, coarse fur is dark its head,
gray-brown to black. It eats leaves, so that it
grasses, seeds, flowers, and bark. can smell,
Guinea pigs live as close neighbors see, and pale to dark
brown fur,
in shrubby grassland, with communal hear when tinged with
feeding runways but separate nests. yellow
or gray
STOUT SWIMMER
The capybara is heavy bodied,
with short but sturdy limbs,
hooflike claws, and almost no tail.
MAMMALS
Dolichotis patagonum Cuniculus paca Lagostomus maximus
Patagonian mara Lowland paca Argentina plains

(60 – 80 cm)
Length 20 – 29 in
(50 – 74 cm)
viscacha
Tail 1– 11⁄2 in Tail 1⁄2 – 11⁄2 in Length 151⁄2 – 241⁄4 in
(2.5 – 4 cm) (1.5 – 3.5 cm) (39.5 – 62 cm)
Weight 15 – 20 lb Weight 11 – 31 lb Tail 51⁄4 –8 in
(7 – 9 kg) (5 – 14 kg) (13.5 – 20.5 cm)
Location S. South America Social unit Pair Location S. Mexico to Social unit Individual
E. South America Weight 16 – 19 lb
Status Near threatened Status Least concern (7.5 – 8.8 kg)
whitish fringe to the short tail. The Location C. and S. South Social unit Group
America
muzzle is long; the eyes and ears Status Least concern
large. The Patagonian mara runs and
The Patagonian mara is a large, jumps well, and is mainly a grazer on Lowland pacas live alone, apart from
long-legged rodent that resembles a grass and low shrubs. Male–female the mother and single young, which
small deer in looks and behavior. It pairs stay together for life, digging a she suckles for 6 weeks. This expert
has a white, collarlike neck patch and large burrow for their 1 – 3 offspring. swimmer has a big head, squared-off
muzzle, robust body, short, sturdy legs,
and tiny tail. The upper body is brown,
Dasyprocta azarae red, or gray with 4 pale “dotted-line”
stripes along each side; the
Azara’s agouti underparts are white or buff. The
lowland paca rests in a burrow or
Length 17 – 223⁄4 in hollow tree by day and emerges to eat
(43 – 57.5 cm)
fruit, leaves, buds, and flowers at night.
Tail 3⁄8 – 11⁄2 in
(1 – 3.5 cm) The largest member of the chinchilla
Weight 5 ⁄2 – 6 ⁄2 lb
1 1 family, the plains viscacha lives in noisy
(2.4 – 3.2 kg) colonies of 20 – 50. It digs tunnel systems
Location E. South America Social unit Variable extending more than 980 ft (300 m). At
Status Data deficient night, it eats grasses, seeds, and roots,
around the underside. The distinctive and collects sticks, stones, and bones
feet have 5 toes on the front feet, but to pile at tunnel entrances. The face
3 on the hind feet. Azara’s agouti eats is black and white striped, the back is
This large, social, diurnal species a variety of seeds, fruit, and other gray-brown fading to white underneath,
has prominent ears, short legs, and plant material, and barks when and the tail is brown-tipped with
a tiny tail. Its fur is speckled pale to alarmed. People hunt it for meat black. The male is twice as heavy
mid-brown, perhaps tinged yellowish across much of its range. as the female.
CAVYLIKE RODENTS 131
Chinchilla lanigera in the wild, the Chilean chinchilla is Capromys pilorides The strong, tapering, hairy tail and
common as a pet, with its appealing sharp, curved claws are adapted for
Chilean chinchilla appearance and usually friendly nature.
The fur is silvery gray-blue above and
Desmarest’s hutia support and gripping when tree
climbing and when foraging for its
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Length 8 – 91⁄2 in cream or yellowish on the underside, Length 12 – 241⁄2 in varied diet of fruit, leaves, soft bark,
(22 – 24 cm) (30.5 – 62.5 cm)
with long gray and black hairs on the and, occasionally, lizards. Litter size is
Tail 5 – 121⁄2 in Tail 5 – 121⁄2 in
(13 – 32 cm) tail’s upper surface. In the wild, the (13 – 32 cm) 1 – 4. Hutias live only in the Caribbean,
Weight 14 – 18 oz long-tailed chinchilla forms colonies of Weight 10 – 15 lb and most species are either severely
(400 – 500 g) 100 or more in rocky areas, sheltering (4.5 – 7 kg) threatened or already extinct.
Location S.W. South Social unit Group in caves and crevices. It eats most Location Caribbean Social unit Individual/Pair
America
Status Endangered plant foods, especially grass and Status Least concern
leaves, sitting up to hold items in the
front feet while watching for danger.
If threatened, it rears up and spits
This rodent’s thick, soft, silky fur, hard at the aggressor. During the winter Desmarest’s hutia resembles a huge
which keeps out the bitter cold of breeding season, the female, which is vole with its typically blunt nose, large
its mountain habitat, has long been larger than the male, becomes more head, short neck, small ears, stocky
prized by humans and, although now aggressive toward other body, and short limbs. It has a white
protected, has been hunted and females. Up to 4 young, nose, red-brown to black upperparts,
farmed in many regions. Endangered but usually 2 – 3, are and gray or yellow-brown underparts.
born after a gestation
thickly furred, period of 111 days
bushy tail and are suckled The colony’s workers form head-to-tail
Heterocephalus glaber
for 6 – 8 weeks. “digging chains” to tunnel and gather
Naked mole-rat food. The naked mole-rat is not truly
naked but has pale, sparse hairs
long Length 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 in over its pinkish gray skin. As in other
whiskers (7 – 11 cm)
mole-rats, the massive incisor teeth
Tail 11⁄4 – 2 in
(3 – 5 cm) are for digging and eating, and the
Weight 13⁄4 – 21⁄4 oz eyes and ears are minute. The tail is
(15 – 70 g) rounded and the limbs strong, with
Location E. Africa Social unit Group 5 thick-clawed toes, for digging.
Status Least concern Colonies comprise 40 – 80 individuals
MAMMALS
that inhabit elaborate tunnel systems.
Food-gathering galleries 6 – 20 in
(15 – 50 cm) deep radiate up to 130 ft
This mole-rat’s social system is unique (40 m) from the central chamber. New
large rear legs
for jumping among mammals. Only one dominant galleries are dug regularly for roots,
female, the “queen,” breeds. She may bulbs, tubers, and other underground
have more than 1 – 28 pups per litter plant parts. This rodent surfaces only
Octodon degus Myocastor coypus and is tended by several nonworkers. to travel to another colony.
Common degu Coypu pale, sparse

hairs over
body
Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄2 in Length 181⁄2 – 23 in
(17 – 21 cm) (47 – 58 cm)
Tail 31⁄4 – 51⁄2 in Tail (131⁄2 – 16 in
(8 – 14 cm) 34 – 41 cm)
Weight 7⁄16 – 11 oz Weight Up to 14 lb
(200 – 300 g) (6.7 kg)
Location S.W. South Social unit Variable Location S. South America Social unit Group
America
Cryptomys hottentotus Bathyergus janetta

yellow- large, mostly The coypu or nutria was farmed for
brown fur hairless ears its dense brown fur, but escapees
established colonies in many areas
Hottentot mole-rat Namaqua dune
outside its native region. It has a large Length 4 – 7 ⁄4 in
(10 – 18.5 cm)
1
mole-rat
head, small, high-set eyes and ears,
Tail 5⁄16 – 11⁄4 in
a robust body, arched hindquarters, (0.8 – 2.7 cm)
(17 – 24 cm)
long, rounded tail, and webbed Weight 35⁄8 – 51⁄2 oz Tail 11⁄2 – 21⁄2 in (4 – 6.6 cm)
rear feet for rapid swimming. (100 – 150 g)
Location Southern Africa Weight 7 – 25 oz
The coypu eats most vegetation, Social unit Group (195 – 710 g)
especially water plants, and lives in Status Least concern Social unit Variable
Resembling a very large mouse, bankside tunnels in family groups. Location S. W. Africa
this mountain-dwelling rodent has a
stout body. Mainly brown, it has pale
underparts, and there may also be This mole-rat has a wide head, small
yellow furry “lids” above and below eyes and ears, short, sturdy limbs, This species tunnels in shifting sands,
each eye, and a yellow neck ring. stocky body, and thick, dense fur. either on the coast or inland. It lives
The long tail, which has a tufted black Coloration is pink-brown or gray above, in small colonies in a tunnel system
tip, breaks off easily if grabbed by with paler underparts. Extra-large up to 655 ft (200 m) long. The large
a predator. The common degu lives incisor teeth bite through soil as well head has massive protruding incisor
in colonies and excavates extensive as bulbs, tubers, roots, and other teeth, the body is cylindrical, the
burrow systems. It feeds by day on a subterranean plant parts. Colonies of legs are short but strong, and
varied diet of plant matter and, in the 5 – 15 individuals dig large, complex the tail is tiny. The back is dark
dry season, cattle droppings. It stores tunnel systems and store excess food. brown, the sides gray, and the
excess food in the burrow for winter. Usually only the senior pair breeds. head and belly dark gray.
132 SPRINGHARE
Pedetes capensis feeding, it tends to bend forward and
Springhares Southern African

lope rabbitlike on all fours. The 5 large
front claws are specialized for digging.
When bounding at full speed, its tail
springhare
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curves up; when sitting up, its tail is

Chordata
This group comprises the springhare and
PHYLUM used as a support. The Southern
scaly tailed flying squirrels (anomalurids)— Length 131⁄4 – 18 in African spring hare sleeps resting on
CLASS Mammalia
2 unusual families of rodents confined to (33.5 – 45.5 cm)
its haunches, head tucked between its
ORDER Rodentia Tail 12 – 191⁄4 in
Africa. They have anatomical features that (31 – 48.5 cm)
hind legs, and the tail wrapped around
SUBORDER Anomaluromorpha the whole body. Nocturnal, it lives
link them with cavylike rodents, but genetic Weight 51⁄2 –73⁄ 4 lb
FAMILIES 2 (2.5 – 3.5 kg) alone or as a male–female pair,
analysis supports their classification in Location C. and E. Africa Social unit Individual and digs several
SPECIES 9
a different suborder. The springhare is a to southern Africa
Status Least concern extensive burrows.
large jumping kangaroo-like rodent of arid There appears to be
habitats, with long hind limbs, wide hooflike rear claws, very no peak breeding
long brush-tipped tail, and prominent ears—like those of a season; the single young
One of only 2 species is born at any time of year
hare. Anomalurids have a gliding membrane, although they
of springhares, this and is suckled in the main
are not related to flying squirrels of Asia and North America species resembles a breeding burrow for
or the colugos. The rough scales on the underside of their tail rabbit kangaroo with a long, approximately 7 weeks.
prevent slippage when they land on tree trunks after gliding. bushy tail and large, narrow,
upright ears. It makes huge
BOUNDING TO SAFETY leaps, easily covering 61⁄2 ft gray to brownish
Springhares escape their nocturnal predators (2 m) per bound. The diet pink upperparts
with kangaroo-like leaps. This East African consists mainly of seeds, stems,
springhare ( Pedetes surdaster) is bulbs, and other plant parts, but
less common than the South also includes locusts, beetles,
African species. and other invertebrates. When black-tipped
tail
very large
hind feet
MAMMALS
Cynocephalus variegatus colugo is active in twilight and at night,
Colugos Malayan colugo

eating soft plant parts such as flowers,
fruit, buds, and young leaves, and
scraping up nectar and sap with
Length 13 – 161⁄2 in its comblike lower incisor teeth. It
Chordata
By extending a strong membrane that (33 – 42 cm)
PHYLUM lives alone or in small, loose groups,
surrounds their body (the patagium), Tail 7 – 101⁄2 in
inhabiting tree-holes or resting among
CLASS Mammalia (17.5 – 27 cm)
colugos (also known as flying lemurs) dense foliage high in the treetops. After
ORDER Dermoptera Weight 2 – 41⁄2 lb
are able to glide more than 330 ft (100 m) (0.9 – 2 kg) a gestation period of about 2 months,
FAMILIES 1 (Cynocephalidae) Location S.E. Asia the single offspring clings to its mother
between trees, with very little loss in height. Social unit Variable
SPECIES 2 Status Least concern as she leaps and glides among the
The term “flying lemur” is misleading,
trees and is weaned by 6 months.
however, as these mammals are not lemurs
and are not capable of true flight. About the size of a domestic
cat, they have large eyes, a blunt muzzle, strong claws for Although still
climbing, and mottled fur (for camouflage). common in some
areas, numbers of this
Colugos, which live in the rain offspring enclosed
species have declined within mother’s
forests of Southeast Asia, rapidly in logged and farmed gliding membrane
strain food (fruit and regions. It has a small head
flowers) through relative to its body with large eyes,
peculiar comb-shaped little, rounded ears, and a blunt
muzzle. The fine, short
lower teeth, which
fur is brownish gray
are also used to with red or gray on
groom the fur. the back, often
with lighter flecks
to mimic lichen-
covered branches,
and paler on the
GLIDER underside. The Malayan
A kite-shaped
membrane large,
called the patagium forward-
facing eyes
allows colugos to glide from
tree to tree. It is attached to the neck and
to the tips of the fingers, toes, and tail.
TREE SHREWS 133
Tree shrews
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SEEKING FOOD
Chordata
These small, squirrel-like mammals are not
PHYLUM Tree shrews are skilful
wholly arboreal (they spend much of their time climbers and agile
CLASS Mammalia
on the ground) and are not true shrews. In fact, runners. They forage
ORDER Scandentia
they have some features that are associated with their hands and
FAMILIES 2 pointed snout.
with primates, such as a large braincase
SPECIES 20
and, in males, testes that descend into a
scrotum. Tree shrews lack whiskers and seek
prey, such as insects, using well-developed senses of hearing,
smell, and vision. Most species have a long, thickly furred tail.
Tree shrews inhabit the tropical forests of Southeast Asia.
Ptilocercus lowi Anathana ellioti stripe. The Indian tree shrew has a At night, it sleeps in a rock crevice
prominent head with a pointed muzzle, or tree-hole. The species is probably
Pen-tailed tree shrew Indian tree shrew large eyes, and furred ears. It forages
actively by day on the ground and
solitary outside the breeding season
and does not, as far as is known,
Length 4 – 51⁄2 in Length 61⁄ 2 – 8 in among low bushes, as well as in trees, defend a specific territory, but
(10 – 14 cm) (17 – 20 cm)
for small edible items, mainly worms information is lacking. The female
Tail 5 – 71⁄2 in Tail 61⁄2 – 71⁄2 in
(13 – 19 cm) (16 – 19 cm) and insects but also some fruit. cares for the young.
Weight 7⁄8 – 21⁄8 oz Weight 5 oz
(25 – 60 g) (150 g)
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Variable Location S. Asia Social unit Individual long, bushy tail
helps balance
Status Least concern Status Least concern when climbing
MAMMALS
Named for its mainly naked tail with Also known as the Madras tree shrew,
bushy white hairs at the tip, like a this mammal resembles a small, slender
bottle-brush or old-fashioned quill pen, gray squirrel. It is speckled with yellow
this species is grayish brown above and brown on the upper parts and has
and grayish yellow on the underside. a distinctive cream-colored shoulder
It climbs skilfully with its strong, sharp-
clawed limbs, using its tail for balance,
and rarely descends to the ground. Tupaia minor
It makes simple nests in hollow trees GRIPPING FEET
or on branches and lives in pairs or
small groups. Its varied diet includes
Lesser tree shrew The splayed toes, sharp claws,
and pimplelike protrusions on the
worms, insects, mice, small birds, Length 43⁄4 – 51⁄4 in foot pads of the lesser tree shrew
(11.5 – 13.5 cm)
lizards, and fruit. all give an excellent grip on bark
Tail 5 – 61⁄2 in
(13 – 17 cm) and rock. It uses its front legs
Weight 11⁄16 – 21⁄2 oz to pull itself along branches
Dendrogale melanura (30 – 70 g) on its belly. This spreads
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Individual scent produced by abdominal
Bornean smooth-tailed Status Least concern glands. This scent is likely to
be recognizable to others of
tree shrew its species, and is probably
a means of marking its home
Length 4 – 6 in This species is more tolerant than most range, which it defends against
(10 – 15 cm)
other tree shrews of the loss of natural others of the same sex.
Tail 3 ⁄2 – 5 ⁄2 in
1 1
(9 – 14 cm)
forest habitat to plantations, parks, and
Weight 11⁄4 – 21⁄8 oz
gardens. It is a skilled climber and has
SENSES AND BALANCE
(35 – 60 g) a wide diet. It forages by day along
Location S.E. Asia
The lesser tree shrew’s prominent nose, eyes,
Social unit Individual branches, in bushes, among fallen logs, and ears ensure keen senses; the long tail helps speckled olive-brown or
Status Data deficient and under rocks for small animals, fruit, with balance while climbing at speed through red fur on upperparts
leaves, seeds, and carrion. Usually 1 – 3 the branches.
young are born after a gestation period
of 45 – 55 days. The female leaves the
This species lives in mountain offspring in a leafy nest among the
forests at altitudes of 3,000 – 5,000 ft foliage while she feeds,
(900 – 1,500 m). Its long limbs and long returning sporadically
claws equip it to grasp branches to suckle. Tree
and it spends more time in trees than shrews fall victim
other tree shrews. The coloration of to snakes,
its upperparts is a mixture of black mongooses,
and buff or cinnamon; the underparts tree-dwelling
and legs are more red or ocher. It lives cats, and
alone, feeding by day and sleeping in diurnal birds of prey. They often hold
a leaf-lined tree nest at night. After a food by their front paws while sitting
gestation period of about 50 days, up on their haunches, in the manner
the female produces 3 – 4 young. of a squirrel, to watch for danger.
134 PRIMATES
Primates
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PHYLUM Chordata Members of the order Primates—prosimians, Social organization

CLASS Mammalia monkeys, and apes (but see the Classification note, Only orangutans and a few of the lemurs and galagos lead
ORDER Primates left)—are a diverse group that form highly complex solitary lives; all other primates exist in social groups. Many
species—including most monkeys—live in troops that consist
FAMILIES 12 social units. They are found in South and Central of several females and either one or several adult males. In some
SPECIES 480 America, Africa and Madagascar, and Southeast species, such as the mandrill, drill, and gelada, huge troops of
several hundred individuals periodically split into subgroups
and eastern Asia. Primates mostly inhabit tropical of bachelor bands and one male and his harem, both of fixed
CLASSIFICATION NOTE rain forests, and their dextrous prehensile (grasping) composition. Chimpanzees and spider monkeys live in large
communities of 20 – 100 individuals that divide into groups of
Recent research suggests that
primates may comprise 2
hands and feet are an adaptation to a largely varying composition. Some species, mostly New World
suborders: Strepsirrhini (lemurs, arboreal lifestyle (some also have a prehensile tail). monkeys, live in monogamous pairs.
galagos, lorises, and pottos)
and Haplorrhini (tarsiers, apes, Over the last 25 years, 96 new species of primate
and monkeys). Tarsiers have MUTUAL GROOMING
features linking them with both have been described, nearly half of them being The bonds between members
suborders; in this book, they
found in Madagascar—an area where many species of primate groups are partly
are grouped with Strepsirrhini
(traditionally known as the maintained by mutual
prosimians). To allow adequate are in danger of extinction due to increasing human grooming, as shown by these
coverage, monkeys and apes
are presented here as separate activity. Deforestation here and elsewhere in the olive baboons. Low-ranking
members groom those of
groups. Humans do not appear
in this book but are classified,
tropics is severe, reducing and degrading primate higher rank to gain favor
with the apes, as hominoids. habitat to the extent that it is predicted that 60 and support (in disputes).
Prosimians see pp.136 – 9
Monkeys see pp.140 – 9
percent of all primate species could disappear
Apes see pp.150 – 5 over the next 25 – 50 years.
elongated
clawed
finger
toes
Anatomy
MAMMALS
Primates form a highly varied group, with members opposable

as diverse as mouse lemurs, which may weigh only big toe
11⁄4 oz (35 g), and gorillas, which can reach over
440 lb (200 kg). Most species have flat nails on the AYE-AYE HAND AYE- AYE FOOT
fingers and toes—only a few have claws—and the grooming

big toe always has a nail. Most have a tail, except claw
the apes. Apart from some toothed whale species,
fingers
the higher primates have the largest brain relative to with
body size of all the mammals, which helps explain their rounded
high intelligence. The cerebral hemispheres (which pads
process sensory information and coordinate
responses) are highly developed, TARSIER HAND TARSIER FOOT
allowing sight keen enough for larger gap
accurate tree-to-tree leaps. mobile between
fingers big toe and
other toes
large braincase
large, forward-facing
eye sockets
CHIMPANZEE CHIMPANZEE
SKULL STRUCTURE HAND FOOT
Primates have a large, domed HANDS AND FEET
braincase and forward-facing Hand and foot structure varies according to
eye sockets. This monkey skull lifestyle. Claws (aye-aye) and rounded pads
flattened also shows the flattened facial (tarsier) improve grip in arboreal species; highly
facial profile that is characteristic of mobile hands and feet (chimpanzee) are vital
profile
most monkeys and apes. for species that live on the ground and in trees.
USING A SIMPLE TOOL
1 2 3 4
SEEKING TERMITES DEXTROUS HANDS REMOVING THE TOOL SUCCESSFUL ENDEAVOR
This common chimpanzee has made a stick tool to The chimpanzee uses its grasping hands to hold and The termites on guard, provoked by the intrusion, As the chimpanzee removes the stick,
obtain food that would otherwise be inaccessible. insert the stick into the termite mound. bite the stick with their pincerlike jaws. the termites remain firmly attached.
PRIMATES 135
Feeding EATING VEGETATION

Of all primates, gorillas
CONSERVATION
As a general rule, small primates tend to eat probably eat the most Primate numbers are declining
insects, whereas larger species mostly eat leaves plant material. In order severely in the wild due to habitat
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and fruit (a large primate cannot sustain itself to break down cellulose loss and, more recently, due to
on insects alone). Small primates have a high (thereby releasing the the bushmeat trade that includes
metabolic rate and cannot afford the long digestion cell nutrients), gorillas the illegal hunting of protected
times needed to process vegetable matter. Some have large molar teeth species (such as the gorilla) for meat.
leaf-eating species, such as colobus monkeys and and strong jaw muscles As a result, many species are now
langurs, have a complex stomach containing for chewing. Their pot endangered. Primates were are also
bacteria to ferment cellulose; other primate species belly houses a long widely used in medical and space
have bacteria in the cecum or in the colon. A few digestive tract. research. Although a few species
species, including chimpanzees and baboons, are being reintroduced to the wild
hunt vertebrate prey as well as eating vegetable from zoos with captive breeding
matter. Only tarsiers are entirely carnivorous. programs, such as this chimpanzee
orphanage in Zambia (below), the
EATING MEAT situation remains bleak.
Given the opportunity, some primates
will hunt (sometimes cooperatively)
and kill other animals. This common
chimpanzee is eating part of a duiker.
Movement
Most primates spend at least part of their life in trees and have adapted
accordingly. To provide a strong hold on branches, the big toe is
MAMMALS
separated from the other toes in all species except humans, and the
thumb is always separated from the fingers, although it is fully opposable
(that is, it can turn, face, and touch the other digits in the same hand)
only in apes and in some Old World monkeys. The arm and wrist bones
are not fused, which increases dexterity. Primates also have “free”
limbs—the upper part of each limb is outside the body wall, which allows
great freedom of movement. (In other mammals, such as horses, the
upper part is inside the body wall—the “armpit” is in fact the elbow joint,
which makes movement more restricted.) Some species have a long,
prehensile tail, used as a “fifth limb.”
SWINGING STANDING CLIMBING CLINGING

LIFE IN THE TREES Spider monkeys and Primates, such as The most common Vertical clingers and
These douc langurs are typical primates in that they are gibbons, such as chimpanzees, that way of moving is on leapers, such as these
arboreal, have prehensile hands and feet, live in groups, and this lar gibbon, use are capable of all fours. Quadrupeds, indri, move with the
eat leaves and fruit. Their colorful markings help provide their long arms to standing and walking such as this woolly back held vertically. They
camouflage. Like almost all primates, loss of habitat is a swing from branch on 2 legs (known as spider monkey, usually have well-developed
major threat to their survival. to branch. This is bipedalism), tend have limbs of about back limbs for long
called brachiation. to have long legs. the same length. leaps between trees.
5 6 7 8
BALANCING ACT EATING QUICKLY MORE OF THE SAME LEARNED BEHAVIOR
The chimpanzee stabilizes the termite-covered Most of the termites, including any on the forearm, are Once all the termites have either been eaten or Making and using tools is rare in mammals. Juvenile
stick by resting it on the opposite forearm. swiftly gobbled before they can escape. escaped, the chimpanzee will repeat the process. chimpanzees acquire these skills by copying adults.
136 PRIMATES
Prosimians
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PHYLUM Chordata More primitive than monkeys and apes, that are pressed together and grow
TARSIERS
slightly forward. This is used for
CLASS Mammalia
prosimians comprise the lemurs of
mutual grooming. Not strictly prosimians (see the
Madagascar, the galagos and pottos of Classification note on p.134),
ORDER Primates
SUBORDER Strepsirrhini
Africa, and the lorises of Asia. Lemurs Movement tarsiers are unusual in that they
(which include sifakas, the indri, and the Most lemurs are quadrupedal and have many primitive features
FAMILIES 4 usually run or leap from branch to similar to prosimians, yet they
aye-aye) have large ears, an elongated branch. Weasel lemurs, the avahi, also exhibit characteristics linking
SPECIES 139
body, long limbs, and most have a long, sifakas, the indri, and galagos are them to monkeys and apes, such
bushy tail. Lorises, pottos, and galagos vertical clingers and leapers (see as a dry, hairy nose. The most
below). On the ground, sifakas striking feature of tarsiers is their
are generally smaller than lemurs and tend to have larger eyes. and indri move on 2 feet, employing enormous eyes: each is slightly
Prosimians mostly inhabit forests and are usually nocturnal sideways hops with their arms in heavier than the brain. Other
(some lemurs are diurnal). Deforestation has endangered the air for balance. Lorises and characteristics include a large
pottos usually clamber slowly along head and ears, long digits with
many prosimians, especially the lemurs.
branches, clinging tightly at every disklike pads at the tips, very
step (although when startled they long legs with elongated ankles,
can move swiftly). and a long tail. The 11 species of
Anatomy are arboreal, their hands and feet are tarsiers are found in the forests
Prosimians have a sense of smell that adapted for grasping (although they Communication of Southeast Asia, where they
is more highly developed than in other are still less dextrous than monkeys Lemurs produce various calls, both to spend much of their time clinging
primates. They have large eye sockets and apes). They have flat nails on all signal alarm (there are often different to upright tree stems, scanning
and a crystalline layer behind the digits except the second toe, which calls to distinguish aerial and ground the forest floor for prey.
retina of the eye that reflects light. instead has a long claw (the “toilet predators) and to communicate
This increases the amount of light claw”) used for grooming. All species within or between troops. Pairs of
falling on the visual cells and improves except the aye-aye have a “dental indri occupy treetop territories, and lemurs and bamboo lemurs have a
night vision. Because most prosimians comb”—4 to 6 of the lower front teeth these are marked with loud wailing wrist gland with a spur, which they
calls; small sifaka troops define their use to mark territory by drawing the
areas with “shi-fak” calls that sound wrist sharply across a sapling. This
MAMMALS
like hiccups. Male produces a click, creates a scar, and

ring-tailed leaves a scent—a gesture that is
auditory, visual, and olfactory. Galagos
leave scent trails around their territory
by placing urine on their feet.
VERTICAL LEAP
When leaping from tree to tree, this Verreaux’s sifaka
uses its long tail for balance, its muscular legs for
propulsion, and its large, grasping hands and feet for
a secure landing. These features typify prosimians
that keep their bodies vertical when climbing.
In midair, a semiupright posture is maintained.
PROSIMIANS 137
Arctocebus calabarensis Loris lydekkerianus This small, slim primate moves with Nycticebus coucang
great deliberation, gripping twigs
Angwantibo Gray slender loris with all 4 feet—until it suddenly smells,
sees, and, with its front legs, snatches
Sunda slow loris
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Length 9 – 10 in Length 8 – 101⁄4 in a small creature such as an insect or Length 12 – 131⁄2 in

(25 – 35 cm) (21 – 26 cm) (30 – 34 cm)
lizard. It also eats soft leaves and buds,
Tail 3⁄8 in Tail None Tail 3⁄8 – 3⁄4 in
(1 cm) fruit, and birds' eggs. By day, the gray (1 – 2 cm)
Weight 3 – 13 oz
Weight 8 – 17 oz (180 – 294 g) slender loris curls up in a tree-hole, Weight 22 – 30 oz
(225 – 475 g) Social unit Individual/Pair
dense leaf nest, or a similarly secure (635 – 850 g)
Location W. Africa Social unit Group Location S., E., S.W. India, place. Its fur color ranges from Location S.E. Asia Social unit Variable
Sri Lanka Status Least concern
Status Least concern yellow-gray to dark brown on the Status Vulnerable
back, with silver-gray underparts.
One of only 2 Arctocebus species, REARING A FAMILY

this one is orange to yellow on its large, forward-facing The female slender loris reaches
upperparts and buff beneath. It climbs eyes for precise depth sexual maturity at 10 months and
judgment
carefully and deliberately using all 4 is receptive to the male twice a year
equal-length limbs. The second toe is thereafter. After a gestation
tiny and the first widely separated from period of 157 – 162 days,
the other 3, giving a clamplike grip. she bears 1 – 2 young,
Solitary and nocturnal, the angwantibo who are weaned
eats small creatures such as caterpillars, after 148 days.
plus a few types of fruit. The other
species, the golden angwantibo,
lives farther south.
Aptly named because of its lack
of speed, the Sunda slow loris has
gripping hands like the grey slender
loris (see left) and is also a nocturnal
tree-dweller. It creeps carefully toward
dark face mask its prey, then lunges with its front limbs.
with central
pale stripe The loris lives alone or in pairs or groups,
MAMMALS
and the adult male chases other males
FOUR-WAY GRIP from its territory, which is marked by
On each foot the big toe opposes the other urine. The dense, soft fur is brown with
4 toes for a pincerlike grip. The gray slender a white face and underparts, and dark
loris can even sleep holding onto branches. eye rings and ears.
Perodicticus potto of fruit, sap, gum, and small animals. Otolemur crassicaudatus The largest galago, this species
A potto can remain immobile for locates insects at night using its
West African potto hours to escape attention. If attacked,
it will tuck down its head and batter
Brown greater galago huge eyes and ears, and snatches
them by hand in a split second. It
Length 12 in the enemy with the “shield” of horny Length 10 – 16 in also scrapes gum and sap with its
(30 cm) (25 – 40 cm)
skin covering spiny bones on the comblike, protruding lower incisor
Tail 11⁄2 – 21⁄4 in Tail 131⁄2 – 191⁄2 in
(4 – 6 cm) upper back. The gestation period is (34 – 49 cm) and canine teeth. Deriving its
Weight 13⁄4 – 21⁄4 lb about 200 days, and the potential life Weight 21⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb alternative name of bushbaby from
(0.85 – 1 kg) span is over 25 years. (1 – 2 kg) its childlike wails, it lives in small family
Location W. and C. Africa Social unit Variable Location C., E., and Social unit Variable groups of a male–female pair
southern Africa
Status Least concern Status Least concern or 2 females, with young. Compared
to closely related species, it tends to
run on all fours more frequently and
to leap in an upright position less often.
A careful, nocturnal climber, the West
African potto has very mobile limb joints
and reaches out at any angle to bridge
gaps between branches. Its fur may be
gray, brown, or red; the eyes and ears main color varies
are small; and the diet consists mainly from silver to
gray, brown,
or black
Euoticus elegantulus Resembling other galagos in form,

this species has an orange back, gray
Western needle- underside, pink hands and feet, and a
long, gray, white-tipped tail. The oval
clawed galago eyes are rimmed by pale fur, and thin,
sharp claws grip well for climbing. strong feet with
Length 71⁄2 – 9 in Like all galagos and lorises, the roughened friction
(19 – 23 cm) pads on soles
second toe on the rear foot has an
Tail 10 – 121⁄2 in
(26 – 32 cm)
upward-facing “toilet” claw, for
Weight 10 – 13 oz
scratching and combing fur. The
(270 – 360 g) specially enlarged front teeth scrape
Location W. Africa Social unit Individual/Pair wood and bark to obtain gum and
Status Least concern sap, which make up three-quarters of
the diet, along with a variety of fruit
and insects. It may make 1,000 “gum
scrapes” per night.
138 PRIMATES
Galago moholi Cheirogaleus medius Varecia variegata The black and

white ruffed
Moholi bushbaby Fat-tailed Black and white lemur eats
a higher
dwarf lemur ruffed lemur
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Length 43⁄4 – 61⁄2 in proportion of

(12 – 17 cm)
fruit than any
Tail 61⁄2 – 11 in
(16 – 28 cm)
Length 7 – 10 in Length 18 in other lemur.
(17 – 26 cm) (45 cm)
1 It builds a leafy
Tail 71⁄2 – 12 in Tail 231⁄2 – 24 in
(160 – 225 g) (19 – 30 cm) (60 – 61 cm)
nest in a tree-hole or
Location E., C., and Social unit Variable fork for its 2 – 3 young.
southern Africa Weight 4 oz Weight 61⁄2 – 15 lb
Status Least concern (135 g) (3 – 7 kg) The female gives birth
Location W. and S. Social unit Individual/Group Location E. Madagascar Social unit Group after a gestation period of
Madagascar
Status Least concern Status Critically endangered 96 – 106 days. The offspring
remain in the nest for
The moholi bushbaby is also called the several weeks after which
lesser bushbaby. It leaps vertically, in they cling to her. Group
enormous jumps of 16 ft (5 m), and its This large species is white or reddish size is up to 16, with
grasping hands and feet are moistened white except for black on the face, several dominant females
regularly with urine, to maintain grip. gray, red, shoulders, chest, flanks, feet, and tail. defending the territory.
or buff fur
It snatches insects from midair by on upper
hand or scrapes gum from trees with parts
its comblike lower front teeth. This Eulemur macaco
galago lives in small family groups, The fat-tailed
which sleep huddled
together by day.
dwarf lemur
stores food as
Black lemur
fat in its body Length 151⁄2 in ruff of
diamond- (39 cm) long fur
and tail, to around
shaped black Tail 20 – 26 in
eye rings survive the (51 – 65 cm) neck
8-month dry and ears
Weight 21⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
season, during (1 – 2 kg)
which it remains Location N. Madagascar Social unit Group
torpid, huddled Status Vulnerable
with others of its black lemur is also active for part of
MAMMALS
kind. When active the night. This behavior may result

again, it becomes from hunting and other human
solitary and clambers in trees A medium-sized species, only the disturbance. Led by one female,
large and bushes at night, seeking flowers, male has the long, soft black fur for groups of 5 – 15 black lemurs forage
rear legs fruit, and insects. It rests by day in a which it is named. Females are red, mainly in trees for fruit, flowers,
leaf-and-twig nest in a tree-hole or fork. brown, or gray. Unlike most lemurs, the leaves, and soft bark.
Hapalemur griseus Lemur catta move to other groups. Using their

hands, they gather flowers, fruit, SUNBATHING
Gray gentle lemur Ring-tailed lemur leaves, bark, and sap. After 138 – 141
days’ gestation, the female bears one
Length 11 – 12 in Length 151⁄2 – 18 in (sometimes 2) offspring. It first clings to
(28 – 30 cm) (39 – 46 cm)
the mother’s underside and then rides
Tail 14 – 141⁄2 in Tail 22 – 24 in
(35 – 37 cm) (56 – 62 cm) on her back. Like most lemurs, this
Weight 282⁄3 – 34 lb Weight 41⁄2 lb lemur faces many threats, especially
(813 – 967 kg) (2.2 kg) habitat loss.
Location Madagascar Social unit Group Location S. and S.W. Social unit Group
Madagascar
Status Vulnerable Status Endangered
CATLIKE APPEARANCE
This lemur is catlike both in
body proportions and graceful Unlike most other lemurs, the
This lemur spends more time than its movements. The white face ring-tailed lemur enjoys basking
relatives on the ground, even though has a dark nose and eye in sunshine, whether on the ground
it is a skilled climber. Very sociable, it patches; the underparts or in trees. It sits upright, with
forms groups of 5 – 25, with a core of are whitish gray. The hands on knees in a “sun-worship”
adult females showing a well-defined distinctive tail is posture. Loud alarm calls from
used for visual and
hierarchy among themselves and over others in the group alert it,
scent signaling.
any males. Young females remain with when necessary, to possible
their mothers and sisters; juvenile males danger—one of the benefits
black and white of a highly social lifestyle.
tail rings
This species is restricted to
humid forests and marshy
areas where reeds and the dark, triangular
bamboo, on which it feeds, eye patch upper fur brown-gray
are abundant. It usually lives to rosy brown
in groups of 2 – 7 and is
active mainly at dawn and
dusk. Females have a single
offspring, which is carried
underneath the body at first
and later on the back. Disturbance
of its restricted habitat threatens
this specialized lemur.
PROSIMIANS 139
Microcebus berthae Daubentonia madagascariensis CONSERVATION
Madame Berthe’s Aye-aye Believed to be extinct until its

rediscovery in 1957, the aye-aye is
mouse lemur
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Length 12 – 141⁄2 in present in two dozen of Madagascar’s

(30 – 37 cm)
national parks and nature reserves,
Tail 141⁄2 – 16 in
Length 31⁄2 – 33⁄4 in
(44 – 53 cm) and several small captive breeding
(9 – 9.5 cm)
Weight 51⁄2 lb colonies have been set up. However,
Tail 5 – 51⁄2 in
(13 – 14 cm) (2.4 – 2.6 kg) with constant pressure on the island’s
The species lives in dry deciduous Location N.W. and Social unit Variable natural resources, its future is likely
Weight 11⁄16 oz E. Madagascar
(31 g) forest, where solitary individuals have Status Endangered to remain entirely conservation-
Location W.C. Madagascar Social unit Individual bigger home ranges than those of dependent. Here, a one-day-old
Status Endangered related species in the same area. Males aye-aye is being weighed.
roam much more widely than females
and are very promiscuous. Although The aye-aye has coarse, shaggy black
said to be abundant and adaptable, the fur with a mantle of white guard hairs.
The world’s smallest primate, this total population—perhaps only 8,000 It is specialized as a nighttime primate
tiny reddish lemur is found only in the breeding animals—is confined to an area “woodpecker.” It taps trees with its long
Menabe region of western Madagascar. of just 347 square miles (900 square km). middle finger, listens intently with its
huge ears for wood-boring grubs under
the bark, exposes them by gnawing
Propithecus verreauxi Lepilemur betsileo with its rodentlike, ever-growing front
teeth, and extracts them with the
Verreaux’s sifaka Betsileo sportive middle finger. It also eats fruit,
including coconut flesh, seeds,
Length 16 – 19 in
(40 – 48 cm)
lemur and fungi. Aye-ayes share large,
LONG FINGERS
stick-made nests but use them
Tail 20 – 231⁄2 in The aye-aye uses its elongated
Length 11 in (28 cm) in succession, not together.
(50 – 60 cm) middle finger, which has a
Weight 61⁄2 lb
Tail 123⁄4 in The offspring stays with double-jointed tip, to extract
(33 cm)
(3 kg) its mother for 2 years. grubs from under tree bark.
Location S.W., Weight 21⁄4 – 23⁄4 lb
Social unit Group (1 – 1.25 kg )
S. Madagascar
Status Endangered Social unit Individual
Location C. Madagascar
Status Endangered
MAMMALS
This large, mostly white lemur has
brown-black areas on the face, crown,
and undersides of the limbs. It uses its The nocturnal tree-dwelling sportive
powerful legs to move among cactuslike lemurs are so-called because of their
trees with massive, spring-loaded leaps. habit of leaping between vertical tree
It eats a wide range of leaves, fruit, trunks using powerful hind limbs. On
flowers, and bark. Living in variable social the ground they hop like kangaroos.
groupings, it makes its “sifaka” call when Named after a Malagasy tribe, the
two groups dispute territorial boundaries. Betsileo sportive lemur is one of more
than a dozen species that have been
recognized in recent years on the basis
of genetic studies. It is grayish brown
with a black tail and lives in rainforests
of the Fandriana region of eastern
Madagascar. Most sportive lemurs
eat leaves, supplemented with flowers.
They forage alone and defend
territories with vocalizations and Tarsius bancanus gives birth to one offspring after a
sometimes physical aggression, but gestation period of about 180 days. At
at night small groups may sleep in the
same tree hollow.
Western tarsier first the young is carried by the mother,
but it soon learns to cling to her fur.
Length 41⁄2 – 51⁄4 in
(11.4 – 13.2 cm)
Tail 8 – 121⁄2 in
Indri indri flowers, and seeds. Indris live in pairs (20 – 23 cm)
with their offspring. The male defends Weight 35⁄8 – 5 oz
Indri their territory, and the female has first
access to food. Indris are mainly black, Location S.E. Asia
(110 – 140 g)
Length 25 – 28 in with white patches. Status Critically endangered
(64 – 72 cm)
Tail 2 in
(5 cm)
Weight 13 – 20 lb
(6 – 9 kg) This long-tailed, nocturnal Asian
Location E. Madagascar Social unit Pair prosimian is small and compact-bodied.
Status Critically endangered Mainly tree-dwelling, the western tarsier
has slender fingers and its toes have
pads and sharp claws, for gripping
branches. It can turn its head to
Largest of the lemur group, the indri or look backward and detect possible
babakoto (“little father”) has very long predators or prey with its huge eyes
rear legs, for enormous leaps, but a very and keen ears. Its diet consists mainly
short tail. Although diurnal, it is inactive of insects. Having spotted its victim, it
for long periods in the day. The diet is creeps nearer and then leaps on it and
chiefly young leaves, but also fruit, seizes it with its front paws. The female
140 PRIMATES
Monkeys
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PHYLUM Chordata This large, diverse group is split into 2 monkeys live in large communities species, such as baboons, will fight
broad, geographically separate subgroups: that split into small groups of varying furiously with their long, sharp
CLASS Mammalia composition when foraging. canines for dominance.
ORDER Primates
the Old World monkeys (larger species such In contrast, Old World monkeys
SUBORDER Haplorrhini (part)
as baboons, as well as colobus monkeys usually exhibit just 2 types of social Intelligence
and langurs) and the New World monkeys organization: savanna baboons and Monkeys are intelligent mammals.
FAMILIES 6 macaques live in large, multi-male They are quick to learn, inquisitive,
(such as marmosets and spider monkeys), troops; Hamadryas baboons, geladas, and have an excellent memory.
SPECIES 315
which are distinguished mainly by nose and langurs live in “harems,” with These abilities have helped monkeys
shape. Monkeys are normally found in one adult male and several females. succeed in a range of habitats, where
Within all monkey social groups, they must learn (for example) what
forests throughout the tropics. Most have short, flat, humanlike
relationships are commonly very they can eat and then remember
faces, although baboons and mandrills have a doglike snout. close, and grooming is a significant when and where to find the
Many species are endangered by loss of habitat, and social glue. However, males in some food again.
the rhesus macaque is one example of a monkey
used widely in laboratory research.
Anatomy
Monkeys are characterized by a
flattened chest, a hairy nose,
a relatively large brain, a deep
lower jaw, and sharp canine
teeth. Although monkeys are
quadrupedal, they are able to
sit upright (and will occasionally
stand erect), so that the
dextrous hands are freed for
MAMMALS
manipulative tasks (such as

picking apart fruit). They have
grasping hands and feet, each
with 5 digits. Their legs are
slightly longer than the arms—
much longer in leaping species
(such as the red colobus), which
also have a long, flexible spine.
Monkeys also have a tail that is
usually longer than the body,
although in some species it is
tiny and underdeveloped. A few
New World species, such as
spider monkeys, have a prehensile
tail, sometimes with a bare area
at the end with creases and ridges
that increase friction for grasping.
The tail may be used as a balancing
organ and to indicate social gestures.
There are several anatomical
differences between Old and New
World monkeys. Old World monkeys,
which are more closely related to
apes than the New World monkeys,
have a narrow nasal septum and
the nostrils face forward or
downward. New World monkeys
have a broad nasal septum and
nostrils that face sideways. Another
major difference is that Old World
monkeys have hard sitting pads on
the rump, which are absent in New
World monkeys.
Social groups
New World monkeys have a AGILE CLIMBER
great variety of social organizations. All monkeys are excellent climbers. This woolly spider
Marmosets, for example, usually monkey has a long prehensile tail, which acts as
live in groups consisting of a a “fifth limb” when moving along or resting on branches.
monogamous pair and subadult The tail has an end section with a naked underside (used
offspring that help rear the recent to aid grasping) and is strong enough to support both the
young. Squirrel monkeys, on the monkey and its offspring.
other hand, live in very large groups,
sometimes over 100, with many
females and few males. Spider
MONKEYS 141
Lagothrix cana fruit but also for leaves, flowers, sap, Brachyteles arachnoides Ateles geoffroyi
seeds, and small creatures. This
Gray woolly monkey peaceful, gentle monkey often allows
members of another troop into its own
Southern muriqui Geoffroy’s spider
monkey
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Length 18 – 26 in troop’s territory. After a gestation period Length 183⁄4 – 25 in

(45 – 65 cm) (47.5 – 63 cm)
of 223 – 225 days, the single offspring
Tail 21 – 32 in Tail 26 – 30 in
(53 – 80 cm) is born and clings to its mother’s (65 – 76 cm)
Length 12 – 25 in
(31 – 63 cm)
Weight 11 – 22 lb underside, moving on to her back at 7 Weight 19 – 22 ⁄2 lb
1
Tail 25 – 34 in
(5 – 10 kg) days. It is weaned after 6 months. Males (8.5 – 10.2 kg) (64 – 86 cm)
Location C. South Social unit Group grow larger than females when mature. Location C. South Social unit Variable
America America (S.E. Brazil) Weight 13 – 21 lb
Status Endangered Status Endangered (6 – 9.5 kg)
Location S. Mexico, Social unit Group
MUSCULAR MOVER Central America
Woolly monkeys are stout-bodied Status Endangered
and almost pot-bellied, with
Woolly monkeys have thick, soft, powerful shoulders, hips, and tail,
close-curled fur, which in this species for hanging from and swinging
is gray with black flecks, darker gray through trees. Also known as the black-handed
on the head, hands, feet, and tail tip. spider monkey, this species has black
In some individuals, there is a reddish hands, head, and feet, and a cowl-like
tinge on the underparts. It lives in face surround. Like other spider
a mixed troop, which breaks into naked gripping monkeys, the thumbless hand acts
pad on
subgroups to forage primarily for underside as a simple hook, to swing agilely
near tail tip through trees or to pull fruit-laden
branches to the mouth.
CONSERVATION
As well as being threatened by large forehead and
deforestation, adult grey woolly braincase
monkeys are frequently hunted, Also known as the the woolly spider
and their young are kept as pets. monkey, the southern muriqui has a
Conservation depends mainly on heavy body, long limbs, and thumbless
hunting restrictions, which in remote hands with hooklike fingers. It is the
parts of the Amazon basin can be largest New World monkey, and, being
difficult to enforce. a leaf-eater, is endangered due to
MAMMALS
destruction of Atlantic coastal
forests. There are fewer than 1,500
individuals left in the wild, most of
which are found in the Carlos
Botelho State Park.
Ateles chamek On reaching maturity, females leave

to join another troop. After a gestation
Black spider monkey of 225 days, the single young is born.
After 16 weeks, it rides on its mother’s
Length 16 – 231⁄2 in back and is weaned by 18 months.
(40 – 60 cm)
Offspring of females high in the
Tail 28 – 35 in
(70 – 88 cm) dominance hierarchy are more likely
Weight 11 – 15 lb to survive to adulthood, when they
(5 – 7 kg) move to other troops.
Location W. South Social unit Group
America long,
Status Endangered prehensile
tail
Ateles hybridus soft, decaying wood. They whoop and Long, black fur and black facial skin
whinny as they meet up again. Like all identify this otherwise typical spider
Variegated spider spider monkeys, it has long limbs, a
slim body, thumbless hands, and
monkey, which feeds mainly on fruit,
berries, flowers, soft leaves, grubs,
monkey a prehensile tail. termites, and honey. They
live in large territorial troops,
pale inner
Length 18 – 20 in
surfaces of each occupying 370 – 570 acres
(45 – 50 cm)
limbs (150 – 230 hectares). The troop
Tail 29 – 32 in
(74 – 81 cm)
splits into variable subgroups
Weight 17 – 23 lb
to feed, and meets in the
(7.5 – 10.5 kg) evening with greeting calls.
Location N.W. South Social unit Group
America
Status Critically endangered
long, slender,
thumbless hands
The variegated spider monkey has a

conspicuous triangular white patch on
the forehead. It is brown above with
pale underparts—giving rise to its other
common name of white-bellied spider
monkey. Mixed troops of about 20 split long,
into single-sex subgroups of 3 – 4 to prehensile
tail
feed on fruit, juicy leaves, and, oddly,
142 PRIMATES
Alouatta pigra Alouatta seniculus TREETOP LIFE

Guatemalan black Colombian red howler Like all howlers, the Colombian red
howler is wonderfully adapted to life
howler
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Length 19 – 25 in among trees. Its prehensile tail lacks

(48 – 63 cm)
fur on the underside near the tip, to
Tail 201⁄2 – 32 in
(52 – 80 cm) help it grip and work as a fifth grasping
(52 – 71 cm)
Weight 83⁄4– 20 lb limb. Its climbing ability provides
Tail 20 – 27 in
(50 – 69 cm) (4 – 9 kg) access to a wide variety of leaves and
Location N.W. South Social unit Group fruit. Howlers need to consume up
Weight 10 – 20 lb America
(4.5 – 9 kg) Status Least concern to 21⁄4 lb (1 kg) daily of this plentiful, but
Location Mexico, Central Social unit Group low-energy, diet. They spend
America
Status Endangered up to three-quarters of
the day resting to
Colombian red howlers are the largest conserve energy.
of the 12 howler monkey species,
whose loud howls, whoops, and other
calls carry more than 11⁄4 miles (2 km)
through the forest, informing others of
a troop’s presence or conveying alarm
signals. They live mainly in groups of
one male and 3 – 4 females. The male
is much heavier than the female. When
a new male ousts an existing male
from a troop, he may kill the
latter’s offspring, so that the
Once considered a subspecies of females become ready to long face
the mantled howler (Alouatta palliata), breed with him sooner.
this monkey is completely black, apart
from the male’s white scrotal sac.
Loud whoops and howls at dawn strong, prehensile
and dusk proclaim a troop’s tail that can
support body
territory, which may be up to 62 weight
MAMMALS
acres (25 hectares). Most troops GOLDEN SADDLE

comprise about 7 members with The northern red howler (shown here) has
just one male, who is up to twice as a reddish gold “saddle” on the body, which
heavy as a female. This monkey eats contrasts with the maroon head, shoulders, and
a plentiful, low-nutrient, leafy diet. limbs. Other populations are a uniform red color.
Pithecia monachus the monk, or red-bearded, saki forms a Pithecia pithecia female is gray-brown with pale tipped
hood or cowl. Compared to many other hairs and a dark face. Although it is
Monk saki New World monkeys, this saki is shy and
quiet, preferring to stay high in the trees,
White-faced saki vegetarian, its teeth have a predatory
appearance, with sharp incisors for
Length 16 – 20 in keep still, and remain unnoticed. It can Length 11 – 18 in impaling fruit and long canines to crack
(41 – 50 cm) (28 – 46 cm)
make a loud alarm call, but under threat seeds and nuts. A typical group is a
Tail 16 – 20 in Tail 123⁄4 – 18 in
(40 – 50 cm) its main defense is to bare its teeth. Its (32.5 – 46 cm) female, male, and 1 – 3 young.
Weight 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb diet is fruit and seeds, and it lives in Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb white nose stripe
pale face
(1.5 – 3 kg) close-knit troops of 4 – 5, who spend (1.4 – 1.9 kg) (male (female only)
Location N. and W. South Social unit Group much time grooming each other. Location N. South Social unit Group/Pair only)
America America
white stripe
down side
of nose
All 9 saki species have broad No other New World monkey has
noses (especially the septum, such differences between the sexes:
the central portion between the male is black with a white or pale
the nostrils), lank fur that gold face and a black nose, while the
falls to the sides from
the back and neck,
a bushy tail, and Chiropotes satanas grip powerfully and this saki can hang
extra-long fur around by one limb as it feeds on seeds, hard
the face, which in Black-bearded saki fruits, and small animals, crushing them
with well-developed molar teeth. When
grey-black Length 13 – 18 in excited, it “switches” its tail like a cat
body coloration (33 – 46 cm)
and emits a piercing whistle.
Tail 12 – 18 in
(30 – 46 cm)
Weight 41⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb
(2 – 4 kg)
Location N. South Social unit Group
America
In this species, the typical saki’s long

chin fur forms a bushy beard, and the
long, dense head fur makes a thick
forehead fringe. Both feet and hands
MONKEYS 143
Cacajao calvus Aotus lemurinus Formerly regarded as one species,

COLOR FORMS genetic studies show there may be 11
Bald uakari Lemurine night monkey species of Lemurine night monkeys, also
called douroucoulis, or owl monkeys
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Length 15 – 221⁄2 in Length 12 – 121⁄2 in from their hooting calls in the darkness.
(38 – 57 cm) (30 – 32 cm)
They are the only nocturnal monkeys,
Tail 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in Tail 131⁄2 – 133⁄4 in
(14 – 18.5 cm) (34 – 34.5 cm) eating a mixed diet of fruit, leaves, and
Weight 5 – 73⁄4 lb Weight 29 – 361⁄2 oz insects as they clamber cautiously
(2.3 – 3.5 kg) (800 – 1,050 g) through the branches. They live in
Location N.W. South Social unit Group Location N.W. South Social unit Pair male–female pairs and communicate
America America
Status Vulnerable Status Vulnerable by scents in urine and chest gland
secretions. The single young is born
after a gestation of 120 days. Weaning
takes 8 months and, since juveniles may
Bald uakaris prefer “blackwater,” Bald uakari subspecies have a also stay with parents, close-knit
part-flooded forests along small rivers, variety of fur colors, leading to family groups of 4 – 5 develop.
lakes, and swamps, rather than forests different names: white uakari (above) speckled gray
fringing large rivers. They forage by day in northwestern Brazil; golden uakari fur on back
in trees for seeds, fruit, flowers, and on the Brazil–Peru border; red
small animals, in a large uakari on the Colombia–Brazil
troop of males and border; and pale-backed red
females, usually 10 – 20 uakari further east.
but sometimes up to
200. The troop may mix
with similar primates,
HAIRLESS FACE
such as squirrel
The bald uakari has dark, bushy
monkeys, to feed. a hairless face and tail tip
forehead, the skin yellow
color varying from or gray
pink to deep red. underparts
MAMMALS
short tail in
relation to body Callicebus aureipalatii Sapajus paella
Golden palace monkey Guianan brown capuchin

Length 11 ⁄2 – 12 ⁄2 in
1 1
Length 15 – 18 in
(29 – 32 cm) (38 – 46 cm)
Tail 19 – 20 ⁄4 in
3
Tail 15 – 151⁄2 in
(48 – 52.5 cm) (38 – 39 cm)
Weight 32 – 36 oz Weight 23⁄4 – 11 lb
(900 – 1,000 g) (1.3 – 4.8 kg)
Location C. South Social unit Group Location N. South Social unit Group
America America
Callicebus moloch Capuchins are often regarded as the

most adept New World monkeys, and the
Red-bellied titi Guianan brown capuchin uses a variety of
tools, such as stones to crack hard nuts.
Length 101⁄2 – 17 in It also eats fruit, insects, and some
(27 – 43 cm)
vertebrates, such as frogs, lizards, and
Tail 14 – 22 in
(35 – 55 cm) even small bats. This species, also
Weight 25 – 43 oz known as the tufted capuchin
(700 – 1,200 g) from the furry “horns”
Location N. South Social unit Pair above each ear, has
America
Status Least concern the widest range
of any New
A colorful monkey, with orange-gold World monkey.
coat, white-tipped tail, and reddish Mixed groups
The 30 or more titi species all hands and feet, this species was of 10 – 20 are
have thick, soft fur, chunky bodies, named after the organization that usual as
short limbs, and—unlike other New maintains the Madidi National Park members are
World monkeys of their size—ears in Bolivia. It is also known as the Madidi not sexually
almost hidden in fur. They eat mainly titi. Here, the species was discovered in mature until 7
fruit, leaves, seeds, and grubs. The 2004—in the forest of the Andean years old—
red-bellied titi monkey’s back is foothills and floodplain. It is likely that it later than most
speckled brown, the underparts mainly ranges into southern Peru, too. Groups monkeys of
orange. It relies on its drab coloration have a home range of between 42 and similar size.
and slow movements for camouflage in 62 acres (17 and 25 hectares) and
trees near swamps and pools. Female consume a wide range of rain forest
and male form a close pair-bond and plants. Although much of its population
defend a territory of 15 – 30 acres is within a protected area and is not
(6 – 12 hectares). They intertwine tails under significant pressure from
and sing a “duet” just after dawn to hunting, the species may be affected
maintain their family and pair-bonds, by petroleum exploitation, road-building, prehensile tail
and to proclaim their territory. and hydroelectric projects. often curled at tip
144 PRIMATES
Cebus olivaceus other South American monkeys. The Saguinus imperator MUSTACHE
main color is brown, becoming paler The white, curly-ended mustache of both
Weeper capuchin on the arms, and even gray or yellow
on the face. Seeds, fruit, and small
Emperor tamarin males and females contrasts with
the black face, speckled red-
or gray-brown body, and
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Length 141⁄2 – 18 in creatures, especially snails and insects, Length 9 – 10 in

(37 – 46 cm) (23 – 26 cm) red-orange tail fur.
comprise the main diet. The weeper
Tail 16 – 22 in Tail 14 – 161⁄2 in
(40 – 55 cm) capuchin forms bands of 30 or more, (35 – 42 cm)
Weight 51⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb containing mostly females and young, Weight 14 – 20 oz
(2.3 – 4.2 kg) with several males, but only one (400 – 550 g)
Location N.E. South Social unit Group dominant male breeds. Mothers Location W. South Social unit Group
America America
Status Least concern may look after each other’s offspring Status Least concern
(known as “allomothering”). Troop
members keep in contact with a
plaintive, “weeping” cry.
Like the other 21 or so capuchin Marmosets and tamarins form a
tail habitually
species, the weeper has a robust build held in curled distinct group of about 47 American
with relatively short limbs, and position primate species. They are similar
a prehensile tail. There is to other New World monkeys
no bare skin on the but differ in body chemistry,
tail’s underside, have claws rather than TAMARIN BABYCARE
as in many nails, and bear 2 rather
than 1 offspring.
Identified by its
flowing white
mustache, this
paler fur species feeds on
on limbs fruit in the wet
season, flower
nectar and tree sap in
the dry season, and Tamarins and marmosets have
insects, especially crickets, relatively long gestation periods for
all year round. It often such small mammals, the emperor
forms a mixed troop with tamarin’s being 140 – 145 days.
MAMMALS
related species such as the There are almost always 2 offspring,

saddleback tamarin. Each and the father carries these, as here,
small face species responds to the other’s except when they are being suckled
alarm calls if a predator is by their mother.
detected nearby.
Saimiri boliviensis and clucks to disturb their food of Callimico goeldii

various small creatures. They may
Black-capped follow in the path of other monkeys
to obtain insects in their wake. They
Goeldi’s marmoset
squirrel monkey also consume fruit and seeds. The Length 9 in
(19 – 25 cm)
mature male becomes “fatted” around
Tail 10 – 121⁄2 in
Length 101⁄2 – 121⁄2 in the shoulders in the breeding season (26 – 35 cm)
(27 – 32 cm)
and competes aggressively—the Weight 21 oz
Tail 15 – 16 1⁄2 in
(38 – 42 cm)
winner mating with the most females. (355 – 366 g)
Location N.W. South Social unit Group
Weight 25 – 36 oz America
(700 – 1,000 g) Status Vulnerable
Location W. to C. South Social unit Group
FAMILY MEAL
America
Goeldi’s marmoset
is larger than most
No other New World monkeys form marmosets and
such large, active troops as the 7 tamarins. Its long fur
species of squirrel monkey. They is black, and it has a
regularly number 35–65—but can reach “cape” of longer hair on
200 or more—moving noisily by its head and neck.
day with twitters Unlike similar
Within a squirrel monkey troop, species, it has
members coalesce into peer wisdom teeth.
subgroups: adult males, pregnant It eats sap and
females, females with young, and gum (digging
juveniles. If an individual locates its incisor
food, subgroup members quickly teeth into bark
gather around to exploit the find. to make these
tail longer than flow), and fruit,
head and body insects, and small
slim tail vertebrates such as lizards.
expands
to black, The species forms stable,
SQUIRREL FEATURES
bushy tip close-knit groups of up to
The black-capped squirrel
monkey has a small, white face, 2 – 12, mainly male–female pairs
a large forehead, dark head crown and their young, and keeps to
above, black nose tip and muzzle, dense vegetation such as
and well-furred ears. creeper-tangled bamboo.
MONKEYS 145
long cape or hood of

Saguinus oedipus Mico argentatus Cebuella pygmaea hair on head
Cotton-top tamarin Silvery marmoset Pygmy marmoset

speckled
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Length 8 – 10 in Length 8 – 9 in Length 43⁄4 – 6 in tawny fur

(20 – 25 cm) (20 – 23 cm) (12 – 15 cm)
Tail 13 – 16 in Tail 10 – 13 in Tail 7 – 9 in
(33 – 40 cm) (26 – 33 cm) (17 – 23 cm)
Weight 14 – 16 oz Weight Up to 14 oz Weight 3 – 5 oz
(400 – 450 g) (400 g) (85 – 140 g)
Location N.W. South Social unit Group/Pair Location C. South Social unit Group Location W. South Social unit Group/Pair
America America America
Status Critically endangered Status Least concern Status Least concern
The long, white, Color is the main distinguishing The smallest monkey in the
flowing fur on feature among 23 very similar, world, a curled-up pygmy
the head crown closely related marmosets from south marmoset fits into a human
distinguishes this of the Amazon. This species has pale palm. However, it is long-lived
tamarin, found in silver-gray fur on the back, creamy for such a diminutive mammal
an extremely yellow on the underside, and black and may reach 12 years of age.
restricted range in on the tail; the face has pink skin and The pygmy marmoset differs from
Colombia. Like ears. In each small troop of silvery other marmosets in the way it eats
many marmosets marmosets, only one male and female gum: it gouges out 10 or more new
and tamarins, this breed. The rest are siblings, cousins, holes in bark each day, scent-marks clawed fingers
species has a and other “helpers,” who assist in them, and returns to these and older and toes
varied diet and a “helper” carrying and protecting the infants. holes at intervals to scrape up the
system of rearing offspring, in sticky, oozing liquid with its long, lower
which males and older incisor teeth. It also takes flower nectar,
siblings carry the very young. fruit, and small creatures such as
However, in each troop of grubs and spiders. The pygmy
2 – 15, only one male–female marmoset follows the reproductive indistinct black
and tawny
pair breeds; 4 out of 5 births pattern of other marmosets, with one tail rings
are twins. The cotton-top breeding pair per troop of 2 – 9. Other
MAMMALS
tamarin has been used troop members, usually older offspring,
in medical research, and are childcare “helpers,” who carry the
currently there are more of 2 newest youngsters after the breeding
these monkeys in captivity male has cared for them during the
than in the wild. first few weeks.
Callithrix geoffroyi Leontopithecus rosalia CONSERVATION
Geoffroy’s tufted-ear Golden lion tamarin An emblem of conservation, the golden

lion tamarin comes from Brazil’s Atlantic
marmoset Length 10 – 13 in
(26 – 33 cm)
coast forest—a habitat that has shrunk
dramatically. Declared endangered over
Length 7 – 9 in Tail 121⁄2 – 16 in
(32 – 40 cm) 30 years ago, its status rose to critically
(18 – 23 cm)
Weight Up to 29 oz endangered in 1996, when less than
Tail 111⁄2 in (29 cm)
(800 g) 300 wild animals remained. Captive
(190 – 350 g) Location E. South America Social unit Group/Pair breeding programs have proved very
(Rio São João basin)
Social unit Group/Pair Status Endangered successful. In 2008, there were about
Location E. South America 1,600 living in the wild, many of which
descended from animals raised in
captivity. However, with little original
This tamarin weighs twice the average habitat left, its future remains precarious.
for the marmoset and tamarin group.
ringed The face is dark gray and the hands,
tail fingers, and claws are long and thin,
to probe into bark and crevices for LION’S MANE
grubs. However some four-fifths of the The long, silky, red-
diet is fruit, supplemented by gum and gold head hair
nectar. It forages by day and sleeps at of this species
night in tangled vegetation or, more cascades over the
often, a hole in a tree. There is shoulders in the
only one male–female breeding manner of a lion’s
mane. Its attractive
pair in the troop of 2 – 11. In its
appearance is a
This marmoset prefers “helper” system of rearing further threat, making
secondary forest—regrown young—2 offspring being it a particular target
after logging—rather than typical for the group—sexual of the illegal pet trade.
primary areas. It digs holes in activity of the helpers is
tree bark with its long incisors, not suppressed,
marks “ownership” with scent although they
from its perineal gland, and then do not produce
returns to scrape up the oozed gum. young until
Like other marmosets, it also eats fruit they form
and insects. There is only one breeding the dominant
pair in each troop, but other members partnership.
also carry and protect the young.
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MAMMALS 146
MONKEYS 147
Mandrillus sphinx
Mandrill
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Length 18 – 33 in
(45 – 83 cm)
Tail 2 – 5 in
(5 – 12.5 cm)
Weight 14 – 60 lb
(6.5 – 27 kg)
Location W. Central Africa Social unit Group
Status Vulnerable
A scarlet nose with prominent, bony

blue flanges on either side are the
unmistakable characteristics of the
male mandrill. The female’s facial
color is much more subdued. She
is about a third of the size of the male,
which, at 231⁄2 in (60 cm) high to the A WARNING YAWN
shoulder, is the largest of all monkeys. When threatened by a predator or approached
Mandrills live in groups in dense African by rivals, the male will yawn widely to reveal his
rain forest, spending most of their day on fearsome teeth, which can be 2 ⁄2 in (6.5 cm) long.
1
the ground looking for fruit and seeds,

speckled,
as well as eggs and small animals. olive-gray fur
When night falls, they take to the stumpy tail
trees for safety. Troops move
over a range of up to 20 square
miles (50 square km); they
mark their territory with scent
and defend it against rivals.
Much of what is known
MAMMALS
about this species comes
from studies of captive
animals; in the wild, facial
hunted for meat, and with ridges
its habitat being destroyed
by logging, the mandrill is
4 limbs
becoming increasingly scarce. of similar
length
BOLD ADVERTISEMENT
With his spectacularly colored
face—scarlet nose with blue
flanges, and yellow beard—the mandrill
boldly declares his identity to other animals LIFE ON THE GROUND
in the forest. Together with his mauve-blue The mandrill walks and runs on all fours—a
rump, these colors also announce the form of locomotion made all the more efficient by
male’s sex and display his virility to females. having fore- and hindlimbs of nearly equal length.
MANDRILL SOCIETY
In the past, wild mandrills were thought to have a multi-level social structure like
Hamadryas baboons and geladas, with units of one male and several females.
But recent findings tell a different story.
They are mostly seen in hordes of a few
hundred individuals, but the adult males
remain solitary and reside in these
groups only during the mating season.
MALE AND FEMALE

The male is much larger than the female,
with a far more colorful face. They generally
live in very large, stable groups, although they
may split up into smaller groups temporarily.
MOTHER AND CHILD
The mandrill gives birth to one offspring every
18 months or so. At first, the mother will carry
the infant on her belly, but as it grows heavier,
it will ride through the forest on her back.
FORAGING PARTY
Mandrills often forage in small parties,
grunting constantly to stay in touch. When it is
time to move on, the dominant male will round
up his group with a 2-phase grunt or roar.
148 PRIMATES
Erythrocebus patas Cercopithecus neglectus Rungwecebus kipunji have originated by crossbreeding

between the two groups. It has a barking
Patas monkey De Brazza’s monkey Kipunji call, reminiscent of the grunts of
baboons. Two isolated populations
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Length 19 – 35 in Length 171⁄2 – 22 in Length 331⁄2 – 351⁄2 in together inhabit scarcely 38 square miles
(48 – 88 cm) (44 – 56 cm) (85 – 90 cm)
(100 square km), and the species is
Tail 25 – 28 in Tail 23 – 28 in Tail 391⁄2 – 431⁄2 in
(63 – 72 cm) (59 – 70 cm) (100 – 110 cm) threatened by deforestation and hunting.
Weight 83⁄4 – 29 lb Weight 7 – 12 lb Weight 22 – 35 lb
(4 – 13 kg) (3.2 – 5.5 kg) (10 – 16 kg)
Location W. to E. Africa Social unit Group Location C. to E. Africa Social unit Pair Location E. Africa Social unit Group
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Critically endangered
One of the most terrestrial of the 23 Discovered in 2003, this omnivorous

Cercopithecus species, De Brazza’s tree-dwelling primate from the Udzungwa
monkey is also the only one of the Mountains and Southern Highlands of
genus that forms male–female pair Tanzania was originally thought to be
bonds. Widespread yet inconspicuous a mangabey (a type of forest monkey)—
over its large range, it marks its territory but later shown to be more related to
with saliva and scent, yet avoids rather ground-dwelling baboons. It may even
than challenges any intruders. It has
blue-white upper lip and chin fur, and
a thin, white thigh stripe. It uses deep, Papio anubis
booming calls to communicate, and GROUP ORDER
This is one of the fastest monkeys

eats mainly seeds and fruit. Olive baboon
when it is running. It has a long, slim Length 20 – 35 in
(50 – 90 cm)
body, lengthy limbs, hands, and
Tail 15 – 231⁄2 in
feet, and short digits. The white (38 – 60 cm)
moustache and beard contrast Weight 31 – 66 lb
with the darker face; the red back (14 – 30 kg)
contrasts with the white limbs and Location W. to E. Africa Social unit Group
MAMMALS
underside. It lives in troops with an Status Least concern

average of 15 members, and the Female offspring tend to have a
single male stays on the periphery, position directly below their mother,
to act as decoy, drawing predators which depends on her position in
while the females and young hide. One of the largest baboons, and common the hierarchy. They don’t take their
across west and northeast Africa, the male place at the base unless the female
may be twice the female’s weight. Both has the lowest rank.
Macaca munzala Macaca nigra sexes have a thick, gray
ruff around the cheeks. PRIMATE “DOG”
Arunachal macaque Celebes crested They live in mixed
groups of 1 – 120, that
Typically powerful
and doglike, the
Length 23 in (58 cm) macaque tend to be smaller in olive baboon is
Tail 21⁄4 in (26.4 cm) West Africa (7 – 40) speckled olive-
Weight 31 lb (14 kg) Length 171⁄2 – 221⁄2 in than those in East green, with a black
(44 – 57 cm) face and rump.
Social unit Group Africa (30 – 120). They
Tail 1⁄2 – 1in (1.5 – 2.5 cm)
Status Endangered eat fruit, leaves,
Location S. Asia Weight 12 – 29 lb
(5.5 – 13 kg)
insects, lizards, and
Social unit Group
sometimes larger prey
Location S.E. Asia such as gazelle fawns.
(northern Sulawesi) Status Critically endangered
Restricted to the Indian Arunachal

Pradesh state of eastern Himalaya,
this macaque was scientifically
described in 2005 on the basis of The all-black fur, very short tail, and
photographs, and differs from related homeland of Celebes (now Sulawesi)
species in having a dark crown patch give this species the alternative name
and pale neck collar. It occurs between of Celebes black ape. A crest runs from
6,650 and 11,483 ft (2,000 – 3,500 m) in the forehead back over the crown. Papio papio varied: from tough roots to juicy grubs
coniferous and broadleaf forests, as Usually flat, it rises when the animal and eggs, and sometimes farm crops.
well as agricultural land. Like other
high altitude monkeys it is robustly
is aroused. This species forms huge,
mixed-sex troops of more than 100,
Guinea baboon Troops number up to 200, although
about 40 is more usual, with several
built to withstand the cold. Although yet is generally an inconspicuous, Length 14 – 34 in males gathering their own
(35 – 86 cm)
densely populated in places and quiet, fruit-eating forest dweller. harem of females.
Tail 17 – 28 in
relatively tolerant of humans, the (43 – 70 cm)
Arunachal macaque may be exposed Weight 22 – 57 lb
to retaliatory hunting when it raids midline (10 – 26 kg)
crops: this could threaten its long-term head crest Location W. Africa Social unit Group
survival. So far the species is known Status Near threatened
with certainty from no more than
5 locations within an area of about
1,042 square miles (2,700 square km)
—but it may also occur in adjacent The male of the smallest baboon
areas of Bhutan and Tibet. Field data species has proportionally the
suggest that there are less than 600 longest mane, reaching almost to his
known individuals. rump. Even for a baboon, the diet is
MONKEYS 149
Papio ursinus Theropithecus gelada Nasalis larvatus CHANGING FACE

Chacma baboon Gelada Proboscis monkey
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Length 20 – 39 in Length 20 – 30 in Length 24 – 30 in

(51 – 100 cm) (50 – 75 cm) (61 – 76 cm)
Tail 141⁄2 – 33 in Tail 13 – 20 in Tail 22 – 26 in
(37 – 84 cm) (33 – 50 cm) (55 – 67 cm)
Weight 55 – 97 lb Weight 26 – 66 lb Weight 22 – 53 lb
(25 – 44 kg) (12 – 30 kg) (10 – 24 kg)
Location Southern Africa Social unit Group Location E. Africa Social unit Group Location S.E. Asia Social unit Group
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Endangered
At birth, the young have a blue face,

The largest baboon, the chacma has a A close cousin of baboons, the Among the most specialized and dark fur, and a “normal” monkey
drooping snout and protruding nostrils. pink-chested gelada is restricted to the distinctive of mammals, the proboscis nose. The coloration changes and
Fur color varies from yellow-gray windy, grassy Ethiopian highlands. Its monkey occupies very restricted the nose grows with age. In
to black, paler on the muzzle. This limited diet of grass blades, stems, and habitats near water in lowland females, the nose is much
intelligent, adaptable primate enjoys seeds is picked by rapid, dextrous hand rainforest, mangrove smaller than in the male,
very fluid troop composition in some movements as it sits and shuffles along. swamps, and coasts but it is still large compared
parts of its range. Its wide diet ranges Small groups of females and young led on the island of Borneo. to related species.
from roots and seeds to insects and by a male may band The average troop is
young gazelles. In the wild, it is known into huge but one male with 6 – 10
LARGE NOSE
to use tools such as sticks. loose troops. females and their
The proboscis monkey’s
young. The male defining feature is its large
defends his nose. In mature males, it is
group, honks long and pendulous, and
loudly, bares may play a role in
his teeth, and attracting a mate.
waves his
erect penis
at an aggressor.
MAMMALS
partly
webbed feet
Semnopithecus entellus Colobus guereza but is otherwise black. Each male

leads a small troop of
Northern plains Guereza 6 – 10 females and
young, defending his
gray langur Length 201⁄2 – 221⁄2 in
(52 – 57 cm)
territory with roars
and tremendous
Tail 21 – 33 in
Length 18 – 31 in
(53 – 83 cm) leaps. The 3-part
(45 – 78.5 cm)
Weight 18 – 30 lb stomach houses gut
Tail 32 – 43 in
(80 – 112 cm) (8 – 13.5 kg) microbes that break
Location C. and E. Africa Social unit Group down cellulose-
Weight 21 – 43 lb
(9.5 – 19.5 kg) Status Least concern based plant food,
Location India Social unit Group enabling this
Status Least concern species to gain
twice as much
Also known as the eastern black and nutrition than
white colobus, this monkey has a black other monkeys
This langur is found throughout the and white face border, “veils” down its from such a
Indian subcontinent, except rainforest flanks and rump, and a bushy tail tip, leaf-rich diet.
areas. Coloration varies from dark
brown in individuals from the Himalayas
to pale fawn in those furthest south. Rhinopithecus strykeri black with a white beard and ear tufts,
Groups of females and young may be and probably has a total population
led by one or several males, while other
males form bachelor troops.
Myanmar snub-nosed of only 260 to 330 individuals that are
apparently segregated into 3 groups.
monkey Five species of snub-nosed monkeys
from Asian mountain forests get
MIXED DIET Length 21 in (56 cm) their name from their stump-noses;
The northern plains gray langur feeds Tail 27 – 31 in (68 – 78 cm) reputedly, they avoid getting rain in their
mostly on leaves, fruit, buds, and Weight 19 – 31 lb nostrils by sitting out rainstorms with
(8.5 – 14 kg)
shoots, which it digests easily in its their heads facing downward between
Social unit Group
compartmentalized stomach. Like their knees. Nevertheless, according to
Location S. Asia Status Critically
many wild creatures, these monkeys endangered
local sources, the snub-nosed monkey
supplement their diet by licking salt or of rain-soaked Myanmar is often heard
eating mineral-rich soil. Troops that live sneezing during downpours. Snub-
around villages also often benefit from nosed monkeys are entirely vegetarian.
leftovers and offerings from local people, This species was described in 2010 from In winter, heavy snowfall forces them
who hold the species sacred, identifying specimens secured from hunters, and to descend to lower elevations in
it with the Hindu deity Hanuman. lives in the temperate forests of northern search of food—which may bring
Myanmar in the eastern Himalaya. It is them closer to villages.
150 PRIMATES
Apes
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PHYLUM Chordata Apes are the closest relatives to humans. A maturing young will attempt to Chimpanzees apparently pass on
They are similar to people not only in establish its own territory by singing customs and technologies socially,
CLASS Mammalia
alone, until it finds a mate. by example, rather than genetically.
ORDER Primates
appearance but also in that they are highly The orangutan is the only great
SUBORDER Haplorrhini (part)
intelligent and form complex social groups. ape that is solitary. A mature male Intelligence
Apes are divided into the lesser apes (the controls a large territory with deep, Apes are extremely intelligent—
FAMILIES 2 resonant calling. He has access even more so than monkeys. They
gibbons) and the larger great apes—the to all the females that enter his appear to work through problems
SPECIES 26
orangutan, gorillas, and chimpanzees. The domain. The other great apes have in the same way that humans do.
great apes are genetically very similar to well-defined social groups. Gorillas Chimpanzees, for example, use
live in troops of 5 – 10 (occasionally up and sometimes make simple tools,
humans. They are found in western and central Africa and
to 30), consisting of several females, as does at least one population of
throughout southern and Southeast Asia, mainly in tropical one dominant mature (“silverback”) orangutans in northern Sumatra.
rainforests. Apes are essentially vegetarian and mostly eat male, and possibly one or 2 other The orangutan is one example of
fruit, although some are omnivorous. They are threatewned silverbacks (the sons or younger an ape that has performed several
brothers of the dominant male). complex tasks—such as solving
by loss of their forest habitat, hunting and poaching (often for Chimpanzees live in communities puzzles, using sign language, and
their skins or skulls), and capture for zoos and the pet trade. of 40 – 100. Although there is a learning to recognize symbols—in
Chimpanzees were once widely used in medical research. dominant male and a social hierarchy, research centers.
individuals have almost complete
freedom to come and go.
Foraging occurs in small
Anatomy well-developed jaw, grasping hands groups, the composition
A shortened spine and a relatively and feet, and downward-directed, of which changes daily.
short, broad pelvis lower the center close-set nostrils. The great apes Chimpanzees found
of gravity in apes, thereby facilitating are very large: the orangutan is the in West Africa are
a more upright posture. Apes have largest arboreal mammal and the particularly fond
a broad chest, with the shoulder gorilla may weigh over 440 lb (200 kg). of hunting, and
blades at the back, which allows an the males
Social organization
MAMMALS
exceptionally wide range of movement cooperate

in the shoulder joint. A gorilla, for Lesser apes may form monogamous closely to
example, can sit on the ground and pairs. They mark their treetop catch several
reach out in any direction to pull in territories with loud, musical songs monkeys (for
vegetation. Apes also have a in which the male and female example)
flattened face, sing different parts. at once.
MUTUAL GROOMING
Grooming is important in ape societies because it
strengthens and maintains bonds between individuals,
such as these two chimpanzees. However, it is also a
means of gaining favor and is used, for example, by
males to ensure support from friends in the event of
a challenge to their supremacy.
APES 151
Symphalangus syndactylus Nomascus concolor Hoolock tianxing
Siamang 116 acres

(47 hectares), but
Black-crested gibbon Skywalker hoolock
gibbon
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Length 30 – 35 in defends only some arm spread Length 18 – 25 in

(75 – 90 cm) up to 1.5 m (45 – 64 cm)
60 percent of this
Tail None (5 ft) Tail None
as their territory, Length 32 in (81 cm)
Weight 193⁄4 – 281⁄2 lb Weight 10 – 20 lb
(9 – 13 kg) chiefly using their (4.5 – 9 kg)
Tail None
Social unit Group/Pair

powerful calls, Social unit Group/Pair
Weight 13 – 15 lb
Location S.E. Asia Location S.E. Asia (5.8 – 6.8 kg)
Status Endangered
barks, and screams. Status Critically Social unit Group
endangered
Location Eastern Status Not evaluated
Myanmar, S.W. China
ALL BLACK
The largest gibbon, with a “standing” The siamang is covered
height of 5 ft (1.5 m), the siamang also with black, shaggy fur. Unlike most other “flat-headed”
has the loudest calls of the group, and The male is slightly gibbons, the black-crested gibbon
larger than the female
the closest-knit families. The female has long fur on the head crown.
and has a tuft of hair on
(who is dominant), male, and 1 – 2 his genital region The offspring is born with yellow fur,
offspring rarely stray more than 100 ft that, at a replaced by black fur as it matures; females
(30 m) from each other, and are usually glance, looks continue to change to brown or gray. This
less than 33 ft (10 m) apart. About like a tail. gibbon eats mainly leaf buds, shoots, and
three-fifths of their food intake is leaves, fruit, but rarely animals. It lives in groups,
and one-third fruits, with a few blossoms usually a female, a male, and their young.
and small creatures such as grubs. The webbed
family occupies a home range of about second and
third toes
BARKS AND SCREAMS Named after a character from the

The siamang’s dark gray, elastic Star Wars film franchise, the skywalker
throat skin inflates to the size of hoolock gibbon (also known as
a grapefruit, to act as a resonator the Gaoligong hoolock gibbon)
and amplify its amazingly loud calls. was originally considered a color
The male’s screams are thought to variation of the eastern hoolock
MAMMALS
discourage other males, while the gibbon (H. leuconedys). It is thought
female’s longer, more distinctive to feed mainly on fleshy fruits, but
series of barklike sounds is associated also leaves and flowers, as does
with territory defense. the species with which it was
originally classified.
Hylobates lar about 6 months in the wild; the single

offspring is suckled for 18 months, is BRACHIATION
Lar gibbon adult size by 6 years, and fully mature by
9 years. Lifespan in the wild averages
The gibbon’s arm-hanging, hand-
swinging method of movement
Length 161⁄2 – 23 in 25 – 30 years. Deforestation and hunting is called brachiation. It saves energy
(42 – 59 cm)
by humans are the major threats. by maintaining momentum, using
Tail None
the body as a pendulum. The lar
(4 – 8.5 kg) gibbon releases its grip with one
Social unit Pair hand at the height of its arc of swing,
Location S.E. Asia young clings to as its forward-facing eyes allow
Status Endangered
mother’s chest stereoscopic, distance-judging vision
that helps determine the next
handhold, which may be 9 3⁄4 ft (3 m)
The lar gibbon becomes active shortly away. The small thumb is set far
after dawn, when a female and male back near the wrist and the
“duet” to reinforce their pair-bond. She fingers work like a hook.
begins with a series of loud, long hoots
that rise to a crescendo; the male
arms approximately
responds as these fade, with simpler, 40 percent longer
more tremulous hoots. Each duet, than legs
HANDY FEET
repeated numerous times, lasts 15 – 20
seconds according to region. Most of WHITE FRINGES
This gibbon’s skin is
this gibbon’s day is spent finding food
black and the fur around
and eating. Half the diet is fruit, the rest its face, hands, and feet
being leaves, insects, and flowers. Some is white. The rest of the
15 minutes each day is spent in mutual fur is uniformly colored
grooming between partners. The lar for each individual, but
gibbon rarely moves at night, resting varies from cream to red,
among tree branches or tree forks. Also brown, or almost black.
called the common or white-handed
ischial callosities
gibbon, the lar gibbon was considered (hard-skinned sitting pads) The feet of the lar and other
to make lifelong pair-bonds, but recent gibbons, like the palms of their
studies show some serial monogamy hands, have bare, leathery-skinned
with occasional partner changes, and soles for effective grip. The big toe
even non-monogamous groupings. is able to grasp in opposition to the
Each pair or group defends a territory other toes, so that they can walk
comprising about three-quarters of upright along branches.
its total home range. Gestation is
152 PRIMATES
Hylobates moloch Pan paniscus forages and grooms. Sexual relations

are common between males, females, LONG INFANCY
Moloch gibbon Bonobo and young in various combinations, and
may be used to ease social tensions.
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Length 18 – 25 in Length 28 – 33 in Females are dominant and leave their

(45 – 64 cm) (70 – 83 cm)
family groups when mature; males
Tail None Tail None
tend to stay.
Weight 13 – 15 lb Weight Up to 95 lb
(6 – 7 kg) (43 kg)
Social unit Pair Social unit Group
FACE AND FUR
Location S.E. Asia Location C. Africa The skin of the pygmy chimpanzee
Status Endangered Status Endangered
is mostly black, even on a juvenile’s
face. The fur on the crown has a
central “parting.”
Pale eyebrows, cheeks, and beard The bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee
merge with the mainly silvery fur of this is only slightly smaller than the The bonobo is born after 8
gibbon. Its diet is fruit, some leaves, common chimpanzee (see below), months’ gestation, and
and sometimes nectar and grubs. Like but has a slimmer body and relatively suckled by its mother for
most other gibbons, the family group longer and more slender limbs. It up to 3 years. The female
(female, male, offspring) use calls to feeds chiefly on the ground, mainly continues to protect,
defend their territory. Unlike the lar on fruit and seeds, but also on groom, and share nests
gibbon (p.151), the male and female leaves, flowers, fungi, eggs, with her offspring for
do not “duet” together. and small animals. This ape another year or 2. The
can live in groups of up to interval between births
dark 120 but is usually found in is about 5 years.
blue-gray
head cap smaller groups, as it
MAMMALS
Pan troglodytes tools but also make them—for example,

stripping side branches from a twig, VOCAL CHIMPANZEES
Common chimpanzee which it uses to scoop out termites from
their nest. The two chimpanzee species
The common chimpanzee makes more
than 30 distinct calls, including the
Length 28 – 38 in are our closest living relatives, and their pant-hoot (shown right), which consists
(70 – 96 cm)
intelligence, range of emotions, and of shrieks and roars that can be heard
Tail None
communication and up to 11⁄4 miles (2 km) away. It is used
Weight 44 – 200 lb
(20 – 70 kg) learning skills have in many situations and is the
Social unit Group
made them most common adult sound. It is
Location W. to C. Africa valuable to animal thought to identify the caller
Status Endangered
trainers, collectors, within its community and solicit
and researchers. information from other members.
They are also
killed for the
Common chimpanzees live in bushmeat trade. FACIAL FEATURES
communities of up to 150. Subgroup The common chimpanzee uses NIGHT NESTS
composition varies almost hourly for a wide variety of expressions,
bare skin on
activities such as grooming, feeding, face darkens
clearly visible on the hairless
with age facial area. In particular, it uses
traveling, and defending the territory.
its flexible, protrusile lips to
This last task is usually carried out by make grimacelike “smiles”
adult male parties, who may attack that actually signify fear.
and kill stray chimps from other
communities. Most daylight hours
sparse black
are spent eating—mainly fruit and hair over most
leaves, but also flowers and seeds. of body
Raiding parties sometimes cooperate Each adult common chimpanzee
to kill and eat animal prey, such builds a new, individual tree nest
as monkeys, birds, and small arms each night for sleeping. (Rarely, an
longer
antelopes. Social bonds may than legs old nest is renovated or reused.)
last years, but there are no The common chimpanzee bends
long-term male–female bonds over and intertwines many branches
for reproduction. The single to make a firm, leafy platform, usually
young (rarely twins), born 10 – 33 ft (3 – 10 m) above the forest
after a gestation period of knuckles floor, away from ground-based
8 months, is fed, carried, and used for predators. Infants generally sleep
groomed by its mother for 3 – 4 years. walking in their mothers’ nests until they
It also learns her feeding techniques. big toe opposes are about 5 – 6 years of age.
Common chimpanzees not only use other toes
APES 153
Gorilla gorilla The largest living primates, gorillas are stable groups of 3 – 20 with strong bonds
day-active forest dwellers that feed on between the silverback (dominant male) NERVOUS BEHAVIOR
Western gorilla fruit, leaves, stems, and seeds, as well as
a few small creatures such as termites. At
and the females with offspring, the
western gorilla uses a wide range of
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Height 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 ft night, they bend tree twigs and branches facial expressions, body gestures, and
(1 – 1.1 m)
to form a sleeping nest. sounds to communicate, including
Tail None
Living in small, whimpers, grunts, rumbles of
(57 – 195 kg) contentment, and alarm barks. Its home
Social unit Group
range of 2,000 – 4,450 acres (800 – 1,800
Location C. Africa hectares) may overlap with neighboring
groups but is not actively defended. The
single young is born after a gestation of
257 days. It clings to its mother’s belly for
4 – 6 months, then rides on her shoulders When nervous, gorillas may
“silverback” of or back. It first chews vegetation at 4 “yawn” (above). They usually
mature male months and is weaned by 3 years. They avoid danger by walking quietly
mature at 4 – 5 years. in single file into thick forest—termed
“silent flight.” In active defense, the
SILVERBACK silverback barks and stares. If the
The adult male gorilla is almost twice the weight threat persists, he may charge (see
of the female, and has a taller bony head crest, panel, below).
longer canine teeth, and a “saddle” of silvery fur.
CONSERVATION
The main threats to western gorillas
are slash-and-burn clearance of
their forest habitat, illegal hunting
for the commercial bushmeat trade,
and trophy poaching. Almost all
gorillas in zoos and parks belong to
this species, but reintroductions of
captive-bred individuals into the
MAMMALS
wild are rarely attempted, partly
due to the gorilla’s complex, close-
knit social life. Habitat conservation
opposable mainly remains the long-term priority.
big toe black fur
Gorilla beringei WARM FUR DEFENSE DISPLAY

Eastern gorilla is unlikely to transfer to another male
unless her original mate is killed. The
Height 31⁄4 – 4 ft offspring remains with its mother until
(1 – 1.2 m)
her next birth, after about 4 years. Some
Tail None
eastern gorillas attract tourist income
(68 – 210 kg) and receive protection, but others are
Social unit Group
at continued risk from poaching.
Location C. and E. Africa
Status Critically
endangered
GORILLA GROUP
Long-term groups of up to 40 usually The mountain subspecies of
comprise one silverback, females, and eastern gorilla has long, shaggy
Previously considered a subspecies of young. Sometimes brothers, or father fur to retain body warmth at If barking does not deter an
the western gorilla, this species includes and son, stay together, resulting in a altitudes of up to 13,200 ft attacker (see panel, above), the
eastern lowland gorillas (Gorilla beringei multi-male group. (4,000 m). Only the face, silverback may begin to hoot. He
graueri), and one or more subspecies of hands, and feet (and the then stands upright, beats his
mountain gorillas (such as Gorilla male’s chest) lack hair. chest with cupped hands (the bare
beringei beringei). Each group roams skin amplifies the sound), and
a home range of 1,000 – 2,000 acres throws vegetation. If this fails, he
(400 – 800 hectares), which, apart from may charge with a huge roar, and
a central core area, may overlap with hand-swipe or knock over and
neighboring groups. Main foods are bite the invader.
leaves, shoots, and stems, especially
bamboo; also fruit, roots, soft bark, and
fungi. Occasionally, ants are scooped up
and swallowed quickly before they bite.
At dusk, the group settles to rest—the
adult males on the ground, females and
young sometimes in nests in trees. Each
female shares a nest with her current
offspring. The dominant silverback
fathers most or all young in the group.
He gains the attention of receptive
females with mock feeding, hoots,
chest-beating, thumping plants, or
jump-kicking. A female who has bred,
154 PRIMATES
“PERSON OF THE FOREST”

Pongo pygmaeus CONSERVATION The male orangutan—which
Bornean orangutan Although protected by law, infants
are still captured and sold illegally as
means “person of the forest”
in Malay—looks strikingly
different from the female,
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Height 28 – 38 in pets. Palm oil plantations are also a with large cheek pads
(72 – 97 cm)
major threat to their habitat. Their (which grow bigger as the
(30 – 85 kg) survival is important as they are a animals age), a long beard
Social unit Individual keystone species, vital to dispersing and mustache, and a
Status Critically
fruit seeds. Projects to rehabilitate hanging throat pouch.
Location S.E. Asia (Borneo) endangered rescued orangutans have a good He also has long arm
success rate, but some animals hair, which hangs like
find it difficult to readjust to life in a cape when the arms
are outstretched.
their diminishing natural habitat.
The orangutan is very much a tree-
dwelling animal, feeding, sleeping, and
breeding in the forest canopy, with only
males occasionally coming to ground.
It spends most of the day looking for
and eating fruit and other food, and at
night it builds a sleeping platform by
weaving branches together. The female
gives birth in a treetop nest, and the
tiny infant clings to its mother as she
clambers about the canopy. The pair
will stay together until the youngster
is about 8 years old. Orangutans live
in widely scattered communities— the Bornean and the Sumatran (Pongo
probably determined by the availability abelii). Loss of habitat presents the main
of food. They are mainly solitary, but threat to both species as their forest
may meet up with others at fruit trees, homelands are destroyed by logging
and adolescent females may travel and fire. It is estimated
together for 2 or 3 days. All will be that Bornean orangutans
aware of neighboring males from their now number,
MAMMALS
roaring “long-calls.” Until fairly recently, 45,000 – 69,000,

orangutans were considered to be a while as few as
single species—Pongo pygmaeus. 7,300 Sumatran
Genetic research has now led to two orangutans survive.
distinct species being recognized:
strong, very long arms

grasping hands compared to body
ARBOREAL APE handlike

With its long arms, feet
spanning up to 71⁄ 4 ft
(2.2 m), and feet that can
grasp branches like hands,
this male orangutan is well
adapted to life in the treetops.
Its limbs are also extremely flexible,
with wrist, hip, and shoulder joints
allowing a greater range of movement
than in the other great apes.
FOOD FROM THE FOREST

Fruit is the favourite food of orangutans, but
they will also eat other parts of plants, as well as
honey, small animals such as lizards, termites and
nestling birds, and eggs.
FAMILY GROUP
A mother and her offspring
forage together in the
forest, plucking fruit
and leaves from
the trees.
EATING HABITS
Orangutans use their hands
and teeth to prepare
their food, stripping
plants and peeling
fruit to expose the
succulent flesh.
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MAMMALS
155
156 BATS
Bats
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PHYLUM Chordata Bats are the only mammals that possess true,
CLASS Mammalia flapping wings and the ability to fly (as opposed
ORDER Chiroptera to colugos, for example, which glide). Bats’ wing
FAMILIES 18 membrane (the patagium), an extension of the skin
= SPECIES 1,330 of the back and belly, provides a high degree of
maneuverability in flight. Wingspans range from over
CLASSIFICATION NOTE 5 ft (1.5 m) in the large flying fox to as little as 6 in (15 cm)
Chiroptera has 2 suborders:
Megachiroptera, comprising
in the hog-nosed bat. Over half the species echolocate
one family (Pteropodidae), and (see below) to capture prey and to navigate at night.
Microchiroptera (all other bats).
Megachiropterans have a Chiroptera is a huge order that comprises nearly a quarter
foxlike face that lacks features
for echolocation (see below). of all mammal species and is exceeded only by rodents in
terms of species numbers. Bats are common in tropical
and temperate habitats worldwide but are not found in environments that
are too cold to support a source of food, such as the polar regions.
Anatomy thumb second finger

Perhaps the most distinctive feature collarbone fused vertebrae
of bats is their wings, which are formed third finger forearm
from a double layer of skin stretched fourth finger upper arm
between the side of the body and
the 4 elongated fingers on each
hand. Blood vessels and nerves run
fifth flattened
MAMMALS
between these 2 layers. Extra support ribs

finger elbow
is required for the arms to be used as upper leg knee
wings, and this is provided by features
such as fused vertebrae, flattened ribs, lower leg
and a strong collarbone. The sternum
(breastbone) has a central ridge to which foot
the large muscles used in the downward stroke
of the wing are attached. A short, clawed thumb Echolocation
is present in most species at the point where the SKELETAL FEATURES All microchiropterans echolocate. When used
fingers join, and a cartilaginous spur (the calcar) A bat’s arms, legs, and greatly in flight, this navigation system makes them formidable
on the inside of the ankle joint assists in elongated fingers provide the hunters. Sounds (“clicks”) are produced in the larynx,
spreading the tail membrane. framework for the wings. Bats’ legs emitted through the nose or mouth, and directed or focused
have been rotated 180 degrees so by the nose leaf (if present). Once the clicks have reflected off
that the knee and the foot bend in an object, the returning echo is picked up via the bat’s sensitive
large
external the opposite direction to the knee ears. The time it takes to receive the echo reveals the size and
ears tragus and back foot of other mammals. location of anything in the bat’s path.
nose
leaf USING SOUND TO FIND PREY
EQUIPPED FOR ECHOLOCATION All of the insect-eating bats use
Although bats’ eyes are well developed, hearing and the echolocation to find airborne prey.
large sense of smell are more important than sight. Many When searching for food, such as
nostrils microchiropterans, such as this neotropical fruit bat, also mosquitoes and moths, the bat
have a large nose leaf, which assists echolocation. The emits a series of clicks, represented
function of the tragus (a lobe in the front of the ear) is by red bars on this diagram. As the
small uncertain: it may improve the accuracy of echolocation. seek approach seize bat approaches its prey, the time
eyes Megachiropteran bats generally do not echolocate and PHASES OF ECHOLOCATION AS A BAT between “clicks” shortens. This
have larger eyes (for detecting prey) and smaller ears. HUNTS AN INSECT helps the bat to pinpoint its target.
CATCHING PREY FROM THE AIR
1 2 3 4
CLOSING IN ON THE PREY CAPTURE HOLDING ON FINDING A PLACE TO FEED
Using echolocation, this fisherman bat has In one swift movement, the bat catches the fish The bat quickly transfers the fish from its claws In order to eat the fish, the bat must
pinpointed a small surface-swimming fish. by raking the water with its long, sharp claws. to its mouth, so that the fish cannot escape. first locate a tree on which to land.
BATS 157
Foraging and diet FEEDING ON FRUIT

Most fruit-eating bats use their
CONSERVATION
Many bats eat insects: some species forage for senses of sight and smell to find Despite being rich in terms of species,
them among shrubs and trees, while others skim food and so lack facial ornaments bats face a huge variety of threats.
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the surface of the forest canopy to catch higher- used in echolocation. This epauletted Globally, one of the most serious is
flying insects. A single bat may eat hundreds of fruit bat is eating a mango: a group habitat loss, particularly in forested
mosquitoes in one night (thereby lessening the of these bats in a plantation can regions. Fruit-eating bats are also
incidence of malaria in other animals). Other cause considerable damage. Since persecuted as pests, and are killed
bats eat fruit, and some use their long tongue fruit bats require a constant supply by colliding with power lines, while
to feed on pollen and nectar. Vampire bats use of ripe fruit, they are found mostly in insect-eating bats are threatened by
their sharp teeth to make a small incision in the tropical areas. Fruit bats often feed white nose disease—a potentially
skin of an animal while it sleeps and then drink in groups and fly long distances in deadly fungal pathogen that first
the blood. Carnivorous bats prey on lizards and search of food. came to light in North America in
frogs; fish-eating bats use the hooked claws on 2006. Bats are now routinely fit with
their powerful feet to capture fish (see below). microchips and radio collars that
allow them to be tracked. This fruit
bat (below) will broadcast for several
FEEDING ON BLOOD months, showing exactly where it
Vampire bats are well adapted to roosts and feeds.
feed on blood. They have sharp
incisors to cut into flesh, and
produce saliva that prevents the
blood from clotting. This white-
winged vampire bat commonly
feeds on the blood of chickens.
MAMMALS
Roosting
Bats often gather in great numbers at a single site,
which may be a cave, the roof of an old building, or
a hollow tree. All roosting sites must provide a resting
FLYING MAMMAL place that offers protection from predators, the
Bats, the only mammals that can fly, have structural heat of the sun, the low temperatures of winter
adaptations that allow them to make up-and-down (hibernating roosts), and rain. Bamboo bats are small
movements of their wings (in the same way as enough to roost in the hollow stems of a plant, while A PLACE TO REST
birds). The open wings of this New World leaf-nosed some species of leaf-nosed bats bite into leaf stems Bats, such as these fruit bats,
bat reveal the extent of the wing membranes. so that the leaf droops downward, forming a tent commonly roost in caves during the
around them. Why bats gather in such large numbers day, emerging at dusk to feed. Some
is not fully understood; however, at the end of species use the same roost for
hibernation, bats living in colonies often weigh many years and gather in groups
more than species that do not. of many thousands.
5 6 7 8
LANDING DEVOURING THE PREY ROOM FOR PLENTY ALMOST GONE
As the bat attaches itself to a tree (upside down), The fish is eaten head first. The bat may use The bat has highly elastic cheeks, which With its meal nearly finished, the fisherman bat
it continues to hold the fish firmly in its mouth. its wings to manipulate the food. can be extended during feeding. will soon begin the hunt for more food.
158 BATS
smoky gray underparts

Rousettus aegyptiacus Epomops franqueti Epomophorus wahlbergi
Egyptian rousette Franquet’s Wahlberg’s

epauletted bat epauletted fruit bat
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Length 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in

(14 – 16 cm)
Tail 1⁄2 – 3⁄4 in Length 41⁄4 – 6 in Length 43⁄4 – 61⁄4 in
(1.5 – 2 cm) (11 – 15 cm) (12 – 15.5 cm)
Weight 2 ⁄8 – 3 ⁄8 oz
7 5
Tail None Tail None
(80 – 100 g)
Location W. Asia, N. Africa Social unit Group Weight 3 – 35⁄8 oz Weight 23⁄8 – 4 oz
(Egypt), W., E., and southern (85 – 100 g) (65 – 125 g)
Africa Status Least concern Social unit Group Social unit Variable
Location W. and C. Africa Location E., C., and
Status Least concern southern Africa Status Least concern
Widespread and adaptable, these

fruit- and leaf-eating bats are sometimes At night, male Franquet’s epauletted
so common that they reach pest status bats make monotonous high-pitched
FUR-COVERED FOREARMS
and damage farm crops. They are also collar of whistling calls to attract females for
The Egyptian rousette varies yellow or
one of the fruit bat species to use the from dark brown to slate gray mating. The male is slightly heavier than
buff fur
high-pitched “clicks” of echolocation. on the back, with lighter, smoky most obvious the female and has shoulder patches of
This means they can find their way gray underparts. Unusually, its in males long, pale hairs. This species breeds at
around and roost in dark caves, rather fur extends about halfway any time, and twice
than sleeping in trees like other fruit bats. along each forearm. yearly if guavas,
bananas, other
fruit, and soft, young
Styloctenium mindorensis With its orange coat and white-striped leaves are abundant.
face, this stunningly colored fruit bat was
Mindoro stripe-faced discovered in 2006 in lowland forest on
Philippines’ Mindoro Island—following
fruit bat local rumors of its existence. It is found
nowhere else though there is pale patch In addition to white “epaulette” fur
Length 6 – 7 in speculation that Western Australian of fur at base patches on the male’s shoulders, both
(15 – 18 cm) of ear
aboriginal paintings depict this bat or sexes have 2 white patches at the base
Tail None
MAMMALS
a closely related species. Currently, of each ear. These pale tufts may be
Weight 1⁄4 – 1⁄2 lb
(150 – 210 g)
the only other member of its genus is disruptive camouflage, breaking up
Social unit Group
known with certainty from Sulawesi. the bat’s outline when seen from below
Location Philippines Little is known about Mindoro’s against dappled leaves. In the breeding
Status Data deficient
stripe-faced fruit bat, and the species is season, the male’s distinctive call to
threatened by deforestation and hunting. attract females resembles a squeaky
bicycle pump.
Pteropus rodricensis Rhynchonycteris naso Taphozous mauritianus
Rodrigues flying fox Proboscis bat Mauritian tomb bat

Length 14 in hooklike foot Length 11⁄2 – 2 in Length 23⁄4 – 31⁄2 in
(35 cm) claws permit (3.5 – 5 cm) (7.5 – 9.5 cm)
Tail None roosting without brown wing Tail 3⁄8 – 1⁄2 in Tail 3⁄ 4 – 11⁄4 in
Weight 9 – 10 oz muscle tension membranes (1 – 1.5 cm) (2 – 3 cm)
(250 – 275 g) Weight 1⁄8 – 7⁄32 oz Weight 9⁄16 – 11⁄16 oz
Social unit Group (3 – 6 g) (15 – 30 g)
Location Indian Ocean Location Mexico to C. Social unit Group Location W., C., E., and Social unit Group
(Rodriguez Island) Status Critically endangered South America southern Africa,
Status Least concern Madagascar Status Least concern
Formerly, the daytime roosts or “camps” Also called the sharp-nosed bat, this
of this flying fox contained more than species has a long, pointed nose and
500 individuals. Due to habitat loss, streamlined appearance. It is a typical
through storm damage and human small, insectivorous bat, but shows
intervention, and also local hunting for unique roosting behavior as groups
food, the species currently numbers of 5 – 10 (rarely more than 40) rest by
about 4,000 in the wild. Several centers, day in a line, nose-to-tail on a branch
however, have established successful or wooden beam. One adult male
captive breeding programs. At night, the may dominate the group and may
bats forage in dry woodland defend their feeding area—a nearby A member of the sheath-tailed group,
for fruit of various trees, such patch of water where they catch the Mauritian tomb bat is known
as tamarinds, rose-apples, small insects. across Africa for its wide range of
mangoes, palms, and figs. Like clicks, squeaks, and other noises just
many other fruit bats, they squeeze audible to some humans. It also makes
out the juices and soft pulp, rarely ultrasonic sounds for echolocation.
swallowing the harder parts. This active bat is watchful as it roosts
Observations in captivity show that by day in the open on tree trunks and
each dominant male gathers a walls, including town buildings.
harem of up to 10 females, with which It hunts in clearings, especially over
he roosts and mates. Subordinate and water, for flying insects. The back is
white
immature males tend to roost in another stripes grizzled brown-black; the underparts
part of the camp. brown fur on back and wings are white.
BATS 159
Macroderma gigas Thyroptera tricolor Rhinolophus hipposideros This diminutive bat is widespread
in woods and scrub. Despite being
Ghost bat Spix’s disk-winged Lesser horseshoe bat classified as least concern, the
species is at risk. Its underground,
bat
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Length 4 – 43⁄4 in Length 11⁄2 in winter hibernation sites, such as deep

(10 – 12 cm) (4 cm)
caverns, have been disturbed, as have
Tail None Tail 3⁄4 – 11⁄2 in
Length 11⁄2 in
(2 – 3.5 cm) summer day roosts in tree holes, caves,
Weight 25⁄8 – 5 oz (4 cm)
(75 – 150 g) Weight 5⁄32 – 3⁄8 oz chimneys, and mine shafts. Domestic
Tail 1 – 11⁄2 in
Social unit Group (2.5 – 3.5 cm) (4 – 10 g) cats take a heavy toll and destruction
Location W. and N. Location Europe, N. Africa Social unit Group of woods and hedges has reduced the
Australia Status Vulnerable Weight 1⁄8 – 3⁄16 oz to W. Asia
(3 – 5 g) Status Least concern availability of its prey of small flying
Location Mexico to Social unit Group insects. The lesser horseshoe is one
Central America, South
America, Trinidad Status Least concern of the smallest of the 80 species of
horseshoe bats.
The disk-winged or sucker-footed bat

has a rounded, suckerlike structure
near each thumb claw in the middle
front edge of the wing, and a smaller broad wings
one on the sole of each foot. Like tiny allow slow,
suction cups, these grip smooth, glossy hovering
flight
leaf surfaces so that the bat can shelter
within partly furled leaves—roosting
head up, unlike nearly all other bats.
The grip of a single sucker is sufficient
to bear the bat’s weight, which averages
0.14 oz (4 g). Alternatively, it rests with
others of its kind in small groups of up
horseshoe- relatively
to 10, among unfurled leaves. Spix’s shaped large head
This species is also known as the disk-winged bat is the smallest of 5 nose leaf
Australian false vampire bat after the New World disk-winged species, and
mistaken belief that it feeds on blood. feeds on small creatures, many of them
MAMMALS
One of the largest microchiropterans, nonflying, such as jumping spiders. It is Hipposideros speoris Nycteris grandis
it preys on insects, birds, lizards, and slim and delicate, with a dark or reddish
other bats. Its decline may be partly
due to the increasing use of its rocky
brown back and whitish brown or yellow
underparts. Females are slightly larger
Schneider’s leaf- Large slit-faced bat
roosting sites for mines and quarries. than the males. nosed bat Length 23⁄4 – 33⁄4 in
(7 – 9.5 cm)
Length 13⁄4 – 21⁄2 in Tail 21⁄2 – 3 in
(4.5 – 6 cm) (6.5 – 7.5 cm)
Rhinopoma hardwickei Pteronotus davyi Tail 3⁄4 – 11⁄4 in Weight 7⁄8 – 17⁄16 oz
(2 – 3 cm) (25 – 40 g)
Lesser mouse- Davy’s naked- Weight 11⁄32 – 7⁄16 oz
(9 – 12 g)
Location W., C., E., and
southern Africa
Social unit Group
tailed bat backed bat Location S. Asia Social unit Group
Length 21⁄2 – 23⁄4 in Length 11⁄2 – 21⁄2 in
(5.5 – 7 cm) (4 – 5.5 cm)
This slit-faced bat has a furrow down
Tail 13⁄4 – 3 in Tail 3⁄4 – 1 in
(4.5 – 7.5 cm) (2 – 2.5 cm)
the face. This may be partly covered
Weight 3⁄8 – 9⁄16 oz Weight 3⁄16 – 3⁄8 oz
A medium-sized member of this by nose “leaves,” so it looks like 2
(10 – 15 g) (5 – 10 g) genus of at least 70 species, this bat slits running from nostrils to eyes.
Location W. to S. Asia, Social unit Group Location Mexico to N. and Social unit Group is a typical, small insect-eater. It has A powerful species, it swoops onto
N. and E. Africa E. South America
Status Least concern Status Least concern a flaplike “leaf” on the upper muzzle other bats, birds, scorpions, sun-
around the nostrils, with a U-shaped spiders, frogs, and even fish near the
part below. By day, thousands roost surface. By day, it roosts in groups of
in caves, tunnels, and buildings. up to 60 in trees, caves, and buildings.
Also called long-tailed bats, the 4 – 6
Rhinopoma species are the world’s
only small, insectivorous bats with thin, Noctilio leporinus
trailing tails. The tail may be as long as
both head and body. This species lives
in scrub, semidesert, and tropical
Greater bulldog bat
forest. When food is plentiful, it may Length 21⁄2 – 3 in
(6 – 8 cm)
double its body weight, storing fat for
Tail 1⁄2 – 3⁄4 in
several weeks of dry-season inactivity. (1.5 – 2 cm)
Weight 9⁄16 – 11⁄4 oz
(15 – 35 g)
This bat is a common sight at night Location Central America, Social unit Group
N., E., and C. South
near towns, as it feeds on flies, moths, America Status Least concern
and other insects attracted to
streetlights. By day, it roosts in large
colonies in caves and old mines, often along the middle of the back. It roosts
some distance away from its feeding Also called fisherman bats, the two by day in hollow trees or caves. At night,
areas. Davy’s naked-backed bat has species of bulldog bats have large it hunts over water or sandy beaches
wings that join along the center of the nose pads, drooping upper lips, and for fish, crabs, and other prey, which it
back, obscuring the fur beneath. Bats ridged chins. The greater bulldog bat snatches from the ground or water
within this genus are also known has velvety fur—orange, brown, or using its large and powerful, sharp-
as moustached or leaf-lipped bats. gray—with a distinctive pale stripe clawed back feet.
160 BATS
Trachops cirrhosus Anoura geoffroyi Desmodus rotundus RAZOR FANGS

Fringe-lipped bat Geoffroy’s tailless bat Common vampire bat
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Length 21⁄2 – 31⁄2 in Length 21⁄2 – 23⁄4 in Length 23⁄4 – 33⁄4 in

(6.5 – 9 cm) (6 – 7.5 cm) (7 – 9.5 cm)
Tail 3⁄8 – 3⁄4 in Tail Up to 7⁄32 in Tail 21⁄2 in
(1 – 2 cm) (7 mm) (6.5 cm)
Weight 7⁄8 – 11⁄4 oz Weight 7⁄16 – 5⁄8 oz Weight 11⁄16 – 15⁄8 oz
(25 – 35 g) (13 – 18 g) (19 – 45 g)
Location Mexico to Social unit Group Location Mexico to N. Social unit Group Location Mexico to South Social unit Group
N. and C. South America South America America
The common vampire bat’s small,

Why this broad-winged, strong-flying The small, fur-covered tail membrane The common vampire bat is a strong flier, pointed, bladelike upper incisors are
bat’s lips are studded with papillae of this bat gives it the appearance of yet it can also scuttle over the ground so sharp that its victim rarely notices
(small, wartlike bumps) is not clear. hairy legs. It also has a small, with amazing speed and agility, propped as they slice away a piece of flesh
Also known as the frog-eating bat, triangular, upright nose leaf and a up on its forearms and back legs. From about 3⁄16 in (5 mm) across.
it hunts along streams, ditches, and long muzzle with protruding lower jaw. dusk, it searches for a warm-blooded
similar waterways, killing prey such These features give it its alternative victim, such as a bird, tapir, or farm
as insects, frogs, and lizards with its names of Geoffroy’s hairy-legged or animal—even a seal or a human. The its saliva preventing clotting. This bat
powerful bite. It locates its victims by long-nosed bat. It hovers in front of bat lands nearby, crawls closer, bites has a communal roost in a hollow tree,
hearing their sounds, such as the night-blooming flowers to sip nectar away any fur or feathers, and laps some cave, mine, or old building, which it
croaking of male frogs, rather than by and gather pollen with its 1 fl oz (25 ml) of blood over 30 minutes, shares with hundreds of others.
its own echolocation. In other respects unusual brush-tipped
it is a typical bat, roosting in tree holes, tongue, which COLORATION
hollow logs, and caves. is the length The fur is dark brownish
of its head. gray; the underparts are
Geoffroy’s paler, with a buff tinge.
strong
tailless bat also forearms
eats insects, and legs for
such as hopping on
ground
beetles or
MAMMALS
moths. It
roosts in caves
and tunnels.
long thumb
Pipistrellus pipistrellus Nyctalus noctula Uroderma bilobatum Vampyrum spectrum
Common pipistrelle Noctule Tent-building bat False vampire bat

Length 11⁄2 – 2 in Length 23⁄4 – 3 in Length 21⁄4 – 21⁄2 in Length 51⁄4 – 6 in
(3.5 – 4.5 cm) (7 – 8 cm) (6 – 6.5 cm) (13.5 – 15 cm)
Tail 11⁄4 – 11⁄2 in Tail 2 – 21⁄4 in Tail 11⁄2 – 13⁄4 in Tail None
(3 – 3.5 cm) (5 – 5.5 cm) (4 – 4.5 cm) Weight 6 – 7 oz
Weight 1⁄8 – 5⁄16 oz Weight 9⁄16 – 13⁄4 oz Weight 7⁄16 – 11⁄16 oz (150 – 200 g)
(3 – 8 g) (15 – 50 g) (13 – 20 g) Social unit Variable
Location Europe to N. Social unit Group Location Europe to W., E., Social unit Group Location Mexico to C. Social unit Group Location Mexico to N.
Africa, W., and C. Asia and S. Asia South America, Trinidad South America, Trinidad Status Near threatened
The most widespread of the 8 Also called Linnaeus’ false or spectral

noctule species, this bat flies high and vampire, the 31⁄2 ft (1 m) wingspan
powerfully before diving steeply to grab makes this by far the largest bat in the
flying insects as large as crickets and Americas. As the name suggests, it is
chafers. By day, it roosts, usually alone, not a bloodsucker, but is a powerful
in any available small hollow—for predator near the top of the food web
example, in a tree, building, or among and so at particular risk from habitat
rocks. The noctule migrates 1,200 miles loss. It hunts other bats, small rodents
strong pale-edged
(2,000 km) or more between its winter jaws to nose leaf
such as mice and rats, and birds such
The genus Pipistrellus includes about and summer sites. In spring, the carry fruit as wrens, orioles, and parakeets. By
34 similar species, of which the common female may produce 1 – 3 young, in day, it roosts in hollow trees in groups
pipistrelle is one of the smallest and contrast to the single offspring of About 15 bat species from the of up to 5 individuals.
most widespread, found in habitats from most small bats. leaf-nosed group roost in “tents”—
forest to city parks. It is among the shelters shaped like umbrellas,
first bats to emerge short, broad cylinders, cones, or flasks, and
ears
each evening in made by biting leaves such as palm
pursuit of small or banana so they droop or fold over.
flying insects. It Each tent protects 2 – 50 or more bats
roosts by day in from sunlight, rain, and predators, and
crevices, buildings, and bat boxes, lasts up to 3 months. The tent-building
and hibernates through winter in similar bat feeds on a variety of leaves
sheltered places. Nursery colonies may and fruit, chewing them to a pulp and
contain up to 1,000 mothers, each reddish yellow sucking out the juices. It is gray-brown
with a single young. or golden fur with white stripes on its face and back.
BATS 161
Molossus rufus insects attracted to streetlights. It is Mops condylurus Otonycteris hemprichii

more active around dawn and dusk
Black mastiff bat than most bats, and roosts in the
middle of the night as well as by day.
Angolan free- Hemprich’s long-
tailed bat eared bat
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Length 23⁄4 – 4 in Huge numbers of insects are stored

(7 – 10 cm)
in its cheek pouches and only chewed
Tail 11⁄2 – 2 in
(4 – 5 cm) and swallowed on return to the roost. Length 23⁄4 – 3 in Length 21⁄2 – 23⁄4 in
(7 – 8.5 cm) (6 – 7 cm)
Weight 1 ⁄16 – 1 ⁄16 oz
1 7
Tail 11⁄2 in Tail 17⁄8 – 2 in
(30 – 40 g) (4 cm) (4.7 – 4.9 cm)
Location Mexico to C. Social unit Group
South America, Trinidad Weight 5⁄8 – 11⁄4 oz Weight 11⁄16 – 11⁄16 oz
Status Least concern (18 – 35 g) (20 – 30 g)
Location W., C., E., and Social unit Group Location N. Africa to Social unit Group
southern Africa W. Asia
Medium in size, mastiff bats are

also called free-tailed velvety bats
for their short, soft fur. This species
often roosts in buildings and feeds on
Plecotus auritus Antrozous pallidus
Brown long- Pallid bat

eared bat Length 21⁄2 – 3 in
(5.5 – 8 cm)
Tail 11⁄2 – 21⁄4 in
(3.5 – 5.5 cm) Common and widespread from deserts Also known as the desert long-eared
(4 – 5 cm)
Weight ⁄2 – 1 ⁄16 oz
1 1 to rain forests, this bat has a long, bat, this is one of the few bat species
Tail 11⁄2 – 2 in
(4 – 5 cm) (14 – 30 g) mouselike, “free” tail, not enclosed content in dry, barren habitats. During
Location W. North Social unit Group by the tail membranes. It displays the periods of harsh weather, such as
Weight 1⁄4 – 1⁄2 oz America to Mexico, Cuba
(7 – 14 g) Status Least concern typical bat habit of emerging from its drought, it probably enters a period
Location Europe, C. Asia Social unit Group daytime roost in noisy, flapping groups, of hibernation-like inactivity. Its
Status Least concern thereby lessening each individual’s spectacular ears are 11⁄2 in (4 cm) long
MAMMALS
risk of being caught by a predator, and often held almost horizontally in
such as an owl, hawk, or snake. It flight, such as when swooping onto the
hunts flying insects, eating them in ground for insects and spiders. This bat
A compact face and relatively large ears the air and dropping hard parts such roosts by day in groups of at least 20 in
identify the 19 Plecotus species of Old as the legs. a crevice, cave, or building.
World bats. The fur is usually brownish
gray, the face darker. This species takes
a variety of insects, including moths and Natalus stramineus Myotis daubentonii
beetles, carrying the meal to a perch to
eat. Its other habits are typical of small,
insect-eating bats, with winter
Lesser Antilles funnel- Daubenton’s bat
hibernation in caves, eared bat Length 11⁄2 – 21⁄2 in
(4 – 6 cm)
mines, and cellars.
Tail 1 – 2 in
This medium-sized, pig-nosed, pale Length 11⁄2 – 13⁄4 in
(2.5 – 5 cm)
(4 – 4.5 cm)
bat tolerates a range of dry habitats, Weight 3⁄16 – 9⁄16 oz
Tail 13⁄4 – 2 in
from grassland to scrubby desert and (4.7 – 5.2 cm) (5 – 15 g)
even the intense heat of California’s Location Europe to N. and Social unit Group
Weight 1⁄8 – 3⁄16 oz E. Asia
Death Valley. It detects victims by the (3 – 5 g) Status Least concern
sounds they make, consuming beetles, Location Caribbean Social unit Group
crickets, spiders, centipedes, scorpions, Status Least concern
lizards, and pocket mice. The pallid bat
ears joined at
base above utters piercing directive cries audible Daubenton’s is one of about 111
forehead to humans as it “rallies,” flying in species in the widespread bat genus
groups to locate its roost in rocky There are around 8 species of tropical Myotis—small brown or mouse-eared
outcrops, trees, or attics. American funnel-eared bats. Tiny and bats. It flutters 31 ⁄4 – 61⁄ 2 ft (1 – 2 m) above
delicate with rounded ears, they have water to catch flying insects by mouth
soft, woolly fur and a tail joined by flight or in the pouch of its curled wing or tail
Vespertilio murinus common names, including frosted bat. membranes to the legs. The Lesser membrane—hence its other name of
It roosts by day in small crevices in cliffs Antilles funnel-eared bat has a rapid, agile water bat. It also skims the surface and
Particoloured bat or buildings. In late fall, males fly high
near steep rock faces and tall buildings,
flight, almost like a butterfly. It eats small
flying insects and roosts by day in caves.
grabs small fish in its large back feet.
By day, this bat roosts in trees,
Length 2 – 21⁄2 in their courting calls resembling the shrill buildings, old walls, and bridges. It flies
(5 – 6.5 cm)
whine of a high-speed metal grinder. up to 180 miles (300 km) to its winter
Tail 11⁄2 – 2 in
(3.5 – 4.5 cm) hibernation site in a cave or mine.
tail
Weight 3⁄8 – 7⁄8 oz longer
(10 – 25 g) than head
Location Europe to W., C., and body gray flight
Social unit Group
and E. Asia membrane
orange- or
yellow-brown
Distinctive coloration of almost black fur on back
wings and face, pale cream fur below,
and brown back hairs tipped with white
give the particoloured bat its various pale underside
162 HEDGEHOGS AND RELATIVES
Echinosorex gymnura Podogymnura truei
Hedgehogs and Moonrat Mindanao moonrat

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relatives
(26 – 46 cm) (13 – 15 cm)
Tail 61⁄2 – 12 in Tail 11⁄2 – 23⁄4 in
(16 – 30 cm) (4 – 7 cm)
Weight 1 – 41⁄2 lb Weight 5 – 6 oz
PHYLUM Chordata Formerly classified with shrews and moles (0.5 – 2 kg) (150 – 175 g)
Location S.E. Asia Location S.E. Asia
CLASS Mammalia
in the order Insectivora, hedgehogs and Social unit Individual
(Mindanao)
moonrats are larger—mostly nocturnal— Status Least concern Status Least concern
ORDER Erinaceomorpha
animals, with proportionately bigger eyes
FAMILIES 1
and ears. Their coat has long hair (moonrats),
SPECIES 24
or hairs on the back and sides are modified Like other moonrats (gymnures),
into protective spines (hedgehogs). When this species makes a territory-marking
threatened, hedgehogs may roll into a spiny ball, concealing scent likened to rotting onions. It
resembles a combination of hedgehog
the vulnerable face and underparts. Moonrats are and small pig with harsh, rough, spiky
restricted to tropical Southeast Asia, but outer fur, streaked with black and
hedgehogs occur throughout Eurasia gray-white, and a long, scaly, almost
and Africa, and some species are hairless tail. Solitary, the moonrat rests
adapted to deserts. Both groups in a burrow or crevice by day; at night
it forages for small creatures such as
are predators of small animals insects, and also swims after fish and Inhabiting only one island in the
(mostly invertebrates), but other aquatic prey. Philippines, this poorly known but
hedgehogs take carrion, locally common species probably
fruit, roots, and nuts, too. forages on the forest floor by day or
night, especially around marshes and
IMMUNE SYSTEM streams, for varied small animal prey.
Immunity to snake venom allows a It lives alone, sheltering in a simple nest
hedgehog to take advantage of any snake of leaves under a rock or log, or in an
it comes across as a potential food source. abandoned burrow. The long, soft fur
MAMMALS
is mainly gray-red, shading to gray-

white on the underside. The distinctively
pointed lower snout extends beyond
Erinaceus europaeus the bottom lip, and the tail is short
SELF-ANOINTING and coarse furred.
European hedgehog
(22 – 27 cm) Paraechinus micropus Hemiechinus auritus
Tail None
Weight 2 – 21⁄4 lb Indian hedgehog Long-eared
(0.9 – 1 kg)
(14 – 23 cm)
hedgehog
Location Europe
Status Least concern Tail 3⁄8 – 11⁄2 in Length 6 – 101⁄2 in
(1 – 4 cm) (15 – 27 cm)
Weight 11 – 16 oz Tail 3⁄8 – 2 in
(300 – 450 g) (1 – 5 cm)
The densely spined European The purpose of “self-anointing,” Location S. Asia Social unit Individual Weight 9⁄16 – 5⁄8 oz
hedgehog roams in urban parks when a hedgehog twists around Status Least concern (250 – 275 g)
and gardens as well as in hedgerows, to lick and smear its spines and Location W., C., and E. Social unit Individual
Asia, N. Africa
fields, and woods at night, nosing— skin with its own frothy saliva, is Status Least concern
with piglike snuffling (hence “-hog”)— dependent on age, sex, and season.
for small animals such as worms, The saliva is mixed with a range of Similar to the long-eared hedgehog
insects, and spiders. It also takes strong-smelling substances and (see right) in appearance and habits,
birds’ eggs and carrion. Its day shelter toxins, and could be a way for although slightly spinier, this species Similar in appearance to the larger
is a nest of grass and leaves under a hedgehogs to mask their own scent. has a bare area of skin on the head. European hedgehog, the long-eared
bush, log, or outbuilding or in an old It is adapted to desert, dry scrub, and hedgehog has coarse fur on the face,
burrow. During hibernation, it may arid grassland, remaining inactive at limbs, and belly, but spines elsewhere.
wake on mild nights to feed. Mating AGILE DEFENSE times of harsh conditions (usually Banding on the spines varies from black
takes place from May to October and The hedgehog runs and climbs with surprising drought). Natural shelters such as through brown to yellow and white. It
gestation takes 31 – 35 days. The agility. In self-defense it tucks its nonspiny head rock crevices serve for nests, but uses natural daytime resting places
spines of the 4 – 5 young appear and legs onto its belly and rolls into a prickly ball. the Indian hedgehog may dig a short under rocks and shrubs. It eats various
within hours of birth. burrow for this purpose. It hunts at small animals and can become inactive
night, seeking out insects, scorpions, when food or water are scarce.
and other small creatures. It also
eats birds’ eggs and scavenges for
carrion. This hedgehog may cache
(store) food, carrying it back to the
nest for later consumption. Coloration
is extremely variable with very dark
(melanic) and almost white (albino)
hues relatively common in the wild,
and also brown and yellow banding
patterns. Young are born between
April and September. There is
usually only 1 – 2 per litter.
SHREWS AND MOLES 163
Solenodon paradoxus Sorex araneus
Shrews and moles Hispaniolan Eurasian shrew

solenodon
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PHYLUM Chordata
Shrews, moles, and solenodons are (5 – 8 cm)
voracious predators of invertebrates and Length 11 – 121⁄2 in Tail 1 – 13⁄4 in
CLASS Mammalia (2.5 – 4.5 cm)
other small vertebrates. They live frantic lives (28 – 32 cm)
ORDER Soricomorpha Tail 61⁄2 – 10 in
fueled by a very high metabolic rate; at least (17 – 26 cm) (5 – 14 g)
FAMILIES 4 Location Europe to N. Asia Social unit Individual
a few have toxic saliva for disabling prey. Weight 21⁄4 lb
SPECIES 428 (1 kg) Status Least concern
They have small eyes and small (or absent) Location Caribbean Social unit Individual
external ears, often hidden in short, (Hispaniola)
Status Endangered
dense fur. Some aquatic forms have webbed
or hairy-fringed swimming feet. Moles One of the smallest mammals, the
have broad forefeet and strong claws Eurasian shrew is adaptable, aggressive,
and voracious. It must eat 80 – 90
for burrowing, as well as a long,
percent of its body weight every 24
flexible snout for detecting prey. hours, and it hunts in up to 10 bursts
Shrews are a species-rich of activity, according to season and
family found throughout conditions. Food includes insects,
much of the world except worms, and carrion. Adults are solitary
except for a brief courtship in spring
Australasia. Moles are
or early fall. After a gestation period
largely confined to the of 24 – 25 days, 6 – 7 young are born
northern hemisphere, The 2 species of solenodon—Cuban and in a special breeding nest made from
and solenodons Hispaniolan—are large, long-tailed, woven grass and dry leaves. Larger
are exclusively shrewlike, nocturnal insectivores. than the usual resting nest, this is
Both are under threat. The snout of similarly sited under a log, root, rock,
West Indian.
the Hispaniolan solenodon is long or in an old burrow. The Eurasian
and mobile. Its fur varies from black to shrew has a pointed, flexible snout
COMPETENT CLIMBER
red-brown, and its feet, tail, and upper and short legs. Its fur is dark brown to
Shrews have small eyes and
well-developed snouts. Despite ears are almost hairless. It is fast and black on the back, paler brown on the
MAMMALS
poor vision, this Eurasian shrew agile. It noses and scrabbles on the flanks, and gray-white on the underside.
is an adept climber. It also has forest floor with its sharp claws for It is territorial, making ultrasonic
acute hearing, even though insects, worms, small lizards, fruit, and squeaks, especially when a female
there is no external ear flap. other plant matter. Its venomous bite is gathers her offspring. If cornered,
used for defense and to stun prey. this shrew readily bites.
Megasorex gigas The sole species in the genus Neomys fodiens Suncus etruscus
Megasorex, this large, compact-bodied,
Giant Mexican but short-tailed shrew prods with
its prominent, pointed snout among
Eurasian water Etruscan shrew
shrew leaves and loose soil for worms, grubs, shrew Length 11⁄2 – 2 in
(4 – 5 cm)
millipedes, spiders, and other small
Tail 3⁄4 – 11⁄4 in
Length 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 in prey. The upperparts are dark brown Length 21⁄2 – 33⁄4 in
(2 – 3 cm)
(8 – 9 cm) (6.5 – 9.5 cm)
or grayish brown, becoming paler on Weight 1⁄16 – 1⁄8 oz
Tail 11⁄2 – 2 in Tail 13⁄4 – 31⁄4 in
(4 – 5 cm)
the underside. This shrew prefers areas (4.5 – 8 cm) (2 – 3 g)
of damp soil and moist undergrowth Location S. Europe, S. to Social unit Individual
Weight 3⁄8 – 7⁄16 oz Weight 5⁄16 – 7⁄8 in S.E. Asia, Sri Lanka, N. to
(10 – 12 g) in grassland and forest, ranging from (8 – 25 g) E. Africa, W. Africa Status Least concern
Location S.W. Mexico Social unit Individual the lowlands to altitudes of 5,600 ft Location Europe to N. Asia Social unit Individual
Status Least concern (1,700 m). Only some 20 giant Mexican Status Least concern
shrews have been studied and their
nesting and breeding habits are not Also called the pygmy white-toothed
yet known. shrew or Savi’s shrew, this species
actively hunts for small prey such as
insects, worms, snails, and spiders,
Blarina brevicauda uses mainly scent and touch to hunt its then rests for a few hours, through day
main prey of soil-living animals and— and night. It nests in a small hole or
Northern short- unusually for the shrew group—smaller
mammals such as voles and mice, and
crevice and is solitary most of the year,
forming pairs only in the breeding
tailed shrew even some plant matter. This shrew season. The gestation period is 27 – 28
rests and feeds largely underground in days and litter size 2 – 5, with up to 6
Length 43⁄4 – 51⁄2 in runways and old mole or vole tunnels, litters per year.
(12 – 14 cm)
usually 4 – 20 in (10 – 50 cm) deep, and This shrew hunts aquatic insects, small
Tail 11⁄4 in
(3 cm)
stores items in cold weather. The eyes fish, and frogs. It also feeds on land, on
Weight 11⁄16 oz
and ears are tiny, and the snout stouter worms, beetles, and grubs, and so can
(20 g) and less pointed than in other shrews. survive in damp woods. The small eyes
Location S. Canada to N. Social unit Variable and ears, and the long, pointed snout
and E. USA ears concealed grayish black fur
Status Least concern by fur are typically shrewlike. Solitary but
less aggressive than other shrews, the
Eurasian water shrew establishes a
series of runways and burrows and
Like most shrews, this large, robust has a nest of dry grass and old leaves.
species has poor sight but excellent Here, after 14 – 21 days’ gestation, the
sense of smell, and its venomous bite female suckles her litter of 4 – 7 young
(due to toxic saliva) helps disable prey. It for approximately 6 weeks.
164 SHREWS AND MOLES
Suncus megalura Nectogale elegans Diplomesodon pulchellum underparts, feet, and tail. It has a
very pointed snout and long whiskers,
Forest musk shrew Tibetan water shrew Piebald shrew even for a shrew. Active at night, when
the desert habitat is cooler and prey
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Length 2 – 23⁄4 in Length 31⁄2 – 5 in Length 2 – 23⁄4 in such as insects and small lizards
(5 – 7 cm) (9 – 13 cm) (5 – 7 cm)
become more energetic, it hunts mainly
Tail 3 – 31⁄2 in Tail 3 – 41⁄4 in Tail 3⁄4 – 11⁄4 in
(8 – 9 cm) (8 – 11 cm) (2 – 3 cm) on the surface but may also dig in loose
Weight 3⁄16 oz Weight Not recorded Weight 1⁄4 – 7⁄16 oz sand for grubs and worms. The average
(5 g) Social unit Individual (7 – 13 g) litter size is 5, with several litters in
Location W., E., C., and Social unit Individual Location S. Asia Location C. Asia Social unit Individual a good year.
southern Africa Status Least concern
This species is shrewlike in most A small, wary, secretive inhabitant This species derives its name
respects, although it has a relatively of cold, fast mountain streams in the from its coloration: gray upperparts
long, streamlined body, large and Himalayas and nearby mountains, this with a distinct oval white patch in
prominent ears, and a tail longer than tubby, semiaquatic shrew is slate-gray the middle of the back, and white
its head and body. Its soft, velvety fur on the upperparts and silvery white
is brown on the upperparts and almost beneath. Its snout is blunt, its eyes and
white on the belly. It hunts in soil, leaf ears tiny, and its black tail is fringed Scutisorex somereni because its vertebrae have interlocking
litter, and among branches (using its tail by rows of hairs along each side. It flanges, or spines, not only along their
to balance) for invertebrates. The forest
musk shrew is probably active in bursts
probably eats water insects, fish fry,
and other small prey, carrying them
Armored shrew sides, as in other mammals, but also
above and below. The armored shrew
through the day and night, and must eat to a bank or a midstream rock for Length 4 – 6 in is solitary, and is a skillful climber.
(10 – 15 cm)
almost its own body weight in food every consumption. Little is known of its Its diet consists of worms, insects,
Tail 23⁄4 – 33⁄4 in
24 hours. nesting or breeding habits. (6.5 – 9.5 cm) spiders, and carrion.
(70 – 125 g)
shrew its common name. It also has Location C. to E. Africa Social unit Individual
Crocidura leucodon
long, thick whiskers (vibrissae) on its Status Least concern
Bicolored white-toothed sharp-pointed snout, and a bicolored tail
that is less than half the length of the
shrew
MAMMALS
head and body. This adaptable forager

in grassland, scrub, wood edge, parks, This large, woolly coated shrew,
Length 11⁄2 – 7 in and gardens eats worms, grubs, and also known as the hero shrew,
(4 – 18 cm)
other small invertebrates, hunting mainly has a distinctively arched and
Tail 11⁄2 – 41⁄4 in
(4 – 11 cm)
by night but also for short periods by tremendously strong back. This is gray fur
Weight 7⁄32 – 7⁄16 oz
daylight. Like similar shrew species, it
(6 – 13 g) builds a nest of dry grass in a hole or
Location Europe to Social unit Individual thick undergrowth. The male produces
W. Asia Desmana moschata CONSERVATION
Status Least concern strong scents from glands on his flanks
during the breeding season, generally
March to October. Gestation is 31 days,
Russian desman In addition to being harmed by
pollution, the Russian desman faces
average litter size is 4, Length 7 – 81⁄2 in a new threat: ultrafine plastic nets,
(18 – 21 cm)
Sharp demarcation between and weaning occurs which are used for fishing in rivers
Tail 7 – 81⁄2 in
its gray-white upperparts after 26 days. (17 – 21 cm) and lakes. The nets pose a hazard
and whitish yellow Weight 16 oz long after they are discarded, by
underside give this (450 g) entangling and drowning desmans
Location E. Europe to C. Social unit Group when they dive. Conservation
Asia
Status Vulnerable measures include reintroductions to
places where numbers are low, and
legal restrictions to limit net use.
Desmans belong to the mole family, but

resemble water shrews. The tail is as
long as the head and body, and
flattened from side to side for use as
Galemys pyrenaicus long, black snout is almost hairless, its both a paddle and a rudder. The rear
thick fur brown above and silvery below, feet are fully webbed to the toe tips,
Pyrenean desman and its tail slightly flattened from side to
side like a rudder. A male and a female
the front feet partly so. Using its long,
sensitive nose, it probes by night for
Length 5 in may form a loose pair bond, with the prey in riverbed mud and stones.
(12.5 cm)
male chasing away rivals and the female Unusually for an insectivore, the desman
Tail 51⁄2 in
(14 cm) nesting in a bank burrow, but little more lives in groups and several may share a
Weight 17⁄16 – 13⁄4 oz is known of these mammals. bank burrow. After 40 – 50 days’
(40 – 50 g) gestation, the 3 – 5 young are cared for
Location S.W. Europe Social unit Individual/Pair by the female, and weaned by 4 weeks. OUTER AND INNER COATS
Status Vulnerable The soft, dense underfur of the Russian
desman is covered by long, coarse guard
hairs, the coat being rich brown on the
head and body, fading to ash-gray
on the underside.
The Pyrenean desman generally
resembles the only other species of
desman (see right), although it is smaller,
takes lesser prey, such as the aquatic
larvae of mayflies and stoneflies, and is
more suited to fast-flowing streams. Its
PANGOLINS 165
Talpa europaea TUNNELING TOOLS Condylura cristata STAR-SHAPED NOSE

European mole Star-nosed mole
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Length 41⁄4 – 61⁄2 in Length 7 – 71⁄2 in

(1 – 16 cm) (18 – 19 cm)
Tail 3⁄4 in Tail 21⁄2 – 3 in
(2 cm) (6 – 8 cm)
Weight 23⁄8 – 5 oz Weight 15⁄8 oz
(65 – 125 g) (45 g)
Location Europe to N. Asia Social unit Individual Location E. Canada, Social unit Variable
N.E. USA
This mole’s large front legs have

powerful shoulder muscles and
Virtually blind, this mole lives mainly broad, outward-facing paws (above) This mole is an expert swimmer. It An unmistakable snout, with
underground in tunnels radiating from a with a strong, spadelike claw on has a long, sparse-haired, scaly tail, 22 pale, fleshy rays (tentacles)
central chamber, feeding on worms and each toe. Anchoring itself with its which enlarges in winter with fatty around the nostrils, allows the
other soil animals. When plentiful, the back feet, it uses its front legs to food reserves. In lifestyle and habits star-nosed mole to sniff and feel
worms are bitten to paralyze them for scoop soil sideways and back, it resembles other moles, yet it is less prey in water. It also forages for
future use, but, if uneaten, they recover pushing it up as molehills. solitary and tolerates meeting others food among reeds, mosses, and
and escape. The female digs a large of its kind. Its tunnels are about 11 ⁄2 in other vegetation. As it hunts, the
nest chamber, and after 4 weeks’ (4 cm) in diameter and 2 – 24 in fleshy rays around its nose wiggle
gestation, gives birth to (5 – 60 cm) in depth. and flex in constant motion.
3 – 4 young.
VARIED DIET
The star-nosed mole eats dense, nearly-
leeches, snails, small fish, and black fur
other aquatic prey, as well as
soil animals.
MAMMALS
REVERSIBLE FUR
Short, dense, black fur that can lie
at any angle allows this mole to go
forward or backward in its tunnels.
Pangolins
PHYLUM Chordata Similar in shape to armadillos and
anteaters, pangolins are covered in
CLASS Mammalia
overlapping scales, which act as
ORDER Pholidota
armor and camouflage. Pangolins
FAMILIES 1 (Manidae)
lack teeth: prey (ants and
SPECIES 8
termites) is collected with the
LONG TONGUE
tongue, and powerful muscles Pangolins use their tongue, which
in the stomach “chew” the food. Pangolins are can be extended as far as 10 in
sought after for Chinese medicine, and this has (25 cm), to gather ants and termites.
led to all species receiving full CITES protection.
Manis pentadactyla When rolled into a ball, Manis temminckii Similar in most respects to the Chinese
no soft areas are exposed. pangolin (see left), this species rips
Chinese pangolin The thin tongue, as long as 16 in
(40 cm), scoops up ants and termites.
Ground pangolin open termite mounds and ant nests,
both in trees and on the ground, with its
Length 16 – 23 in The strongly prehensile tail and long Length 18 – 211⁄2 in large claws, and licks up the occupants.
(40 – 58 cm) (45 – 55 cm)
claws make this pangolin surprisingly This pangolin shows little territorial
Tail 10 – 15 in (25 – 38 cm) Tail 16 – 20 1⁄2 in
agile in trees and a powerful burrower. (40 – 52 cm) behavior. The 1 – 2 young are born after
(2.5 – 7 kg) Weight 33 – 40 lb a gestation of about 130 – 150 days.
Social unit Individual (15 – 18 kg)
Location E. to S.E. Asia Location E. to southern dark or yellow-
Status Critically Social unit Individual brown scales
Africa
endangered Status Vulnerable
Bony, pale or yellow-brown scales, up to

2 in (5 cm) across, cover all parts of the
Chinese pangolin except for its snout,
cheeks, throat, inner limbs, and belly.
166 CARNIVORES
Carnivores
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PHYLUM Chordata Although the term carnivore is commonly used to describe Hunting
CLASS Mammalia an animal that eats meat, it also refers specifically to members Carnivores include some of nature’s most skillful
of the order Carnivora. While most members of the group eat and efficient predators. Most use keen senses of
ORDER Carnivora
sight, hearing, or smell to locate prey, which they
FAMILIES 16 meat, some have a mixed diet or are entirely herbivorous. catch either by pouncing from a concealed place
SPECIES 279 Meat-eating carnivores are the dominant predators on land or by stalking and then running down their
quarry in a lengthy chase or swift rush.
in all habitats: their bodies and lifestyles Many can kill animals larger than them-
CLASSIFICATION NOTE are highly adapted for hunting. selves. Weasels kill by biting the back of
the head and cracking the skull, while
As the evolution of the order Carnivora becomes However, there is great variety within cats bite into the neck, damaging the
better known, scientists have subdivided existing
families, and included those from the order Pinnipedia the group, which includes species as spinal cord, or into the throat,
(seals and walrus). There are currently 16 families, causing suffocation. Though
of which 14 are shown in this book. diverse as the giant panda and the
some carnivores are solitary,
Dogs and relatives Red Panda see p.190 walrus. Uniquely among mammals, others hunt in packs.
see pp.168 – 75 Mustelids
Bears see pp.176 – 81 see pp.191 – 6 carnivores have 4 carnassial teeth.
Sea lions Malagasy carnivores SOLITARY HUNTER
see pp.182 – 3 see p.197 They also have a penis bone The bobcat, which feeds mainly
Walrus see p.184 Mongooses see p.198
Seals see pp.184 – 5 Civets and relatives (baculum). Indigenous to most parts on small prey such as the
Skunks see p.186 see p.199 snowshoe hare, hunts alone.
Raccoons and Cats see pp.200 – 7 of the world, carnivores have also
relatives see pp.187 – 8 Hyenas see pp.208 – 9
been introduced to Australasia.
Anatomy HUNTING IN PACKS

Although carnivores vary considerably in size and shape, most Lions generally hunt in groups to capture large
share several features that make them well suited to a hunting animals. The females (males rarely join in) usually
MAMMALS
lifestyle. A typical terrestrial carnivore is a fast and agile runner stalk to within 98 ft (30 m) and encircle the prey.
with sharp teeth and claws, acute hearing and eyesight, and a After a short charge, the animal is brought
well-developed sense of smell. Carnassial teeth (see below) are down with a grab to the flank, then killed
present in predacious living carnivores but are less well developed by suffocation with a bite to the throat.
among omnivorous, herbivorous, and some piscivorous species.
Carnivores have either 4 or 5 digits on each limb. Members of the
cat family have sharp, retractable claws used to rake prey, defend
themselves, and climb. Most other carnivores have nonretractable
claws, often used for digging. Social groups
Although many carnivores live
JAWS AND TEETH alone or in pairs, others form
Most carnivores have sharp teeth and upper temporalis groups that take different
powerful jaws for killing and disemboweling carnassial muscle forms, and have complex
tooth
prey. The temporalis muscles, which are structures. Lion prides, for
most effective when the jaws are open, example, consist of several
are used to deliver a powerful stab related families, although
from the sharp canines. The carnassial most males leave the pride
teeth are sharpened molars in the into which they are born.
upper and lower jaws. They act like upper Lions spend most of
scissors and slice through hide and canine their time together, hunt
flesh, and are used to crush bone, too. masseter cooperatively, and tend each
In combination with the masseter muscle other’s young. In most other groups,
muscles, which can be used when the lower individual ties are looser. Red and Arctic foxes live
carnassial tooth
jaw is almost completely closed, they form lower in groups of one adult male and several vixens, but
a powerful shearing tool for tearing flesh. canine HYENA SKULL each adult hunts alone in a different part of the group’s
territory. Elephant seals gather in large numbers only
during breeding. The groups are made up of several
males and their respective harems of females, which
TIGER
SKELETON
are closely guarded.
separate radius and ulna

maximize flexibility
fused “wrist”
bones
SKELETON AND MOVEMENT
Predatory terrestrial carnivores have PLAY
flexible spine
enables back to physical adaptations that enable Young carnivores develop their fighting skills
bend while running them to move quickly over the ground through play. By playing together, these red
in pursuit of prey. The spine is generally foxes learn to test another animal’s strength
flexible, the limbs are relatively long, and without suffering painful consequences.
the collarbone is reduced, maximizing the
mobility of the shoulders. To help increase SHARED PARENTHOOD
the length of their stride and stability, all These young slender-tailed meerkats are
carnivores have fused wrist bones, and dogs not necessarily the offspring of the adult
and cats walk on their toes (rather than the watching over them. Sharing parental duties
SIBERIAN TIGER soles of the feet). is common in many carnivore societies.
CARNIVORES 167
Feeding
Most carnivores live on a diet of freshly killed animal
prey, ranging in size from insects, other invertebrates,
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and small vertebrates to animals as large as buffaloes

and reindeer. Carnivores are generally adaptable
feeders, seldom restricting themselves to a single
food type. However, there are specialists—for
example, there are pinniped species that eat only
fish. Others, such as bears, badgers, and foxes, eat
a mixed diet of meat and plants, while a few, notably
the giant panda, are almost entirely herbivorous.
CARRION-FEEDERS PLANT EATERS
Hyenas feed on live prey and the remains of other animals’ kills. The diet of the giant
Their particularly sharp teeth and strong jaws enable them to break panda consists mainly of
bones and tendons that are too tough for other carnivores. bamboo shoots and roots,
on which it feeds for up to
12 hours a day. Pandas are
slow moving compared with
other carnivores, and their flat
cheek teeth are better suited
for grinding than for cutting.
MAMMALS
Communication
Carnivores communicate with each other with scent markings,
visual signals, and vocalizations. Scent messages, which have
the advantage of being persistent, are used to define territory
or to find potential sexual partners. They are left by spraying
urine or leaving piles of feces, although some animals also MARKING TERRITORY
rub scent onto objects from glands on their face, between their Bears use trees to leave both scent marks
claws, or at the base of their tail. When animals meet face-to- GREETING POSTURES and visual signs. Here, scent is being
face, posture, facial expression, and sound are used to pass Body language is an important form of communication for African transferred in saliva and from glands in
on a wealth of information, including threats, submissions, wild dogs, which live in large packs. In this greeting ritual, adult the bear’s feet, while the sharp teeth and
advances to partners, and warnings of approaching danger. dogs push their muzzles into each other’s faces. claws are being used to rip the bark.
168 CARNIVORES
Dogs and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata Members of the dog family—dogs, wolves, territories, which they mark with urine. from the wolf over 10,000 years
coyotes, jackals, and foxes—are collectively The young in a pack are of different ago—has always played an important
CLASS Mammalia ages because older offspring remain role in a number of human activities.
ORDER Carnivora
described as canids. They are known for in the group for some years, and From the tiny chihuahua to the huge
FAMILY Canidae
great endurance (rather than sudden may help rear new young. Only the St. Bernard (the domestic dog
bursts of speed) and for opportunistic and dominant pair breed, and the female displays more variation between types
SPECIES 35 digs a den in which to give birth. The than any other domestic animal), there
adaptable behavior. Dogs are characterized pack will often perform a bonding are breeds specialized for hunting,
by a slender build, long legs, and a long, ritual, which involves mutual licking, herding, guarding, performing,
bushy tail. Wild canids generally inhabit open grassland and whining, and tail wagging. When carrying or dragging loads, and
hunting, the usual tactic is to track companionship.
forested habitats the world over—the dingo was introduced to
a herd of deer or antelopes (for However, many canid species
Australia by humans about 4,000 years ago, and feral domestic example) and then cooperatively are considered pests. The wolf,
dogs are found in many isolated areas. maneuver so as to separate one for example, has been hunted and
animal. This individual is then run persecuted as a killer of livestock.
down and bitten by pack members As a result, this species is now rare
Anatomy large olfactory organs. Hearing is until it falls, exhausted. On returning throughout its vast range and is
Canids have a muscular, deep- also acute, and the ears are large, to the den, the hunters regurgitate extinct in many regions. Other species
chested body covered with a fur erect, and usually pointed. Sight meat for the cubs to eat. have fared even worse: the bush
coat that is usually uniformly colored is less important, but is still dog and the maned wolf, for example,
or speckled. The lower limbs are well developed. Canids and people are on the brink of extinction; the red
modified, with fused wrist bones, and Throughout history, canids have wolf only survived in zoos but has
a separate ulna and radius that lock Social groups proved useful to humankind in many been reintroduced in the wild. On
together. This prevents the rotation of Smaller species, which usually ways. Wild canids are, for example, the other hand, the coyote and the
the lower limbs. There are 4 digits on feed mainly on small rodents and important controllers of rodent red fox—both opportunists—have
the back feet and 5 on the front feet, insects, tend to have a flexible social populations, which can spiral quickly benefited from the spread of urban
and each digit has a hard pad. The organization but often live either in if left unchecked. Furthermore, the environments and are more
claws are short, nonretractable, and pairs (for example, jackals) or alone domestic dog—which descended abundant than ever before.
blunt (other carnivores have sharp (for example, foxes). However, larger
MAMMALS
claws). Canids also have long jaws, species, such as the wolf and the
long, fanglike canines (for stabbing African wild dog, live in social groups
prey), and well-developed carnassials called packs. These packs,
(the shearing teeth at the back of the which consist of a dominant
jaws). Canids track their prey by scent, pair and their offspring,
and the long, pointed muzzle houses occupy and defend
STRENGTHENING BONDS
Establishing and maintaining bonds between pack
members is essential for the survival of dogs that
live in social groups. In African wild dogs, bonding
behavior, such as licking and whining, frequently
occurs before a hunt. It is only by cooperating and
hunting as a team that the dogs are able to bring
down and kill prey larger than themselves.
DOGS AND RELATIVES 169
Vulpes vulpes THE UNFUSSY FOX Vulpes cana
Red fox In grassy or farmed areas, a large

part of the red fox’s diet comprises
Blanford’s fox
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Length 23 – 35 in mainly rabbits and hares. The Length 15 – 311⁄2 in

(58 – 90 cm) (38.5 – 80 cm)
fox stealthily stalks its prey, then
Tail 121⁄2 – 191⁄2 in Tail 12 in
(32 – 49 cm) makes a dash to catch the victim (30 cm)
Weight 61⁄2 – 31 lb before it reaches its burrow (rabbit) Weight 2 – 31⁄4 lb
(3 – 14 kg) or accelerates away (hare). The (0.9 – 1.5 kg)
Location Arctic, North Social unit Pair prey is carried by the neck to a Location W. and S. Asia Social unit Individual
America, Europe, Asia,
N. Africa, Australia Status Least concern secluded spot where the fox can Status Least concern
eat at leisure. The red fox also
consumes beetles, worms, frogs,
birds, eggs, mice, voles, fruit,
Active by day and night, the red carrion, and refuse—in fact, This small fox has relatively large
fox is exceptionally widespread, almost anything edible. ears and tail, patchy body coloring
and adaptable both in habitat, from in black, gray, and white, white
Arctic tundra to city center, and in under parts, a dark stripe along the
NOT ALWAYS RED
diet. Home is an earth (den) in a middle of the back, and a stealthy,
Coat color varies from grayish or
sheltered place—for example, an rusty red to almost orange, feline gait. It is a solitary, nocturnal
enlarged rabbit burrow, a crevice usually with black on the backs hunter of small creatures, including
among rocks or roots, or a space of the ears, sometimes on the insects, mainly in barren, rocky hills
under an outbuilding. The basic lower limbs and feet, and and grassy uplands. It also consumes
social unit is a female (vixen) and an often black-tinged appreciable amounts of fruit and
male (dog), who mark their territory but pale-tipped tail. is found near orchards and groves.
of 0.4 – 4 square miles (1 – 10 square All-black and silver- Litter size is 1 – 3.
km) with urine, droppings, and scent white forms
also occur.
from anal and other glands. Single-
male–multifemale groups also occur
but only senior females breed. Mating
is in late winter or early spring when
females make eerie shrieks. Gestation
is 49 – 55 days and litter size up to 12;
MAMMALS
averages vary from 4 – 5 in Europe to
6 – 8 in North America. Both parents
and “helper” nonbreeding females care
for the cubs and feed them after bushy tail
weaning at 6 – 12 weeks. (brush)
Vulpes macrotis Vulpes velox Vulpes zerda for walking on soft, hot sand. Mostly
nocturnal, the diet of this fox ranges
Kit fox Swift fox Fennec fox from fruit and seeds to eggs, termites,
and lizards. Unusual among foxes, it
Length 18 – 21 in Length 181⁄2 – 211⁄2 in Length 13 – 16 in associates in groups of up to 10, but
(45 – 54 cm) (47 – 55 cm) (33 – 40 cm)
relationships are not clear. Each
Tail 81⁄2 – 121⁄2 in Tail 91⁄2 – 13 in Tail 41⁄2 – 10 in
(22 – 32 cm) (25 – 34 cm) (12 – 25 cm) member digs a den several yards into
Weight 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb Weight 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb soft earth. Mating occurs in January–
(1.5 – 3 kg) (1.5 – 3 kg) (1 – 1.5 g) February and the 1 – 4 cubs remain in
Location W. USA Social unit Pair Location C. USA Social unit Pair Location N. Africa Social unit Group the den, protected by the female, for
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Least concern 2 months. They are fully mature by 11
months. Hunted for its fur, the fennec
fox is also trapped as a pet.
cream to
Recently established as a separate The smallest fox, the fennec has yellowish
species from the kit fox (see left), relatively large ears and a cream fur
the swift fox has a more easterly black-tinged tail tip. Its
distribution. Its coloration is similar furred soles are adapted
to that of the kit fox, but it is grayer
on the upperparts and buff-orange
underneath. It has a bushy, black-
tipped tail. Both species dig dens about
3 ft (1 m) deep, with 13 ft (4 m) of tunnels,
and mate from December to January—
later in northern areas. The gestation
period is 51 days.
Similar to the swift fox (see right) in
appearance and habits, this species
has a more westerly range, but with white underparts
overlap and perhaps interbreeding
in Texas. The kit fox has longer,
closer-set ears, a more angular head,
and is more heavily built overall. There
are 3 color forms: pale gray-brown, dark
gray-brown, and intermediate gray.
Its habitats vary from grassland
to desert, and its diet is omnivorous.
Both parents raise the 1 – 7 young.
170 CARNIVORES
Vulpes rueppellii Alopex lagopus whale carcasses, fruit, seeds, and

human refuse. Its social group is likewise SUMMER COATS
Rüppell’s fox Arctic fox flexible, with male–female pairs, larger
groups of nonbreeders, or a breeding
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Length 16 – 201⁄2 in Length 20 – 30 in pair plus “helper” females. The den site
(40 – 52 cm) (50 – 75 cm)
is extensive, with complex burrow
Tail 10 – 151⁄2 in Tail 10 – 21 in
(25 – 39 cm) (25 – 53 cm) systems for shelter and breeding.
Weight 21⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb Weight 61⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb Reproduction is closely tied to
(1 – 3.5 kg) (3.1 – 4.2 kg) available food, with more
Location N. Africa, Social unit Group/Pair Location N. Canada, Social unit Group than 15 cubs per litter
W. Asia Alaska, Greenland,
Status Least concern N. Europe, N. Asia Status Least concern when lemmings are
plentiful, and 6 – 10 in
an average year. In The Arctic fox’s summer
Russia, litter sizes coat is half as thick as its
The Arctic fox has 2 color types, or of up to 19 have winter one, with less than half
“phases.” Foxes that are “white” phase been recorded. of the underfur. In summer,
are almost pure white in winter for white-phase animals are
camouflage in snow and ice. This gray-brown to gray above
phase is associated with the true tundra and gray below; those
of open, treeless plains and grassy FURRED BUNDLE of the blue phase are
The Arctic fox has small
hillocks. Those of the “blue” phase are browner and darker.
white chin, ears, a blunt muzzle,
bib, and belly more prevalent in mixed coastal and and short legs and tail,
shrubby habitats and are pale gray- since these areas lose
Rüppell’s fox (also called the sand brown tinged with blue in winter. The heat fastest. Every part of stout, rounded
fox) is similar to but slighter in build Arctic fox eats a huge variety of body under
its body except its nose is thick fur
than the red fox. It has soft, dense, foods—mainly lemmings, but also birds, thickly furred.
sandy or silver-gray fur to match its eggs, crabs, fish, insects, seal and
arid habitat, black patches on the
sides of the muzzle, and a white tail
tip. In some regions this species forms
monogamous pairs, but in others it
gathers in groups of up to 15. It rests
by day in a sheltered crevice or burrow,
MAMMALS
and changes its den every few days.

Average litter size is 2 – 3, born in
early spring. It eats a wide variety
of foods, from grass to insects,
reptiles, and mammals.
Urocyon cinereoargenteus Atelocynus microtis With its small, rounded ears, the
VULNERABLE CUBS short-eared dog resembles a raccoon
Northern Gray fox Short-eared dog dog (see p.171) but its fur is much
shorter and more velvety, gray to
Length 211⁄2 – 26 in Length 28 – 39 in black on the back and varying shades
(54 – 66 cm) (72 – 100 cm)
of gray tinged with red-brown on
Tail 11 – 23 in Tail 10 – 14 in
(28 – 58 cm) (25 – 35 cm) the underside. The black tail is more
Weight 41⁄2 – 12 lb Weight 20 – 22 lb bushy and foxlike. Also known as
(2 – 5.5 kg) (9 – 10 kg) the small-eared zorro, this mainly
Location S. Canada to Social unit Pair Location N.W. South Social unit Individual nocturnal and solitary dog is a
N. South America America
Status Least concern Status Near threatened secretive, little-known inhabitant of
tropical forests. It moves with catlike
stealth and probably eats mainly small
rodents, with some plant matter.
Also called the tree fox, this long-bodied The average litter size for the
species prefers woodland. It climbs Northern gray fox is 4 (range 1 – 10).
skillfully, leaping up tree trunks and Each new-born cub is black-furred Pseudalopex culpaeus rodents, rabbits, birds and their eggs,
between branches with almost catlike and, like most foxes at birth, helpless, and seasonal berries and fruit. Like
agility. Active at night, it consumes
various insects and small mammals,
with eyes closed. Its eyes open
at 9 – 12 days and by 4 weeks it
Culpeo many foxes, it stores food during
times of plenty, burying the excess or
but may rely more on fruit and seeds ventures from the den and begins to Length 173⁄4 – 361⁄2 in wedging it under logs and rocks, for
(44.5 – 92.5 cm)
in certain seasons. The Northern gray climb, guarded by a parent. It starts later consumption. The culpeo’s
Tail 12 – 191⁄2 in
fox has a small, dark-gray neck mane to take solid food 2 weeks later. (30 – 49 cm) coat is grizzled gray on the
and central back stripe, and a red tinge Weight 73⁄4 – 22 lb back and shoulders, more
to the neck, flanks, and legs, with a (3.4 – 10 g) tawny on the head, neck,
buff or white chin and belly. Its den Location W. South Social unit Pair ears, and legs, with a
America
may be in an old burrow or log, Status Least concern fluffy, black-
but more often in a tree hole tipped tail.
up to 30 ft (9 m) above ground,
or on a building ledge or in a
roof space. Most gray foxes A species of open upland and pampas
live as breeding pairs. grassland, this large, powerful fox
is extensively hunted for its fur
GRIZZLED GRAY
and to prevent predation
The speckled or grizzled of livestock such
coat is due to individual as lambs and
hairs banded in white, poultry. Its diet
gray, and black. also includes
Cerdocyon thous Nyctereutes procyonoides lakesides, and the seashore. It lives in Speothos venaticus
pairs or loose family groups; litter size
Crab-eating fox Raccoon dog varies from 4 – 9, dependingg on the
locality. The raccoon dog is abundant
Bush dog
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Length 221⁄2 – 30 in Length 191⁄2 – 28 in in Japan, extinct in parts of China, yet Length 221⁄2 – 30 in
(57 – 77.5 cm) (49 – 71 cm) (57 – 75 cm)
spreading rapidly in areas of Europe,
(22 – 41 cm) (15 – 23 cm) where it has been introduced. (12.5 – 15 cm)
Weight 10 – 19 lb Weight 61⁄2 – 28 lb Weight 11 – 15 lb
(4.5 – 8.5 kg) (2.9 – 12.5 kg) (5 – 7 kg)
Location N. and E. South Social unit Group/Pair Location Europe, C., N., Social unit Group/Pair
READY FOR WINTER Location Central America Social unit Group
America and E. Asia to N. and C. South America
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Near threatened
In addition to crabs—both coastal and This canid resembles a combination Long-bodied and short-legged, this
freshwater—this medium-sized fox of raccoon and dog, with its black face day-active predator lives in family-based
eats much else, including fish, reptiles, “mask” and variable black fur on the packs of up to 12. It is a powerful and
birds, mammals, grubs, and fruit. shoulders and upperside of the tail. It is persistent hunter of ground birds and
Widespread in many habitats, it shows nocturnal and has a huge dietary range, rodents up to the size of Azara’s agouti
much variation across its range, from fruit to birds, mice, crabs, and fish. (see p.130). The pack, however, tackles
although the body is generally It also forages along river banks, larger prey, such as rheas and
gray-brown, with reddish brown face, capybaras, swimming efficiently after
ears, and front legs, a white underside, The raccoon dog is an unusual victims. By night, the group members
and black on the tips of the ears and member of the dog family—even sleep in dens, in deserted burrows,
tail, and the backs of the legs. Active youngsters can climb well. During hollow logs, or under rocks. Average litter
at night, it lives in loose social groups harsh winters they enter a form of size is 4, born after a gestation of 67
of an adult pair and their offspring. hibernation known as winter lethargy, days. The male brings food to the female
when their body temperature in the den prior
drops only a few degrees. Autumn to the birth and
feasting increases body weight throughout
by up to 50 percent. nursing.
COLORATION
MAMMALS
This raccoonlike dog has long,
yellow-tinged, brown-black body
fur (especially in winter), black facial
patches below the eyes, a white muzzle,
short-furred legs, and a bushy tail.
Chrysocyon brachyurus and berries. It is said to kill livestock, Canis adustus Sometimes sighted foraging at night
especially poultry, and so is hunted as near city centers, the side-striped
Maned wolf a pest in some areas—yet it is kept as a
pet in others. Disease is another major
Side-striped jackal jackal is also found in grass, along
forest edges, and in mixed farmland.
Length 31⁄4 – 4 ft threat. The gestation period is 62 – 66 Length 251⁄2 – 32 in More omnivorous than other jackals,
(1 – 1.2 m) (65 – 81 cm)
days, and the 1 – 7 pups (average 3) are it takes rodents, birds, eggs, lizards,
Tail 15 – 20 in Tail 12 – 16 in
(38 – 50 cm) born in an above-ground den in thick (30 – 41 cm) insects and other invertebrates, refuse,
Weight 45 – 66 lb grass or bushes. The mother cares Weight 14 – 31 lb carrion, and plant material such as
(20.5 – 30 kg) for them alone, suckling them for up (6.5 – 14 kg) fruit and berries. The basic social group
Location C. and E. South Social unit Individual to 15 weeks. Location W., C., E., and Social unit Pair is a female–male pair with their
America southern Africa
Status Near threatened Status Least concern young, which can number up to 6
(average 5 per litter). Offspring are
born after a gestation period of about
60 days, in a secure den such as an
Similar to a red fox (see p.169), often indistinct old termite mound or aardvark burrow.
but with very long legs, this white and black Weaned by 10 weeks, they become
side stripes
wolf has long, thick, reddish independent at about 8 months.
yellow fur, a black gray-yellow
neck crest, central coat paler on
back stripe, and underside
black muzzle. It
prefers open, grassy,
or low-scrub habitats white
where it can peer tail tip
over vegetation for
prey and danger.
Female and male share
a territory, and mate each
year, usually in May or
June, but otherwise rarely
associate. Active at twilight and
night, the maned wolf takes a
varied diet, including rabbits,
birds, and mice, as well as very long,
smaller creatures such as black-
haired legs
grubs and ants, and also
appreciable amounts of
plant material such as fruit
172 CARNIVORES
Canis aureus MEALTIME Canis latrans STALK AND POUNCE

Golden jackal Coyote
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Length 29 – 33 in Length 271/2 – 38 in

(74 – 84 cm) (70 – 97 cm)
Tail 8 – 91/2 in Tail 12 – 15 in
(20 – 24 cm) (30 – 38 cm)
Weight 14 – 22 lb Weight 20 – 35 lb
(6.5 – 9.8 kg) (9 – 16 kg)
Location S.E. Europe, Social unit Pair Location North America to Social unit Variable
W. to S.E. Asia N. Central America
Golden jackal pups move on from
milk to solid food at about 8 – 10
weeks. At this age they are too
These omnivorous, opportunistic young to hunt, so parents, older The coyote, like many canids, is highly The coyote, like many similar
jackals usually live as breeding pairs, siblings, and other young adults adaptable in habitat and opportunistic species, uses a characteristic
but in areas with plentiful food, such regurgitate meals for them on in diet. Once believed to be always pounce to catch small prey, such
as refuse dumps near human return from a successful outing. solitary, it may also form a breeding as mice, in snow or grass. It moves
habitation, they form pair or, when larger prey is common, forward slowly, watching and
packs of up to 20. gather as a small hunting pack. Food listening intently. Having located
The gestation period is varies from pronghorns, deer, and the prey, it leaps almost vertically
60 – 63 days. Average mountain sheep to fish, carrion, into the air and brings its front feet
litter size is 5 – 6 pups ginger- and refuse. The coyote is a rapid sprinter down onto the animal, pinning it
(range 1 – 9), which colored ( 40 mph/65 kph) and often runs down to the ground before killing it
nose and
are cared for in a ears jackrabbits. Its well-known nocturnal with a bite.
secure den. howl usually announces an individual’s
territory or location to neighbors.
Mating occurs from January to March,
SHADES OF GOLD
gestation takes 63 days, and the
The coat is mainly
pale yellow, gold, litter size is 6 – 18 (average 6).
or light brown, The pups are born in a
grayer on the secure den.
back and
gingery on
MAMMALS
the belly. COLORATION

The grizzled buff coat is
yellowish on the outer ears, legs,
and feet. Underparts are gray or
white. The shoulders, back, and
tail may be tinged black.
Canis mesomelas Canis simensis
Black-backed jackal Ethiopian wolf

Length 26 – 35 in Length 23⁄4 – 31⁄4 ft
(65 – 90 cm) (0 .84 – 1 m)
Tail 10 – 16 in Tail 101⁄2 – 151⁄2 in
(26 – 40 cm) (27 – 39.6 cm)
(6 – 12 kg) (11 – 19.5 kg)
Location E. and southern Social unit Pair Location E. Africa Social unit Group
Africa
This jackal’s range extends from city

suburbs to the deserts of southern
Africa. The main coloration is ginger Canis rufus a social organ ization comparable
to red-brown with a distinctive black to that of the gray wolf (see p.174).
saddle over its shoulders and back,
and a black, bushy tail. Female and
Red wolf The coat is tawny-cinnamon mixed
with gray and black, and is darkest
male mate for life and hunt together Length 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 ft on the back.
(1 – 1.25 m)
as adaptable omnivores. Their prey
Tail 113⁄4 – 18 in
includes livestock such as sheep or (29.5 – 46 cm)
young cattle. Their breeding habits Weight 44 – 75 lb
resemble those of other jackals. (20 – 34 kg)
Formerly known as the Simien jackal, Location Reintroduced to Social unit Group
E. USA (North Carolina)
this species may mate with domestic Status Critically endangered
dogs, which has affected their genetic
integrity. They are at risk from habitat
loss, competition and diseases from
domestic dogs, and overgrazing, which By the 1970s, red wolves were believed
has reduced their prey of hares, rodents, to be extinct in the wild due chiefly to
and giant mole rats. Groups of up to 13 persecution and interbreeding with
wolves congregate noisily at morning, coyotes. Reintroduced from 1987 in
noon, and evening; most hunting is North Carolina, they have established
around dawn and dusk. Both parents a population of more than 50. They
and young adult “helpers” protect hunt mammals such as rabbits, coypu,
and regurgitate food for the cubs. and raccoons, and live in packs with
Lycaon pictus CONSERVATION Otocyon megalotis
African wild dog Once widespread across Africa, in

many habitats, this wild dog is now
Bat-eared fox
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Length 30 – 43 in reduced to scattered, fragmented Length 18 – 24 in

(76 – 141 cm) (46 – 61 cm)
populations. It is still persecuted,
Tail 12 – 16 in Tail 103⁄4 – 131⁄2 in
(30 – 40 cm)
trapped, shot, and snared, and (27.5 – 34 cm)
Weight 37 – 79 lb
is also killed accidentally by road Weight 61⁄2 – 12 lb
(17 – 36 kg) vehicles. It suffers both habitat loss and (3.2 – 5.4 kg)
Location Australia Social unit Group diseases (rabies, distemper) from Location E. and southern Social unit Variable
Africa
Status Endangered domestic dogs. Survival depends on Status Least concern
active conservation, including tracking
pack movements by fitting with radio
collars (shown here).
Probably the most social Huge ears and a small face with a
canid, the African wild or pointed muzzle are the bat-eared fox’s
hunting dog lives in packs main external features, but its teeth,
of 30 or more adults and too, are very unusual. They are much
young. Only the smaller than those of a typical canid,
dominant pair breed, large, rounded dark muzzle and and with up to 8 extra molars may
ears forehead stripe
producing a litter of number 48—more than any other
10 – 12 (range 2 – 21) nonmarsupial mammal. Its main diet
after a gestation of is insects, especially termites and
71 – 73 days. However, the dung beetles. However, the breeding
whole pack cares for and and social habits of this species
protects the pups, regurgitating are more typically foxlike.
food for them until they develop
hunting skills by about 12 months.
The pack also cooperates to hunt very
large prey, such as wildebeest, zebra,
and impala. This dog has long legs,
and a lean build, with a relatively
small head, large ears, and a short,
PAINTED WOLF
MAMMALS
broad muzzle. Unusually for a canid,
This species’ scientific name
it has only 4 toes on each foot. Its means “painted wolf” and aptly
coat pattern is exceptionally variable, describes the coat pattern of
but the muzzle is usually black and variable patches and swirls in
the tail tip is white. black, gray, yellow, and white.
Cuon alpinus Canis lupus dingo rabbits, rodents, wallabies, small

kangaroos, and birds. However, the PACK HIERARCHY
Dhole Dingo opportunistic dingo can survive on fruit,
plant matter, and carrion. In social
Length 3 – 41⁄2 ft Length 281⁄4– 43 in behavior and pack system, it resembles
(0.9 – 1.4 m) (72 – 110 cm)
the gray wolf.
Tail 121⁄2 – 20 in Tail 81⁄2 – 14 in
(32 – 50 cm) (21 – 36 cm)
(10 – 20 kg) (9 – 21.5 kg)
Location S., E., and S.E. Social unit Group Location Africa Social unit Group
Asia
Status Endangered Status Vulnerable
irregular white
patches on
muzzle, chest,
belly, and feet
Also called the Asian red dog, the dhole This dog has variously been Young male dingoes may be
species is widespread, but with a shrinking regarded as a subspecies of the solitary and nomadic. Breeding
overall range and declining numbers. It domestic dog; as a subspecies adults usually form settled packs,
lives in territorial, day-active packs of up of the domestic dog’s ancestor, unless the population is widely
to 25 individuals, including pups, that are the gray wolf (see p.174); or as spaced, when pairs are likely.
usually based on an extended family. The a full and separate species in About 5 pups (range 1 – 10) are
fur color is evenly tawny or dark red, with its own right. Recent studies born after a gestation of 63
a darker tail and lighter underparts; the indicate that the dingo should be days. Senior pack members
legs are relatively short. The main prey treated as a subspecies of the gray teach them their place in
is medium-sized hoofed mammals, wolf, rather than as a descendant of the hierarchy by nips
supplemented by smaller creatures, feral domestic dogs. Dingoes are and other rebuffs.
fruit, and other plant food. found throughout Australia, except for
the southwest and southeast, where
dingo fences exclude them from
livestock; they are classified as pests, DINGO OR DOG?
both to farm animals and for rabies The dingo’s coat
control. Dingolike dogs also occur varies from light
wild, semiferal, or semidomesticated, sandy to deep
bushy tail red-ginger. Dingo–
on the mainland and many islands of may be white-
tipped
domestic dog
South and Southeast Asia. Dingoes hybrids can look very
interbreed readily with domestic similar, but may be
dogs, and in parts of Australia distinguished by their
one-third of individuals are canine and carnassial
such hybrids. Prey includes tooth shape.
174 CARNIVORES
Canis lupus success as a predator is dependent FEEDING PACK

on its organization into packs—family Having captured their prey,
Gray wolf groups that commonly consist of 5 to
12 wolves, although this size can go
the pack members wait
behind the dominant pair
for access to the kill.
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Length 3 – 41⁄4 ft up to 36 individuals. Packs patrol

(0.9 – 1.3 m)
territories, covering very wide areas,
Tail 14 –201⁄2 ft
(35 – 52 cm) which they maintain by scent markings.
Weight Up to135 lb The clearly defined hierarchy within a
(62 kg) pack centers around a dominant
Location North America, Social unit Group breeding pair that usually mates for life.
Greenland, Europe, Asia
Status Least concern By hunting in packs the gray wolf is able
to take a wide range of prey, including
moose and caribou, that may be up to
10 times a wolf’s weight.
The gray wolf is the largest wild member
of the canid family and the ancestor of
the domestic dog. Once the world’s
most widely ranging carnivore, its
distribution has since been restricted by
widespread human persecution and
habitat destruction. An intelligent and
social animal, its survival and great
MAMMALS
large, sensitive ears thick fur coat helps to

CARE OF THE YOUNG trap body heat
long muzzle
During the breeding season, powerful,
which lasts from January to April, long legs
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the dominant female gives birth to

between 1 and 11 pups. After about
a month of suckling, pups emerge long, sharp
from the den to receive scraps of teeth
food regurgitated by their parents
and other pack members. If their food
supply has been plentiful, pups will
have developed enough to travel with
the pack after 3 to 5 months, and
POWERFULLY PROPORTIONED
by the next breeding season some The gray wolf has a strong, stocky large feet
juveniles will have chosen to leave build that makes it an effective and claws
the pack entirely. hunter. Its sensitive nose and
ears help it to detect prey.
PREDATOR AND VICTIM

Although gray wolves can occur close to human settlements,
their mythical reputation for ferocity led to their near
extermination. Today, most gray wolves live in
remote areas, where they hunt herds of
large deer or musk oxen.
MAMMALS
CALL OF THE WILD
Gray wolves howl to announce their presence
and to define and defend their territories. Heard
at distances of up to 6 miles (10 km), howling
allows rival packs to stay well separated,
avoiding confrontation.
176 CARNIVORES
Bears
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The bear family includes the world’s

PHYLUM Chordata
largest terrestrial carnivore, the brown
Movement Dens and dormancy
CLASS Mammalia Compared with other carnivores, Many bears, especially those in cold
ORDER Carnivora
bear, which can stand up to 11 ft (3.5 m) bears walk slowly and deliberately, regions, become dormant in winter.
FAMILY Ursidae
tall. Bears have a heavy build, a large skull, with all 5 toes as well as their heels During this time, they retreat to a
thick legs, and a short tail. They are found touching the ground (plantigrade prepared den and live on reserves of
SPECIES 8
gait). They can, however, move body fat. This state differs from true
throughout Eurasia and North America, quickly if the need arises. When hibernation (see p.89), which involves
and in parts of North Africa and South threatened or defending their a drop in body temperature. Cubs
America, mainly in forests. Unlike most carnivores, bears rely territory, many bears stand on their are often born during dormancy.
back legs to increase their already Since they have no fur, the newborn
heavily on vegetation as a food source.
considerable size. The majority of cubs are highly vulnerable and
bears are agile climbers. benefit from the snug environment
created by their mother’s body heat.
Anatomy Most bears have lost the carnassial Feeding
Bears are either large or medium-sized, (shearing) function of the molar teeth. The diet of most bears consists of
CONSERVATION
and males are up to 20 percent larger Instead, the molars are flat with a mixture of meat (including insects
than females. Although the giant rounded cusps, making them effective and fish) and plant material (from Of the 8 species of bears, only one—
panda is one notable exception, most tools for grinding vegetation. Bears roots and shoots to fruit and nuts). the giant panda—is officially listed as
bears have a black, brown, or white have large, strong paws—a single Only the polar bear lives exclusively endangered. However, 5 are classified
coat, and many feature a white or blow can often kill another animal— on meat, while the giant panda as vulnerable. Polar bears are
yellow mark on the chest. Despite and long, nonretractable claws. is almost entirely herbivorous. Brown particularly vulnerable in the southern
the fact that they have a keen sense bears have a capacity to eat almost parts of their range because global
of smell, bears’ sight and hearing continuously without feeling full, warming is melting the Arctic sea ice
are less well developed, and prior to becoming dormant in winter. where they spend the winter, feeding
this is reflected in their Because bears depend on plants on seals and breeding. The southern
large snout and more than other carnivores, they Beaufort Sea population has declined
small eyes spend more of their time feeding. by over 40 percent since 2001.
and ears. Most forage during the day.
MAMMALS
PHYSICAL INTIMIDATION
Bears can be aggressive animals, particularly when
competing with each other during the breeding season.
When male brown bears come into conflict, they will
often try to intimidate one another by making themselves
look as large as possible, growling and displaying their
teeth. Smaller individuals will usually give way to
larger ones, but if a warning is ignored, actual fighting
will break out, often leading to serious injury or death.
BEARS 177
Ursus maritimus bears move 60 miles (100 km) inland in

summer and vary their diet with birds’ PAW PADDLES
Polar bear eggs, lemmings, lichens, mosses, and
carrion, such as caribou and musk-oxen.
Polar bears swim readily across open
water at up to 6 mph (10 kph). They
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Length 6 – 9 ft Mating occurs on sea ice in April–May. paddle with the massive forepaws—
(1.8 – 2.8 m)
The pregnant female digs a den in snow the rear legs trailing as rudders. The
Tail 21⁄4 – 5 in
(6 – 13 cm) or earth and gives birth to 2 cubs (range coat’s hollow, air-filled guard hairs
Weight 331 – 1,433 lb 1 – 4) from November to January. The (see also below) aid buoyancy. When
(150 – 650 kg) cubs take solid food at 5 months but diving, the eyes remain open but the
Location Arctic, Social unit Individual are not weaned for another 2 – 3 years. nostrils close as the bear holds its
N. Canada
Status Vulnerable breath for up to 2 minutes, coming up
longer neck than stealthily beneath prey such as
other bears
straight seabirds or surface-basking seals.
profile
Vying with the brown bear as the
largest land-based carnivore, the male
polar bear can weigh twice as much
as a female. Its favored habitat is a
NOT QUITE WHITE
mix of pack ice, shoreline, and open
The polar bear’s
water where seals are found. Some guard (outer) fur is
creamy rather than
STALK OR STILL HUNT pure white. Hollow
and translucent,
The polar bear’s chief prey is seals, the guard hairs
which are caught by 2 main hunting transmit the sun’s
methods. In the stalk, the polar bear heat internally
moves slowly nearer its prey, relying down to their
bases, where it
on its camouflaging white coat and
is absorbed by
“freezing” if the seal looks up. It then the black skin. The
charges the last 50 – 100 ft (15 – 30 m) dense underfur and
at up to 34 mph (55 kph). In the still thick blubber (fatty
hunt, the bear waits motionless on layer) under the
the ice next to a seal’s breathing skin aid insulation.
MAMMALS
hole, and grabs the prey as it
surfaces. The bear bites the seal’s
partially furred
head and drags it a short distance paw pads retain
for consumption. heat
Ursus americanus Ursus thibetanus bamboo shoots and leaves, grasses,

MAINLY VEGETARIAN herbs, grubs, and insects such as ants.
American black bear Asiatic black bear Where its natural forest habitat has been
farmed and become fragmented, this
Length 4– 61⁄4 ft Length 31⁄2 – 61⁄4 ft bear may raid corn and other crops and,
(1.2 – 1.9 m) (1.1 – 1.9 m)
on occasions, has caused human
Tail Up to 43⁄4 in Tail Up to 43⁄4 in (12 cm)
(12 cm) fatalities. Eight months after mating the
Weight 88 – 496 lb (35 – 200 kg) female gives birth in her winter den to
(40 – 225 kg) Social unit Individual
1 – 3 (usually 2) cubs. The Asiatic black
Location North America, Social unit Individual Location E., S., and S.E. bear is hunted for its body parts
Mexico Asia Status Vulnerable
Status Least concern (especially the gall bladder), which are
Some 95 percent of this bear’s diet used in Asian cuisine and medicines.
is plant-based, including, according
to season, roots, buds, shoots, fruit,
The American black bear is adaptable berries, and nuts, which are often Similar to the American black bear (see
in habitat, but generally prefers obtained by climbing. It may also left) in appearance and habits, the Asiatic
forested country. Its powerful become adept at hunting black bear may spend up to half its
limbs and short claws tear deer fawns and time in trees. Its main foods
open old logs to search for at catching fish. include acorns, beech,
worms and grubs, and are and other nuts, fruit
also excellent for tree climbing, such as cherries,
when this bear plucks fruit
with its prehensile lips. The
ears are larger and more erect
than those of the brown bear,
and it lacks a prominent whitish yellow
shoulder hump. It sleeps in chest patch
winter, which lasts up to 6 gives alternative
name of moon
months in the north of its bear
range. This bear may break
into outbuildings or vehicles to
obtain food left by humans, but
it usually flees on confrontation.
BLACK TO BLUE BEARS strong legs,

In the east, black is the main fur color, adept at bipedal
but in the west, it may be cinnamon or yellow- walking
brown, and on the Pacific coast, gray-blue.
178 CARNIVORES
Helarctos malayanus trees, even sleeping in a rough nest of

bent-over or broken branches. It eats a LONG TONGUE
Sun bear range of fruit, shoots, eggs, small
mammals, grubs, honey (its other name
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Length 3 – 5 ft is honey bear), and varied plant food.

(1 – 1.5 m)
Habitat loss, as forests are logged and
Tail 1 – 23⁄4 in (3 – 7 cm)
converted to agriculture, is the major
(30 – 70 kg) threat to the species, and it may raid
crops, notably palm-tree plantations
Location S.E. Asia for the shoots, leading to persecution
Status Vulnerable
by farmers.
The only truly tropical bear, the sun bear white to reddish “sun” chest
is an elusive, nocturnal, little-known patch varies from a U-shape
omnivore of hardwood lowland forest. to a circle or irregular spot
Its sleek, smooth fur varies from black
to gray or rusty. It is paler on the muzzle, SMALLEST BEAR
which is comparatively short. Its stocky, The smallest bear species, the sun bear
doglike body proportions and small size also has the shortest fur. If seized by a tiger
have led to the local name of dog bear. or other predator, the loose skin around
The sun bear spends much time in its neck allows it to turn and fight.
CLIMBING CLAWS
The sun bear has large
front feet with extremely
long, curved claws, an
adaptation for tree climbing. The sun bear’s tongue can
It also hugs the trunk with protrude 10 in (25 cm) to
its front limbs and grips extract grubs, honey, and
with its teeth, to haul itself similar food from holes and
up. The claws are also crevices. It may also place each
MAMMALS
used to dig for worms and front paw alternately in a termite

insects, and to break into nest; the occupants crawl
termite colonies and nests onto the paw, and the
of stingless bees. bear then licks them off.
Melursus ursinus ON THE SCENT STANDING SURVEY

Sloth bear Bears locate food mainly by smell,
sniffing with their long, mobile snout.
Length 41⁄2 – 6 ft The sloth bear specializes in ants
(1.4 – 1.8 m)
and termites, tearing open their nests
Tail 23⁄4 – 43⁄4 in
(7 – 12 cm) in soil, old logs, or trees with its
Weight 120 – 420 lb foreclaws, which are 3 in (8 cm) long.
(55 – 190 kg) Closing its nostrils and pursing its
Location S. Asia Social unit Variable lips, it sucks the insects through
Status Vulnerable the gap formed by its missing upper
incisor teeth. The sucking noises it
makes can be heard up to 330 ft
(100 m) away.
This small to medium-sized bear has a
stocky body and short, powerful limbs.
It can survive in a variety of habitats,
including thorn scrub, grassland,
and forest, if its 3 major foods— foreclaws (see panel above) help it to
ants, termites, and get food and are useful for climbing
fruit—are present (it also trees, too. Like other bears, the adult
eats honey and eggs). sloth bear is mainly solitary except
Its long, nonretractile during the mating season (June–July).
However, brief groupings of 5 – 7 young
white chest mark varies bears have been observed, even without
from a U-shape local concentrations of food to attract
to a “Y” or “O” them. The female occupies a natural
hollow or digs one, and usually has 2 Like other bears, the sloth bear
SHAGGY BEAR cubs (in November–January). The cubs can stand just on its back legs.
The sloth bear is stay in the den for 2 – 3 months, ride Once believed to be an aggressive
distinguished by its long, on the mother’s back clinging to her posture, the bear is in fact gaining
rough fur, especially long fur for another 6 months, and a clearer view of its surroundings
around the ears, rear
become independent after about 2 and, more importantly, scenting
neck, and shoulders.
Color varies from years. Threats include habitat loss, the air to assess possible food
black to brown or poaching for body parts (used in or danger. Injuries to humans, mainly
reddish; the muzzle traditional medicines), persecution, clawings, are usually the result of
is usually much and cub capture for training surprise encounters.
paler or even white. and performance.
BEARS 179
Tremarctos ornatus CROPS AND CONFLICT

Spectacled bear The diet of the spectacled bear,
one of the most herbivorous of bears,
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Length 41⁄4 – 61⁄4 ft includes a huge range of fruit, as

(1.3 – 1.9 m)
well as bromeliads, bulbs of wild
Tail Up to 4 in
(10 cm) orchids and similar flowers, palm
Weight 130 – 390 lb shoots and leaf stalks, and, in drier
(60 – 175 kg) areas, grass stems and cacti. Animal
Location W. South Social unit Individual foods include insects, birds, eggs,
America
Status Vulnerable small mammals, and carrion. Raids
on crops, especially corn, and
occasional attacks on livestock
provoke revenge killings
South America’s only bear, and its CUBS IN THEIR DEN by farmers.
largest land mammal after the tapirs, Newborn spectacled bear cubs, like other baby
the spectacled or Andean bear is also bears, are tiny, each weighing only 12 oz (325 g).
the most arboreal of the family. Playing Most are born between December and February.
a prominent role in the folklore and
mythology of many Andean peoples, branches to bring fruit within
its multitude of local names include reach. These bears may also create
oso achupayero (bromeliad-eating a simple tree platform, 16 ft (5 m) or
bear), yura mateo (white-fronted bear), more across, for feeding and resting.
yanapuma (black puma), and ucucu Most matings occur from April to June,
(after one of its rare vocalizations). but may happen at almost any time
The species once occupied habitats so that the birth corresponds with
from coastal desert to high-elevation greatest food availability. The pair
grassland, but human presence stay together for 1 – 2 weeks. The
increasingly limits it to cloud forests cubs’ eyes open at 42 days and they
SPECTACLES
at 3,300 – 8,900 ft (1,000 – 2,700 m). may leave the den, in a hollow among
The creamy white
Mainly vegetarian, its massive jaw rocks or tree roots, by 3 months.
eye markings vary
muscles and cheek teeth grind The cubs stay with the mother for from complete circles to
the toughest plants. For example, 2 years, learning about feeding “eyebrows” above or “tear- usually black,
but occasionally
MAMMALS
low-growing plants are simply torn methods, food types, and threats. drops” below, and allow red-brown fur
up and chewed, despite cactus spines As with other bears, the male plays identification of
or leaf barbs on puya bromeliads. A no part in rearing the cubs and, if individual bears.
common tree-feeding technique is to he encounters them by chance,
edge along a branch, bending other may attack and kill them.
Ailuropoda melanoleuca in a den in a hollow tree or rocky cave,

CONSERVATION
but one cub is often abandoned. Only
Giant panda 6 in (15 cm) long, and 35 ⁄8 oz (100 g)
in weight, the newborn cubs are
More than 150 pandas are kept
in captivity worldwide, and about
Length 4 – 6 ft nearly naked. 10 times that number live in the wild.
(1.2 – 1.8 m)
Their restricted diet and fragmented
Tail 4 – 6 in
(10 – 15 cm) habitat are still major problems
Weight 155 – 280 lb to their survival, but significant
(70 – 125 kg) progress has been made with
Location E. Asia Social unit Individual captive breeding. Scientists in
Status Vulnerable China can now successfully rear
the cubs that the mothers in
captivity abandon, by carefully
swapping the cubs over
Instantly recognizable as the worldwide every few days.
symbol of conservation, the giant
panda’s own survival is still far from
secure. It has a highly restricted front limbs
diet—99 percent bamboo, using more
different parts of the 60 or more muscled than SIXTH “FINGER”
rear limbs,
bamboo species, taking new shoots for climbing
in spring, leaves in summer, and
stems in winter. Carrion, grubs,
and eggs are also eaten when
available. Normally solitary,
the panda feeds mainly at
dawn and dusk, and sleeps
in a bamboo thicket. It marks
BLACK ON WHITE
its home ranges with anal gland
The giant panda
scents, urine, and claw scratches, is white with
avoiding confrontation by using black ears, The giant panda handles bamboo
overlapping areas at different times. oval-shaped eye with great dexterity due to an
The female, four-fifths the male’s size, patches, nose, extension of the sesamoid bone
indicates readiness to mate by moans, shoulder “saddle,” in the wrist, which projects as a
bleats, and barks (11 distinct panda and limbs. It has erect padlike “false thumb.” This can flex
calls have been identified). Males ears, a broad face, and and oppose the true thumb (first
coarse, oily guard small eyes.
gather, chase, and fight each other (outer) hairs up to digit) to grip stems and leaves.
for the female. Usually 2 cubs are born 4 in (10 cm) long
180 CARNIVORES
Ursus arctos BROWN BEAR SUBSPECIES

Brown bear Several subspecies of brown bears
are commonly recognized: grizzly
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Length 5 – 9 ft bear, Kodiak bear, Alaskan bear,

(1.5 – 2.8 m)
Eurasian brown bear, Syrian bear,
Tail 21⁄4 – 81⁄4 in
(6 – 21 cm) Siberian bear, Manchurian bear,
Weight 175 – 1,213 kg and Hokkaido bear. However, their
(80 – 550 lb) taxonomy is disputed, and rather
Location N. and N.W.
North America, N. Europe, Social unit Individual than being “true” subspecies, they
Asia Status Least concern may simply represent size variations
KODIAK GRIZZLY EURASIAN due to disparities in food supply.
KODIAK BEAR
The brown bear enjoys the widest Weighing up to 1,720 lb (780 kg),
distribution of all bear species and the impressive Kodiak bear, Ursus
varies widely in size depending on its arctos middendorfi, is the
largest of the subspecies.
food and habitat. Large areas of open
wilderness are important to its survival,
which explains why populations
can be found in isolated areas
such as parts of Alaska and the
Yukon, while habitat destruction
in the rest of North America and
Europe has seen a drastic
reduction in its numbers there.
The brown bear’s distinctive GRIZZLY BEAR
features are its shoulder hump of This subspecies, Ursus
muscle, and long claws that help it EURASIAN BROWN BEAR arctos horribilis, gets its
This bear, Ursus arctos arctos, is the common name from
to dig for roots and bulbs. It can stand
smallest member of the species. Rapid its “grizzled” coat,
upright on its hind paws in order to loss of habitat has now restricted it to the hair being
identify a threat or a food source. small pockets of mountain woodland. lighter at the
Although mainly herbivorous, brown tips than at
MAMMALS
bears will readily eat meat when the base.

it is available. To avoid winter
food shortage, they can den
up in dugouts in hillsides, or
in brush, for as long as 6 prominent
months, during which shoulder hump
period the female also
gives birth to her cubs.
The lifespan of the brown
bear is about 25 years
in the wild and
longer in captivity.
concave profile
powerful limbs
coat usually dark brown, but

varies from blonde to black
long, dense coat

nonretractable
front claws
POWERFUL BUILD
SALMON HARVEST Brown bears are large, powerfully built
Brown bears are comfortable in water animals. Although there is little difference
in body length between the sexes, males can
and may wait for hours at waterfalls
be up to twice as heavy as females, which
or in the shallows of a stream ready have a smaller, lighter frame. Both sexes feed
to dive on their prey. For some intensively from spring to fall in order to
populations of brown bears, salmon put on weight in preparation for winter sleep.
forms a vital source of protein in the
bear’s diet. These populations are
usually the largest of the species. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
As spawning salmon swim upstream, Due to its power, size, and unpredictable behavior, the
brown bear has long been considered a threat to humans
the brown bear pounces, delivering a
and livestock. Grizzly bears evolved in open habitat and
crushing bite with its powerful jaws or may act aggressively when defending themselves, since
a stunning blow from one of its large, they have little opportunity to find the safety of any cover.
clawed paws. Once caught, the fish A mother with young cubs is a particularly dangerous
rarely escape the bear’s grasp. animal to encounter. Nevertheless, bears will usually
avoid coming into contact with humans.
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MAMMALS
181
182 CARNIVORES
Sea lions, walrus, and seals

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Although clumsy on land, pinnipeds (seals,

PHYLUM Chordata
sea lions, and the walrus) are supremely agile Temperature control
CLASS Mammalia
Pinnipeds have several heat-
underwater. They have a streamlined body and regulating adaptations. In cold
ORDER Carnivora powerful flippers and can dive to depths of over water, the blubber insulates the
330 ft (100 m). Some species can remain underwater internal organs, and blood flow to
FAMILIES Otariidae,
the flippers is restricted. In warm
Odobenidae, for over an hour. There are 3 families: the Otariidae conditions, some species wave
Phocidae
are the eared seals (sea lions and fur seals), which their flippers to expel excess heat.
SPECIES 34
have small external ears and back flippers that In addition, true seals and walruses
can either contract the blood
can be rotated forward for movement on land; the
vessels near the skin’s surface (to COLOR CHANGE
walrus (Odobenidae), which has distinctive tusks; and the true seals reduce heat loss in icy water) or The blood vessels in the skin
(Phocidae), which have no external ears and they cannot rotate the they can dilate these vessels to of these walruses are dilated to
back flippers. Only eared seals and the walrus can support themselves gain heat when basking in the sun. maximize the amount of heat they
Eared seals, however, will enter can absorb by lying in the sun. As
in a semiupright position on land. Pinnipeds are found worldwide, the water to avoid overheating. a result, their bodies turn pink.
mostly in temperate and polar seas.
UNDERWATER ACROBATS
In water, pinnipeds, such as these South American sea
lions, are graceful, athletic, and capable of swimming at
high speed. While underwater, they can communicate by
sounds produced using air retained in the lungs.
MAMMALS
Anatomy
Most pinnipeds have a short face, a thick neck, and a torpedo-
shaped flexible body. A layer of blubber beneath the skin provides
insulation, aids buoyancy, acts as an energy reserve, and protects MALE AGGRESSION
the organs. All species are covered with hair, except the walrus, Life cycle In the breeding season,
which is nearly hairless. Pinnipeds have large eyes for good Unlike the other marine mammals there is fierce competition
deep-water vision, excellent hearing, ear passages and nostrils (cetaceans and manatees and the between males, such as
that can be closed underwater, and long whiskers that enhance dugong), pinnipeds have not abandoned these 2 elephant seals,
the sense of touch. Many species display land entirely. In most species, during for mating rights. Only
marked sexual dimorphism: elephant flattened the annual breeding season, males the strongest males
head aids
seal males weigh 4 times more attempt to set up territories on suitable are able to secure a
underwater
than females. movement beaches, fighting savagely for space and breeding territory.
excluding weaker males. Females move
flexible onto the beaches, sometimes several
backbone SKELETAL FEATURES weeks after the males, and give birth.
Pinniped limbs have been A few days after a pup is born (usually
modified to form flippers: only one young is produced), the female LARGE COLONY
the upper arm and leg bones mates with the male in whose territory Breeding beaches
smaller front are short, stout, and strong, she has settled. For the majority of are always crowded.
flippers and the digits are elongated the gestation period, which lasts Colonies of brown fur
and flattened. Also, as the backbone’s approximately 8 – 15 months, pinnipeds seals number several
vertebrae have fewer interlocking projections are mostly at sea and return to land thousand, with males
more powerful than most other mammals, and the spine is only when it is time to repeat the controlling harems of
back flippers highly flexible. breeding process. 7 – 9 females.
SEA LIONS, WALRUS, AND SEALS 183
Callorhinus ursinus Arctocephalus pusillus Arctocephalus gazella Males arrive at their breeding islands in
November and compete for territories in
Northern fur seal Brown fur seal Antarctic fur seal which they can mate with about 5
females. Almost exterminated by fur
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Length Up to 7 ft Length 4 – 71⁄2 ft Length 4 – 61⁄2 ft hunting in the 19th century, this species
(2.1 m) (1.2 – 2.3 m) (1.2 – 2 m)
is now recovering despite increased
Weight 400 – 600 lb Weight Up to 778 lb Weight 50 – 450 lb
(180 – 270 kg) (353 kg) (22 – 204 kg) fishing of krill, a major
Social unit Variable Social unit Variable Social unit Variable component of
Status Vulnerable Status Least concern Status Least concern its diet.
Location North Pacific Location Southern Africa, Location Antarctic and
S.E. Australia, Tasmania subantarctic waters
The male northern fur seal is brown-gray,

while females and juveniles are silver-gray Brown fur seals from off South Africa The mane of the male Antarctic fur seal
above and red-brown below, with a tend to be a darker gray-brown than is accentuated by extra muscle and fat,
gray-white chest patch. The front flippers Australian individuals, and they dive deposited under the skin. He is dark
are long and appear “cut off” at the wrist. twice as deep (to 1,300 ft/400 m). The gray-brown, while the female is midgray.
The diet includes many fish, and also young are about 28 in (70 cm) long and
birds such as loons and petrels. Most weigh 13 lb (6 kg) when born, in
populations are migratory, with adult November–December. They play in Zalophus californianus and juveniles are a uniform tan color.
males heading south in August. The “nursery” tidal pools, Males have a peaklike head crest.
young stay on land for 4 months and by
November follow with
while the
mothers feed
California sea lion The main prey is schooling fish such
as herring, squid, and sardines, caught
long,
their mothers. at sea for conspicuous Length Up to 73⁄4 ft on short (2-minute) dives down to
ear flaps (2.4 m)
several about 245 ft (75 m). In “El Niño years,”
days at a (275 – 390 kg) the California sea lion’s diet switches to
time. Social unit Variable whiting, salmon, and also birds such as
Status Least concern guillemots. During the breeding season
Location W. USA (May–July), males fight for small
territories on the beaches and rock
pools. However, after 2 weeks, they
must swim off to feed, and on return,
MAMMALS
The “performing seal” of marine have to battle to regain a territory.
parks and aquaria, this species rarely The mother cares for her single pup
strays more than 10 miles (16 km) out (rarely 2) for 8 days, then enters a cycle
to sea, and often enters harbors and of 2 – 4 days feeding at sea and 1 – 3
estuaries for food and shelter. The days suckling on land. This usually
male is dark brown, and females lasts for 8 months until the next birth.
Phocarctos hookeri Otaria byronia
New Zealand sea lion South American

Length 6 – 83⁄4 ft
(1.8 – 2.7 m)
sea lion
Weight 200 – 990 lb Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄2 ft
(90 – 450 kg) (2 – 2.6 m)
Social unit Variable Weight Up to 770 lb
Status Vulnerable (350 kg)
Location Subantarctic
islands south of New Social unit Variable
Zealand Status Least concern
Location W., S., and E.
South America, Falkland
Islands
Also called Hooker’s sea lion, this

species is restricted to a few islands
south of New Zealand. It forages up An enormous, heavy head and brown fur
to 95 miles (150 km) from land and then that is paler or yellow on the underside
retires perhaps 2 ⁄3 mile (1 km) inland, identify this powerful sea lion. The male
to rest among cliffs or trees. Males of this nonmigratory species has a
are dark brown with silver-gray copious shoulder and chest mane, and Eumetopias jubatus or buff-colored, with black flippers
hindquarters and a shoulder mane; is twice the weight of the female (as in furred only on the upper side. Breeding
females and juveniles are silvery or
brown-gray above, yellowish or tan
many sea lions). Its breeding (rookery)
areas are used year-round for resting.
Steller’s sea lion habits resemble those of other sea
lions—colonies numbering over 1,000.
underneath. The diet includes fish, The mothers coax Length Up to 11 ft Steller’s sea lions dive deeply
(3.3 m)
crabs, penguins, and seal pups. their pups into for fish, seals, and otters.
Weight Up to 2,500 lb
the water after (1,120 kg)
1 – 2 months— Social unit Group
a relatively dark brown
Status Endangered or black pup
early age for Location North Pacific rim
a sea lion.
The largest sea lion, a male Steller’s

sea lion has a wide muzzle, a
huge head, and a thick neck,
and may be 3 times the weight
of the female. Both are tawny
184 CARNIVORES
Odobenus rosmarus walrus dives more than 330 ft (100 m) their own gatherings. Courting males
deep, for 25 minutes or more, to find make underwater pulses and bellows SPARRING RIVALS
Walrus prey using the touch of its whiskers and
snout. It then excavates the food with
to attract partners, and mating occurs
between January and March. The pup,
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Length 83⁄4 – 111⁄4 ft its nose, aided by jets of water squirted born after 15 months (which includes
(2.5 – 3.5 m)
from its mouth. Items are eaten mainly 4 – 5 months’ delayed implantation), is up
Weight 1,760 – 3,970 lb
(800 – 1,800 kg) by suction with the mouth and tongue, to 4 ft (1.2 m) long and 165 lb (75 kg) in
Social unit Group rather than using the teeth. Walruses are weight. It suckles for 6 months and is
social and huddle on land or ice floes in weaned over the following 18 months.
Location Arctic waters large, mixed groups of hundreds, which Mothers are extremely protective of their
split at sea into smaller bands of less young, and other females may “adopt”
than 10; bachelor males tend to form pups that have been orphaned.
The male walrus is twice the weight

of the female. Both sexes have tusks, CHANGEABLE COLOR
which are used for support when The walrus’s skin shows through its short,
rough, heavily
creased skin
coarse hair, and changes color with activity.
foraging on the sea floor, and help Most male walruses begin to
It is usually grayish or
anchor them to the edges of ice floes. cinnamon-brown, but, breed at about 10 years. Males
The walrus’s blunt, thickly whiskered when sunbathing, the display and spar with their tusks
muzzle widens rapidly to the head, skin flushes rose-red, (extralong upper canine teeth),
neck, and chest, then tapers markedly as though sunburned. for a favored position at the breeding
to the tail, which is embedded in a web site and, with it, access to females.
of skin. It feeds mainly on seabed Stab wounds may occur but are
dwelling worms, shellfish, sea tusks grow to 31⁄4 ft usually nonfatal; older males have
snails, shrimps, and (1 m) in mature many scars.
males
slow-moving fish. The
MAMMALS
Monachus monachus Lobodon carcinophaga Hydrurga leptonyx The solitary, sinuous leopard seal is
widest at the shoulders and, unusually
Mediterranean Crabeater seal Leopard seal for a true seal (phocid), swims with its
front flippers, which have claws on the
monk seal Length 71⁄2 – 73⁄4 ft
(2.3 – 2.4 m)
Length 73⁄4 – 111⁄4 ft
(2.4 – 3.4 m)
fingertips. The head is reptile-like in
proportions, with no forehead and
Weight 435 – 450 lb Weight 440 – 1,000 lb
Length 71⁄2 – 91⁄4 ft
(198 – 207 kg) (200 – 455 kg) a wide, deep lower jaw. The 1-in
(2.3 – 2.8 m)
Social unit Variable Social unit Individual (2.5-cm) canine teeth are adapted for
(240 – 300 kg) Status Least concern Status Least concern
seizing smaller seals, penguins, and
Location Antarctic and Location Antarctic and other birds; the diet also includes
Social unit Individual/Group subantarctic waters subantarctic waters
squid and krill.
Location Mediterranean,
Atlantic (N.W. Africa)
The long, lithe crabeater seal has

oar-shaped, pointed front flippers
and a silver-gray to yellow-brown coat silver or gray coat with
with irregular darker spots and rings. variable dark spots
One of the most abundant and fastest
seals, it swims at 16 mph (25 kph).
A typical feeding dive is down to 130 ft Leptonychotes weddellii to depths of
(40 m) for 5 minutes. Despite its name, 1,600 ft (500 m) for one hour. This seal
the crabeater seal strains krill using its
unusual lobed teeth. Breeding habits
Weddell seal bites breathing holes in sheet ice
with its long, upper
are typical for seals, although the Length 91⁄2 – 103⁄4 ft incisor teeth. silver-
(2.8 – 3.3 m)
male stays with female and pup until gray
Weight 880 – 1,320 lb back
This species has smooth, dark brown weaning takes place at 3 weeks. (400 – 600 kg)
fur, paler beneath, and eats mainly fish, Social unit Variable
such as eels, sardines, and tuna, as Status Least concern
well as lobster and octopus. On land, Location Antarctic and
subantarctic waters
it is less social than most other seals,
with the mother–pup pairs or small
groups being widely spaced. This
extremely rare species is sensitive to
human disturbance such as tourism, Bulky, but small-headed and short-
so hides in sea caves. Cave collapses, flippered, the Weddell seal has a short,
pollution, overfishing, and viral infection blunt muzzle and few, short whiskers. To
are also serious threats. find fish, squid, and other prey, it dives
SEA LIONS, WALRUS, AND SEALS 185
Ommatophoca rossii Mirounga leonina The largest pinniped, the male Cystophora cristata
southern elephant-seal is 4 – 5 times
Ross seal Southern elephant- the weight of the female. His huge
nose resembles an elephant’s trunk,
Hooded seal
seal
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Length 51⁄2 – 81⁄4 ft which he inflates when roaring at rivals Length 61⁄2 – 83⁄4 ft
(1.7 – 2.5 m) (2 – 2.7 m)
during the 2-month breeding season.
(130 – 215 kg)
Length 111⁄4 – 161⁄4 ft To establish dominance, he also (200 – 300 kg)
(3.5 – 5 m)
Social unit Individual rears up, slaps, and butts. The single Social unit Variable
Weight 5⁄8 – 3 tons
Status Least concern (0.6 – 3 tonnes)
pup is born after a gestation of 11 Status Vulnerable
Location Antarctic waters months (including 4 months’ delayed Location North Atlantic to
Social unit Variable Arctic Ocean
implantation) and is suckled for 19 – 23
Location Antarctic and days by the ever-present mother, who
subantarctic waters
loses one-third of her body weight
The Ross seal has a distinctively blunt during this time. After breeding and
muzzle, a wide head, and long rear molting, these elephant-seals migrate scattered dark
flippers. Its fur is the shortest of any seal, south, feeding on fish and squid and blotches
and is dark gray to chestnut-brown with silvery gray fur, with diving to 2,000 ft (600 m) for
a buff underside and broad, dark bands scars and wounds in 20 minutes on average.
along the body in both adults and pups. the male
Less social than most seals, on ice it
lives alone or as a mother–pup pair. The
main food is squid, krill, and fish, caught
at depths of several hundred yards. In
November and December, males battle The hooded seal has a wide, fleshy
for territories around breathing holes in muzzle that droops over the mouth.
the ice used by females. The male intimidates his rivals at
breeding time by inflating his nasal
chamber to form a “hood,” which
doubles his head size, and also by
extruding an internal membrane from
his left nostril, which also inflates like
a brown-red balloon. Mainly solitary,
this seal migrates when not breeding
MAMMALS
or molting, to follow the pack ice. The
pup, born on an ice floe, is up to 31 ⁄ 2 ft
fleshy, (1.1 m) long and 66 lb (30 kg) in weight,
inflatable and is weaned in 4 – 5 days—the
nose shortest time of any mammal.
Halichoerus grypus gray-tan. The face has large eyes, Pusa sibirica Phoca vitulina
widely separated nostrils, and an
Gray seal angular nose. There are 3 populations:
coastal northwest Atlantic, coastal
Baikal seal Common seal
Length 51⁄4 – 71⁄2 ft northeast Atlantic, and the Baltic Sea. Length 4 – 41⁄2 ft Length 4 – 61⁄4 ft
(1.6 – 2.3 m) (1.2 – 1.4 m) (1.2 – 1.9 m)
The first group are 20 percent heavier
(100 – 310 kg) and breed from December to February; (50 – 90 kg) (80 – 140 kg)
Social unit Variable Baltic gray seals breed until April, and Social unit Individual Social unit Variable
those from the northeast, from July to Status Least concern Status Least concern
Location North Atlantic, December. The male gray seal does not Location E. Asia (Lake Location North Atlantic,
Baltic Sea Baikal) North Pacific
defend a set territory.
The male gray seal is One of the smaller seals, and the only
gray-brown with a few solely freshwater pinniped species, the
pale patches; the Baikal seal resembles its marine cousins
female is paler in most respects. However, it is mainly
solitary, and females tend to mate
with the same male over years (serial
Pagophilus groenlandicus The harp seal has close-set eyes in a monogamy). The single pup is born in an
wide face, black fingertip claws, and ice lair, molts its woolly white coat to the
Harp seal silver-white fur with curved dark marks
on the back that form a harp shape.
silvery gray adult fur after
6 – 8 weeks, and may
Length 51⁄4 – 51⁄2 ft It eats cod, capelin, and similar fish, suckle for 10 weeks. Also known as the harbor seal, this is
(1.6 – 1.7 m)
migrating with the edges of pack At 50 – 55 years, its the most widespread pinniped, with
(120 – 135 kg) ice. Social both on ice and in water, lifespan is longer 4 – 5 subspecies—one of them, the
Social unit Variable harp seals travel in dense, noisy groups. than many Ungava seal, lives in fresh water in
Pups, born February–March on ice, other seals. Quebec, Canada, but is not recognized
Location North Atlantic to have yellow fur that whitens for 2 by all sources. Below the large, set-back
Arctic Ocean
weeks before the first molt. eyes, the angled, close-set nostrils form
a V shape. Color is extremely variable,
mainly dark to pale gray-brown with
small rings and blotches. A wide-ranging
opportunist, the common seal may
cause problems in fisheries. Its main prey
are herring, sand eels, gobies, hake, and
whiting, caught on dives of 3 – 5 minutes.
186 CARNIVORES
Skunks Mydaus marchei
Palawan stink badger

Skunks—and the Asian stink badgers—
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Chordata Length 121⁄2 – 191⁄2 in

Opportunists
PHYLUM
form a group of mammals with an infamous (32 – 49 cm)
CLASS Mammalia Tail 1⁄2 – 13⁄4 in
armament of chemical defense. Skunks Skunks prefer open wooded areas (1.5 – 4.5 cm)
ORDER Carnivora and avoid dense forest. They are
have not only a more potent repellent than Weight 13⁄4 – 51⁄2 lb
Mephitidae mostly active at night or dusk, (0.8 – 2.5 kg)
FAMILY
the mustelids, but also the means to fire it Location Philippines
12 when they feed on vegetation, Social unit Individual
SPECIES
at an attacker. fruit, insects, and small vertebrates;
(Palawan and
Busuanga islands)
certain species may be resistant to
snake venom. In some places they
Anatomy white pattern serves as a warning of raid domestic refuse in the manner
Skunks are ground-dwelling omnivores this behavior, and skunks may do of raccoons. They lead solitary lives Slow and ponderous, when attacked
with a muscular build and strong claws “handstands,” flashing the tail as a but some species may gather in the Palawan stink badger accurately
for digging for roots and grubs. They prelude to attack. communal dens—especially in winter. squirts an extremely noxious fluid from
have particularly well-developed anal its anal glands over a distance of 31⁄4 ft
scent glands armed with muscles, (1 m). It has a short tail, small ears
which enable them to squirt foul- and eyes, a typically badgerlike,
smelling sulphurous fluid when stocky body, and a long, flexible, almost
threatened or molested. This can hairless snout for rooting out small soil
repel the largest of predators dwellers such as worms, grubs, and
and a direct facial hit can slugs. The fur is dark brown with a
cause blindness or yellow head cap that tapers to a
asphyxiation. stripe between the shoulders. The
Their strikingly stink badger lives alone in a rocky
black and den or old porcupine burrow.
TRANSPORTING OFFSPRING
Young striped skunks are carried from
MAMMALS
place to place in their mother’s mouth.

This youngster may have wandered off
or is simply being moved to another den.
Conepatus humboldtii Spilogale putorius Mephitis mephitis NOXIOUS DEFENSE

Humboldt’s Eastern Striped skunk
hog-nosed skunk spotted skunk Length 61/2 – 16 in
(17 – 40 cm)
Length 8 – 121⁄2 in Length 71⁄2 – 13 in Tail 6 – 181/2 in
(20 – 32 cm) (19 – 33 cm) (15 – 47 m)
Tail 61⁄2 – 8 in Tail 31⁄4 – 11 in Weight 11⁄4 – 9 lb
(16.5 – 20.2 cm) (8 – 28 cm) (0.6 – 4.1 kg)
Location C. Canada to N. Social unit Individual
Weight 1 – 51⁄2 lb Weight 7 – 31 oz Mexico
(0.5 – 2.5 kg) (207 – 885 g) Status Least concern
Location S. South America Social unit Individual Location E. to C. USA, Social unit Individual
N.E. Mexico
Status Least concern Status Vulnerable If threatened, the striped skunk
fluffs its fur, arches its back, and
As with other skunks, the striped lifts its tail. Should the aggressor
skunk has black-and-white warning remain, it stands on its front feet,
Along with the typical small skunk coloration. Its diet includes insects, rear feet in the air, and twists its
head, stocky body, and fluffy tail, the small mammals, birds and their eggs, body. It then ejects a foul-smelling
Humboldt’s hog-nosed skunk also has fish, mollusks, fruit, seeds, and human liquid over its head for up to 93⁄4 ft
a broad nose pad for rooting up food. leftover food. It is solitary but may (3 m), from 2 nozzlelike ducts
Its fur is black or reddish brown with a gather in communal winter dens protruding from its anus.
white stripe along each side; the stripes among rocks, in old burrows, or
meet on the head and extend onto the under outbuildings. The 5 – 7
COLORATION
tail. It will feed on virtually anything young may stay with their This skunk is black with a thin,
edible, but mainly eats insects. Like mother for more than white stripe on the muzzle,
other skunks, it occupies a secure den a year. and wider, upper-back
under a rock, in a burrow, or among Heavy-bodied and short-legged, this stripes from head
bushes, and it can spray enemies with skunk relies on striking coloration to tail.
foul-smelling fluid. to warn its enemies of the noxious
fluid sprayed from its anal glands.
The white markings on the body differ
in every individual; there is usually,
however, a white patch on the forehead
and a white tail tip. Food includes a
variety of small animals, fruit, and
vegetable matter. Generally solitary,
up to 8 eastern spotted skunks may
share a den in winter.
RACCOONS AND RELATIVES 187
Raccoons and relatives

This family is typified by the raccoons, which Feeding
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PHYLUM Chordata their rain-forest habitat. They also

are well known for their mischievousness Most species in this family are have long tongues so they can lap up
CLASS Mammalia
and dexterity. They will boldly approach omnivorous, and their diet varies with nectar from flowers. Raccoons use
ORDER Carnivora location, season, and the availability their dextrous hands to reach into
humans for food and can use their highly
Procyonidae of food sources. They will eat fruit, streams to feel for crustaceans, fish,
FAMILY
mobile hands for opening doors and the
roots, shoots, and nuts, as well as and other prey. Their unfussy palate
SPECIES 13 like. In addition to raccoons, the family insects and small vertebrates, such also brings them into urban areas,
also includes coatis, ringtails, kinkajous, as birds, amphibians, and reptiles. where they raid garbage cans
and olingos. Common characteristics include Kinkajous mostly eat fruit and are and fearlessly solicit food from
CLASSIFICATION NOTE
distinctive tail rings and a dark mask pattern important seed dispersers in householders. The ringtail and coati
Some authorities group the are the most carnivorous
lesser panda with the raccoon on the face. The animals in this family are
members of this family
family. However, recent studies typically arboreal and have long tails to aid and are able to tackle
suggest that it should be
classified in its own family, the balance. All species in this family, except the rabbit-sized prey.
Ailurudae and this is how it has coati, are nocturnal. Procyonids are found in
been treated in this book.
the forests of the Americas.
Anatomy joints and hang by their feet

Members of the raccoon family when feeding or descending
are all medium-sized and short- tree trunks. Kinkajous
legged, and have a flat-footed have prehensile
(plantigrade), bearlike gait. They tails and are
commonly have a pointed snout, therefore able to
a relatively long body, a broad face, hang by their
round or pointed ears, and brown or tail alone. OPPORTUNISTIC FEEDING
gray fur. All species have short claws Raccoons and relatives eat a great
MAMMALS
and raccoons feature front paws variety of food. This common raccoon
developed into sensitive, mobile has used its mobile hands and finely
hands. Highly arboreal species, tuned hunting skills to capture a fish.
such as ringtails and kinkajous,
have the ability to rotate their ankle
Nasua nasua movements, to keep in contact. Bassariscus astutus Bassaricyon gabbii

A barking alarm call sends coatis
South American scurrying into dense foliage or the
treetops, although they may turn
Ringtail Northern olingo
coati and mob the attacker. The coati Length 12 – 161⁄2 in
(30 – 42 cm)
(35 – 49 cm)
also sleeps among the branches.
Tail 12 – 171⁄2 in Tail 16 – 211⁄2 in
Length 17 – 23 in Adult males tend to be solitary and (31 – 44 cm) (40 – 53 cm)
(43 – 58 cm)
more carnivorous, even cannibalistic Weight 13⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
Tail 161⁄2 – 22 in
(42 – 55 cm)
on young of their kind. Gestation is (0.8 – 1.5 kg) (1 – 1.6 kg)
10 – 11 weeks, and the 1 – 7 young Location C. and W. USA Social unit Individual Location Central America Social unit Individual
Weight 41⁄2 – 16 lb to S. Mexico to N. South America
(2 – 7.2 kg) shelter in a tree nest. Status Least concern Status Least concern
Location South America Social unit Individual/Group
This slim, almost catlike procyonid

makes its home in most kinds of forest,
red-, gray-, or especially moist, high-altitude cloud
yellow-brown fur forest. It moves with great skill
in the branches, rarely coming to the
ground, using its strongly grasping
faintly
ringed tail hands and feet and its long,
fluffy, nonprehensile tail for
balance. Active at night, the
northern olingo is solitary except
Also called the ringtailed cat or during the breeding season,
cacomistle, this slender, agile predator when female and male call loudly
This procyonid’s distinctive features has a tail boldly ringed in black and to each other. The northern olingo’s main
include a long, pointed snout. It white. The upper body is gray-brown diet is fruit, but it also catches grubs and
forages in daytime in noisy groups of or buff, with black eye rings and white other small creatures.
10 – 30 (rarely over 60), which bustle muzzle and “eyebrows.” Nocturnal and
through vegetation, exploring for solitary, this procyonid hunts small
anything edible, from fungi and birds, mammals, and reptiles, and also
berries to insects and mice, while forages for grubs, raids birds’ nests,
lookouts around the pack’s edge and eats fruit and nuts. It marks its
watch for predators. Highly territory with droppings and urine and
vocal, it uses many defends it against others of the same
different calls, sex. Gestation is 51 – 54 days, with an
as well as tail average litter size of 1 – 4.
188 RACCOONS AND RELATIVES
Bassaricyon neblina cousins the olingos: specimens

were collected between 4,921 – 9,022 ft
Olinguito (1,500 – 2,750 m). The species is adapted
to its cooler montane habitat by having
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Length 12 –16 in thicker fur; its rich brown coat has hairs
(30 – 40 cm)
that grow up to 4 cm long. It also differs
Tail 13 1⁄2 – 16 1⁄2 in
(34 – 42 cm) from the more lowland olingos by having
Weight 1 3⁄4 – 2 1⁄4 lb furrier ears; a bushier, somewhat shorter,
(0.75 – 1.1 kg) tail; rounder face; and shorter muzzle.
Location N.W. South Social unit Probably Like its tropical American relatives—
America individual including the kinkajou—the olinguito
Status Near threatened occupies the forest canopy, where
it is probably active at night, feeding
mainly on fruit. A single pair of teats
suggests that it has one young at a
The smallest member of the family time. Little is known about the habits ARBOREAL LIFE
Procyonidae is also the most recently Canopy-dwelling habits doubtless helped
of this elusive animal. However, an
the olinguito avoid recognition until the
identified new species of the order adult female specimen kept in US 21st century—even though it is significantly
Carnivora. Described in 2013 from zoos during the 1970s has now been smaller and more richly color ed than the
museum specimens collected in identified as an olinguito. It failed to better known olingos. Colombian olinguitos
the Andean cloud forests, the olinguito breed with other captive olingos and have a redder hue, while Ecuadorian
lives at higher altitudes than its close differed in its vocalizations. animals have black-tipped hairs.
MAMMALS
TIGHT GRIP
The olinguito is a superb climber,
using its clawed hands and feet to
grip branches. But unlike the related
kinkajou, its tail is not prehensile.
189
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MAMMALS
MUSEUM COLLECTIONS
Scientific collections held in the world’s
museums are vital repositories of the
world’s biodiversity. Scrutiny of museum
specimens helps scientists document
nature’s diversity—and can even uncover
species that were previously unknown.
The olinguito was described as new on
the basis of skins and skulls in the
American Museum of Natural History.
These specimens had previously been
identified as olingos of the genus
Bassaricyon, but careful comparison of
their features and dimensions revealed
them to be a new species of this genus,
subsequently named the olinguito.
190 CARNIVORES
Procyon lotor Procyon cancrivorus night it searches the water’s edge

MASKED BANDIT in streams, marshes, lakes, and
Northern raccoon Crab-eating raccoon coastlines, feeling with its sensitive,
nimble-fingered paws for shellfish, fish,
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Length 171/2 – 24 in Length 211⁄2 – 30 in crabs, aquatic insects, worms, and

(44 – 62 cm) (54 – 76 cm)
other small prey. The female gives birth
Tail 71/2 – 14 in Tail 10 – 15 in
(19 – 36 cm) (25 – 38 cm) to 2 – 4 (maximum 6) young after an
Weight 6 – 19 lb Weight 61⁄2 – 171⁄2 lb incubation period of 60 – 73 days, in a
(2.7 – 10.4 kg) (3.1 – 7.7 kg) den inside a hollow tree, lined with dry
Location S. Canada to Social unit Individual Location Central America Social unit Individual leaves and grass. The male takes no
Central America to S. South America
Status Least concern Status Least concern part in care of the offspring, which are
The “bandit mask” of the Northern independent by the age of 8 months.
raccoon appears to reflect its
opportunistic habits. It can climb,
Bold and adaptable, with a generalized dig, and skillfully manipulate doors Also called the mapache or osito black eye
diet, the raccoon is familiar in many and latches with its forepaws, and lavador, this raccoon has mask
habitats from prairie and woodland is agile enough to gain access to short, coarse fur. By
to urban sprawl. Active day and night, many livestock enclosures. It may
and normally solitary, raccoons may rub dirt off the food before eating brown or gray fur
grizzled with black
gather in groups at plentiful food it, or rinse it clean if there is water
sources such as garbage dumps. Male available nearby.
and female come together briefly for
mating with loud chirps and chitters. COLORATION
The female builds a breeding nest in The northern raccoon’s long fur varies from
any sheltered site, such as a tree hole, pale gray to almost black. The tail has faint dark
among rocks, or under an outbuilding. rings. The ears are short and rounded, and the
Up to 7 offspring (usually 3 – 4) are eyes are small, although the black grasping feet for great agility in trees.
eye patches make them
Potos flavus
born after a gestation of about 63 Primarily nocturnal and herbivorous,
days; they venture from the nest
after 9 weeks, and are
seem larger.
Kinkajou it also eats grubs, insects, and small
vertebrates. The kinkajou makes varied
independent by Length 151⁄2 – 30 in sounds, including squeaks, whistles,
(39 – 76 cm)
6 months. grunts, moans, and barks, to proclaim
Tail 151⁄2 – 221⁄2 in
(39 – 57 cm) territory, attract a mate, and warn of
MAMMALS
Weight 31⁄4 – 10 lb predators. The single young

(1.5 – 4.5 kg) is born in a
Location S. Mexico Social unit Individual tree nest.
to South America
The kinkajou boasts many local

names, including mico de noche
and martucha. It has a
strongly prehensile woolly, buff-gold
tail and powerfully to gray fur
Red panda Ailurus fulgens and solitary, but forms pairs during
the mating season, and offspring stay
Red panda with their mother for up to a year.
The panda scent marks its territory
PHYLUM Chordata
The red panda is a cat-sized mammal from Length 20 – 29 in with droppings, urine, and powerful
the eastern Himalayas with a soft chestnut coat (51 – 73 cm)
musklike secretions from the anal
CLASS Mammalia Tail 11 – 20 in
and bushy tail. It climbs well, but also spends (28 – 50 cm) glands. It communicates by short
ORDER Carnivora
time on the ground. The genetic position of Weight 61⁄2 – 13 lb whistles and squeaks. Studies in
FAMILY Ailuridae (3 – 6 kg) captivity show the gestation period is
this animal remains unresolved because of its Location S. to S.E. Asia
1 Social unit Individual probably 90 days plus a variable time
SPECIES
morphology and diet. Several hypotheses exist, Status Vulnerable of delayed implantation. Prime habitats
but research has only established that it is the are dense temperate mountain forests,
sister group of bears. It lives at cooler, higher at 6,000 – 13,200 ft (1,800 – 4,000 m).
elevations than the giant panda and has a
In addition to bamboo leaves and
more omnivorous diet.
shoots, the red panda eats other
grasses, roots, fruit, and also grubs,
small vertebrates such as mice and
Tree climber lizards, and birds’ eggs and
The red panda has partly retractable claws, chicks. It is mainly nocturnal
and the forepaw of the panda has an
elongated wrist bone like that of the giant
panda, which is an adaptation for grasping CHESTNUT COLORING
bamboo. It uses trees not only for feeding but The red or “lesser”
also to escape ground-based predators, and panda is red-brown or
to sunbathe high in the canopy during winter.
chestnut with almost
white ear rims,
The female’s nest may be in a tree hole, lined
cheeks, muzzle,
with leaves, moss, and other soft plant and spots above
material, where she rears her 1 – 5 (usually 2) the eyes. There are alternating
offspring. Other nesting sites are branch also brown, facial light and dark
forks, tree roots, and bamboo thickets. “teardrop” stripes. rings on tail
MUSTELIDS 191
Mustelids
Reproduction
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PHYLUM Chordata
Of all the carnivores, the mustelid family Most mustelids have an excellent
is the most diverse and contains the most sense of smell for tracking prey and Many female mustelids do not ovulate
CLASS Mammalia for communication. All have scent automatically. Instead, ovulation
ORDER Carnivora
species. The group includes terrestrial glands in the anus, which generally is stimulated by copulation, which
FAMILY Mustelidae
forms (such as ferrets), arboreal species produce an oily, strong-smelling may last up to 2 hours. This lengthy
(such as martens), burrowing species (such liquid known as musk. This is procedure does expose pairs to
SPECIES 57
secreted into the feces, which predators, but fertilization is almost
as badgers), semiaquatic species are used to mark territory. guaranteed. In many species, the
(such as minks), and fully aquatic species fertilized egg remains dormant and
(such as otters). With such a range of lifestyles, the main Feeding does not implant until conditions are
Reflecting their diverse lifestyles, favorable. Therefore, although the
physical link between species is short legs and an elongated
mustelids have a varied diet. Weasels gestation period is only 1 – 2 months,
body. Mustelids are found throughout Eurasia, Africa, and the and stoats, for example, are agile pregnancy may last more than 12
Americas. Although mostly occurring in forest or bush, they and aggressive and are capable of months. Most mustelids are solitary,
have adapted to populate almost every habitat type. killing prey larger than themselves, except during the breeding season.
such as rabbits. Some otter species
actively hunt fish; others eat mainly Fur trade
shellfish collected by feeling along Mustelid fur is highly valued by
Anatomy patterns—for example, the black- riverbeds with their sensitive paws. humans for its softness, warmth,
All mustelids have short ears and and-white striped heads of badgers— The sea otter cracks open abalone and water-repelling qualities. The
5 toes on each foot (most carnivores are thought to convey a warning shells by floating on its back on fur of mink, sable, stoat, and sea
have only 4 on each back foot); most to predators. the surface and then hitting the otter were much sought after and
have a short snout, a long braincase, shell against a rock balanced on became particularly fashionable
a long tail, and long, nonretractable, its chest. Martens, which are in the first half of the 20th century.
curved claws. Body form tends to be arboreal, catch and eat So great was the demand that the
either slender (as in weasels) or heavy squirrels and birds, while American mink was farmed, and in
and squat (as in badgers). Slimmer the zorilla, a burrowing Europe, escapees have established
forms have a flexible backbone and species, catches wild populations, often at the expense
employ a scampering, bounding small rodents, lizards, of the indigenous European mink.
MAMMALS
gait; stocky forms move with a and insects. Today, people often prefer to have
rolling shuffle. Mustelids have fake fur, and hunting is either
a fur coat that consists of warm prohibited or controlled by legislation.
underfur and longer, sparser Some mustelids are still farmed
guard hairs. Coat color varies commercially for their fur but in many
from dark brown or black to countries this, too, is now illegal.
spotted or striped. In some
species, contrasting
AQUATIC HUNTER
The American mink is a voracious hunter, as is typical
of mustelids. This species, like all minks and otters, is
an excellent swimmer. It can remain submerged for
distances of up to 98 ft (30 m) in pursuit of fish, which
forms an important part of its diet. Adaptations to a
semiaquatic lifestyle include partially webbed feet
and a thick, waterproof coat.
192 CARNIVORES
Mustela erminea Mustela nivalis stoat and large least weasel are Mustela lutreola
distinguished by the former’s black-
Stoat Least weasel tipped tail. Like stoats, least weasels
in northern lands turn white in winter,
European mink
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Length 71⁄2 – 131⁄2 in Length 41⁄2 – 10 in for camouflage in Length 12 – 16 in

(19 – 34 cm) (11.5 – 26 cm) (30 – 40 cm)
snow. Also like the
Tail 11⁄2 – 43⁄4 in Tail 23⁄4 – 21⁄2 in Tail 43⁄4 – 71⁄2 in
(4.2 – 12 cm) (7 – 9 cm) stoat, this species (12 – 19 cm)
Weight 5– 16 oz Weight 7⁄8 – 9 oz lives alone, making Weight 18 – 29 oz
(140 – 445 g) (25 – 250 g) several nests lined with (500 – 800 g)
Location North America, Social unit Individual Location North America, Social unit Individual grass and prey fur or Location Europe Social unit Individual
Greenland, Europe to N. Europe to N., C., and E.
and E. Asia Status Least concern Asia Status Least concern feathers, in a crevice, Status Endangered
tree root, or abandoned
burrow. After a gestation
period of 34 – 37 days,
One of the smallest and most the female produces a The European mink is similar in habits
widespread mustelids, this weasel has litter of 1 – 6 (average and appearance to the American mink
a small, flattened head hardly wider 3). She cares for (below), although slightly smaller. It hunts
than the neck, allowing it to enter them for 9 – 12 weeks. small prey, such as birds, mammals,
mouse burrows. It also eats voles, frogs, fish, and crayfish, on land and in
other small rodents, and birds. It water. The fur is dark brown to almost
is active day and night and must black with a narrow white edging to the
consume one-third of its body lips. This endangered mink is being
weight each day to survive. russet or chocolate-brown bred in captivity for release.
This extremely widespread mustelid Overall size varies greatly upperparts, legs, and tail
adapts to many habitats, and hunts across the huge range and
varied prey from mice, voles, and small between sexes, with the
birds to rats and, often, rabbits. It has male being a quarter as
the typical mustelid’s long, slim, flexible long and up to twice
body, pointed muzzle, small eyes and the weight of the
ears, and short legs. Its weight can vary female. A small
with location. In the north of its range, the
summer coat of russet to ginger-brown
above, demarcated from cream or white
MAMMALS
below, turns all-white for winter, when the

stoat is often called the ermine. However,
the tail tip is always black.
Mustela putorius Regarded as the domestic ferret’s Neovison vison South America,
ancestor, the polecat has long, buff Europe, and
European polecat to black hairs with cream or yellow
underfur visible between them, and a
American mink Russia for fur
farming.
Length 81⁄4 – 18 in “mask” across the face. It runs, climbs, Length 12 – 17 in Escapees
(20.5 – 46 cm) (30 – 43 cm)
and swims well. If threatened, it releases established wild
Tail 23⁄4 – 71⁄2 in Tail 6 – 8 in
(7 – 19 cm) very pungent-smelling anal-gland (151⁄4 – 20 cm) populations and are
Weight 7⁄8 – 4 lb secretions. As in many similar mustelids, Weight 1⁄16 – 4 lb regarded as threats
(0.4 – 1.7 kg) male neighbors defend separate (0.4 – 1.8 kg) to local wildlife—
Location Europe Social unit Individual territories, as do females, but male Location North America Social unit Individual not only to prey
Status Least concern territories usually overlap female ones. Status Least concern but also to rival
predators.
long, sinuous body This opportunistic predator uses its

COLOR VARIATION
partly webbed feet to hunt on land and
Most American minks
in water for a variety of small animals, are dark brown to
including rats, rabbits, birds, frogs, fish, almost black, but
and crayfish. Since its eyesight is not approximately 1 in
well adapted for underwater vision, prey 10 is gray-blue.
is located at the surface and then
pursued. In her nesting den among tree
Mustela nigripes Exceptionally rare, partly due to roots or rocks, the female suckles 2 – 10
extermination of its almost exclusive young for 5 – 6 weeks. The average litter
Black-footed ferret prey of prairie dogs (see p.119), this
species was considered extinct in the
size is 5. In its natural range, the
American mink was once trapped by the
Length 16 – 20 in wild. Captive breeding and release have thousand; in about 1900 it was taken to
(40 – 50 cm)
re-established a few in Wyoming.
Tail 41⁄2 – 6 in
(11.5 – 15 cm) It chases its prey down burrows and
also sets up a nest there, the female MINK TERRITORIES
Weight 13⁄4 – 21⁄4 lb
(0.8 – 1.1 kg) giving birth to 3 – 6 kits. American mink are territorial,
Location Reintroduced to Social unit Individual/Pair with typical territory sizes of 1⁄2 – 13⁄4
C. USA
Status Endangered miles (1 – 3 km) across for the female
and 11⁄4 – 3 miles (2 – 5 km) for the
male. Each marks its territory with
urine, droppings, and scents from
the anal glands. From February to
April, males try to mate with females
black tail tip from adjacent territories.
MUSTELIDS 193
Martes foina of all kinds. It also scavenges in refuse Martes pennanti Martes flavigula
and eats fruit. It has a relatively short
Beech marten body (for a marten), long legs, and a
wide, wedge-shaped head. The fur is
Fisher Yellow-throated
marten
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Length 16 – 211⁄2 in brown, with a paler “bow tie” throat Length 18 – 26 in

(40 – 54 cm) (45 – 65 cm)
patch. Typically solitary, the den is
Tail 9 – 12 in Tail 12 – 20 in
(22 – 30 cm) a rocky crevice, tree hole, or old Length 18 – 26 in
(30 – 50 cm) (45 – 65 cm)
1 rodent burrow. The territory of up to
Weight 41⁄2 – 12 lb Tail 141⁄2 – 18 in
(1.1 – 2.3 kg) 200 acres (80 hectares) is marked by (2 – 5.5 kg) (37 – 45 cm)
Location Europe, W. and Social unit Individual droppings. However, near towns, the Location Canada to N.
C. Asia USA Social unit Individual Weight 23⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb
Status Least concern marten may nest in an outbuilding and Status Least concern (1.3 – 3 kg)
be less territorial, foraging with others Location E. and S.E. Asia Social unit Individual/Pair
of its kind. As in many mustelids, there Status Least concern
is a period of delayed implantation
This marten has adapted to human after mating (230 – 275 days) followed Despite its name, the fisher hunts
habitation, and hunts around farms by 30 days’ gestation. Litter size ground prey, from mice to porcupines,
and other buildings for small animals averages 3 – 4. as well as scavenging on carcasses.
It makes dens in rocks, roots, bushes,
bushy tail
and stumps, or high in trees, where it
prefers to raise young. Hunted for its
long, dense fur, fisher numbers have
recovered in some areas but new
threats include disturbance by logging.
large, rounded
ears
Similar to the European pine marten

(see left) in its climbing agility and long
leaps, the yellow-throated marten is
larger and has long, dense fur and a
bushy tail. Its color varies from dark
orange-yellow to brown, with a yellow
or white throat patch. It feeds on small
MAMMALS
Martes martes Although extremely agile in trees and rodents, birds, insects, and fruit, on the
capable of great leaps, the pine marten ground and in trees. Pairs or family
European pine takes most prey
on the ground,
groups may catch young deer.
marten feeding on
small rodents, Vormela peregusna Poecilogale albinucha
Length 19 – 23 in birds, insects,
(48 – 58 cm)
Tail 61⁄2 – 11 in
and fruit. large,
rounded Marbled polecat African striped
(16 – 28 cm)
Weight 13⁄4 – 33⁄4 lb
cream to
orange fur
ears
(28.5 – 48 cm)
weasel
(0.8 – 1.8 kg) on throat
Location Europe to W. and chest Tail 6 – 7 in Length 10 – 14 in
Social unit Individual (15.5 – 18 cm)
and N. Asia (25 – 35 cm)
Status Least concern Weight 11 – 25 oz Tail 6 – 9 in
(295 – 715 g) (15 – 23 cm)
Location S.E. Europe to Social unit Individual
W., C., and E. Asia Weight 7 – 13 oz
Status Vulnerable (210 – 380 g)
Almost catlike in its movements, this Location C. to southern Social unit Individual
Africa
sharp-clawed mustelid climbs well and Status Least concern
nests in a tree hole or old squirrel drey
(nest). It has a long, slender body and
the fur is chestnut to dark brown, with a
cream to orange throat “bib.” Its bushy This exceptionally long, skunklike
tail is used for balance in branches. mustelid is black except for a white
patch running from the forehead over
the head to the neck, where it splits into
Martes zibellina Compared to other species, its legs 2 white stripes. These divide again
are longer, its tail bushier, and its sharp into 2, along the back and sides of the
Sable claws partly retractable. Fast and agile
on the ground, the sable climbs well
body. All 4 stripes unite at the white and
bushy tail. The African striped weasel
Length 133⁄4 – 22 in but rarely. It has the typical marten diet digs well with its long-clawed front
(35 – 56 cm)
of small animals and fruit, and takes feet, and eats almost exclusively mice
Tail 41⁄2 – 71⁄4 in
(11.5 – 19 cm) over an old burrow for its main nest; and similar small rodents, as well as
Weight 11⁄2 – 4 lb it also has various temporary dens. This polecat is black with variable occasional birds and eggs. In defense,
(0.7 – 1.8 kg) white or yellow spots and stripes, it can squirt a pungent spray from its
Location N. and E. Asia Social unit Individual and the typical black-and-white “face anal glands more than 31⁄4 ft (1 m).
Status Least concern mask.” A species of steppes and other
dry, open regions, it hunts at twilight
and at night for a variety of small
animals, especially hamsters. The
Few mustelids suffered more hunting den is an old, enlarged rodent burrow
for fur than the sable, which is now where the female gives birth to a litter
protected in some regions. It has a of 4 – 8 young. When threatened, the
brown-black coat, with an indistinct, marbled polecat arches its head and
paler brown throat patch, and the curls its tail over its body, and may
head is wide, with rounded ears. release its pungent anal-gland odor.
194 CARNIVORES
Galictis vittata Ictonyx striatus Gulo gulo caribou or similar carcasses in winter;
parts of the carcass may be buried for
Greater grison African zorilla Wolverine later use. In addition to scavenging, the
wolverine runs down victims even on
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Length 181⁄2 – 211/2 in Length 11 – 15 in Length 26 – 41 in soft snow, with its broad feet and
(47 – 55 cm) (28 – 38 cm) (65 – 105 cm)
muscular limbs. Also called the glutton,
Tail 51⁄2 – 8 in Tail 61⁄2 – 11 in Tail 81⁄2 – 10 in
(14 – 20 cm) (16.5 – 28 cm) (21 – 26 cm) it takes various prey, from deer and
Weight 31⁄4 – 71⁄2 lb Weight 1 – 21⁄2 lb Weight 24 – 40 lb hares to mice, as well as birds and
(1.4 – 3.3 kg) (0.42 – 1.2 kg) (11 – 18 kg) eggs, and seasonal fruitActive all year,
Location S. Mexico, Social unit Individual/Pair Location W. to E. and Social unit Individual Location Canada, N.W. Social unit Individual it covers up to 31 miles (50 km) daily.
Central and South America southern Africa USA, N. Europe to N. and
Status Least concern Status Least concern E. Asia Status Least concern The long, dense fur is blackish brown,
with a pale brown band along each
side, from the shoulder and flank
over the rump to the base of the tail.
Even for a mustelid, the greater grison The second biggest mustelid after There may be a white chest patch. The
is long and sinuous, with a slim, pointed the giant otter, the male wolverine is wolverine lives in a den among roots or
head and flexible neck; the tail, however, a third larger than the female. The rocks or dug 61⁄2 ft (2 m) into a snowdrift.
is relatively short. Coloration is all gray, species is stocky, strong, and bearlike, The litter size ranges between 1 and 5,
other than a white, U-shaped stripe with extremely powerful jaws that can although it is usually 2 – 4. The female
running across the forehead, passing crunch frozen meat and bone of suckles her young for 8 – 10 weeks.
just above each eye and over each ear,
tapering toward the shoulder. There pale bands stocky, bearlike build
is also black below on the muzzle, on sides and
rump
throat, chest, and front legs. The grison
lives alone or in a male–female pair, is an
agile runner, swimmer, and climber, and
eats various small animals (even worms) Resembling a small skunk (see p.186),
and fruit. Its sounds include snorts, the zorilla (striped polecat) is jet black,
growls, screams, and barks. other than 4 pure white stripes that fan
out from the head, along the back and variable white
sides, to the tail base. The fluffy tail chest patch
is mottled white and gray.
If threatened, the zorilla
MAMMALS
hisses, screams, and raises its

tail to spray noxious fluid from its anal
glands. It digs with its long-clawed,
black front feet for grubs, mice, and other
underparts small creatures.
Mellivora capensis Meles meles COMMUNAL LIVING

Honey badger Eurasian badger Badgers in Britain form 6-member
clans on average, although they
Length 29 – 38 in Length 22 – 35 in can comprise up to 23 individuals.
(73 – 96 cm) (56 – 90 cm)
Elsewhere, they tend to live alone or in
Tail 51⁄2 – 9 in Tail 43⁄4 – 8 in
(14 – 23 cm) (12 – 20 cm) pairs. Their sett—an extensive system
Weight 131⁄2 – 30 lb Weight 22 – 35 lb of tunnels and chambers—may have
(6.2 – 13.6 kg) (10 – 16 kg) 10 or more entrances. Setts are
Location W., C., E., and Social unit Variable Location Europe to Social unit Group kept clean, and are maintained and
southern Africa, W. and W. Asia
S. Asia Status Least cocnern Status Least concern enlarged over many generations.
Badgers range over a territory of
125 – 370 acres (50 – 150 hectares),
which they defend against other clans.
One of the few group-dwelling
mustelids, the Eurasian badger
has a small, pointed head and short fertilized but do not immediately implant VARIABLE STRIPE
neck, widening to a powerful body, into the uterine lining), and a gestation The badger’s distinctive striped face varies
with short, strong limbs and a small period of 7 weeks, the female gives slightly between individuals. It may allow clan
tail. The underparts are black, the main birth to up to 6 cubs. She suckles members to recognize each other
or act as camouflage.
body and tail gray, and the face and them for 10 weeks.
neck white, with a black stripe on
each side, from the nose over the gray upper
body
small eye to the ear. The sight of the
Eurasian badger is poor, its hearing
better, but it has a keen sense of
The heavily built honey badger, or ratel, smell. Nocturnal and omnivorous, this
is silver-gray on the upper head, back, badger varies its diet with season and
and tail, and black or dark brown availability. Earthworms are a staple,
elsewhere. Its long front claws are supplemented by insects and grubs, as
well-adapted for digging. The prey of well as frogs, lizards, small mammals,
this mustelid includes worms, termites, birds and their eggs, carrion, fruit, and short
scorpions, porcupines, and hares. other plant matter. Inside the group’s tail
It also cooperates with the Greater sett (see panel, above), the nests are
honeyguide bird (see p.340), which lined with bedding of dry grass, leaves,
leads it to bees’ nests. The badger and moss, which is changed regularly.
opens the nest to provide honey and After up to 10 months of delayed black
grubs for both. implantation (when the eggs are underparts
MUSTELIDS 195
Taxidea taxus white stripe that runs from nose to back. Arctonyx collaris something that it uses to root through
Its burrows are up to (323 ⁄4 ft) (10 m )deep forest litter and soil. The body of this
American badger in well-drained soil of dry, open country,
terminating in grassy nests. Unlike
Greater hog badger warm-region species is more sparsely
furred than those of badgers in temperate
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Length 161⁄2 – 28 in the European badger—but like most Length 251⁄2 – 41 in climates, but its white facial markings are
(42 – 72 cm) (65 – 104 cm)
mustelids—the American badger is reminiscent of those of the Eurasian
Tail 4 – 61⁄4 in Tail 71⁄4 – 111⁄4 in
(10 – 16 cm) solitary except when breeding. It preys (19 – 29 cm) badger. Details of the head-stripe pattern
Weight 17 – 19 lb mainly on burrowing rodents, such as Weight 15 – 33 lb vary from individual to individual. A closely
(7.6 – 8.7 kg) ground squirrels, but will also take birds, (7 – 15 kg) related shaggy-coated species of hog
Location S.W. Canada to Social unit Individual reptiles, and arthropods. Reportedly, it Location S.E. and E. Asia Social unit Individual badger lives further north–in cooler parts
USA, N. Mexico
Status Least concern cooperates with coyotes, relying on the Status Vulnerable of Tibet and the Himalayas, where
coyote’s superior sense of smell to locate it hibernates during winter. The greater
prey, before the badger digs out the hog badger lives in tropical woodlands,
target with its stronger clawed feet; grassland, and plantations, especially in
Smaller than the Eurasian badger, the both predators share the prize. Usually hill forests above 1,640 ft (500 m). It is
American badger has a somewhat 2 young are born in the nest after a active all year round and is omnivorous,
flattened head and body, pregnancy of 7 months. They are weaned supplementing a diet of invertebrates,
and a narrower central after about 6 weeks. small mammals, and reptiles with tubers
and roots; it seems to be especially fond
of earthworms. Hog badgers are nocturnal
and solitary, with peak activities before
dawn and after dark. They rest during the
day in underground burrows or among
rocks. A hog badger can defend itself with
powerful jaws and a savage temperament;
its skin is also thick and loose, and it has
a pungent anal gland secretion. Births
Named the world’s largest badger, the usually happen in February or March,
greater hog badger gets its name from its producing litters of 3 to 5 young. The
long, mobile, hairless, porcine snout— young are weaned after 4 months.
Enhydra lutris strong, flat tail that acts as a rudder,

SPECIALIZED BEHAVIOR CONSERVATION
MAMMALS
and large, flipperlike hind feet that
Sea otter propel it through the water; the
smaller forepaws have retractable
The sea otter is a resourceful and
adept animal, adapting its behavior
Protected from hunting, sea otter
numbers have now recovered
Length 13⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft claws, like a cat’s, which the sea in a variety of ways in order to make and stabilized, but only in parts
(55 – 130 cm)
otter uses for holding food and the most of its environment. Perhaps of their original range. Conservation
Tail 5 – 13 in
(13 – 33 cm)
grooming its fur. Excellent eyesight— most remarkably, it has learned to focuses on maintaining healthy
Weight 46 – 62 lb
both underwater and at the surface— use stones as tools for cracking kelp forests, so that sea otters
(21 – 28 kg) a good sense of smell, and sensitive open shellfish. have suitable habitats and a reliable
Location North Pacific Social unit Group whiskers help it to find food. It forages source of food. In recent years,
Status Endangered mainly on the seabed, looking for sea otters have been successfully
crabs, clams, sea urchins, and abalone, reintroduced along the west coast
and has immensely strong teeth for of North America, although the
chewing crab shells once they have been species’ range is still much smaller
The smallest marine mammal, the broken using a rock. Before the sea otter than it was before hunting began.
sea otter lives and feeds in the ocean. sleeps, it may anchor itself by wrapping Yet another major threat facing
It comes ashore only rarely, but is its body in kelp. Sea otters are social these creatures is oil spills.
commonly seen close to the coast, animals, usually found in groups
particularly near marine kelp forests, (rafts), with males forming separate
floating on its back with its paws out rafts from females. In Alaska, hundreds
of the water. Superbly adapted to its of animals may be found together. TOOL USER
aquatic way of life, the sea otter has Although hunted in the past for its fur— The sea otter is able to break the shells
luxuriantly thick fur that keeps it warm almost to extinction in some areas—the and tough protective outer coverings of
in the cold waters it inhabits. It has a sea otter is now a protected species. crabs and sea urchins. Lying on its back, it
breaks them open by hitting them against
a rock collected from the sea bed.
GROOMING TO STAY WARM
The sea otter has the densest fur of all
animals—up to 1 million hairs per square inch.
Grooming the fur, to keep it clean and
waterproof, is essential. long, brown flipper-like
body fur hind feet
straw-coloured
fur on head
long, flat tail

196 CARNIVORES
Lontra canadensis Aonyx capensis teeth. The rear feet are webbed with
HUNTER BY DAY small claws on toes 3 and 4. The
OR NIGHT
North American African clawless otter clawless front toes resemble fingers,
and are able to feel and hold prey.
river otter
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Length 29 – 35 in The clans of paired adults and 2 – 3

(73 – 88 cm)
young are exceptionally playful, enjoying
Tail 181⁄4 – 201⁄4 in
Length 23 – 29 in
(46.5 – 51.5 cm) mock fighting, mud sliding, and noisy,
(58.3 – 73 cm)
Weight 22 – 46 lb yapping chases.
Tail 121⁄4 – 181⁄2 in
(31.7 – 47 cm) (10 – 21 kg)
Location W., E., C., and Social unit Pair/Group
Weight 16 – 21 lb southern Africa
(7.3 – 9.4 kg) Status Near threatened
Location Canada, USA Social unit Individual
Status Least concern The river otter’s main prey is fish,
which it catches by day, except in
areas disturbed by people, where As with other otters, the African
the otter becomes more nocturnal. clawless otter’s long, sinuous body,
Probably the most numerous otter, this Crayfish, frogs, snakes, lizards, muscular tail, and short limbs make
species is similar to the Eurasian river and insects in the water are also it well adapted to swim and dive. It
otter (see below) and is solitary except devoured. Occasionally, this otter catches crabs, frogs, and fish, as
at mating time, when it makes squeaks, may also take an aquatic mammal well as lobster and octopus along
chitters, and whistles. It dwells along such as a water vole, or a small coasts, crushing them with its large
riverbanks, lake shores, and coasts, waterbird such as a duckling.
maintaining territories of 3 – 15 miles
(5 – 25 km). Home is a den in a riverside Aonyx cinereus 12, members keeping in touch with
burrow, under a pile of rocks or a SINUOUS AND SILVERY noises and scents. Male–female
thicket near water, or in a beaver
home (lodge).
This long-bodied otter has red- or gray-brown
to black velvety fur on the back, paler silvery
Asian small- pair-bonds are especially strong.
As in many similar species, territories
or gray-brown fur on the underparts, with the
cheeks and throat tinged silver or yellow-gray.
clawed otter are marked with scent from paired
pale throat glands at the base of the tail, urine,
muscular tail to Length 14 – 181⁄2 in and droppings (spraints). Litter size
aid swimming (36 – 47 cm)
varies from 1 to 7,
Tail 9 – 103⁄4 in
(22.5 – 27.5 cm)
average 4; both
Weight 51⁄4 – 81⁄4 lb
parents care for
MAMMALS
(2.4 – 3.8 kg) the young.

Location S., E., and Social unit Pair/Group
S.E. Asia
Status Vulnerable fingerlike
front toes,
for handling
food
Smallest of the otters, the Asian

small-clawed otter has very short
claws that do not extend beyond the
Lutra lutra webbed paws, and stiff whiskers fleshy end pads of the partly webbed
(to feel currents from prey movement), toes. The cheek teeth are broad, for
Eurasian otter this otter is well adapted to its aquatic
habitat. It hunts mainly fish, as well as
crushing hard-cased food such as
mussels and other shellfish, crabs,
Length 20 – 32 in frogs and other aquatic or amphibious and frogs; unusually for otters, fish are
(50 – 82 cm)
prey. Its coloration is mainly brown, with relatively unimportant in the diet. The
Tail 13 – 20 in
(33 – 50 cm) a paler throat, and the muscular tail is upperparts are brown; the underside is
Weight 11 – 31 lb flattened from top to bottom. Inland, paler, with variable white areas on the
(5 – 14 kg) the Eurasian river otter hunts chiefly lower face, throat, and chest. These
Location Europe, Asia Social unit Individual in twilight or darkness, while along otters form loose social groups of about
Status Near threatened coasts, it is more active in daylight.
The burrow (holt) is in a bankside
territory, 21⁄2 – 12 miles (4 – 20 km) Pteronura brasiliensis eyes effectively detect prey movements
long, marked by scent and droppings. in water. Being so aquatic, it is ungainly
The Eurasian otter has suffered through
hunting for fur, fishery protection, and
The Eurasian river otter is mostly
solitary, pairing for 2 – 3 months
Giant otter on land. The short, dense fur is dark
brown, appearing black when wet,
sports, as well as from water pollution in early spring. After 60 – 63 days’ Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 ft with cream spots and patches on the
(1 – 1.4 m)
and loss of river habitat caused by gestation, the 1 – 5 cubs (on average chin, throat, and chest, which may
Tail 18 – 26 in
bank clearance, irrigation, 2 – 3 are born) are suckled for 3 months, (45 – 65 cm) merge into a “bib.” The giant otter forms
leisure, and water sports. and stay with the mother for more Weight 49 – 71 lb groups of 4 – 8, going up to 20: usually
With its waterproof coat, than a year. (22 – 32 kg) comprising 2 parents, their offspring,
Location N. and Social unit Group and various younger adults. They live
C. South America
coat of strong, outer guard Status Endangered in a communal bank den or burrow
hairs and dense underfur and hunt by day for
fish, crabs,
and other
The biggest mustelid, this species is aquatic
similar to a very large river otter. It has prey.
short legs, well-webbed toes, and a
flattened, wide-based tail, for
swimming and diving. Its
stout whiskers and
sensitive
MALAGASY CARNIVORES 197
Malagasy carnivores
This group of carnivores includes civetlike
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PHYLUM Chordata
CLASS Mammalia
and mongooselike carnivores combined in a
single family and entirely restricted to Madagascar.
ORDER Carnivora
They have had a long isolated evolutionary
Eupleridae
FAMILY
history and probably originated from
SPECIES 8 African mongooselike ancestors.
Anatomy
The civetlike species are nocturnal
thick-furred carnivores that include
the fossa and falanouc. The
former is big enough to prey
on lemurs in trees and has
retractile claws, like those
of a cat; the latter is a
smaller pointed-headed
animal with large, flat feet
and bushy tail. Mongooselike CATLIKE APPEARANCE
species are marked with body The catlike fossa is
stripes, spots, or tail bands, and the largest Madagascan
most have feet with various carnivore. It hunts mainly
degrees of webbing. lemurs, but it will eat
almost any small animal
Predators in isolation it can catch.
These are the only native mammalian
carnivores in Madagascar, together
taking a variety of prey appropriate “civets” are nocturnal,
MAMMALS
for their body size—ranging from but the “mongooses” are
earthworms and insects to mammals mostly active during the day.
and birds. Most are forest dwellers and They sleep in dens consisting
many—unlike true mongooses—are of tree hollows
adept at climbing trees. Malagasy or burrows.
Eupleres goudotii Fossa fossana Salanoia durrelli Cryptoprocta ferox
Falanouc Spotted fanaloka Durrell’s vontsira Fossa

Length 18 – 26 in Length 16 – 18 in Length 12 – 13 in Length 28 – 32 in
(45.5 – 26 cm) (40 – 45 cm) (31 – 33 cm) (70 – 80 cm)
Tail 9 – 10 in Tail 81⁄2 – 18 in Tail 7 – 81⁄2 in Tail 26 – 30 in
(22 – 25 cm) (21 – 30 cm) (17.5 – 21 cm) (65 – 75 cm)
Weight 31⁄4 – 10 lb Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb Weight 11⁄4 – 11⁄2 lb Weight 12 – 19 lb
(1.5 – 4.5 kg) (1.5 – 2 kg) (600 – 675 g) (5.5 – 8.6 kg)
Location E. and Social unit Individual Location Madagascar Social unit Pairs Location Madagascar Social unit Individual Location Madagascar Social unit Individual
N. Madagascar
Status Near threatened Status Near threatened Status Not evaluated Status Vulnerable
Brown on the upperparts, whitish gray This reddish brown Madagascan Resembling a diminutive brown
on the underside, with a long, slender mongoose was described in “big cat,” the fossa is lithe, agile,
snout and a short, bushy tail, the 2010 and named after Gerald and an excellent leaper and climber.
falanouc inhabits the Madagascan Durrell, the conservationist. It is Madagascar’s largest carnivore, this
rain forests and marshes. It uses its adapted to the marshland area muscular, powerful predator hunts
long front claws to dig in soil for worms, of Lac Alaotra in Madagascar— by day or night, using the stalk-and-
grubs, insects, slugs, snails, and rodents. an important region that harbors pounce method. It originally specialized
The single young, born with eyes open, many unique species—and has in hunting lemurs but now also
can follow its mother after only 2 days, one of the smallest ranges of any takes pigs, poultry, and other
and is weaned by 9 weeks. Falanoucs Found in forests of eastern and carnivore. The species has been domesticated
are threatened by habitat loss, humans, southern Madagascar, this spotted observed swimming in Lac Alaotra and animals. A
dogs, and an introduced competitor, the carnivore resembles a civet—and it is possible that its broadly padded feet top carnivore,
small Indian civet (Viverricula indica). used to be classified with them. help it move around in the waterlogged the solitary
It lacks the anal scent glands of habitat: specimens have been trapped fossa naturally
civets—instead, it probably marks its on floating mats of vegetation. Here, it is has a large
territory using secretions from its cheek likely that it feeds on crustaceans and territory, more
and neck. Pairs of fanalokas defend mollusks, which it smashes with its than 11⁄2 square
territories with a range of eerie strong teeth. It is most closely allied miles (4 square km),
vocalizations: they spend the day in to the insectivorous brown-tailed and thus a low
tree hollows and venture out at night mongoose of Madagascan dry forests. population density.
to forage in trees and on the ground The long-term survival of Durrell’s It is threatened by
for invertebrates, such as worms and vontsira is threatened by agricultural loss of its habitat
crustaceans, as well as frogs, encroachment and pollution from and persecuted for its
and sometimes fruit. fertilizers and pesticides. attacks on livestock.
198 CARNIVORES
Mongooses Cynictis penicillata
Yellow mongoose
Native to warm areas of the Old World, Anatomy
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PHYLUM Chordata Length 101⁄4 – 18 in

mongooses were formerly classified with the Most mongooses are smaller than
(26 – 46 cm)
CLASS Mammalia Tail 6 – 12 in
civets in the family Viverridae, but are now civets; they are shorter tailed and are (15 – 30 cm)
ORDER Carnivora more uniformly colored. Their anal
classified in a separate family—the Weight 25 – 31 oz
FAMILY Herpestidae
Herpestidae. Together with the Malagasy scent glands are also more complex, (715 – 900 g)
with the scent secretion being stored Location Southern Africa Social unit Group
SPECIES 34 carnivores, they are thought to be closely in an external sac. Mongooses have Status Least concern
related to hyenas. elongated bodies and short legs for
movement over the ground.
Snake hunters This mongoose is a yellowish buff color

These animals live in complex social in the south of its range but grayer in the
groups and are generally active during north. The family group (a breeding pair,
the day. Opportunistic mongooses their offspring, and nonbreeding young
have a wide ranging diet that includes adults) occupies and extends a tunnel
plant and animal material: they prey on system taken over from meerkats or
invertebrates, small mammals, frogs, ground squirrels. Occasionally, these
and reptiles—including snakes. It was species all coexist in a large burrow.
once thought that mongooses evade The main diet is insects, such as
envenomation by skillful maneuver termites, ants, beetles, and locusts, as
when tackling snake prey, but some well as birds, eggs, frogs, lizards, and
species have exhibited resistance to small rodents.
snake venom. Their effectiveness at
grizzled hairs
controlling snakes and rodents led
to their introduction into places
as far afield as Hawaii and New
Zealand—where they now pose
a threat to native wildlife.
MAMMALS
LIVING TOGETHER
Mongooses live in complex social groups,
called bands, and are generally active
during the day.
Helogale parvula Suricata suricatta Day-active and social, the meerkat forms Mungos mungo
colonies of about 3 – 20 individuals, which
Dwarf mongoose Meerkat enlarge the former burrow systems of
ground squirrels. In early morning, it
Banded mongoose
Length 61⁄2 – 9 in Length 93⁄4 – 111⁄2 in emerges to sit up and sunbathe, then Length 12 – 18 in
(16 – 23 cm) (24.5 – 29 cm) (30 – 45 cm)
forages for small prey. Coloration is pale
Tail 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in Tail 61⁄2 – 10 in Tail 6 – 12 in
(14 – 19 cm) (17 – 25 cm) brown on the underside and face, (15 – 30 cm)
Weight 7 – 13 oz Weight 21 – 35 oz silver-brown on the upper parts, with 8 Weight 2 – 41⁄2 lb
(200 – 350 g) (600 – 975 g) darker bands on the rear back, dark eye (0.9 – 1.9 kg)
Location E. and southern Social unit Group Location Southern Africa Social unit Group rings, and a dark tip to the slender tail. Location Africa Social unit Variable
Africa
Status Least concern Status Least concern After a gestation of 70 days, the 3 – 7 Status Least concern
young are born in a grass-lined nursery
chamber in the burrow.
The smallest mongoose, this species EXPERT DIGGERS Common, lively, and opportunistic,
has thick fur, brown but fine-grizzled The meerkat’s long ON GUARD this stocky mongoose has distinctive
in red or black, very small eyes and front claws are used crosswise bands over the rear of the
ears, and long-clawed front feet. It to dig its burrow and body. The fur is coarse and grizzled,
forms packs of 2 – 32, which “rotate” to find food, mainly and populations from moist habitats
insects, spiders, and
around the termite mounds of their are darker brown than drier-region
other small animals,
range. They use the mound as shelter as well as roots individuals. Often kept as a pet, the
for a few days and feed on insects, and bulbs. banded mongoose eats varied small
lizards, snakes, birds, eggs, and mice. items, from termites to birds’ eggs. It
All members of the pack help to care is often found in packs of 15 – 20 that
for offspring, which may number up include one dominant male.
to 6 per female.
about 12 bands
over rump
While most pack members forage,
some act as lookout sentries,
especially for hawks and other aerial
predators. Sentries stand at vantage
points such as on mounds and in
bushes, and cheep or cluck warnings.
Sharp barks or growls denote more
urgent threats and the meerkats
dive for cover.
CIVETS AND RELATIVES 199
Civets and relatives Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
Common palm civet

Animals in this family—which includes the Anatomy
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PHYLUM Chordata Length 17 – 28 in

civets, genets, and binturong—usually have a Viverrids typically have a long body
(43 – 71 cm)
CLASS Mammalia
Tail 16 – 26 in
slender body and long tail. They are related to and tail, short legs, an elongated neck (40 – 66 cm)
ORDER Carnivora
cats and hyenas but are more primitive, with and head, and a tapered snout. Most Weight 31⁄4 – 10 lb
FAMILY Viverridae
a longer snout and additional teeth. Viverrids civets and genets have spots in (1.5 – 4.5 kg)
longitudinal rows along the body; Location S., E., and S.E. Social unit Individual
SPECIES 34
are distributed throughout Africa, southern the binturong has plain black fur. All
Asia
Asia, and southeastern Europe, and are found species have scent glands in the anal
in rain forest, woodland, and savanna. Most are terrestrial, but region, and in civets these glands
there are arboreal species (for example, the binturong) and produce a substance used to
semiaquatic ones (for example, otter genets). make perfume. This adaptable, bushy-tailed civet is
brownish gray with black stripes on its
back, dark flank spots, and a polecat-
like “face mask.” It stays mainly in trees
but may rest by day in a house or on an
outbuilding roof. The diet includes much
fruit, especially figs, as well as buds,
grasses, small animals such as insects
and mice, and sometimes poultry.
Fermented palm-tree juice is
a favorite, giving
rise to a local
name of
“toddy cat.”
ARBOREAL HUNTERS
Many civets and genets hunt for food
in trees as well as on the ground. This
large-spotted genet is searching for
MAMMALS
nesting or roosting birds.
Viverra tangalunga tail. It climbs only occasionally and Arctictis binturong Prionodon pardicolor
feeds mainly on forest-floor creatures
Malay civet including millipedes, giant centipedes,
scorpions, and small mammals such
Binturong Oriental linsang
Length 211⁄2 – 301⁄2 in as mice. Widespread and common Length 24 – 38 in Length 12 – 18 in
(54 – 77.5 cm) (61 – 96 cm) (31 – 45 cm)
throughout Southeast Asia, the Malay
(26 – 40 cm) civet is nocturnal and solitary, and lives (50 – 84 cm) (30 – 40 cm)
Weight 61⁄2– 15 lb for up to 11 years. Weight 20 – 44 lb Weight 11⁄4 – 3 lb
(3 – 7 kg) (9 – 20 kg) (0.6 – 1.2 kg)
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Individual Location S. and S.E. Asia Social unit Individual Location S., E., and Social unit Individual
S.E. Asia
Status Least concern Status Vulnerable Status Least concern
In addition to the typical civet The binturong has shaggy black fur
coat of many dark spots forming and tufted ears. Its tail is long-haired and
lines along the body, this species has prehensile at the tip. It moves slowly
a distinctive black-and-white neck and cautiously among branches in
collar, white underside, black legs and search of fruit, shoots, and small
feet, and about 15 bands along the animals such as insects, birds, and
rodents. By day, it curls up on a
secluded branch to rest, but may
Genetta genetta In some areas it raids farms for poultry continue to feed. Individuals mark
and is considered a pest. The den is a their territories with scent. The 1 – 6,
Common genet sheltered area under roots or in thick
bushes. After the gestation period of
usually 2, young, born after a gestation
of 92 days, reach adult size in one year.
Length 181⁄4 – 201⁄2 in 70 – 77 days, typically 2 young are born
(46.5 – 52 cm)
with eyes closed. Litter size ranges
Tail 16 – 20 in
(40 – 51 cm) between 1 and 4. This small, slender, sinuous linsang
Weight 3 ⁄4 – 5 ⁄2 lb
1 1 has recently been reclassified as
(1.5 – 2.5 kg) belonging to the Prionodontidae,
Location W., E., and S. Social unit Individual a sister family of the Viverridae.
Africa, Arabian Peninsula
Status Least concern Both sexes are generally solitary and
nocturnal, with large ears and big eyes
adapted for night vision. The male
is almost twice the size of the female.
This very catlike species has Its diet consists of small animals,
semiretractile claws and is an excellent such as frogs, snakes, rats, and mice,
climber. It takes a variety of small as well as carrion. The average litter
mammals, birds, eggs, grubs, and fruit. size is 2 – 3.
200 CARNIVORES
Cats
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PHYLUM Chordata
With a lithe, muscular body, acute to draw in sounds made by prey,
CONSERVATION
while long, stiff, highly sensitive
CLASS Mammalia
senses, highly evolved teeth and claws,
whiskers aid navigation and night The entire cat family is listed by the
lightning reflexes, and camouflage hunting. The sense of smell is also Convention on International Trade
ORDER Carnivora
coloration, cats are model hunters. In well developed, and in the roof in Endangered Species of Wild
FAMILY Felidae
fact, cats are the most specialized of the of the mouth is a “smell-taste” Fauna and Flora (CITES), which
SPECIES 37 organ, called the Jacobson’s regulates trade in live animals or their
mammalian flesh eaters. They are unusual organ, which detects sexual body parts. The main reason for
in that all species appear remarkably odors. Secretions from scent this measure is habitat destruction.
similar: the differences between tigers and the domestic cat, glands on the cheeks and forehead, Land is converted to agricultural
under the tail, and between the use, reducing and fragmenting the
for example, are surprisingly small. Cats are found throughout claws communicate information natural environment in which cats
Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas (the domestic cat is found such as age and sex. live. Many cat species require large
worldwide), from alpine heights to deserts. Many species live areas to maintain an adequate
in forests. All except the largest cats are expert climbers, and
Hunting techniques food supply. Cats are also hunted
While some cats actively search for for their fur, bones, and other
several are excellent swimmers. Most cats are solitary. prey, others conceal themselves and remains for traditional oriental
await passing victims. Many employ medicines. In a few species—such
a combination of these 2 methods. as the North American bobcat—the
Anatomy them sharp. However, when required In either case, the cat’s fur usually overall population is stable. However,
Cats have a rounded face and a (during climbing, for example), they provides camouflage: a tiger’s despite intensive action to protect
relatively short muzzle (but a wide spring forward via a mechanism stripes, for example, blend in with them, many other cats, including
gape). The large jaw muscles help similar to a jackknife. The naked tall grasses, while many forest-living the tiger and the lion, are in
deliver a powerful bite, and the long pads on the soles of the feet are species are spotted, to mimic the sharp decline.
canines are used for stabbing and surrounded by hair, which assists effect of sunlight through leaves.
gripping. The carnassials, modified with silent stalking. The distance a cat will chase
cheek teeth that slice bones and its quarry varies between species. Cats hunt any animal they can
tendons, are highly developed. Cats Senses Heavier-built cats, such as tigers, catch and overpower. The big
are covered with soft fur, which is All cats have keen senses. Large, prefer to stalk and pounce; the cats specialize in prey larger than
MAMMALS
often striped or spotted, and have a forward-facing eyes enable them cheetah can use an explosive themselves, and are capable
tail that is haired, flexible, and usually to judge distances accurately. speed—up to 68 mph (110 kph) of dragging a carcass some
long. There are 5 digits on the front The pupils can contract to a slit or to for short distances. Some small distance to a safe feeding spot.
feet and 4 on the back feet, and each a pinhole (depending on species) in cats, such as the serval, hunt in Smaller cats seek out rodents
digit has a curved, retractable claw bright light and can dilate widely for long grass, and use “jack-in-the- and birds—some, such as the
for holding prey. The claws are excellent night vision. The ears are box” leaps to surprise and flush fishing cat, wade into streams
normally retracted, which helps keep large, mobile, and funnel-shaped out their prey. and scoop out fish.
TERRITORIAL CONFLICT
All cats are territorial and will fight if their scent
marks and vocal warnings are ignored. These male
jaguars are threatening one another, and a conflict
will ensue if neither of them gives way. The flattened
ears show fear, and dilated pupils and bared teeth
indicate aggression.
CATS 201
Prionailurus planiceps Prionailurus viverrinus FISH DIET Profelis aurata
Flat-headed cat Fishing cat African golden cat

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Length 16 – 20 in Length 221⁄2 – 43 in Length 24 – 39 in

(41 – 50 cm) (57 – 115 cm) (61 – 100 cm)
Tail 5 – 6 in Tail 91⁄2 – 16 in Tail 61⁄2 – 14 in
(13 – 15 cm) (24 – 40 cm) (16 – 35 cm)
Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb Weight 11 – 35 lb Weight 12 – 35 lb
(11⁄2 – 2 kg) (5 – 16 kg) (5.5 – 16 kg)
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Individual Location S. to S.E. Asia Social unit Individual Location W. and C. Africa Social unit Individual
Status Endangered Status Vulnerable Status Vulnerable
Unusually small and low-set ears Olive-gray with black markings and As its name implies, the fishing
accentuate the flattened forehead of a short tail, the fishing cat is mostly cat is a semiaquatic hunter of
this semiaquatic fish predator, which confined to rivers, lakes, marshes, and fish, frogs, snakes, water insects,
also eats shrimps, frogs, rodents, and coastal mangrove swamps. However, crabs, crayfish, and shellfish.
small birds. Its toes are partly webbed its adaptations to water are largely It scoops prey from the water
and its claws not fully retractable. The behavioral: its toes are only slightly with its paws or dives in pursuit,
upper premolar teeth are relatively webbed, and its teeth are not especially sometimes surfacing under a
large and sharp to grip slippery food. suited to grasping slippery prey. water bird. It also hunts small
Slightly smaller than a typical pet cat, Locally common, its land mammals such as mice.
the flat-headed cat is usually sighted dependence on
around rivers, lakes, and swamps, and water-edge habitats
along irrigation ditches and canals. means its population This little-studied, medium-sized
may suffer as cat may vary from gray to red-brown,
wetlands are affected and it may be faintly spotted or plain.
by drainage, intensive It occurs primarily in tropical
agriculture, human rain forest and other forest
habitation, and pollution. habitats, especially near rivers.
Its prey is mainly rats and other
rodents, hyraxes, small forest
MAMMALS
CIVET-LIKE CAT
antelopes, monkeys (perhaps
This cat’s scientific name, viverrinus, already injured), and similar
reflects its viverrid- or civet-like small mammals. It may also
proportions: long, stocky body and catch birds, mainly on the
relatively short legs. ground but also in trees.
Lynx pardinus Lynx lynx CONSERVATION Lynx rufus
Iberian lynx Eurasian lynx Despite conservation efforts

and reintroductions in Western
Bobcat
Length 27 – 32 in Length 21⁄2 – 41⁄4 ft Europe, lynx remain rare because Length 26 – 43 in
(68 – 82 cm) (0.8 – 1.3 m) (65 – 110 cm)
of revenge hunting by livestock
Tail 5 – 61⁄2 in Tail 61⁄2 – 9 in Tail 31⁄2 – 41⁄4 in
(12.5 – 16 cm) (16 – 23 cm) farmers, road kills, and mysterious (9 – 11 cm)
Weight 15 – 31 lb Weight 33 – 64 lb loss of male cubs—possibly Weight 83⁄4 – 34 lb
(7 – 14 kg) (15 – 29 kg) caused by a genetic problem. (4 – 15.5 kg)
Location S.W. Europe Social unit Individual Location N. Europe to Social unit Individual Location S. Canada, USA, Social unit Individual
E. Asia Mexico
Status Endangered Status Least concern Status Least concern
Very rare, critically restricted in Primarily a cat of mixed forest, this lynx Named after its short “bobbed” tail, this
distribution, and fully protected by law, has been driven by human presence medium-sized cat has a ruff-like facial
the Iberian lynx is about half the size of and persecution to more open woods border. Mainly tawny in color, it always
the Eurasian species (see right). Now and rocky mountain slopes. However, has some spots; they may be prominent
mainly confined to remote wetlands and it still has one of the widest ranges of all over or only on the underside. It
uplands, it uses thickets for shelter all cat species. Its major prey is deer, hunts lagomorphs, such as cottontail
and open areas that favor its main food goats, sheep, and similar hoofed rabbits in the south of its range and
of rabbit—with mammals up to 4 times its own size, snowshoe hares farther north, but can
deer fawns, but, if these are lacking, it hunts hares survive on rodents, deer, and carrion.
ducks, and and pikas. Its habitat varies from desert to mixed
other prey woodland and conifer forest.
in winter. distinctive
variable
spotted coat COAT PATTERNS
The Eurasian lynx has density of
spots on coat
3 predominant coat
patterns: mainly
striped, mostly
spotted (as here),
rusty or
and plain. yellowish gray
background
color
202 CARNIVORES
relatively
Caracal caracal Leptailurus serval long neck
Pardofelis marmorata
Caracal Serval Marbled cat

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(61 – 106 cm) (59 – 92 cm) (45 – 62 cm)
Tail 71⁄2 – 14 in Tail 8 – 15 in Tail 14 – 22 in
(19.5 – 35 cm) (20 – 38 cm) (35.5 – 55 cm)
Weight 13 – 42 lb Weight 15 – 30 lb Weight 41⁄2 – 11 lb
(6 – 19 kg) (7 – 13.5 kg) (2 – 5 kg)
Location Africa, W., C., Social unit Individual Location Africa Social unit Individual Location S. to S.E. Asia Social unit Individual
and S. Asia
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Near threatened
bands
Also called the desert lynx, because of Resembling a small cheetah, with on legs,
shoulders,
its arid scrubby habitat, the caracal is its lean body and long limbs, the and neck
tawny or reddish, although—as with serval has yellowish fur with dark
many cats—occasional black (melanic) spots. It prefers to live among reeds
individuals occur (see black panther, and rushes fringing wetlands. Here
p.206). It is famed for its ability to spring it hunts rats and similar prey, helping
10 ft (3 m) vertically and to “bat” flying control rodents and thereby aiding HEAD UP
birds with its paw. Its main foods are farmers (servals rarely attack livestock). The serval’s relatively long legs and neck elevate
rodents, hyraxes, hares, small The average litter of 2 young is born its head to 30 in (75 cm) above ground, enabling
antelopes, poultry, narrow,
after 73 days’ gestation. it to see and hear clearly in long grass.
and other livestock. tufted ears
CAT POUNCE A little-known species, found mainly

Having located prey, usually at dusk, in moist, lowland tropical forest, the
and mainly by hearing, the serval marbled cat resembles a small clouded
excels at the cat pounce. It leaps up leopard, although they are not related.
to 13 ft (4 m) horizontally and more It is long-tailed, a proficient climber,
than 31⁄4 ft (1 m) high, to strike the and probably a nocturnal predator
victim with its forepaws. This cat of squirrels, birds, and similar tree
MAMMALS
eats rats and similar-sized rodents, dwellers. Data being collected in

birds, fish, and large insects such as Thailand should help to shed some
locusts. Frogs are a favorite with light on this species. Gestation is
wetland-dwelling servals. 66 – 82 days, litter size 1 – 4, and sexual
maturity is at 21 months.
Felis silvestris The wild cat resembles a slightly larger, Felis chaus the swamp or reed cat. It hunts along
heavier-built, usually longer-furred marshes, river banks, shores, and also
Wild cat (especially in winter) version of the
domestic tabby cat. The species
Jungle cat ditches and ponds around human
settlements, taking mammals up to
Length 16 – 29 in interbreeds with domestic cats, of which Length 24 – 34 in the size of coypu, birds (including
(40.5 – 74 cm) (61 – 85 cm)
the African subspecies Felis sylvestris poultry), reptiles, and, being a strong
Tail 9 – 141⁄2 in Tail 8 – 12 in
(22 – 37 cm) lybica is presumed to be the ancestor. (20 – 31 cm) swimmer, fish and amphibians.
Weight 41⁄2 – 16 lb The wild cat’s preferred habitat is mixed Weight 51⁄2 – 26 lb Female and male may stay together,
(2 – 7.3 kg) broad-leaved woodland, but habitat loss (2.5 – 12 kg) and both protect the cubs.
Location Europe, W. and Social unit Individual and amenity use of woods has driven it Location W., C., S., and Social unit Individual
C. Asia, Africa S.E. Asia, N.E. Africa unpatterned
Status Least concern to marginal habitats such as conifer Status Least concern
body
forest, rocky upland, moor, scrub,
swamp, and coast. It feeds on rabbits
and small rodents, such
as rats, mice, Despite its main common
gray-brown coat
with well-defined voles, and name, this slender,
black stripes lemmings. This long-legged cat is also
cat climbs well known more aptly as
and catches
young squirrels
or birds in the branches; Felis margarita for its main prey of gerbils and similar
carrion is also eaten. rodents, as well as an occasional lizard
It mates between
January and March and
Sand cat or snake. It also excavates a den for
daytime shelter. The
the gestation period is Length 151⁄2 – 201⁄2 in average litter of 3 grows
(39 – 52 cm)
56 – 65 days. The female quickly and may be
Tail 9 – 12 in
gives birth to an average (23 – 31 cm) independent in just
of 2 – 3 (maximum up to 4) Weight 31⁄4 – 73⁄4 lb 6 months.
cubs in its den in a tree hole, (1.5 – 3.5 kg)
among rocks or tree roots, Location N. Africa, W., C., Social unit Individual
and S.W. Asia
or in an old rabbit or Status Least concern
badger burrow.
Surviving on fluids in
its food and very little
bushy,
blunt-ended, horizontal stripes on legs; additional water, the
black-tipped tail vertical stripes on body blunt-clawed sand cat digs well
CATS 203
Felis nigripes Leopardus jacobitus Leopardus pardalis CONSERVATION
Black-footed cat Andean cat Ocelot Ocelots were extensively hunted

in the 1960s and 70s, trading at
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Length 131⁄2 – 191⁄2 in Length 23 – 25 in Length 28 – 39 in some 200,000 skins per year. The
(34 – 50 cm) (58 – 64 cm) (72.5 – 100 cm)
fur trade is now banned by CITES,
(15 – 20 cm) (41 – 48 cm) (25.5 – 41 cm) but ocelot numbers are still on
Weight 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb Weight 83⁄4 lb Weight 14 – 25 lb a downward path. As with most
(1.5 – 3 kg) (4 kg) (6.5 – 11.5 kg) cats, one of the main problems
Location Southern Africa Social unit Individual Location W. South Social unit Individual Location S. USA to Central Social unit Individual the species faces is deforestation,
America and South America
Status Vulnerable Status Endangered Status Least concern combined with attacks by farmers,
and illegal collection for the
pet trade.
One of the smallest cats, the size of The chainlike rosettes and spots on this
a very small pet cat, this species cat’s body are highly distinctive.
is pale brown with bold stripes, which Typically catlike in its nocturnal, solitary,
thicken on the legs and merge into tree-climbing lifestyle, the ocelot is wide
the all-black undersides of the feet. ranging and adaptable, living in a variety
Prey is likewise small; for example, of habitats from grassland to swamp, as
mice, insects from termites to locusts, well as most types of forest. It takes a
spiders, small lizards, and birds. huge variety of prey: chiefly small
Well adapted to the Karoo, the Kalahari, Little is known about the habits of the rodents but also birds, lizards, fish, bats,
and other arid regions of southern rare Andean, or mountain cat. Small and larger animals such as monkeys,
Africa, it seldom needs to drink water. and sturdy, with a long, bushy tail, it turtles, young deer, armadillos, and
has thick, warm, gray-brown fur that anteaters. The ocelot has a gestation
short, dense,
is marked with vertical stripes along period of 79 – 85 days, and a small litter almost
the upper back, rosette-type spots size, often with only one cub. Females velvety fur
on the flanks, and bands around the breed from 2 years of age; males from
legs and tail. This feline inhabits dry, about 21⁄2 years.
rocky slopes above the tree line—
generally 9,900 ft (3,000 m)—and preys
mainly on rodents such as viscachas
MAMMALS
and formerly chinchillas. Unlike many
other cats, this species is not directly
at risk from hunting or habitat loss, but
hunting threatens some of the prey
species on which it depends.
SPOTS AND
STRIPES
Leopardus guigna The smallest cat in the Americas, the Similar in overall
kodkod or güiña closely resembles pattern to the much
Kodkod Geoffroy’s cat (see below) but with a
thicker tail and smaller head. Its coat
smaller margay (see
below), the ocelot has
Length 161⁄2 – 20 in is black-spotted gray to ocher, with a a variable tawny
(42 – 51cm)
ringed tail and a dark throat stripe. pale background background color. The
Tail 71⁄2 – 10 in color on black rosettes on the back
Found in moist, cool forests in the underparts
(19.5 – 25 cm) and sides grade into
Weight 41⁄2 – 51⁄2 lb Andean foothills of Argentina and Chile, spots on the limbs and
(1.3 – 3 kg) it makes its den in bamboo thickets in stripes on the head.
Location W. South Social unit Individual the understory. Its main prey are
America
Status Vulnerable rodents such as mice and rats, and
lizards, captured on the ground as well
as in trees. It probably hunts by day as
well as at night. Leopardus wiedii gestation period is 76 – 85
days and litter size is one, rarely 2.
protected, this species was hunted for

Margay Following the decline in the
availability of ocelot fur (see panel,
Leopardus geoffroyi
its yellow-brown to silver-gray fur after Length 18 – 31 in above), margays became one of
Geoffroy’s cat the trade in ocelot fur (see panel above,
right) declined in the 1980s.
(46 – 79 cm)
Tail 13 – 20 in
the most sought-after small cats
for the fur trade. Hunting may
(33 – 51 cm)
Length 17 – 35 in
Weight 51⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb still continue illegally in a
(43 – 88 cm)
(2.5 – 4 kg) few areas, but the
Tail 9 – 16 in regularly sized Location S. USA to Central Social unit Individual
(23 – 40 cm) and spaced black primary threat to
and South America
1 spots Status Near threatened the margay is
(1.8 – 7.8 kg) now forest
Location C. to S. South Social unit Individual clearance.
America
The margay has exceptional
climbing abilities because of its almost
“reversible” rear feet, being able to run
Geoffroy’s cat, which is sometimes headfirst down a trunk or hang from
called Geoffroy’s ocelot, prefers a branch by one paw. Its mainly
scrub and shrub to forest and open tree-dwelling prey includes rats, mice,
grassland. It hunts in the branches, on squirrels, possums, young sloths, small
the ground, and in water, for frogs and birds, and invertebrates such as grubs
fish as well as the usual small-cat fare and spiders. It also occasionally eats
of rodents, lizards, birds, and fruit. The margay is nocturnal, resting in
the (introduced) brown hare. Now the safety of a tree fork by day. The
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MAMMALS 204
CATS 205
Panthera tigris CONSERVATION
YOUNG LIFE Tiger Between 1900 and 2000, tiger

numbers fell from an estimated
A young tiger is dependent on its mother for food
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Length 41⁄2 – 91⁄4 ft 100,000 to 3,500—approximately

for the first year or so of its life. By the time it is (1.4 – 2.8 m)
2 years old, it will have enough power, strength, the figure today. After decades of
Tail 28 – 43 in
and experience to be able to catch prey for itself. (72 – 109 cm) poaching, habitat loss, and loss
It may start breeding in its fourth or fifth year, Weight 165 – 720 lb of prey, scattered populations
and lives on average until the age of (75 – 325 kg) survive only in eastern Russia,
8 – 10. TIGER IN ACTION Location S. and E. Asia Social unit Individual China, Sumatra, and in southern
Tigers in the Ranthambhore reserve in northwest Status Endangered Asia from Vietnam to India.
India have been known to charge into lakes after Although protected in most areas,
samba deer and become fully submerged with tigers are still killed to meet the
their prey. The tigers in this area have also been demand for bones and body
reported to have killed and eaten crocodiles.
The tiger is the largest member of the parts, which are used in oriental
cat family, and its orange coat with medicines. Programs to save
black stripes and white markings is the tiger have met with mixed
instantly recognizable. Its size, coat results, with limited successes set
color, and markings vary according to against a trend of overall decline.
subspecies. Although 8 subspecies are Radio collars (see below) and
recognized historically, 3 have become antipoaching patrols give these
extinct since the 1950s. And out of the vulnerable predators at least some
5 remaining, 3 are critically endangered protection in the wild.
and 2 are endangered. The geographical
distribution of the tiger once extended
as far west as eastern Turkey, but it is
now restricted to pockets of southern
and eastern Asia. The tiger’s habitat
varies widely, from the tropical forests
of Southeast Asia to the coniferous
woodlands of Siberia, but its basic
requirements are dense cover, access
to water, and sufficient large prey.
MAMMALS
Hunting mainly by night, it takes mostly
deer and wild pigs, and cattle in
some regions, but it also
eats smaller animals,
including monkeys, birds,
reptiles, and fish, and
readily feeds on carrion.
Tigers will also attack
young rhinoceroses and long,
elephants. They may sensitive
eat up to 88 lb whiskers
white
(40 kg) of meat at underside
a time and return
to a large kill for 3 – 6 sharp,
days. Tigers are usually retractable claws
solitary, but are not
DISTINCTIVE COAT
necessarily antisocial. A
The Bengal tiger, Panthera tigris tigris, the most common of the
male is occasionally seen subspecies, exhibits the classic tiger coat: deep orange with white
resting or feeding with a undersides, cheeks, and eye areas, and distinctive black markings.
female and cubs, and tigers Tiger stripes, which range from brown to jet-black, vary in number,
may also travel in groups. width, and tendency to split. No 2 tigers have the same markings.
LIVING TIGER SUBSPECIES

The surviving subspecies of tiger differ
markedly from one another. In general,
animals from northern regions are a
paler orange and have fewer stripes.
They also have a much longer and
thicker coat in winter to protect them
from the cold.
SUMATRAN TIGER
The smallest and darkest of the SIBERIAN YOUNGSTERS
tiger subspecies is the Sumatran tiger, The Siberian tiger, Panthera tigris altaica, is the largest
Panthera tigris sumatrae. Only about subspecies, and the lightest in color, with the longest
600 are thought to exist today. coat. Its numbers may be as low as 150 – 200.
206 CARNIVORES
Puma yagouaroundi Puma concolor its fur is uniformly buff-colored. Neofelis diardi
It makes many sounds, including
Jaguarundi Puma an eerily humanlike scream when
courting, but it cannot roar. Amazingly
Diard’s clouded
leopard
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Length 19 – 33 in Length 23⁄4 – 51⁄4 ft adaptable, the puma lives in habitats

(48.5 – 83.5 cm) (0.9 – 1.6 m)
ranging from tropical rain forest, high
Tail 11 – 33 in Tail 231⁄2 – 38 in
(27.5 – 59 cm) (60 – 97 cm) mountains, and conifer forest to desert. Length 28 – 41 in
(70 – 105 cm)
1
Weight 75 – 160 lb Small mammals, such as mice, rats,
Tail 231⁄2 – 34 in
(3 – 7.6 kg) (34 – 72 kg) rabbits, and hares, form the staple diet in (60 – 85 cm)
Location S. USA to South Social unit Individual Location W. and S. North Social unit Individual many areas, as well as occasional sheep,
America America, Central America, Weight 22 – 55 lb
Status Least concern South America Status Least concern young cattle, moose, and other livestock; (10 – 25 kg)
the puma rarely scavenges. Births peak Location S.E. Asia Social unit Individual
from February to September. The litter Status Vulnerable
size ranges from 1 – 4 (average 2). The
More mustelid than felid in overall Larger than some “big” cats, the spotted cubs are born after a gestation
proportions, with a pointed snout, long puma—also called panther, cougar, of 92 – 96 days, in a den among rocks
body, and shortish legs, the jaguarundi or mountain lion—is probably related or in a thicket. They take solid food from
has several color forms of unpatterned more closely to smaller cats. Most of 6 – 7 weeks.
fur, from black—mainly in forests—
to pale gray-brown or red—in dry
long, muscular
shrubland. This cat hunts by day, rear legs, for
often on the ground, in habitats ranging powerful leaping
from semiarid scrub to rain forest and
swamp. Its main prey are birds, rodents,
rabbits, reptiles, and invertebrates.
Diard’s clouded leopards range

throughout Southeast Asia; those from
Sumatra and Borneo were recently
determined to be a separate species.
They have smaller, darker “cloud”
very large markings than those found on mainland
paws
relative to Asia. Their numbers are estimated to
MAMMALS
overall size be larger in Borneo (5,000 – 11,000)

than Sumatra (3,000 – 7,000). They kill
a wide range of prey from monkeys to
fish and porcupines, and spend much
of their time in trees.
Panthera pardus BLACK PANTHER CACHING IN TREES

Leopard Like many species of cats and other mammals, leopards may exhibit melanism.
As a result of this genetic change (mutation), the skin and fur contain large
Length 3 – 61⁄4 ft amounts of the dark pigment, melanin.
(0.9 – 1.9 m)
Most common in moist, dense forests,
Tail 24 – 43 in
(60 – 110 cm) melanic leopards, known as “black
Weight 46 – 160 lb panthers,” were once viewed
(21 – 71 kg) as a separate species.
Location W., C., S., E., Social unit Individual In deserts, leopards
and S.E. Asia, Africa
Status Vulnerable are pale yellow;
in grass, they are
rosettes and
deeper yellow. spots may be The leopard is an adept climber
faintly visible and uses its immense strength
Few other wild cats are as varied in to drag its prey up into trees, for
appearance or in prey preference immediate consumption or for
as the leopard, or have a caching (hiding for future use).
wider geographical range. In the branches, it can eat
Its varied diet includes undisturbed, and the meat
small creatures, such is safe from scavenging
as dung beetles, and hyenas and jackals.
large mammals many
times its own weight, such
HEAD AND SHOULDERS
as antelopes. A large victim
The leopard’s large head houses
may provide enough food for powerful jaw muscles to bite,
2 weeks, although such kills are kill, and dismember prey. The
usually made about every 3 days, shoulders and forelimbs are
twice as often for a female with cubs. also heavily muscled, to
The average litter of 2 is born after hold down victims
90 – 105 days’ gestation, and is cared and drag or haul
for by the mother. Weaned by 3 prey into trees.
months, they stay with her for a year or pale-centered
more, and siblings may associate for solid black rosettes on body
longer. Adaptable to human presence, patches and pale
spots on limbs background
leopards hunt to within a few and head color on
miles of big cities, but numbers underparts ringed tail
are falling due to various
human activities.
CATS 207
Panthera uncia Panthera onca Acinonyx jubatus CONSERVATION
Snow leopard Jaguar Cheetah In Namibia, in order to monitor

the effect of wildlife management
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Length 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft Length 4 – 51⁄2 ft Length 31⁄2 – 5 ft and livestock protection measures,
(0.9 – 1.25 m) (1.2 – 1.7 m) (1.1 – 1.5 m)
some cheetahs are caught and
Tail 32 – 39 in Tail 171⁄2 – 32 in Tail 231⁄2 – 32 in
(80 – 100 cm) (44 – 80 cm) (60 – 80 cm) fit with radio collars. Following their
Weight 49 – 115 lb Weight 71 – 260 lb Weight 79 – 130 lb release (below), the animal’s
(22 – 52 kg) (31 – 121 kg) (36 – 59 kg) movements are tracked.
Location C., S., and Social unit Individual Location Central America Social unit Individual Location Africa, W. Asia Social unit Individual/Pair
E. Asia to N. and C. South America
Status Endangered Status Near threatened Status Vulnerable
Resembling the leopard (see p.206) Renowned as the world’s fastest land
in its wide range of prey, this woolly animal, the cheetah can sprint at
furred big cat prefers crags and ridges over 62 mph
in steppe, rocky shrub, and open (100 kph)
conifer forest to altitudes of for 10 – 20
16,500 ft (5,000 m). It can seconds,
hunt yak or asses, but most before it
prey are smaller—wild sheep, begins to overheat. If
COLORATION
goats, marmots, pikas, hares, its prey can stay ahead Desert animals tend to be paler
and birds. Breeding habits The New World’s only “big” cat, the for longer than this, it with smaller spots. The “king
resemble similar-sized jaguar resembles the leopard (see invariably escapes. The cheetah,” from southeast
felids, although p.206) but has rosettes with dark cheetah eats medium- Africa, has the largest
4 – 5 cubs may centers, and is more squat and sized ungulates such spots, which appear
be raised. powerful, with a large, broad head as Thomson’s gazelle, as to merge and form
and heavily muscled quarters. It well as larger antelopes and stripes on its back.
prefers a watery environment, such smaller animals such as
short, as permanent swamps and seasonally hares. It is more social than ringed tail
stocky flooded forest, where its main prey are any other big cat except lions.
limbs, for medium-sized mammals such as deer, Siblings leave their mother
climbing
MAMMALS
peccaries, and tapirs. Despite legal at 13 – 20 months, but may
protection and reduced hunting for fur, stay together for several
jaguars are increasingly at risk from more months—indeed,
habitat destruction and their elimination brothers may stay
from cattle ranches. together for years.
Panthera leo ROLE PLAYING ASIATIC LION

Lion Retracted claws and nonexposed
teeth show that these 2-year-old
Length 51⁄4 – 81⁄4 ft lionesses are “play-fighting” to
(1.6 – 2.5 m)
develop skills for the hunt. The
Tail 24 – 39 ft
(61 – 100 cm) tussle helps to determine whether
Weight 280 – 550 lb a lioness will be one of those who
(125 – 250 kg) chase and direct prey—or one
Location Africa, S. Asia Social unit Group who carries out the ambush and kill.
(Gir Forest)
Status Vulnerable Play also helps to establish relative
social status within the pride.
uniform thick mane for protection

Unique among felids, lions form
tawny coat
close-knit, long-term social groups.
In females, these are called prides, and
average 4 – 6 related adults and their
cubs. Females tend to give birth at the
same time and suckle each other’s
young. Prides occupy home ranges
and members cooperate to hunt large
prey such as zebra, wildebeest, impala, The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo
and buffalo. Individuals also forage persica) survives only in the Gir
alone for small rodents, hares, and Forest region of northwest India,
reptiles. Adult males live alone, or in with a probable population of about
coalitions of usually 2 – 3 unrelated 350. It tends to be smaller than the
members or 4 – 5 relatives (originating African lion, with a fold of skin
from the same pride). A coalition along the central underside
defends a large area against other of the belly; males have
male coalitions, and holds mating shorter manes. Prides
rights over prides within it, but this are also smaller,
tenure generally lasts only 2 – 3 years. usually 2 related
females and young.
MALE AND FEMALE
The lion averages 400 lb (180 kg) against the
lioness’s 280 lb (125 kg). The male’s skull is
also significantly larger than that of the female.
208 CARNIVORES
Hyenas and aardwolf

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PHYLUM Chordata Although members of this family down large prey, such as zebras. and the nutritional value is surprisingly
superficially resemble dogs, they are This species is also a highly efficient high. An aardwolf may eat as many as
CLASS Mammalia
scavenger—groups of spotted hyenas 200,000 termites in a single night.
ORDER Carnivora
in fact more closely related to cats and are capable of driving a lion off its
FAMILY Hyaenidae
civets and genets. They all feature a prey. Striped and brown hyenas, on Social groups
distinctive back line that slopes downward the other hand, scavenge most of the While the aardwolf is solitary, and
SPECIES 4
time, although they may also capture striped and brown hyenas live in
from the shoulders to the tail. Hyenas and small prey. All hyenas are able to pairs or small groups, spotted hyenas
aardwolves are mainly found in Africa digest parts of a kill that other live in larger groups called clans.
(although the striped hyena extends to southern parts of Asia), mammals cannot process, such These clans may consist of up to
as skin and bone. This means that 80 individuals (males and females
in savanna, scrub, and semiarid habitats. They are primarily
they occupy a niche not filled by and their cubs). When cubs are 2 – 3
nocturnal and dig dens that are used to shelter adults and most other mammals. Portions of the months old, they are transferred
cubs (except in the spotted hyena, where only the cubs meal that they cannot digest, such to a communal den, where all are
seek refuge in dens). as ligaments, hair, and hooves, are suckled by any lactating female
regurgitated in the form of pellets. (brown hyenas employ this system,
Given these digestive adaptations, too). The cubs remain in the den
it is surprising that one member of until they are weaned and ready
Anatomy Feeding this family—the aardwolf—does to accompany adults hunting and
Physical characteristics common Hyenas have a broad muzzle and not eat large prey. Instead, it uses foraging, which may be at as little
to the species in this family include immensely strong jaws (indeed, the its smaller teeth and sticky tongue as 7 months of age. All hyenas
a large head and ears, long front legs jaws are the most powerful of any to feed on termites. There is little are territorial, and their territories
and short back legs, a mane on the mammal of comparable size) and competition for this food source, are marked using an anal scent
nape that (except in the spotted hyena) teeth for crushing bones. Of the 3 it requires minimal effort to obtain, gland (which can be turned inside
extends down the back, a bushy tail, hyena species, the spotted hyena out). Spotted hyena clans
and short, blunt, nonretractable claws. is the most voracious hunter. When patrol and defend their
Hyenas have 4 toes on both the front hunting cooperatively, spotted territory communally.
and back feet; the aardwolf has 5 toes hyenas are able to take
on the front feet and 4 on the back
MAMMALS
feet. The coat is spotted or striped

(the brown hyena has stripes on the
limbs only).
THE ULTIMATE MEAT EATER

The kill on which this spotted hyena is feeding may
have been hunted down by the clan or scavenged
from another predator. Because hyenas have
powerful, bone-crushing jaws, and eat almost
anything, little will be left of this hartebeest
carcass when the hyenas leave.
HYENAS AND AARDWOLF 209
Proteles cristata front legs and down-sloping body Parahyaena brunnea Hyaena hyaena
are accentuated by the crestlike back
Aardwolf mane, most prominent on the neck
and shoulders. This erects under stress
Brown hyena Striped hyena
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Length 22 – 32 in so the animal appears larger. The fur Length 43 – 51 ft Length 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 ft
(55 – 80 cm) (1.1 – 1.36 m) (1 – 1.15 m)
is pale buff or yellow-white with 3
Tail 8 – 12 in Tail 71⁄2 – 101⁄4 in Tail 12 – 16 in
(20 – 30 cm) vertical stripes on each side, and (18.5 – 26.5 cm) (30 – 40 cm)
Weight 18 – 31 lb diagonal stripes across the fore- Weight 63 – 105 lb Weight 57 – 90 lb
(8 – 14 kg) and hindquarters. The front teeth are (28.5 – 47.5 kg) (26 – 41 kg)
Location E. and southern Social unit Individual hyena-like but the molars are small Location Southern Africa Social unit Variable Location W., N., and E. Social unit Individual/Group
Africa Africa, W. to S. Asia
Status Least concern pegs, the food being ground up by Status Near threatened Status Near threatened
the muscular stomach. The aardwolf
is solitary and nocturnal, resting in a
burrow by day. It marks its territory
A small relative of the hyena, the with urine, dung, and anal gland This species ranges farther into Preferring savanna and open woodland,
aardwolf’s specialized diet is termites, secretions. The 1 – 4 cubs are born deserts than other hyenas, and can this hyena avoids extreme habitats such
particularly surface-foraging nasute after a gestation period of 90 days, scent carrion from 81⁄2 miles (14 km). as deserts. It is gray or pale brown with
(snouted) harvester termites. It also emerge from the den at 4 weeks, It has the typical hyena’s powerful jaws 5 – 6 vertical flank bars. The neck mane
licks up maggots, grubs, and other forage with the mother from 9 – 11 and shearing teeth for scavenging on lessens on the back and merges with
small, soft-bodied creatures. Its longer weeks, and are weaned by 16 weeks. any carcass, including seal pups along the bushy black-and-white tail. Generally
the Namib Desert coast. It also catches solitary, this hyena may form a family
prey such as springhares. The brown group when breeding. It scavenges,
hyena forms loose clans that defend hunts prey from insects to hares, and
their territory. Its coat is shaggy, dark eats fruit and other plant matter.
brown to black, with a pale tawny
neck mantle, a gray-patched face,
and striped legs.
MAMMALS
dark brown
or black
throat patch
Crocuta crocuta prey-rich savanna. The clan, up to 80

individuals, occupies a communal den, HUNTING HYENA
Spotted hyena uses communal latrines, and jointly
defends its territory of 15 – 390 square
The spotted hyena is a powerful
hunter. Several clan members may
Length 4 – 51⁄4 ft miles (40 – 1,000 square km), delineated form a pack to bring down large prey,
(1.25 – 1.6 m)
by calls, scent marking, and boundary such as an adult zebra or wildebeest.
Tail 9 – 101⁄2 in
(22 – 27 cm) patrols. The spotted hyena makes When hunting alone, it catches hares,
Weight 99 – 190 lb many sounds, including whoops, to rally ground birds, and fish in shallows and
(45 – 86 kg) its group or locate cubs, and the swamps. It gorges on food, and is
Location W. to E. and Social unit Group famous hyena’s “laugh,” to signify able to consume up to one-third of
southern Africa
Status Least concern submission to a senior its body weight at one meal.
clan member.
short,
rounded ears
The spotted hyena is the largest hyena
species. The female is some 10 percent
larger than the male, and her external
sexual organs are enlarged so that they
REVERSED MANE
are difficult to distinguish from the
The spotted hyena’s neck sandy to gray-
male’s. The social system is female- and back mane is reversed brown coat
dominated and based on the clan, and the erectile hairs slope with dark
which varies from 5 or fewer adults and forward rather than back, standing spots that
fade with age
young in deserts to 50 or more in erect when the hyena is excited.
SIBLING RIVALRY
The spotted hyena mother is solely
responsible for cub rearing; the male relatively long
plays no part. The average litter is front legs
2 (range 1 – 3), born after 100 days’
gestation and weaned at 14 – 18
months, when nearly full grown.
The dominant cub controls access
to the mother when suckling and,
in times of milk shortage, may kill
its sister or brother to improve its
own chance of survival.
210 HOOFED MAMMALS
Hoofed mammals
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PHYLUM Chordata Hoofed mammals are a highly successful group. Their position
CLASS Mammalia as the dominant terrestrial herbivores can be attributed largely
ORDER Perissodactyla, to their speed and endurance (they are able to outrun most
Artiodactyla
predators), and to the fact that they are well equipped to
FAMILIES 13
break down the cellulose in their plant diet. Despite a variety
SPECIES 399
of body forms, most species have a long muzzle, a complex
battery of grinding teeth, and a barrel-shaped body. The
CLASSIFICATION NOTE
Hoofed mammals are classified

group consists of odd-toed hoofed mammals (such as
in 2 orders: Perissodactyla
(odd-toed hoofed mammals),
tapirs) and even-toed hoofed mammals (such as deer).
and Artiodactyla (even-toed Wild odd-toed hoofed mammals are found in Africa,
hoofed mammals). Although
superficially similar, the 2 orders Asia, and South and Central America. Wild even-toed
are not closely related. However,
they are often grouped together hoofed mammals are distributed worldwide (except
because they share a range of
common traits. There is evidence the West Indies, Australasia, and Antarctica). Hoofed
to suggest that the closest
relatives of the artiodactyls mammals are mostly found in open habitats, such
are the cetaceans (whales and
relatives), and some taxonomists
as savanna. Domestic hoofed mammals are found
now group them together in
the order Cetartiodactyla.
almost anywhere there are humans.
Anatomy
The ability of hoofed mammals to run swiftly for long distances is largely due to
the structure of the limbs, which are adapted for simple but powerful forwards
MAMMALS
and backward movement. Each limb is embedded in the body wall as far down
as the elbow or knee joint. Below this joint are the radius and ulna (front limbs)
or tibia and fibula (back limbs), then the
greatly elongated metapodials (the metapodials
reduced mostly
palm and foot bones in humans). This single metapodial second
(third) fused
longer lower limb (and increased toe
toe
movement in the shoulder joint) reduced
fifth toe third
gives a longer stride length and third third toe
hence more speed. These animals toe toe
also have a reduced number of toes, RHINOCEROS HORSE PIG DEER
which means fewer muscles and
tendons and therefore lower energy ODD AND EVEN TOES
demands (which aids endurance). In odd-toed hoofed mammals (rhinoceros and horse),
They run on their toes (unguligrade the leg’s weight rests on the central (third) toe. In
gait), which even-toed hoofed mammals (pig and deer) the weight
are encased is borne by the third, and fourth toes; the second and
in hooves. fifth toes are greatly reduced (pig) or lost (deer).
simple,
complex, unbranched horn
branched
antlers ESCAPING DANGER
HORNS AND ANTLERS Hoofed mammals must be able to detect danger quickly
Antlers are bony outgrowths of the skull to survive. To do this they have mobile, tubular ears and
that are shed every year. Horns are acute hearing, an excellent sense of smell, and eyes on
permanent and have a bony core covered the side of the head, giving all around vision. When
in keratin. Giraffe horns (ossicones) are frightened, they flee at great speed. Antelopes, such as
REINDEER GOAT covered with skin and develop from cartilage that these impala, often make spectacular leaps as they escape.
later ossifies and fuses with the skull.
BIRTH ON THE HOOF
1 2 3 4
THE BIRTH BEGINS THE HEAD APPEARS A NEW LIFE SYNCHRONIZED CALVING
During labor, this female wildebeest is vulnerable and The calf is born head first, but the long front The newborn wildebeest emerges, partially Most wildebeests calve in the same 3-week period
restless, alternately lying down and standing up. legs are first into the outside world. covered by the amniotic membrane. so that, despite some losses, many calves survive.
HOOFED MAMMALS 211
Feeding
Almost all hoofed mammals are herbivores.
The plants they eat contain indigestible cellulose
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(the major component of plant cell walls), which

is split into digestible carbohydrates via bacterial
fermentation. In ruminants (see below), food passes
slowly through their system to maximize the nutrition
gained. These animals thrive where food is limited
but of high quality. In hindgut fermenters (see
below), food is not retained in the stomach and GRAZING
passes through the system more quickly. These Grazers feed almost exclusively on grass.
animals live where food is plentiful but of poor To find fresh pasture, some hoofed mammals
quality. As a result, a larger volume of food migrate long distances. The hippopotamus
must be eaten to obtain enough nutrients. (above) usually feeds at night, using its
horny lips to crop the grass.
omasum
abomasum
colon
passage of food
(first time)
cecum
passage of food
(second time)
small
intestine reticulum rumen RUMINANT
cecum passage of
food
colon
stomach
small
intestine HINDGUT BROWSING
FERMENTER
MAMMALS
Browsers eat almost any plant
DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS material. These mountain goats
Ruminants, such as buffaloes, have a complex stomach. In the first chamber, spend much of their time in
the rumen, bacterial fermentation occurs; food is then regurgitated, re-chewed mountainous areas where grass
(“chewing the cud”), and swallowed, this time passing through the digestive is scarce—they supplement their
system. Hindgut fermenters, such as zebras, have a simple stomach: the diet by eating mosses, lichens,
fermenting bacteria are in the cecum and at the start of the colon. herbs, and woody plants.
DEFENDING RESOURCES
Hoofed mammals living in Social systems
arid areas, such as these Hoofed mammals have a variety of social systems,
onagers, often form mixed- depending on factors such as habitat, body size,
sex herds. Males tend to whether breeding is seasonal, and whether they
defend resources migrate. The following examples are typical hoofed
rather than mammal social organizations. Tapirs, rhinoceroses,
guard a harem and some forest antelopes are mostly solitary, and
of females. a male’s territory covers that of several females.
Dik-diks live in pairs that occupy small territories.
In gazelles, males set up small territories, and
female herds wander in and out of these areas.
DEFENDING A HAREM Hartebeests and most zebras live in harems
During the breeding season, some consisting of a male and a number of females.
male hoofed mammals, such as Red deer, on the other hand, form separate-sex
this red deer, gather a harem, herds except during the breeding season (which
which they defend fiercely. The is known as the “rut”). Males fight with each other,
loud roaring and large antlers and the most successful will collect a large
of the stag help deter rivals. harem of females.
5 6 7 8
NUTRITIOUS MEAL PROTECTIVE INSTINCTS STANDING UP REJOINING THE HERD
The mother eats the afterbirth. Once this is done, A newborn calf is vulnerable, and the mother is The calf attempts to stand. In less than 45 minutes, Mother and calf quickly rejoin the herd: in
she will lick the calf to stimulate it. reluctant to let even another wildebeest approach. it will be able to run, reducing the risk of predation. a group, the young calf is less conspicuous.
212 HOOFED MAMMALS
Horses and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata An enduring symbol of grace and freedom, p.211). This allows them to take term associations. Breeding stallions
horses and their relatives (equids) are the in large amounts of food, which defend large territories—up to 6
CLASS Mammalia
passes rapidly through the digestive square miles (15 square km)—and
ORDER Perissodactyla
ultimate odd-toed hoofed mammals—they tract. Quality of food is therefore these are marked by dung piles. The
have just a single toe on each foot. Equids – less important than quantity, which stallion mates with mares that range
FAMILY Equidae
horses, asses (including the onager and the means equids can survive in arid through his territory.
SPECIES 7
habitats. They usually rest during Equids communicate with each
kiang), and zebras—have a long neck and the heat of the day and forage in other by whinnying or braying, and
head, and long, slender legs. They possess the morning, evening, and night. these vocalizations vary depending
great stamina and can run at speed: the wild equid, the onager, on species. To assess the sexual
can attain 43 mph (70 kph) for short periods. They are found in
Social groups condition of mares, stallions sniff
Wild horses, plains zebras, and mares’ urine. To analyze the scent
grasslands and deserts of Africa and Asia. Domestic horses mountain zebras live in groups in detail, they roll back their upper
and donkeys have been widely introduced across the world. consisting of mares and their young, lip to induce the inhaled air into the
led by a “harem” stallion, who Jacobson’s organ, a special pouch
protects and herds them. This stallion in the roof of the mouth. This is
Anatomy Feeding also defends the group’s territory and called the “flehmen” response.
Equids are characterized by a deep Horses and relatives eat mainly grass attempts to prevent other stallions
chest, a mane on the neck, a tufted (they have a battery of hard-wearing mating with his mares. Young females Horses and people
or long-haired tail, a solid hoof on cheek teeth for chewing), although may remain in the same group as The donkey was domesticated in the
each foot, areas of hard, thickened they will also feed on desert their mothers or they may join a Middle East before 3000 bce. The
skin (called chestnuts) on the inside vegetation and may browse on different group; young males leave at domestic horse, derived from the
of the front legs above the knee, and bark, leaves, buds, and fruit. maturity and try to collect their Eurasian wild horse, later replaced
mobile lips and nostrils. The eyes, Unlike cattle (for example), own harem. Wild asses and the donkey for a number of purposes –
which have oblong pupils, are at the they do not ruminate Grevy’s zebras, on the including transportation, agriculture,
sides of the head for good, all around but instead employ other hand, have a warfare, and recreation—although the
sight (to help detect predators). Day a hindgut different social donkey remained a popular beast of
and night vision is excellent. The ears fermentation organization, burden. Domesticated equids, including
are long and can twist to locate the system (see without long- mules and hinnies, continue to serve
MAMMALS
sources of sounds, without having people in many parts of the world.

to move the body. Hearing is acute. Most of the wild equids are highly
All species have a heavily haired endangered due to habitat loss and
coat, which is usually uniform in hunting: only plains zebra and the
color in horses and asses. Zebras kiang are relatively numerous.
have striking black-and-white stripes;
the function of these has had many
explanations from social recognition
to temperature regulation, or to create
a “dazzle” effect to confuse predators.
FIGHTING FOR DOMINANCE

Conflicts between equids are common throughout
the mating season. During this fight, the plains zebra
stallions may bite, rear up and strike out with their front
feet, and kick with their back feet. The loser is driven off,
leaving the victorious stallion with control of the harem,
usually between 1 and 6 mares.
HORSES AND RELATIVES 213
Equus africanus somaliensis Equus hemionus Equus przewalskii MUTUAL GROOMING

Somali wild ass Onager Przewalski’s horse
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Length 61⁄4 – 7 ft Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄4 ft Length 71⁄4 – 81⁄2 ft

(1.95 – 2.05 m) (2 – 2.5 m) (2.2 – 2.6 m)
Tail 16 – 18 in (40 – 45 cm) Tail 12 – 191⁄2 in Tail 32 – 43 in
Weight 600 – 620 lb (30 – 49 cm) (80 – 110 cm)
(270 – 280 kg) Weight 440 – 570 lb Weight 440 – 660 lb
Social unit Group (200 – 260 kg) (200 – 300 kg)
Location E. Africa Location W., C., and Social unit Group Location Reintroduced to Social unit Group
Status Critically S. Asia C. Asia
endangered Status Near threatened Status Endangered
Social grooming is important for

this species, as for most wild equids,
The Somali wild ass lives in rocky This horse now survives mainly in zoos, serving to reinforce herd bonds.
deserts where the ground temperature parks, and field stations. Although it has Usually 2 animals stand nose
exceeds 122° F (50° C). It eats almost been reintroduced in Mongolia, it faces to tail so that they can look out for
any plant food, from grasses to thorny problems, such as crossbreeding with danger in both directions, and each
acacia bushes, and goes without water domestic horses. It lives in nibbles the other’s shoulder and
for several days. The upperparts are cohesive, long-term withers. The tail also makes a
buff-gray in summer and iron-gray in herds that wander useful fly switch.
winter; the mane is sparse but great distances for
erect. Females mate only grass, leaves, and
with mature males that buds. A typical herd
hold territories. is led by senior
mare and has
This Asian wild ass eats a variety 2 – 4 other mares,
of vegetation, including grasses and their offspring,
succulent plants. Females and young and one stallion
onagers form loose, wandering herds, who stays on the
while immature males gather in periphery. A single foal is born after
bachelor groups. Solitary mature a gestation of 333 – 345 days.
males kick and bite rivals to occupy
dark brown
MAMMALS
variable the territory they need for breeding. lower legs
transverse Mainly buff, tawny, or gray in coloration, SMALL BUT STOCKY
leg stripes the onager is white underneath, with Przewalski’s horse is heavily built, with
a dark mane, back stripe, ear tips, a thick neck, a large head, and upright
and feathered tail tip. mane compared to domesticated horses.
Equus grevyi Equus quagga This successful and widespread zebra

has a diet of nine-tenths grass; the FLEHMEN RESPONSE
Grevy’s zebra Plains zebra remainder is leaves and buds. The
main, long-term social unit is a stallion,
Length 81⁄4 – 93⁄4 ft Length 71⁄4 – 81⁄4 ft his harem of one or several mares,
(2.5 – 3 m) (2.2 – 2.5 m)
and their offspring. Maturing stallions
Tail 15 – 231⁄2 in Tail 181⁄2 – 22 in
(38 – 60 cm) (47 – 56 cm) form loose bachelor herds and
Weight 770 – 990 lb Weight 390 – 850 lb may challenge for the harem
(350 – 450 kg) (175 – 385 kg) with fierce fights of biting and
Location E. Africa Social unit Group Location E. and southern Social unit Group kicking. The single foal can
Africa
Status Endangered Status Near threatened stand within a few minutes
of birth and is grazing
after a week.
A plains zebra stallion, like other
The largest zebra and biggest wild male equids, curls up his top lip
equid, Grevy’s zebra has dense, narrow in order to heighten his sense
stripes that remain distinct all the way of smell. Known as the flehmen
down to the hooves; the belly and tail response or, more colloquially,
base are white. Males occupy huge the “horse laugh,” this behavior is
territories, up to 4 square miles usually seen when the male (stallion)
broad stripes
(10 square km). Females and foals roam on upper body assesses the readiness of a female
freely, perhaps gathering in small, loose (mare) for breeding. By this means,
herds to graze, but there are no he is able to detect certain scents in
long-term herd bonds. the mare’s urine to determine if she
is receptive for mating. The flehmen
response may also occur if an
individual picks up a strange scent.
stripes extend DISTINCTIVE STRIPES

under belly Plains zebra has a different stripe pattern from
Grevy’s (see left). Some subspecies of zebra
have faint “shadow” stripes between the
large flank stripes.
214 HOOFED MAMMALS
Rhinoceroses
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Among the largest of terrestrial mammals, and Javan). Dominant male white
PHYLUM Chordata
rhinoceroses have a thick skin that folds
Social systems rhinoceroses patrol their home range,
CLASS Mammalia
Although rhinoceroses are mostly marking its boundaries by spraying
in places so it resembles a suit of armor. solitary, subadults may travel in pairs, urine and creating dung piles. Weaker
FAMILY Rhinocerotidae
They live in the savannas of Africa, and in female white rhinoceroses sometimes males share the ranges of stronger
the tropical and subtropical forests and form groups, and Indian rhinoceroses males, but do not attempt to mate. The
SPECIES 5
will share a bathing pond without white and Indian rhinos also employ
swampy grasslands of Asia. Although aggression. Grazing species (white, a “strong” male / “weak” male system.
rhinoceroses are often considered Indian) range more widely than Strong males actively herd receptive
aggressive—they will charge to scare off an intruder—they browsing species (black, Sumatran, females into their territories, and then
prevent them from leaving. However,
are generally timid. All 5 species are endangered, 3 of them
male black rhinos that are not so strictly
critically so. All species require a large daily intake of food territorial are more likely to defend
(either grass or stems, branches, and leaves) to support areas in which a group of females
their massive body. has gathered. When 2 strong Indian
rhinoceros males meet, they may fight
using their tusklike lower incisors.
Many such conflicts end in
Anatomy the death of one of the
Rhinoceroses are large, heavily combatants. Little is
built animals—the white rhino may known about the social
weigh up to 21⁄2 tons (2.3 tonnes). behaviour of either
The species found in Asia support the Javan or the
their bulky frame with thick legs, Sumatran
but African species have surprisingly rhinoceros.
slim legs and are capable of running
at speeds of up to 28 mph (45 kph).
Each foot has 3 toes, each with a
hoof. The large head features one
MAMMALS
or 2 horns (depending on species)

on the snout. Instead of a bony core
(as in the horns of cattle and their
relatives, for example), the horns
are composed entirely of keratin—
a tough protein also found in hair
and nails—and the horn perches
on a roughened area of the skull
(rather than being “rooted” in the
skull). Rhinoceroses also have
skin up to 3 ⁄4 in (2 cm) thick, and
body hair is usually inconspicuous
(although all species have a tail tuft
and ear fringes). Asian rhinoceroses
have heavily folded skin, giving the
appearance of plates of armor.
Of all the senses, smell is the
strongest, although mobile, tubular
ears provide good hearing. The eyes,
however, are small, and rhinoceroses
have poor vision.
CONSERVATION
The entire rhino family is listed by
CITES, mainly because rhino horn
is worth more than its weight in
gold. In the Far East, it is powdered
and used in medicine, while in
Yemen, it is carved to make dagger
handles. Both practices are now
illegal, although an undercover
trade still goes on. In Africa alone,
over 1,300 rhinoceroses were killed
in 2015. Conservation measures
have allowed numbers of southern HIGH-SPEED CHARGE
white rhinoceros and black Rhinoceroses have a heavy, awkward appearance but
rhinoceros to increase. However, are immensely strong and well muscled. If disturbed,
unless poaching is controlled and an individual such as this black rhinoceros is capable
habitat loss halted, the future for of charging at speeds of 28 mph (45 kph). Even at high
these animals remains bleak. speed, it can make rapid changes in direction.
RHINOCEROSES 215
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Rhinoceros sondaicus neck with lumps or nodules giving an

WALLOWING armor-plated effect. The single horn rarely
Sumatran rhinoceros Javan rhinoceros exceeds 10 in (25 cm) long and is lacking
in some females. It is largely nocturnal,
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Length 81⁄4 – 10 ft Length 93⁄4 – 11 ft possibly due to the threat of poachers.

(2.5 – 3.2 m) (3 – 3.5 m)
It eats a wide range of plants. The
Tail Not recorded Tail Not recorded
Javan—or lesser one-horned—rhinoceros
Weight Up to 2,095 lb Weight Up to 11⁄2 tons
(950 kg) (1.4 tonnes) was decimated by lowland forest removal.
Social unit Individual Social unit Individual
Two remnant populations survive, taking
Location S. and S.E. Asia Location S.E. Asia advantage of coastal mangrove and
Status Critically endangered Status Critically endangered
bamboo marshes. Very little is known
The Sumatran rhinoceros, like all about the mating habits of the Javan
rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, and rhinoceros. As in other species, the male
Solitary and secretive, this is the smallest similar sparsely haired mammals, One of the most rare large mammals, this is probably territorial, marking his area with
and hairiest rhinoceros. It rests in wallows wallows in mud, which dries onto species is hairless other than on its ears dung piles and urine pools. It is thought
by day and browses at night on twigs, the skin. This is cooling and also and tail tip. Its thick, gray skin is divided by that one calf is born and that it stays with
leaves, and fruit, also felling saplings for protects its delicate surface areas deep folds to make a “saddle” over the its mother for 2 years, possibly longer.
tender shoots. Its high-altitude habitat, from flies and other biting insects.
once relatively safe, is now being lost to
loggers; horn poachers are also a major
threat—museum specimens horn lengths of up to 16 in (40 cm). A
have recorded front single calf is born after 15 – 16 months’
gestation and stays with its mother for
2 – 3 years, until she next gives birth
after about 3.5 years.
MAMMALS
FEW WRINKLES
This small rhinoceros
has relatively few skin
wrinkles, except around 3 toes for gripping
the neck. Sparse hairs on slippery ground
cover the skin surface.
Rhinoceros unicornis Like other rhinoceros species, the Indian months and the calf may remain with its
rhinoceros is generally solitary except for mother until her next offspring is born, IN THE TALL GRASS
Indian rhinoceros temporary male–female associations
when mating, and a mother with her calf.
which may be 3 years later. In 2005,
only 2,575 animals were left, although
Length Up to 11 ft Both male and female have a single horn, the population is now increasing. Despite
(3.3 – 3.5 m)
up to 24 in (60 cm) long. Males have protection projects and an encouraging
Tail 26 in
(66 cm) larger, sharp, tusklike incisors for fighting recovery in numbers, remaining
Weight Up to 2 tons rivals at breeding time. Otherwise they populations of the species are scattered
(2 tonnes) usually tolerate intruders into their ranges, and fragmented, and therefore still at
Location S. Asia Social unit Individual which vary from 3 ⁄4 – 3 square miles (2 – 8 some risk. These animals are also still
(Brahmaputra Valley)
Status Vulnerable square km) depending on the quality of subject to poaching for their horns and
habitat. The gestation period is 16 other body parts.
deep skin
gray-brown folds
coloration Tall grasses make up the bulk of
the Indian rhinoceros’s diet (they
PLATES AND RIVETS grow to 26 ft/8 m tall during the wet
season, giving excellent cover). This
species feeds mainly by twilight and
darkness, curling its upper
lip around the stems to
bend and bite off the
tender tips. It is also the
most aquatic rhinoceros,
wading and swimming
with ease.
The Indian rhinoceros’s skin has deep

folds, its armor-plated appearance
accentuated by tubercles (lumps),
especially on the sides and rear,
which resemble rivets. The pink skin
within the folds is prone to parasites
that are removed by egrets and tick
birds, who also act as sentinels.
216 HOOFED MAMMALS
Diceros bicornis PREHENSILE LIP CONSERVATION

Black rhinoceros Intense demand for rhinoceros horn
for traditional oriental medicines and
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Length 91⁄2 – 10 ft for dagger handles and similar items

(2.9 – 3.1 m)
in the Middle East led to a massive
Tail 23 1⁄2 in
(60 cm) decline in black rhinoceros numbers
Weight 1 – 11⁄4 tons from 65,000 in 1970 to just 2,500 in
(0.9 – 1.3 tonnes) the mid-1990s. Since then, its
Location W., C., E. and Social unit Individual numbers have increased to 4,880 in
southern Africa
Status Critically endangered 2007, with 240 in captivity. Many of
The black rhinoceros, also known the wild animals are protected from
as the hook-lipped rhinoceros, has poachers by 24-hour armed guards.
a pointed, prehensile upper lip. This
Browsing on a variety of bushes curls around new twigs and shoots
and low trees, the black rhinoceros to draw them into the
occupies a variety of habitats but mainly mouth, where they
wooded savanna with mosaics of grass are bitten off by the
and trees. As in other rhinoceros molar teeth.
species, its sight is poor but hearing
and smell excellent. It feeds mainly by
twilight and at night; days are spent
dozing in shade or wallowing in mud.
front horn
The black rhinoceros is solitary, and up to 4 1⁄2 ft
marks its home range with piles of dung (1.4 m) long
and copious squirts of urine. It may
tolerate intruders (of its own species,
or human), but this unpredictable
rhinoceros may suddenly charge or jab
GRAY SKIN, BLACK APPEARANCE
with its horns. Two black rhinoceroses
The black rhinoceros’s skin is gray with hairs only
together are usually a mating pair, on the eyelashes, ear tips, and tail end. Its dark
associating for just a few days, or a appearance is the result of mud dried on the skin.
mother and calf. The female gives birth
MAMMALS
after 15 – 16 months’ gestation. The

newborn weighs 88 lb (40 kg), begins
to take solid food after a few weeks,
and is weaned at around 2 years.
Ceratotherium simum The largest and most numerous An almost exclusive grazer, the wide,
rhinoceros, the white rhinoceros rivals straight upper lip—giving the alternative URINE-MARKING
White rhinoceros the hippopotamus as the biggest land
animal after the elephant. Males weigh
name of square-lipped rhinoceros—
and hard lip pads crop grass extremely
Length 12 – 13 ft up to half a ton more than females, close. Populations of southern white
(3.7 – 4 m)
and have longer horns and a more rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum
Tail 28 in
(70 cm) pronounced nuchal crest. The front simum) are reasonably secure,
Weight Up to 2.5 tons horn may reach 41⁄4 ft (1.3 m) in length, numbering nearly 18,000, although
(2.3 tonnes) the rear one 16 in (40 cm). This is also still conservation-dependent. There
Location E. and southern Social unit Group the most social rhinoceros, generally may be fewer than 30 of the critically
Africa
Status Near threatened placid, with mother–calf pairs staying endangered northern white rhinoceroses
together for long periods and up to 7 (Ceratotherium simum cottoni).
juveniles forming small herds. Mature A male rhinoceros’s penis faces
males, however, tend to be solitary. HUMPED SHOULDER the rear, so urine sprays out
pronounced The prominent nuchal crest behind between the back legs. Male white
slate-gray to nuchal crest the ears is formed by the bones,
yellow-brown rhinoceroses mark home ranges in
coloration muscles, and ligaments to support this way. Each needs a territory of
the huge head.
about 1⁄2 square mile (1 square km)
to be selected for breeding.
CONSERVATION
A rhinoceros’s
horns can be
quickly and
painlessly removed
under anesthetic,
thereby removing
the reason for
poachers to kill them.
It was thought to have no effect on the
rhino, however, it has been suggested
skin folds elongated head that mothers cannot defend their
only on reaches to calves effectively without their horns.
flanks and ground for
elbows grazing Injecting horns with toxins was also
tried in some places without success.
TAPIRS 217
Tapirs
These mammals can truly be called “living
VetBooks.ir
PHYLUM Chordata have a short, broad tail and hard skin or blackish, except for white ear
fossils” because as a group they have (except on the soles of the feet, which rims in some. The mountain tapir
CLASS Mammalia
changed little over the past 35 million years. are soft and sensitive). The body has striking white lips, while South
They are medium-sized animals with a piglike hair is usually sparse, except in the American and Baird’s tapirs have
FAMILY Tapiridae mountain tapir, which has a thick coat. light patches on the cheeks, throat,
body on relatively high, slender legs, and a
SPECIES 5
Baird’s tapir and the South American and chin. Only the Malayan tapir
short, extensible trunk. Tapirs live in forest tapir have a short, bristly mane (which has extensive white body markings.
areas (never far from water) in Southeast provides protection if a jaguar bites). Newborn tapirs have white spots
Asia and South and Central America. Much of their time Most species are entirely brown, gray, and stripes in rows along the flanks
is spent in water with just their trunk exposed (like a and limbs, which provide
good camouflage.
snorkel), to escape predators and to keep cool.
Malayan, mountain, and Baird’s tapirs
are all endangered by habitat
destruction and hunting.
Anatomy
Tapirs have a streamlined shape, that
allows them to move more easily
through dense undergrowth. They
have a very deep face because their
nasal passages are greatly enlarged,
with nostrils positioned at the tip of the
snout. The sense of smell is acute and
is vital in finding food and smelling
danger and other tapirs. These
animals also have large, erect ears JUVENILE COAT
(providing good hearing) and small A red-brown coat with horizontal white
MAMMALS
eyes that are deep in the socket, stripes and spots is typical of young
protected from thorns and sharp tapirs. The adult coloration begins to
branches. Their 3 toes spread out on appear at about 6 months.
soft ground, which helps support their
weight and prevent sinking. Tapirs
Tapirus terrestris Tapirus pinchaque Tapirus bairdii from buds and leaves to fallen fruit.
The gestation period is about 390 – 410
Lowland tapir Mountain tapir Baird’s tapir days and the female produces one
young (very rarely 2), which weighs
Length 61⁄4 – 73⁄4 ft Length 6 – 61⁄2 ft Length 61⁄2 – 71⁄2 ft 11 – 18 lb (5 – 8 kg). Baird’s tapir
(1.9 – 2.4 m) (1.8 – 2 m) (2 – 2.3 m)
uses shrill whistles to
Tail Up to 4 in Tail Up to 4 in Tail Up to 4 in
(10 cm) (10 cm) (10 cm) communicate with
Weight 400 – 660 lb Weight 330 – 440 lb Weight 550 – 660 lb its young or warn
(180 – 300 kg) (150 – 200 kg) (250 – 300 kg) other adults
Location N. and C. South Social unit Individual Location N.W. South Social unit Individual Location S. Mexico to N. Social unit Individual away from
America America South America
Status Vulnerable Status Endangered Status Endangered its territory.
The largest American tapir, Baird’s

This bristly coated tapir has white- is dark brown, with pale gray-yellow
tipped ears and a short, narrow mane. cheeks and throat, and white-edged
It favors waterside habitats, swims ears. It eats a variety of plant parts,
well, and dives to escape predators
such as pumas and jaguars. Browsing
selectively by night, it feeds on a Tapirus indicus outline in shady forests. The Malayan
wide range of grasses, reeds, fruit, tapir feeds on soft twigs and young
and other vegetation. Malayan tapir leaves of bushes and saplings, and also
on fallen fruit. The male’s average range
The furriest of the 4 tapir Length 81⁄4 – 93⁄4 ft of 4 – 6 square miles (10 – 15 square km)
(2.5 – 3 m)
species, the mountain tapir overlaps the ranges of several females.
Tail Up to 4 in
has thick, dark brown to black (10 cm)
fur that keeps out the cold of its Weight 550 – 1,190 lb
high-altitude habitat. The lips and ears (250 – 540 kg)
are usually white-fringed. It eats a Location S.E. Asia Social unit Individual
variety of dwarf trees and shrubs, Status Endangered
mainly at dawn and dusk. Like other
tapirs, the mountain tapir hides in
pale thickets by day. Its droppings contain
brown
on cheeks, many intact seeds, thereby assisting A striking, 2-tone pattern distinguishes
throat, and plant dispersal and consequently forest the largest and only Old World tapir. It is
chest regeneration. They are solitary animals black with a white “saddle” over the back
except for mothers with young. and rump, which helps break up its body
218 HOOFED MAMMALS
Pigs
Despite a reputation for gluttony, wild pigs PECCARIES
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PHYLUM Chordata that is either long and bristly (as in

rarely overeat and are intelligent, adaptable the wild boar) or sparse (as in the Although the 3 species of peccary
CLASS Mammalia
animals. Members of the pig family— babirusas). Most species have a mane together form a separate family
ORDER Artiodactyla
which also includes hogs, boars, and down the back of the neck. The tail (Tayassuidae) from pigs, the
FAMILY Suidae is thin, twisted, mobile, and usually 2 groups are closely related and
babirusas—are omnivorous (rather than
SPECIES 17
sparsely tufted. form a suborder (Suina) within
purely herbivorous) and are characterized Artiodactyla. Peccaries differ from
by a barrel-shaped body, curiously slender Fighting pigs by having short canines that
legs, a short neck, and a large head. They are found in forests The long tusks of males are used point downward instead of upward,
and grasslands throughout Africa and Eurasia and have also for defense against predators and for only one lateral hoof (instead of 2) on
fighting other males for social status each back foot, an extremely short
been successfully introduced to Australia, New Zealand, and the
or mates. Pigs demonstrate 2 distinct tail, a gland on the upper surface of
Americas. Babirusas and the pygmy hog are both endangered fighting styles: lateral and head-to- the rump, and a more complex
because of habitat destruction. Almost all domestic pigs are head. Lateral conflict involves the stomach. Peccaries live in very
descended from the wild boar. combatants slashing at each other’s large, mixed-sex sounders. These
shoulders. This fighting style is units are quite fearless and will
practiced by pigs, such as the wild attack even big cats. Peccaries are
Anatomy underside of the upper canines. In boar, that have a long, narrow face, found mostly in forest areas from
One of the most interesting features of babirusas, however, the male’s upper no facial warts, and small tusks. Pigs southwestern USA through Central
a pig’s anatomy is its snout, which has tusks grow up through the skin of the with a broad head, thick skull, long America to northern Argentina. The
a cartilaginous disk at its tip, enclosing face and then curve backward. tusks, and facial warts (for protection Chacoan peccary is heavily hunted
the nostrils. The disk is supported by Female pigs have smaller canines against wounds)—such as warthogs and is in danger of extinction.
a small bone (the prenasal), not (female babirusas have no canines). and giant forest hogs—tend to fight
present in other mammals, and is Pigs also have cloven feet. Two head-to-head.
used like a bulldozer when foraging for large, flattened hooves bear the Boars join sounders during the
food. Most species also have upper animal’s weight, but on soft ground Family groups mating season. Pigs are the only
and lower canines that grow outwards the 2 shorter, lateral hooves may Pigs live in sounders (families of hoofed mammals to have litters
and upward to form tusks. The tips of touch the ground and help spread the a sow and her offspring), which rather than one or 2 young (only
the lower canines wear against the weight. Pigs have thick skin, with hair communicate by squeals and grunts. babirusas have twins).
MAMMALS
HEAD-TO-HEAD FIGHTING
When warthogs clash, head-to-head,
they are, in fact, only trying to push each
other off balance. Lateral fighting is far
more damaging.
Hylochoerus meinertzhageni The straw-colored piglets turn brown Porcula salvania canines poke slightly out of the sides of
then black as they mature, and the long, the mouth. Both sexes dig large troughs
Giant forest hog coarse hair becomes more sparse.
Unlike its relatives, this pig does not root;
Pygmy hog and line them with grassy layers to form
nests. Although legally protected, this
Length 4 ⁄4 – 7 ft
1
instead, it grazes and low-browses on Length 20 – 28 in species is still at risk from poaching and
(1.3 – 2.1 m) (50 – 71 cm)
grasses, sedges, and shrubby vegetation. continued removal of its grassy,
Tail 12 – 18 in Tail 11⁄4 in
(30 – 45 cm) (3 cm) riverside habitat.
(100 – 275 kg) (6.5 – 9.5 kg)
Location W., C., and Social unit Group Location S. Asia Social unit Group
E. Africa
Status Least concern Status Critically endangered
Largest of the pig family, this massive- This chunky, short-legged pig, the
headed hog has 2 large, wartlike skin smallest species in the pig family, has
growths (excrescences) below and a tapering snout and head to push
behind each eye, and canines that grow through dense undergrowth. Its overall
outward and then upward from the jaw. color is dark brown; the male’s upper
PIGS 219
Sus scrofa FADING STRIPES Potamochoerus porcus
Wild boar Wild boar piglets are typically pale

brown with paler stripes along the
Red river hog
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Length 3 – 6 ft back and sides of the body. This Length 31⁄2 – 43⁄4 ft
(0.9 – 1.8 m) (1 – 1.45 m)
provides camouflage in their nest
Tail 12 in Tail 12 – 171⁄2 in
(30 cm) of grass, moss, and leaves in a (30 – 45 cm)
Weight Up to 97 – 710 lb dense thicket. The mother rarely Weight 100 – 290 lb
(44 – 320 kg) leaves her litter (usually 5 – 9 piglets), (46 – 130 kg)
Location Europe, Asia, N. Social unit Individual/Group for the first 1 – 2 weeks. Gradually, Location W. to C. Africa Social unit Group
Africa
Status Least concern she and her young venture from the Status Least concern
nest to forage. From 2 – 6 months,
as the piglets become less vulnerable
and camouflage is no longer so
The wild boar, or Eurasian wild pig, important, their stripes fade. They By far the reddest pig, this species—
is one of the most widely distributed become independent at 7 months. also known as the red river hog—has
terrestrial mammals, and is also the long, pointed ears with prominent tufts,
main ancestor of domestic breeds. a narrow, white stripe along the back,
It occupies a wide variety of habitats, long, tufted and white facial stripes. It is omnivorous
tail
eats almost any food, runs fast, and and nocturnal, like other pigs. Highly
swims well. Males live alone except social, the male stays with his harem of
for the mating season, when they females and offspring, and helps to
join with females and fight rival defend them. Sometimes these family
males for harems. BRISTLY PIG parties of 6 – 20 congregate into
The wild boar has thick,
Females are very wandering bands of 50
coarse hair and a narrow
protective of their mane of longer hair along or more.
young and may its spine. Compared with
band together into some other wild pigs, it has
groups (sounders) small eyes and tusks. It
of 20 or more. has no facial warts.
MAMMALS
Babyrousa celebensis Phacochoerus africanus GRAZING Pecari tajacu
Sulawesi babirusa Common warthog Collared peccary

Length 23⁄4 – 31⁄2 ft Length 31⁄2 – 5 ft Length 23⁄4 – 31⁄2 in
(0.85 – 1.1 m) (1.05 – 1.5 m) (0.8 – 1.1 m)
Tail 8 – 121⁄2 in Tail 14 – 20 in Tail 3⁄8 – 4 in
(20 – 32 cm) (35 – 50 cm) (1 – 10 cm)
Weight Up to 220 lb Weight 110 – 330 lb Weight 33 – 93 lb
(100 kg) (50 – 150 kg) (15 – 42 kg)
Location Sulawesi Island Social unit Individual/Group Location Africa (south of Social unit Group Location S.W. USA to Social unit Group
the Sahara) S. South America
Status Vulnerable Status Least concern Status Least concern
The common warthog is a long-legged The warthog is the only pig adapted
pig, with a large head. When running, for grazing in grassland. Typically,
its tail is held straight and upright. They it kneels on its padded “wrists” to
are active by day, and generally found nip off the growing tips of grass,
in small groups, though adult males are using its lips or its incisor teeth.
solitary. They shelter and raise their In the dry season, it feeds on
young in grass-lined burrows, underground stems (rhizomes),
dug by themselves or rooting for them with its
by aardvarks. toughened snout.
Also called the javelina, this is the
smallest of the 3 peccary species. It is
MANED PIG
generally dark gray with a whitish, often
The warthog’s long,
dark mane extends indistinct, neck collar; the young are
The distinctive upper canines of the male from the nape of the reddish with a narrow black stripe along
Sulawesi babirusa grow through the neck to the middle of the back. Found in a variety of habitats,
muzzle and curve back towards the face. the back, where there is the collared peccary eats mainly plant
Up to 12 in (30 cm) long, they are also facial a gap; it then continues matter, such as berries, shoots, tubers,
“wart” on the rump.
loose- socketed and brittle. The almost and bulbs, but also grubs, worms, and
hairless hide varies in color from brown small vertebrates, such as snakes and
to gray. Males are primarily solitary, while lizards. Peccaries are notably gregarious
females and their young travel in groups and form groups of 6–30, of mixed
of about 8. The gestation period of age and sex, which cooperate to repel
155 – 158 days is fairly typical for the pig enemies. Members stand side by side
family; the litter size is only 1 – 2. and rub faces in mutual grooming.
220 HOOFED MAMMALS
Hippopotamuses
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PHYLUM Chordata Members of this family have a around the eyes and skin folds. feeding grounds. Each night, an
semiaquatic lifestyle and are thought to be It is almost hairless in most parts, individual will eat about 88 lb (40 kg)
CLASS Mammalia
and extremely thick and fatty. of grass. The food is digested in a
ORDER Artiodactyla
more closely related to whales than to other Hippopotamus skin is unusual in compartmentalized stomach (the
FAMILY Hippopotamidae
even-toed hoofed mammals. They cannot that there are no sebaceous glands. fore-stomach contains bacteria that
swim, but may remain submerged for over Instead, there are mucous glands ferments cellulose). Although this
SPECIES 2
(which are modified sweat glands) that system is slow, the hippopotamus
5 minutes. They move underwater by produce a viscous fluid to keep the requires less food than animals of a
pushing themselves off the bottom using skin moist when exposed to air. This similar size because much of its life is
their forelimbs. The hippopotamus is abundant, and lives along fluid, which is pink due to the presence spent supported in water. The pygmy
of a red pigment, may also protect hippopotamus eats roots, grasses,
rivers and lakes in Africa. The smaller, less aquatic pygmy
against infection and prevent sunburn. shoots, and fallen fruit, although little
hippopotamus is restricted to swampy forest areas in West While the hippopotamus weighs is known about its feeding habits.
Africa—it is endangered due to habitat destruction and hunting. about 13 ⁄8 tons (1.4 tonnes), the pygmy
hippopotamus, which has relatively Social groups
longer legs, a much smaller head, The pygmy hippopotamus is usually
Anatomy Adaptations for life in the water include darker skin, and eyes at the side found in small groups of up to 3.
Hippopotamuses have a long, webbed toes; eyes, ears, and nostrils of the head, averages only about Female common hippopotamuses
heavy body with short, surprisingly located at the top of the head (these 550 lb (250 kg). and their young, however, form
insubstantial-looking legs. The are often the only part of the animal groups of usually 10 – 20 (but
enormous head features jaws that protruding above water); and Feeding sometimes of up to 100) during the
allow a huge gape (up to 150 degrees) the ability to close the The hippopotamus day (night-foraging is a solitary affair).
and carry long, tusklike canine and nostrils underwater. moves inland at night to They communicate via staccato
incisor teeth. The nose is wide and The skin is gray with graze, generally following grunts and deep rumbles that carry
covered with sensitive bristles. The a pinkish tinge on the trails—marked by dung some distance in the water. Each
tail is short, tufted, and flattened. underside and piles—that lead to its group occupies a home range along
a section of riverbank or lakeshore,
within the territory of a dominant male.
This male marks his territory with
MAMMALS
heaps of dung that he scatters by

furiously wagging his tail. Other
males enter the territory, but
they are tolerated only if
they behave submissively
and do not attempt to
mate. Mating occurs
in the water, but the
calves are usually
born on land.
TERRITORIAL BATTLE
Territorial conflicts between male hippopotamuses are not
uncommon, particularly where population densities are
high. If, after a period of roaring and ritualized displaying,
neither male gives way, a fight will ensue. Using their
lower canines as weapons, a battle may last for hours
and can result in serious injury.
HIPPOPOTAMUSES 221
BUOYANCY
Hippopotamus amphibius The density of the SENSES UP TOP
Common Hippopotamus hippopotamus’s body
is slightly greater than
that of water, so it sinks
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Length 91⁄2 – 16 ft
(2.9 – 5.1 m) gently and can walk
Tail 16 – 22 in light footed along the
(40 – 56 cm) bottom. However, if it
Weight 1 – 43⁄4 tons keeps its lungs well
(1 – 4.5 tonnes) inflated when breathing
Location Africa Social unit Individual at the surface, the extra
Status Vulnerable air reduces this density
and it can stay afloat
with minimal effort.
The hippopotamus’s nostrils,
eyes, and ears are all on top of its
Despite its massive bulk, the common inner layer (dermis) is up to 11⁄2 in a large mammal. The mother is fiercely head, so it can be almost totally
hippopotamus walks underwater with (3.5 cm) thick and formed of a dense protective, and the calf has few natural submerged yet breathe easily and
grace, and trots with surprising rapidity mat of fibers that provides great predators apart from big cats and remain receptive to its surroundings.
on land on its short legs. A truly strength. The hippopotamus’s hyenas. Hippopotamuses have been The nostrils and ears are closed to
amphibious mammal, its skin has a thin main diet is grass, grazed at night, known to attack humans, if they water entry when diving.
outer layer (epidermis), which dries out although they have been observed feel threatened.
easily and is sensitive to the bites of eating small animals or scavenging. The
pests such as flies. Despite specialized dominant male mates with females in
mucus-producing skin glands, the hide his territory, and the usually single calf TEMPORARY HERDS
soon cracks unless moistened regularly is born, generally underwater, after a During the dry season, hippopotamuses
in water or mud. However, the skin’s gestation of 240 days—short for such must wander to find grazing. Instead
of each animal returning to its home
thin outer skin area by day, some use a nearby pool
layer (epidermis) as a short-term “stop-over” wallow,
thereby extending its grazing range.
This leads to large gatherings at certain
pools, but these lack long-term social
or territorial structures.
MAMMALS
MOTHER AND CALVES
lips pluck grass Calves remain with their mothers after
when grazing weaning (usually 10 – 12 months) until
about 5 months.
Choeropsis liberiensis They forage at night, following and humans. Captive pygmy
CONSERVATION
well-worn trails, and spend the day hippopotamuses have lived longer
Pygmy hidden in swamps or sometimes in
a riverbank den enlarged from the
than many hippopotamuses: 55
compared to about 45 years.
hippopotamus burrow of some other animal. After
a gestation period of 6 months, LAND-BASED FORAGER
Length 5 – 53⁄4 ft the single calf is born, in water or A pygmy hippopotamus’s squat, narrow-
(1.5 – 1.75 m)
in the den. The calf risks falling prey fronted form is suited to pushing head down
Tail 8 in
(20 cm)
to a crocodile or python, but adults through dense forest vegetation during night-
have few predators except for leopards foraging on land.
(160 – 270 kg)
Location W. Africa Social unit Individual mostly black
Status Endangered hide
Evidence suggests that the
pygmy hippopotamus has
always been rare. It survives
Only one-fifth the weight of its huge in dense forests and marshes
cousin (above), the pygmy hippopotamus in Liberia and neighboring West
has a relatively small, less angular head African countries. Despite legal
and narrower feet with fewer webbed protection, its population is
toes, as adaptations for spending more declining due to habitat loss and
time on land. It also feeds on a wider being hunted for bushmeat. The
variety of plant materials, including flesh of this animal is said to
shrubs, ferns, and fruit. Pygmy resemble pork, yet genetic studies
hippopotamuses are usually solitary; indicate that hippopotamuses are
although their home ranges overlap, more closely related to whales
there seems to be little fighting for than to pigs.
territory or other form of interaction.
222 HOOFED MAMMALS
Camels and relatives

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Camelids—camels and their relatives— reduced to only 1,000 – 2,000

PHYLUM Chordata
have long, slender legs and a distinctive
Social interaction individuals. It is taller and slimmer
CLASS Mammalia
In the wild, camelids form groups than its domestic counterpart and
ORDER Artiodactyla
gait known as pacing, whereby the front that consist of one dominant male has more compact, pointed humps.
FAMILY Camelidae
and back legs on the same side move and a harem of females. “Surplus” Domestic Bactrian camels are used
forward together in a rocking motion. Of males form bachelor bands. While for transport in cold regions from
SPECIES 7 the social systems of the South northern China to Turkey. The
the Old World camelids—the camels—only American camelids have not been dromedary is extinct in the wild,
one species (the Bactrian camel, from the studied in great detail, more is known although feral herds now live in
border area between western China and Mongolia) now about the way camels interact with central Australia. Domestic
each other. Both species go through dromedaries are found in hot
survives in the wild. A camel is able to drink up to a quarter of an elaborate and dramatic ritual when regions in North and northeastern
its weight at a time, and can store the water for several days. a dominant male is faced with a Africa, the Middle East, and northern
The New World members of this family, the guanaco and challenger. First, the harem leader India through to Kazakhstan. As with
grinds his teeth, rubs a gland on the other domestic animals, there are
vicuña, are found wild in South America; their domestic
back of his head against his hump different breeds, one of which is
descendants, the llama and alpaca, have been bred in the (or front hump in the case of the kept for its speed and is used in
Andes since the time of the Inca civilization. All domesticated Bactrian camel), smacks his tail loudly camel racing.
camelids are vital to human survival: they provide people with against his rump, and urinates on The llama is a domestic animal bred
his back legs, rump, and tail. The 2 from the wild guanaco and is the
hair, milk, and transportation. then pace side by side, display their traditional pack animal in the Andes.
tall, humped profiles, and extrude a The alpaca is also a domestic species,
red bladderlike sac (the dulaa) from bred for its fine wool. In the past, the
Anatomy undersides of the 2 digits on each foot, the corner of the mouth. alpaca was thought to be a
Camelids have a relatively small which are cushioned by a fatty pad. descendant of the guanaco, but
head, a long, thin neck, and a split This is an adaptation to walking on Wild and domestic current genetic evidence indicates
upper lip. Camels have either one sandy soil. Camelids are unique The only living Old World wild that it is in fact a descendant of the
hump (the dromedary) or 2 humps (the among mammals in that their blood camelid is the Bactrian camel, vicuña, the fine-fleeced, wild camelid
Bactrian camel): these store fat that cells can expand significantly (as much although its numbers are now of the high-altitude Andes.
MAMMALS
can be drawn on during lean times. as 240 percent) when the camel
All camelids have a thick coat that drinks, allowing it to rehydrate safely.
provides insulation against daytime The camel can drink a
heat and warmth during the cooler huge amount of water
nights or at altitude. Unlike other relative to other
hoofed mammals, camelids rest their mammals without
weight not on their hooves but on the the cells rupturing.
DESERT SPECIALISTS
Camels, such as these wild bactrians,
are well adapted to life in hot climates.
Their broad feet provide stability on
soft sand, and they have long eyelashes
and slitlike, closable nostrils that afford
protection during dust storms.
CAMELS AND RELATIVES 223
Lama guanicoe LLAMA Vicugna vicugna ALPACA

Guanaco Vicuña
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Length 3 – 7 ft Length 4 – 61⁄4 ft

(0.9 – 2.1 m) (1.2 – 1.9 m)
Tail 91⁄2 – 101⁄2 in Tail 6 – 10 in
(24 – 27 cm) (15 – 25 cm)
(96 – 130 kg) (38 – 45 kg)
Location W. to S. South Social unit Group Location W. South Social unit Group
America America
Alpacas, bred mainly for their

thick fiber, were once thought
The guanaco prefers cold habitats, Found in tundralike grasslands at to be domesticated from the
mainly grasslands, but also scrub Domestic llamas are descended 10,500 – 16,000 ft (3,200 – 4,800 m) guanaco, in the high Andes of
and forest, at heights up to 14,500 ft from wild guanacos domesticated above sea level, the vicuña is a strict central Peru, 5,500 – 6,500 years
(4,500 m). It browses and grazes on 4,000 – 5,500 years ago. They have and selective grazer, grasping perennial ago. New evidence now suggests
many grasses and shrubs, as well been raised by Andean peoples grasses with its prehensile, cleft upper a vicuña ancestry.
for their wool (fiber), meat, and lip and snipping off the tips against the
skins, and have also been used tough upper pad. It needs to drink daily.
as pack animals. Family groups of one male, 5 – 10 WHITE BIB
females, and their young occupy The vicuña is pale to dark
territories, delineated mainly by dung; cinnamon, with a variable
as lichens and fungi. Typical family bachelor males form roving bands. whitish chest “bib.”
groups consist of one male and 4 – 7
females with young. In the north of its
range, the offspring leave their group
at about one year of age, compared
to closer to 2 years in more southerly
populations. Young males form
bachelor bands; old males are
mostly solitary in their lifestyle.
MAMMALS
COLORATION
A typical guanaco is pale to dark brown, with
whitish chest, belly, and inner legs, and gray to
black head with white-edged eyes, lips, and ears.
Camelus ferus Critically endangered in the wild (a Camelus dromedarius Extinct in the wild, this one-humped
domesticated animal is shown), this domestic camel shows many
Wild bactrian camel 2-humped camel can withstand
temperatures from –20° F (–29° C) to
Dromedary adaptations to desert life, losing up
to 40 percent of its body weight when
Length 101⁄4 – 111⁄4 ft 100° F (38° C). After a drought, it can Length 71⁄4 – 11 ft food and water are scarce. Allowing its
(3.2 – 3.5 m) (2.2 – 3.4 m)
drink 24 gallons (110 liters) of water in temperature to rise in hot conditions, it
Tail 20 – 25 in Tail 20 in
(51 – 64 cm) 10 minutes. It eats grasses, leaves, and (50 cm) reduces sweating to conserve moisture.
Weight 990 – 1,100 lb shrubs. During the rut, males puff out Weight 880 – 1,320 lb It feeds on a huge variety of plants,
(450 – 500 kg) their cheeks, toss their heads back, (400 – 600 kg) including salty and thorny species,
Location E. Asia Social unit Group and grind their teeth. The winner gains Location N. and E. Africa, Social unit Group and also scavenges on bones and
W. and S. Asia
Status Critically endangered 6 – 30 females and offspring. One young Status Not evaluated dried-out carcasses. Dromedaries
(rarely twins) is born after 390 – 430 form small herds of several females
days’ gestation and is suckled for 18 and young, and one male, who defends
months. Females attain sexual maturity them by spitting, biting, and leaning
at 3 – 4 years; males at 5 – 6 years. on opponents.
shaggy, pale single hump
beige to dark for fat storage
brown winter erect humps relatively
coat indicate a small ears
well-fed animal
double row of eyelashes

and brows to keep out sand
long, almost
U-shaped
neck
broad foot pad

for stability in
sand and snow
224 HOOFED MAMMALS
Deer
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Chordata Although similar in appearance to breeding (also known as the “rut”), the
PHYLUM
antlers are shed. It is not certain why MUSK DEER
CLASS Mammalia
antelopes, deer are distinguished by their AND CHEVROTAINS
antlers are shed and regrown each
ORDER Artiodactyla
antlers, which are solid, usually branched, year, since annual regrowth is Musk deer (family Moschidae) and
FAMILY Cervidae
and are shed and regrown each year. metabolically costly—it could be a chevrotains (family Tragulidae)—also
Deer are mainly woodland and forest chance to renew antlers damaged known as mouse deer—have several
SPECIES 53 during the rut. Antlers are first grown features that separate them from
dwellers but can be found in a range of at 1 – 2 years of age and are initially other deer (family Cervidae). For
other habitats, from arctic tundra to simple spikes. As the years progress, example, both have long upper
grassland. They live in northwest Africa, Eurasia, and the the antlers generally become larger canine teeth instead of antlers. In
and more branched, but regress again males, these teeth project below the
Americas. Some species have also been introduced beyond
in old age. Antler size is an indication level of the lower jaw and are used
their natural range; for example, to New Zealand and to Britain of general body condition. Deers for fighting. The 7 species of musk
and mainland Europe. that do not have antlers usually have deer (found throughout Asia) are
tusklike canines, though the muntjac endangered due to demand for
has both. musk, which is secreted from the
Anatomy The most striking feature of deer, groin of males during the breeding
Most deer have an elongated body, however, is their antlers, which are Social groups season and is used as an ingredient
a long neck, large eyes situated at present only in males (except in Social organization depends largely in many perfumes. Chevrotains
the side of the head, high-set ears, reindeer, where both sexes have on diet. Smaller species are usually (10 species) live in the rain forests
and a small tail. The well-developed them). In spring each year, the antlers browsers and generally live singly of Africa and Asia.
third and fourth digits bear the begin to develop. They grow directly or in small groups. This is because
weight, while the second and fifth from the skull and are initially covered their food occurs in small pockets,
toes are smaller and usually do not by finely haired skin (called velvet). which produces competition. Larger groups are usually single-sex, except
touch the ground. Each year, the When they have developed, the velvet species tend to graze more open during the rut, when males fight for
coat is molted at least once. In dries and is rubbed off so that the habitats and therefore compete less possession of a harem, using their
many species, the young have spots antlers are ready to be used in fighting for food. These deer often live in herds antlers as weapons and sexual
on the coat, for camouflage. during the breeding season (fall). After for protection from predators. Such ornaments (to attract mates).
MAMMALS
SURVIVING HARD TIMES

Those deer that inhabit regions where food becomes
scarce during winter browse on a variety of plants
to survive. These red deer stags will usually feed for
longer periods than hinds, possibly because during the
fall rut, they must fight for and defend their harem and
can therefore spend less time building fat reserves.
DEER 225
Hyemoschus aquaticus Generally found within 820 ft Moschus chrysogaster

(250 m) of water, this chevrotain is ear edgings. Its musk
Water chevrotain dark olive-brown, with white markings
that include spots on the back, 1 – 3
Alpine musk deer secretions are
valued in the
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Length 233⁄4 – 401⁄4 in stripes along each flank, and chin, Length 28 – 39 in perfume
(60 – 102 cm) (70 – 100 cm)
throat, and chest bands. It has short industry. This
Tail 23⁄4 – 41⁄4 in Tail 3⁄4 – 21⁄4 in
(7.2 – 10.9 cm) legs and ears, a stout body, and swims (2 – 6 cm) has led to
Weight 15 – 35 lb well, which enables it to escape Weight 24 – 40 lb hunting and
(7 – 16 kg) land-based predators successfully (11 – 18 kg) a decline in
Location W. to C. Africa Social unit Individual/Group most of the time, but incurs the risk Location S. Asia Social unit Individual numbers
Status Least concern of crocodile attack. Water chevrotains Status Endangered in the wild.
forage for leaves and fallen fruit.
Males live singly, while females and
their young form small groups.
An inhabitant of rocky, forested
slopes at an altitude of 8,600 – 11,900 ft
Moschiola meminna back, and striped flanks and throat; (2,600 – 3,600 m), the musk deer has
however, these pale markings are well-developed side toes to climb
White-spotted less distinct than those of the water
chevrotain (above) and the main
rocks and even trees, and to move
through soft snow. Its coat is rich,
chevrotain coat color is brown with tiny yellow dark brown mottled with gray, paler
speckles. Males compete using their underneath, with a whitish chin and
Length 20 – 23 in sharp, tusklike upper canine teeth.
(50 – 58 cm)
The single young is born after a
Tail 11/4 in
(3 cm)
gestation of 5 months. Muntiacus putaoensis Initially thought to be the juvenile of
another species, specimens of this
Weight 6 /2 lb
Leaf muntjac
1
(3 kg) animal were later shown to belong

Location Sri Lanka Social unit Individual to an entirely new species of muntjac.
Length c. 30 in
Status Least concern (80 cm) The common name comes from local
Tail c. 3 in knowledge that the deer is so small it
(8 cm) can be wrapped inside a single leaf.
Weight 26 – 261⁄2 lb It is a primitive species that lives in
Like other chevrotains (mouse deer), (11.8 – 12.1 kg) the dense forests of northern Myanmar
Location S. Asia Social unit Individual
MAMMALS
this species has 4 fully developed and adjacent parts of India. The leaf
toes on each foot (true deer have 2). Status Data deficient muntjac differs from other muntjacs in
It skulks in cover, preferring rocky that both male and female have large
patches within tropical rain forest. canine tusks. The newborns have
Nocturnal and solitary, it has a spotted unspotted coats.
Dama dama LYING UP Axis axis Rusa unicolor
Common fallow deer Axis deer Sambar

Length 41⁄4 – 5 ft Length 4.5 – 5 ft Length 51⁄4 – 7 ft
(1.3 – 1.5 m) (1.4 – 1.5 m) (1.6– 2.1 m)
Tail 61⁄4 – 71⁄4 in Tail 10 – 12 in Tail 10 – 13 in
(16 – 19 cm) (25 – 30 cm) (25 – 33 cm)
(130 – 270 kg) (45 – 85 kg) (130 – 270 kg)
Location Europe Social unit Group Location S. Asia Social unit Group Location S. and S.E. Asia Social unit Individual
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Vulnerable
The fallow deer fawn, like most
young deer, “lies up” in thick
vegetation or among leaf litter,
Common fallow deer have long been as the mother feeds. The fawn’s
kept semidomesticated for their beauty instincts are to stay still and silent,
and meat, and have been introduced camouflaged from predators by its
to the Americas, Africa, and Australia. spotted coat. The mother returns
They are active at twilight, consuming at intervals to allow the fawn to
many plant foods, from grasses to suckle, and occasionally leads it
acorns. Herds may exceed 100. Bucks to a new lying-up site.
rut to establish a
small patch of
land, where broad
they mate. antlers
EARTHY HUES
Commonly brown Also called the chital, the axis deer lives
with white spots as in large herds of 100 or more, comprised
here, the fallow deer of mixed males, females, and young. The sambar is dark brown except for
can also be pale They graze in grassland and browse rusty hues on the chin, inner legs, and
brown, black, or white. in open woodland, often below troops tail underside (which has a black tip).
of langurs (see p.149), who knock fruit The male’s 3-point antlers grow to
to the ground and emit warning calls. 4 ft (1.2 m) long. Both sexes have a
Axis deer dash for thick cover at neck mane of thicker fur; this is more
40 mph (65 kph) when disturbed. The prominent in rutting males. Solitary,
male’s antler has one brow tine (prong), except for a female with a fawn, and
and a rear-directed main beam that perhaps a yearling, too, these nocturnal
forks into two points. deer eat a variety of vegetation.
226 HOOFED MAMMALS
Cervus elaphus Cervus nippon Elaphurus davidianus
Red deer Sika Père David’s deer

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Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft antlers with Length 3 3⁄4 – 6 1⁄4 ft Length 6 – 63⁄4 ft

(1.5 – 2 m) multiple points (1.1 – 1.9 m) (1.8 – 2.1 m)
Tail 43⁄4 in Tail 33⁄4 – 7 in Tail 14 in
(12 cm) (10 – 18 cm) (35 cm)
(65 – 190 kg) (20 – 140 kg) (140 – 220 kg)
Location Europe, Asia Social unit Group Location E. and S.E. Asia Social unit Group Location E. Asia Social unit Group
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Extinct in the wild
Highly adaptable in habitat and diet, The sika has been kept in parks and
the red deer has been introduced farmed for centuries, and has been
to most continents and is widely introduced into many regions.
farmed for meat, hides, and antler Appearance varies among the 10
velvet. There is great variation subspecies, some of which are
among the 6 subspecies. Females endan gered, but is generally rich red-
(hinds) form herds led by a dominant MORE BROWN THAN RED brown with white spots in summer, and
hind, with separate male bands Red deer are red-brown in summer, perhaps with almost black in winter, with perhaps
except during the fall rut. a dark line along the neck and back, and vague vague spotting on females. The white
flank spots, and then turn dull brown in winter. rump hairs can be flared. The
sika eats mainly grasses,
including bamboo, twigs, Distinct from other deer in its body
RUTTING and buds. form, this species has a long,
Red deer males (stags), like most horselike face, wide hooves, and
other male deer, battle during the a long tail. Also unusual are the male’s
rutting season. The contest is part (stag’s) “back-to-front” antlers. The coat
display and part physical tussle. is dark gray-fawn in winter, bright
Stags roar and bellow, thrash their red-brown in summer, with a
antlers against bushes and trees, dark central back stripe, and a whorled
MAMMALS
and walk parallel to each other, as hair pattern on the rump. Extinct in
they assess whether to fight. If so, they the wild, the species was saved by
lock antlers, push, twist, and shove. captive breeding in England from about
The winner gains a harem. 1900. Since the 1980s, it has been
reintroduced into the wild in China.
Odocoileus hemionus Odocoileus virginianus YEARLY ANTLER CYCLE Blastocerus dichotomus
Mule deer White-tailed deer Marsh deer

Length 41⁄4 – 53⁄4 ft Length 33⁄4 – 61⁄4 ft Length Up to 51⁄4 – 53⁄4 ft
(1.3 – 1.8 m) (1.1 – 1.9 m) (1.6 – 1.8 m)
Tail 53⁄4 – 9 in Tail 51⁄2 – 141⁄2 in Tail 5 – 53⁄4 in
(15 – 23 cm) (14 – 37 cm) (13 – 15 cm)
(35 – 110 kg) (25 – 130 kg) (70 – 130 kg)
Location W. North Social unit Group Location S. Canada to Social unit Group Location C. and E. South Social unit Individual/Group
America N. South America America
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Vulnerable
The mule deer is widely distributed This species is extremely similar in By February, the male white-tailed
in many habitats, and is recorded as appearance and habits to the mule deer deer will have cast its antlers.
eating hundreds of plant species. The (see left), and in zoos and parks the 2 In April – May, they start to grow
main color is gray-brown in winter, may interbreed. This rarely happens again, protected by fur-covered
and rusty brown in summer. Despite in the wild, however, even though skin (velvet), but in September all
its other name of black-tailed deer, their ranges overlap. The numerous the velvet will have been
the tail is black on the upper surface subspecies become smaller toward rubbed off against
only; the rest is white. The face and the south of the range, shoulder trees, leaving the clean
throat also have variable white areas, height ranging from 31⁄2 ft (1.1 m) bone, before the rut.
with black chin and forehead bands. in Canada to
Rutting is in September–November; 2 ft (60 cm) in
WHITE WARNING
1 – 2 young are usually born in June. Venezuela, Long legs and wide hooves allow the
When danger threatens, this
where it is deer raises its tail and flashes marsh deer to move easily in swamps
known as the bright white underside, as and floodplains. The largest South
the venado. a warning to others in its herd. American deer, it is reddish brown
in summer and darker in winter, with
black lower legs, a pale face, and black
around the lips and nose. It eats grasses,
reeds, water plants, and bushes, and
lives alone or in groups of 2 – 3. It is
threatened by habitat loss due to
irrigation and conversion to pasture or
crops, water pollution, and competition
from livestock.
PRONGHORN 227
Pudu puda Rangifer tarandus MIGRATION Capreolus capreolus
Southern pudu Reindeer European roe deer

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Length 34 in Length 51⁄2 – 63⁄4 ft Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft

(85 cm) (1.7 – 2.1 m) (1 – 1.3 m)
Tail 2 in Tail 51⁄2 – 61⁄4 in Tail 1⁄4 – 11⁄4 in
(5 cm) (14 – 16 cm) (1 – 3 cm)
Weight Up to 33 lb Weight 120 – 530 lb Weight 37 – 66 lb
(15 kg) (55 – 240 kg) (17 – 30 kg)
Location S.W. South Social unit Individual Location N. North Social unit Group Location Europe, W. Asia Social unit Variable
America America, Greenland,
Status Near threatened N. Europe to E. Asia Status Vulnerable Status Least concern
Some reindeer travel 9 – 40 miles
(15 – 65 km) daily within the same
region; others migrate up to 750
The southern pudu is one of 2 small, Known as caribou in North America, miles (1,200 km) twice yearly.
stocky species of pudu. It is buff to the reindeer has long antlers with a In some populations, females and
red-brown with rounded ears. The distinctive shovel-like brow tine on one young move to the calving grounds
male’s antlers are simple spikes, 31⁄4 in side. It grazes grasses, sedges, and in spring, males following later.
(8 cm) long. Solitary and diurnal, it herbs in summer, and mosses, lichens,
dwells in moist forests, hiding in and fungi in the long winter. One calf
understory thickets, where it feeds is born in May – June after a gestation
on bark, buds, fruit, and flowers— of 210 – 240 days.
but seldom eats grass. It is sexually
mature at 6 months. COLOR VARIATION
American forms have
mainly brown coats with
darker legs; European
This deer has a black muzzle band
and Asian reindeer
(shown) are grayer. and variable white chin and throat
patches. The white rump patch, which
can be fluffed out when the deer is
alarmed, is heart-shaped in the female,
kidney-shaped in the male (shown).
The male has rough-surfaced, 3-point
MAMMALS
antlers. The sleek, bright red-brown
summer coat molts to a longer,
denser gray coat in winter.
Alces alces The moose is the largest deer, Males rut in September–October.
with males up to twice as heavy as The 1 – 2 young are born after MOOSE HEAD
Moose females. Found in woods close to
swamps, lakes, and other water, it
234 days’ gestation, and
weaned by 4 – 5 months.
Length 73⁄4 – 93⁄4 ft may submerge in summer to reach
(2.4 – 3 m)
roots of lilies and other aquatic plants. COLORATION
Tail 43⁄4 – 61⁄4 in
(12 – 16 cm) The winter diet is mainly twigs of trees The moose is brownish gray in summer, grayer in
Weight 615 – 1,320 lb such as willow and poplar. Moose winter. Its paler-hued, long legs have wide hooves
(280 – 600 kg) live alone or in small family groups. for wading in mud and walking on soft snow.
Location Alaska, Canada, Social unit Variable
N. Europe to N. and E. Asia
The moose’s very broad muzzle

furred throat
flap (dewlap) and flexible lips help to grasp water
plants and to strip leaves from twigs.
The male’s massive antlers may
span 61⁄2 ft (2 m); each has up to
20 points, mostly growing from
the palm-shaped “beam.”
Pronghorn Antilocapra americana
Pronghorn
PHYLUM Chordata
Named after the “prong” on its horns, the Length 41⁄4 – 43⁄4 ft
pronghorn is the only species in its family. (1.3 – 1.4 m)
CLASS Mammalia Tail 33⁄4 – 4 in
The horns are unusual in that they consist (9.7 – 10.5 cm)
ORDER Artiodactyla
of a horny sheath on a bony core (as in Weight 65 – 175 lb
Antilocapridae
FAMILY
antelopes), but are forked and shed yearly (30 – 80 kg)
Location W. and C. North Social unit Variable
SPECIES 1 (as are deer’s antlers). America
SWIFT RUNNERS are longer than the ears, with a forward-

The pronghorn is one of the facing prong halfway up. The female’s
fastest mammals—it can The pronghorn is red-brown to tan, horns are shorter than the ears. Herds
reach speeds of over 40 mph with white underside, face, rump, of over 1,000 form in winter, splitting
(65 kph). In winter, herds of over and neck bands. The male has a into smaller groups in summer. Many
1,000 animals may gather. black neck patch, and horns that plants feature in the pronghorn’s diet.
228 HOOFED MAMMALS
Giraffe and okapi

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PHYLUM Chordata The giraffe and the okapi are the last legs (the legs are white below the approximately 62 square miles
knees). Giraffes have spotted coats, (160 square km). When these overlap
CLASS Mammalia
surviving representatives of a once highly
the pattern of which varies according (which is often), loose associations of
ORDER Artiodactyla
diverse family. They have long legs, a long, to location. Both species have a long, up to 25 individuals form. The
FAMILY Giraffidae
narrow head with small horns, and peculiar, copiously tufted tail. composition of these herds changes
lobed lower canines. The giraffe, with its daily. Males are nonterritorial, but a
SPECIES 5 Feeding dominance hierarchy is determined
distinctive long neck, is the tallest living Giraffids are browsers with unique in a ritualized fight called “necking”—2
animal—males can reach 18 ft (5.5 m). The 2- or 3-lobed canine teeth, which can adult males stand side by side,
5 species, together known as giraffids, differ in their behavior be used like a comb to strip leaves alternately swinging their heads and
from small branches. They also use hitting each other on the neck. Male
and ecology because the giraffe lives in woodland savanna (in their thin, mobile lips and long black giraffes have extra bone all over the
Africa, south of the Sahara), while the okapi inhabits rain forest tongue—which can be extended skull, which provides reinforcement.
(in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo). more than 18 in (45 cm) in giraffes—to Only males of high social standing
gather leaves and shoots. They have have the right to mate.
a 4-chambered, ruminating stomach Okapis, on the other hand,
Anatomy In the giraffe, both sexes have (see p.211). Male giraffes tend to be are mainly solitary animals and are
With front legs longer than the back ossicones (horns), while only the taller than females and are therefore never found in herds. They have
legs, the front parts of the giraffe and male okapi has horns. The horns are able to feed at higher levels. much smaller home ranges, and
the okapi are raised (to facilitate different from those found in other only the dominant males maintain a
easier browsing). The giraffe has mammals in that they form as Social groups territory (females move freely from
especially long front legs and these cartilage, turn to bone from the tips The giraffe and the okapi have one territory to the next). Male
are surprisingly sturdy. They are down, and are covered with skin. contrasting social systems. Giraffes okapis mate with females that
sometimes used in defense: one Giraffids have a thick hide to help have home ranges of, on average, wander through their territory.
kick can kill a lion. All species have ward off predators. The okapi has a
a long neck, but what is unexpected velvety, dark brown coat with white
about the giraffe’s hugely lengthened stripes on the haunches and upper
neck is that it contains only 7
vertebrae, as do almost all other
MAMMALS
mammals. Each vertebra is greatly

elongated, however.
SWIFT RUNNERS
When danger threatens, a giraffe will take flight,
leading others nearby to follow suit. These Angolan
giraffes (G. c. angolensis) can reach speeds of over
31 mph (50 kph). Giraffes move directly from a walk
to a gallop because their long legs and short body
make trotting impossible without tripping.
GIRAFFE AND OKAPI 229
hornlike
Okapia johnstoni structures “FOREST ZEBRA”
(ossicones)
Okapi in male The okapi was not identified as a
distinct species until 1900 – 1901.
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Length 61⁄2 – 71⁄4 ft Before that time it had been sighted

(2 – 2.2 m)
occasionally, but mainly from the
Tail 12 – 161⁄2 in
(30 – 42 cm) rear. Being shy and secretive, it had
Weight 440 – 770 lb dashed away from humans into the
(200 – 350 kg) dense forest. The impression of a
Location C. Africa Social unit Individual/Pair white or cream, forest-dwelling zebra was reinforced
Status Endangered midfacial by the few specimens of old skin.
markings
An elusive browser of thick tropical rump and upper parts LONG TONGUE
rain forest, the okapi feeds by day on of the legs. The female
leaves, soft twigs, shoots, fruit and bears a single calf in
other plant parts. It relies mainly on August–October, after a
hearing in the dense forest and makes gestation of 425 – 491 days.
a “chuff” sound on meeting another She defends her offspring
okapi. Rival males “neck fight” like against predators, but the
giraffes in the presence of a receptive bond between mother and
female, and emit soft moaning sounds young is not as strong as
during courtship; the female indicates in many hoofed mammals. SLEEK COAT
her readiness with similar calls and The okapi’s coat is
short and sleek. The
territorial scent marking. She is slightly The okapi curls its long, black,
darker parts appear
taller than the male and 55 – 110 lb deep red, purple, prehensile tongue around leaves,
(25 – 50 kg) heavier. Both sexes look maroon, brown, or buds, and small branches, to draw
similar: long head and neck, dark black, according to them into the mouth. The tongue is
muzzle and body (which slopes down the angle of the light. also used for self grooming and, in
from the shoulders), large, rear-set the female, for cleaning her calf.
ears, and zebralike stripes on the
MAMMALS
Giraffa camelopardalis away to rake whisking away flies. The 2 – 4 specialized a slow-motion ritual than a forceful
off leaves horns, called ossicones, are more encounter. It occurs mainly among
Northern giraffe between the
lobe-edged
developed in males than females.
Feeding, drinking, and other activities
young bulls, and when a new male
arrives in the area. The winner reinforces
Length 93⁄4 – 15 ft teeth. Among this occur in the morning and evening, success by sexually mounting his
(3.8 – 4.7 m)
species many occupying about 12 hours, with rest defeated rival. Cows, after a gestation
Tail 31 – 39 in
(78 – 100 cm) distinctive features (standing up, as in most hoofed period of 457 days, give birth to one calf
Weight 0.66 – 2 tons are large eyes and mammals) taking place at night, and (in rare cases 2), usually in the dry
(0.6 – 1.9 tonnes) ears; a back that cud-chewing in the hot midday. Cows season. The new born weighs up to
Location Africa Social unit Variable slopes steeply from mate with local dominant bulls, who 155 lb (70 kg) and stands 61 ⁄2 ft (2 m) tall.
Status Vulnerable shoulder to rump; have competed with each other by For 10 – 30 days, the mother keeps it
stiltlike legs with large, swaying and intercurling necks, away from the herd; weaning takes
heavy feet; and a thin tail and even clashing heads. This place by 13 months. The giraffe’s main
with a long black tuft for activity, “necking,” is more predators are lions, leopards, and hyenas.
A native of dry savannas and open
woodland, the northern giraffe browses TALLEST ANIMAL
higher than any other mammal, mainly A mature female, such as
for leaves of acacia and wild apricot, but this northern giraffe, measures
also shoots, fruit, and other vegetation. 14 3⁄4 ft (4.5 m) to her horn tips; DRINKING PROBLEM
The combination of greatly elongated the male may be 3 ft (1 m) taller. The giraffe’s great height means
tongue, skull, neck, shoulder region This difference helps the sexes that, to drink water, it must
to avoid feeding competition as
(pectoral girdle), and front legs provides splay its front legs, and even
they utilize different levels.
the northern giraffe’s great reach when Despite having the longest neck bend at the knees. When
browsing. Usually a small branch is of any animal, they have only 7 upright, its heart has to
drawn into the mouth with the long, neck vertebrae, as in most other pump blood upward at
flexible tongue; then the head is pulled animals. enormous pressure to reach
the brain, but when the head lowers
to drink, a series of one-way valves
PATCHY DISTRIBUTION patches fade
regulate the blood’s force and flow
to white
Giraffes have long been divided into toward feet to prevent damage to the brain.
various subspecies based on coat
pattern. However, recent genetic
analysis has led to the recognition
of 4 different species: the northern
giraffe (shown on the main image),
which includes the Nubian, Rothschild’s,
Kordofan, and West African subspecies;
the reticulated giraffe (shown right
and in the box); the southern giraffe,
which comprises the Angolan and
South African subspecies; and the
Masai giraffe, which also includes
the Thornicroft’s subspecies.
230 HOOFED MAMMALS
Cattle and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata The species that make up this family— foot (a pair of small lateral toes is weaker males form bachelor herds).
the bovids—form a highly diverse group. also usually present). The tail varies Male gazelles are territorial: they
CLASS Mammalia
from small and triangular to long and mate with females that move in
ORDER Artiodactyla
Members include cattle (wild and tufted, and the coat may be smooth groups through their territories.
FAMILY Bovidae
domesticated) and their immediate allies and sleek or long and shaggy. Since Wild cattle and buffalo, on the other
(such as bison); sheep and goats and bovids are often hunted by large hand, live in less structured groups,
SPECIES 279 predators, they have large, sideways- although most of the mating is
their relatives (such as the chamois); and facing eyes (for good all-around performed by the dominant males.
antelopes (such as the impala), which is a vision); long, mobile ears; and an
catch-all term for bovids with long, slender limbs. The highest acute sense of smell. Most species Bovids and people
have scent glands located on the face, Domestic sheep, goats, and cattle
diversity of bovids occurs in Africa, where each species
between the hoofs, and/or in the are farmed on large and small scales
occupies a slightly different niche. They are also found in groin. The glands between the hooves in most countries around the globe
Eurasia and North America, and a number of species have release a scent onto the ground that and are therefore of huge economic
been introduced to Australasia. Bovids mostly prefer an isolated animal can follow back to importance to people. Sheep and
the herd. goats were probably domesticated
grassland, desert, scrub, and forest habitats. Bovids also have a 4-chambered 8,000 – 9,000 years ago, in southwest
ruminating stomach (see p.211). Asia, and their wild ancestors still live
Food (usually grass or leaves) is in the same region. Cattle, however,
Anatomy and in most species they are present taken in by the tongue and shredded were domesticated about 2,000
Although bovids exhibit a wide range in both sexes. Horns may be straight, by molars, and then swallowed. It is years after sheep and goats (also in
of body forms, from sleek, graceful curved, or spiraled; keeled, ridged, regurgitated later and chewed further. southwest Asia), but the ancestor of
gazelles to the massive, stocky or smooth; short or long. All have most domestic cattle, the aurochs,
buffalo, all species have unbranched pointed tips. Social systems is now extinct.
horns consisting of a keratin sheath Bovids have divided (“cloven”) There is a huge variety of social Although some wild species
surrounding a bony core. Unlike the hooves: the weight of the animal and breeding systems among bovids. are abundant—the wildebeest,
antlers in deer, horns are never shed, rests on the 2 central toes of each Duikers, for example, are solitary, for example, numbers in the
and dik-diks live in pairs. The impala, millions—some, including several
however, lives in groups of a male species of gazelle, are close to
MAMMALS
with several females (younger and extinction due to hunting.
ESCAPING DANGER
Like most hoofed mammals, the common eland has
keen senses, and flees when frightened or chased by
predators. Despite their size and massive build, they
can gallop at speeds of up to 43 mph (70 kph) and
are capable of jumping 5 ft (1.5 m) in the air to
clear obstacles in their path.
CATTLE AND RELATIVES 231
Tragelaphus gratus posture and “horn” the ground. Tragelaphus euryceros Tragelaphus angasii
The sitatunga eats many kinds of
Western Sitatunga aquatic and terrestrial plants, including
reeds, grasses, and shrubby foliage.
Bongo Nyala
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Length 4–51⁄2 ft While feeding, it may stand in water Length 71⁄4 – 73⁄4 ft Length 41⁄4 – 61⁄4 ft
(1.2 – 1.7 m) (2.2 – 2.3 m) (1.3 – 1.9 m)
up to its shoulders. Only the male
Tail 91⁄4 – 17 in Tail 18 – 26 in Tail 131⁄4 – 16 in
(24 – 43 cm) has ridged, spiraling horns. It also (45 – 65 cm) (34 – 40 cm)
Weight 110 – 280 lb has a grayish tinge to its coat, Weight 460 – 890 lb Weight 120 – 280 lb
(50 – 125 kg) while the female’s is brown to (210 – 405 kg) (55 – 125 kg)
Location W. and C. Africa Social unit Variable chestnut; both sexes have white Location W. and C. Africa Social unit Individual/Group Location Southern Africa Social unit Group
Status Least concern around the eyes, and on the cheeks Status Near threatened Status Least concern
and body. Males are solitary, while
females are more social and may
live in groups of up to 3. The single
dark, bushy
Amphibious in habit, the western calf (rarely twins) is born after 247 days’ The largest and most distinctive forest tail
sitatunga occurs in permanent gestation. There is no specific antelope, the bongo has vertical white
swamps, marshes, and similar watery breeding season. stripes along the body, and a white
habitats. Its long, pointed, widely chest crescent, cheek spots, nose
splayed hooves and extremely flexible chevron, and leg bands. The coat is
foot joints are specialized for soft, chestnut above, darker below, and it
muddy ground. When in danger darkens in older males. This selective
from a land-based predator, browser has lyre-shaped horns, longer
this antelope retreats to (up to 37 in/95 cm) in the male, who is
water, and may submerge solitary. Females form herds of up to
with only its eyes and 50, perhaps coalescing as their calves
nose exposed. At night, associate into nursery bands.
males bark warnings or vertical body stripes
avoidance calls to other The male nyala is larger and heavier
males; if they meet, they than the female, with a charcoal-gray
head and body, indistinct body stripes,
tan lower legs, and horns up to 28 in
(70 cm) long. Females have no horns
and, like juveniles, are red-brown,
MAMMALS
with a white “V” between the eyes,
and vertical white body stripes. Nyalas
prefer dense bush near water, and both
graze and browse, rearing up to reach
higher leaves.
Tragelaphus meneliki Strepsiceros zambiensis Taurotragus oryx proportions resemble cattle more than
antelopes. Also in the manner of cattle,
Bushbuck Zambesi kudu Common eland females band together to defend
young and repel predators such
Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄2 ft Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄4 ft Length 7 – 11 ft as lions. The common eland browses
(1.1 – 1.4 m) (2 – 2.5 m) (2.1 – 3.5 m)
in bush, plains and open woodland.
Tail 71⁄4 – 91⁄4 in Tail 16 – 291⁄2 in Tail 231⁄2 – 35 in
(19 – 24 cm) (41 – 75 cm) (60 – 90 cm) It gathers food with its lips, and digs
Weight 50 – 185 lb Weight 260 – 690 lb Weight 660 – 2,210 lb up bulbs and tubers with its hooves.
(24 – 85 kg) (120 – 315 kg) (300 – 1,000 kg) Like the camel, it allows its body
Location Ethiopia Social unit Individual Location S.W., S.C., and Social unit Group Location C. E, and Social unit Variable temperature to rise by up to 13° F (7° C)
S.E. Africa southern Africa
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Least concern to avoid losing water as sweat, and
thereby survives drought. Herds usually
consist mainly of females with calves
and juveniles; older males may be
The male zambesi kudu is one of the The two species of eland are the solitary. These antelopes are relatively
tallest and longest-horned (average biggest, most cowlike antelopes. docile and are kept for meat, milk, and
51⁄2 ft/1.7 m) antelopes, and has a long Male common elands can weigh up hides in Africa. They are also exported
throat fringe. Coloration in both sexes to 2,210 lb (1,000 kg), and have spiraling to regions such as Asia.
is gray-tinged red or brown, with 6 – 10 horns up to 4 ft (1.2 m) long, and a
white body stripes, and white nose brown-black “topknot” of matted hair on WHITE STRIPES
and cheek marks. This kudu eats the head. Females weigh up to 1,320 lb Common eland are mainly grayish fawn, with
leaves, flowers, fruit, herbs, and (600 kg), with horns half the length a black stripe along the center of the back,
tubers. Females form groups of up of those of the male. Overall body and up to 15 whitish cream vertical body stripes.
to 6, as do males, except when they shoulder
compete during the breeding season. short mane hump
crest along
neck and
The bushbuck resembles a small sitatunga back in male
(see above), with less twisted horns.
Females from bush-dwelling populations
are pale tawny; those in forests are redder.
Males are dark brown to black with white
markings on the legs, neck, and head;
females are pale red in color with white
markings that may include spots on the
flanks. This antelope is a browser and
solitary, except when courting or when
a mother is with her young.
232 HOOFED MAMMALS
Boselaphus tragocamelus the female’s is tawny. The nilgai Tetracerus quadricornus antelope are little known. It grazes
prefers open woods to thick forest, on grasses, sedges, and other plants,
Nilgai is very wary, with sharp senses,
and flees rapidly from predators
Chousingha usually near water in wooded hills,
and communicates by a low whistle
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Length 6 – 7 ft such as tigers. It grazes and browses Length 32 – 39 in for identification or barks for alarm.
(1.8 – 2.1 m) (80 – 100 cm)
on a wide variety of grasses, leaves, The brownish coat has a dark stripe
Tail 18 – 21 in Tail 43⁄4 in
(45 – 53 cm) and fruit, from early to midmorning (12 cm) on the front of each leg, and a black
Weight Up to 660 lb and in the early evening. Males compete Weight 37 – 46 lb muzzle and outer ear surfaces.
(300 kg) for territories—and thus access to (17 – 21 kg)
Location S. Asia Social unit Group groups of 2 – 10 females—by kneeling Location S. Asia Social unit Individual
Status Least concern in front of each other and lunging with Status Vulnerable
their horns. Breeding occurs during
much of the year but most calves,
either one or 2, are born in June–
Also called bluebuck or blue bull, the October, after a gestation of Also called the four-horned antelope,
nilgai is a small-headed bovid with longer 243 – 247 days. the male chousingha has 2 pairs of
front than rear legs, and, in the male, horns—a feature unique among bovids.
stout, tapering horns 8 in (20 cm) long. The front pair, at only 11⁄4 – 11⁄2 in (3 – 4 cm)
The male’s coat is gray or bluish gray; long, are half the length of the rear pair.
The habits of this shy, fast-moving
coarse, iron-grey,
or “blue”, coat
in male Bubalus depressicornis forelegs, face, and throat. Usually solitary
and nocturnal, they feed mainly on plants,
Anoa supplemented by fruits from trees, such
as the fig. Females produce a single calf
Length 33⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft after a 9 – 10 month gestation period.
(1.2 – 1.3 m)
There are 4 genetically distinct populations,
Tail 7 – 12 in
(18 – 31 cm) but whether they are sufficiently different
throat tuft Weight Up to 660 lb to be considered species in their own
in male (300 kg) right is still under review.
Location Sulawesi Social unit Individual
Status Endangered
MAMMALS
darker
white ring
lower limbs
just above
fetlocks
Smallest of the wild cattle species, the
anoa has a large body, short legs, and a
small head. Both males and females have
horns. Usually brown or black in color,
they may have white markings on the
Bubalus arnee of age and form bachelor groups of The remaining wild populations
about 10. Young males spar to assert are scattered and scant, restricted WALLOWING
Asian wild buffalo dominance but avoid serious fighting,
and then mix with females
mainly to India, Nepal, and
perhaps Thailand.
Length 73⁄4 – 93⁄4 ft at mating time. The Asian
(2.4 – 3 m)
wild buffalo has been
Tail 231⁄2 – 39 in
(60 – 100 cm) domesticated for thousands
Weight Up to 1.3 tons of years and spread around
(1.2 tonnes) the world into various, “wrinkled”
Location S. Asia
horn surface
Social unit Group mostly smaller breeds of
Status Endangered less than 1,100 lb (500 kg).
At more than 1 ton in weight, the

Asian wild buffalo—or arni as it is
also known—is a massive, powerful slate- During the midday heat, Asian
animal, with the widest horn span of any black wild buffaloes wallow in water
body
bovid—more than 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Its large, or muddy pools, sometimes almost
splayed feet and flexible fetlock joints are completely submerged, with only
suited to the muddy, marshy ground on their nostrils showing. In addition
which this water buffalo grazes. They to keeping them cool, wallowing
mainly eat lush grasses and sedges but helps to remove skin parasites,
will supplement this if necessary with biting flies, and other pests that
fruits, forbs, and bark. Depending on the infest tropical swamps.
temperature, they may be active during
the day or the night, feeding for periods
and then resting to ruminate their meal.
A stable clan of females with young
is led by a dominant matriarch and a
BIG-HORNED BOVID
mature bull. Females give birth only The large horns, which project from the
every other year because the gestation sides of the head, extend sideways before
period is 300 to 400 days, which is the curving upward and inward. The largest
longest of any bovid species. Males horns are seen in water buffalo from India
leave their natal herd at about 3 years and Nepal.
Syncerus caffer the weight of the female and has more

robust horns that meet in a “boss” on HERD BEHAVIOR
Cape buffalo the forehead, a thicker neck, a shoulder
hump, and a small hanging fringe of
Cape buffaloes are very gregarious
and gather at times of plentiful food
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Length 73⁄4 – 11 ft hairs on the throat (dewlap). This buffalo in herds of 2,000 or more. In the dry
(2.4 – 3.4 m)
feeds at night and at cool periods of season, they split into smaller
Tail 191⁄2 – 43 in
(50 – 110 cm) the day, on various grasses, leaves, groups of females and young
Weight 770 – 1,985 lb and other herbage. Males posture (including males up to 3 years), or
(350 – 900 kg) for females and dominance, and may bachelor bands of mature males;
Location E., C., and Social unit Group fight by pressing or ramming heads. older males are more solitary. In any
S. Africa
Status Least concern Herd members mutually groom and herd, large males dominate smaller
use mainly sound signals for ones and also any females.
coordinated actions, such as moving
on, flight, or warning. They may also
Africa’s only cowlike mammal frequents cooperate to mob a predator such DARK COLORATION
varied habitats at altitudes of up to as a lion. The single calf (rarely twins) MIXED BENEFIT
The Cape buffalo has a sparse, dark brown coat,
13,200 ft (4,000 m). However, the Cape is born after 340 days’ gestation, big, drooping, hair-fringed ears, a naked muzzle, a
buffalo needs a daily drink and is never and is fiercely protected by the long tail, and large feet with rounded hooves.
farther than about 9 miles (15 km) from mother and often by other members
water. The male may approach twice of the herd. tapering horn curves
in C shape
Buffaloes may be infested with

lice, ticks, fleas, and similar skin
parasites, which birds such as
oxpeckers nip off to eat. The
bird is fed, and the buffalo cleaned.
MAMMALS
However, the birds are also known
to keep wounds open to feed on
the blood, indicating a somewhat
parasitic relationship.
Bos javanicus then upward; the female’s are smaller Bos mutus windy, desolate, bitterly cold steppes
and crescent-shaped. Banteng live in at an altitude of up to 19,800 ft
Banteng female–young herds of 2 – 40 with
one adult male, or in bachelor herds.
Yak (6,000 m), mainly from Kashmir (India)
east to Tibet and Qinghai (China). Its
Length 6 – 71⁄2 ft During the monsoon, Length Up to 10 – 121⁄4 ft dense undercoat of soft, close-matted
(1.8 – 2.3 m) (3 – 3.8 m)
they move hair is covered by generally dark brown
Tail 26 – 28 in Tail Up to 391 ⁄ 2 in
(65 – 70 cm) to the hills, (100 cm) to black outer hair. The yak grazes
Weight 1,320 – 1,760 lb returning to Weight Up to 660 – 2,200 lb grasses, herbs, mosses, and lichens,
(600 – 800 kg) the lowlands (300 – 1,000 kg) and crunches ice or snow as a source
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Group for the dry Location C. Asia Social unit Individual/ of water. Females and young form
Status Endangered season. Group herds, joined by males in the breeding
The wild Status Vulnerable season; otherwise, males form
populations of bachelor groups or live alone. A single
this bovid are calf is born every other year, after a
Ancestor of the domestic banteng and scarce, and gestation period of 258 – 270 days.
resembling domestic cattle in overall their habitat is Domesticated yak are important to
form, the male (bull) banteng is black- fast diminishing. many peoples in South and Southeast high, humped
brown to dark chestnut; the female Asia for milk, meat, wool, and shoulders
(cow) and young are red-brown. All transportation. The wild yak is larger
have white undersides, legs, and rump and quite rare, and is restricted to
patches. The male’s horns are up to
30 in (75 cm) long, angled outward, and
Bos sauveli The kouprey (also called Cambodian

forest ox) is similar to domestic cattle
Kouprey in general proportions. The male may
be black or dark brown with a pendulous
Length 7 – 71⁄4 ft dewlap (skin below lower jaw), and
(2.1 – 2.2 m) extremely
L-shaped horns that split at the tips after long outer
Tail 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 ft
(1 – 1.1 m) 3 years’ growth. Females may be grayer. hairs
Weight 1,544 – 1,985 lb Both sexes have off-white legs and pale
(700 – 900 kg) underparts. They probably form small,
Location S.E. Asia Social unit Variable loose herds. One of the world’s most
Status Critically endangered rare species, the kouprey was identified
only in 1937 and is at risk from habitat
loss, political instability, poaching, and
many other dangers.
234 HOOFED MAMMALS
GRAZING MIGRANT
Bison bison CONSERVATION In the days of the free-roaming herds, bison
American bison Despite once numbering around 50
million, the American bison is now
would make annual migrations of hundreds of
miles along traditional routes. However, of a
current total population of 500,000 bison, only a
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Length 7 – 11 ft virtually extinct in the wild, largely very small fraction of these animals roam free in
(2.1 – 3.5 m)
due to widespread commercial herds, and then only within the 37-mile (60-km)
Tail 1 – 2 ft
(30 – 60 cm) hunting since the arrival of European boundaries of the national parks.
Weight 770 – 2,200 lb settlers. Although subsequent
(350 – 1,000 kg) conservation efforts have led to
Location W. and N. North Population 500,000 a significant increase in numbers,
America
Status Near threatened most American bison are either
captive or have come from captive
stock. Yellow Stone National Park
(USA) and Wood Buffalo National
Also known as the American buffalo, Park (Canada) are among the few
the American bison is massively built, places in which wild herds survive.
but also deceptively tall, with shoulder
heights reaching 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Despite its
huge bulk, the bison can run at speeds
of up to 37 mph (60 kph). Its sense of
hearing and smell are excellent, and
essential for detecting danger. Bison
spend much of their time grazing and
browsing, in loose groups, with rest
periods for ruminating. Adult females
and their young live in hierarchical
herds, which are led by a dominant
female. Males usually live apart in
bachelor groups and only join females
during the mating season. Bison are
not territorial, and migration is dictated
by season change and adequate
food supply. A subspecies, B. bison
MAMMALS
athabascae, is recognized and known

as the Wood buffalo. Over a dozen
wild herds now exist, but the species
still occupies less than 1 percent of
its former range.
WINTER COATS
Although bison are associated with the warm, dry
MALES BATTLE plains of the American West, they are also found in
FOR SUPREMACY mountainous regions, where they may experience
extreme temperatures. In fact, winters offer bison
few problems, since their heavy coats and thick
manes protect them from the ice and cold.
During the mating season, male

bison will fight fiercely for the
possession of females, usually
by head-to-head ramming.
Females wanting to mate with the
dominant bull gallop about to incite
competition between rival males.
pronounced shoulder
hump in male
short,
upturned horns
broad
forehead
light brown,
short hair
MASSIVE FRAME
The bison’s massive build is
characterized by the towering shoulder
hump. The brownish black hair on the
neck, head, shoulders, and forelegs is
shaggy long and shaggy, but the rest of the body
coat is covered in shorter and lighter-colored
straggly beard hair. The large and heavy head sits on
a short, thick neck, and features a wide
forehead and straggly bearded chin.
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MAMMALS
235
236 HOOFED MAMMALS
Bison bonasus Bialoweiza Forest (which straddles the Bos gaurus Philatomba walteri
Polish and Belarussian border), where
European bison original populations survived until the
1910s. It has a slightly lighter and
Gaur Walter’s duiker
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Length 7 – 11 ft shorter coat than the American bison, Length 81⁄4 – 11 ft Length 211⁄2 – 291⁄2 in
(2.1 – 3.4 m) (2.5 – 3.3 m) (55 – 75 cm)
but its habits and herding behavior are
Tail 12 – 231⁄2 in Tail 28 – 39 in Tail Up to 53⁄4 in
(30 – 60 cm) similar. The horns, larger in the male, (70 – 100 cm) (15 cm)
Weight 770 – 2,200 lb are short and upturned. This bison Weight 1,430 – 2,210 lb Weight 13 – 26 lb
(350 – 1000 kg) browses on leaves, twigs, and bark, (650 – 1,000 kg) (6 – 12 kg)
Location E. Europe Social unit Group and grazes on low vegetation. Typical Location S. to S.E. Asia Social unit Group Location W. Africa Social unit Group
Status Vulnerable group sizes range from 8 to 13, but Status Vulnerable Status Data deficient
in more open habitats there may be
20 or more. The single calf is born after
a gestation period of 254 – 279 days.
Formerly extinct in the wild, the European It can run within 3 hours and is This new species of duiker was
bison has been park bred and weaned by one year. described in 2010 on the basis of
reintroduced into the coniferous specimens procured from hunters and
markets in the West African countries of
well-developed Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. It was shown
shoulder hump to be genetically and morphologically
distinct from other duikers of the region,
but so far its habits are virtually unknown.
Duikers are nervous, shy antelopes that
get their name from their habit of bolting
into dense vegetation: duiker means
“diving buck.” Some—such as Walter’s
Among the biggest cattle, the gaur duiker—prefer rain forest to open
(seladang or Indian bison) has a huge head woodland. Unusually for ungulates,
and deep body in shades of red, brown, duikers supplement their diet with animal
and black, and sturdy, whitish limbs. The matter—such as insects—and have even
horns are up to 31⁄2 ft (1.1 m) long. Rutting been known to kill birds in captivity. The
males “sing” with bellows that deepen in discovery of Walter’s duiker highlights
pitch and carry for 1 mile (1.5 km). There the importance of conservation in a part
MAMMALS
is a muscular ridge, supported by bony of Africa where exploitation of bushmeat

extensions of the vertebrae, running over threatens local wildlife. The species is
the shoulder to the middle of the back. additionally threatened by habitat
The social system and mixed herbage clearance associated with human
diet are typical of other wild cattle. population growth.
Sylvicapra grimmia Kobus defassa One of the heaviest antelopes, the Kobus leche
defassa waterbuck has coarse, long,
Common duiker Defassa waterbuck oily hair that ranges in color from gray
to red-brown and darkens with age.
Kafue flats lechwe
Length 21⁄4 – 33⁄4 ft Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 ft There are white markings on the Length 51⁄4 ft
(0.7 – 1.1 m) (1.7 – 2.3 m) (1.6 m)
rump, throat, and muzzle, and white
Tail 4 – 73⁄4 in Tail 13 – 153⁄4 in Tail 133⁄4 in
(10 – 20 cm) (33 – 40 cm) “eyebrows,” rings above the hooves, (35 cm)
Weight 22 – 58 lb Weight 350 – 580 lb and underparts. The horns, normally Weight 135 – 280 lb
(10 – 26 kg) (160 – 260 kg) present only in the male, are up to 31 ⁄4 ft (62 – 128 kg)
Location W., C., E., and Social unit Individual/Pair Location W., C., and E. Social unit Individual/Group (1 m) long. Some 50 percent of the diet Location Zambia Social unit Group
southern Africa Africa
Status Least concern Status Near threatened is grass, the rest browsed leaves. Status Vulnerable
When threatened, the animal usually
dashes to water, where it swims fast or
submerges except for the nose. Herds
of younger males, usually 2 – 5 but The Kafue flats lechwe, or marsh antelope,
rarely 50 or more, have a hierarchy eats grasses and aquatic plants exposed
prominently
ringed horns based on visual displays, horn length, by seasonal variations in the weather,
and frequent fights. Older (6 – 10 years) responding to water levels across
breeding males occupy territories. floodplains and swamps. It wades and
Females live in small maternal groups swims well, forms large
(usually 3–6, max 25) that vary herds, and has the lek
frequently. There are no strong breeding system (see
individual bonds. Ugandan kob,
right). The chestnut
to black coat
contrasts with the
white underparts
The common duiker has a tufted and black leg
forehead, large, pointed ears, and, stripes. Only the
usually only in males, sharp-pointed males
horns about 41⁄4 in (11 cm) long. It is are horned.
gray to red-yellow haired above, with
white underparts, and has a dark nose
stripe. Adaptable in habitat, it is a
nocturnal browser and also takes
small animals and carrion. It lives
alone or in pairs, and males defend
their territories against rivals.
Kobus thomasi Kobus vardonii yellow, and the horns are Hippotragus equinus
about 20 in (50 cm) in length.
Ugandan kob Puku The puku grazes morning
and evening and, like
Roan antelope
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Length 51⁄4 – 6 ft Length 41⁄4 – 5 ft other plains antelopes, Length 61⁄2 – 71⁄4 ft
(1.6 – 1.8 m) (1.3 – 1.5 m) (2 – 2.1 m)
flees rapidly from danger.
Tail 4 – 6 in Tail 11 – 13 in Tail 231⁄2 – 291⁄2 in
(10 – 15 cm) (28 – 32 cm) (60 – 75 cm)
(130 – 265 kg) (48 – 91 kg) (215 – 280 kg)
Location C. and E. Africa Social unit Group Location W. to E. Africa Social unit Individual/Group Location W., C., and E. Social unit Individual/Group
Africa
Status Least concern Status Near threatened Status Least concern
The Ugandan kob is a graceful but The puku resembles the kob (see left) in The roan antelope is red- to brown-
strong grazing antelope, pale cinnamon its breeding system: it has leks at high coated, with white underneath and
to brown-black, with white facial and population densities; territories at lower black and white facial markings. Both
throat markings, and black leg stripes ones. The long coat is a uniform golden sexes are horned and maned. They
and feet. The male has ringed, survive on poor grass growth and
lyre-shaped horns. Kobs live at very need to drink 2 – 3 times daily. Herds
high densities, and males compete for Redunca bohor gland. The bohor reedbuck feeds consist of 6 – 20 females and young
a patch of ground (known as the lek), on grasses and tender reed which range over the territory of a
perhaps only 50 ft (15 m)
across. The winner of
Bohor reedbuck shoots. Small groups, of
a female and young, or
single or several males.
this contest gains mating Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft horned males, merge into
(1 – 1.3 m) back-
rights over many females. dry-season herds. curved
Tail 7 – 71⁄4 in
horns
(18 – 20 cm)
(36 – 55 kg)
Location C. and E. Africa Social unit Variable
MAMMALS
yellowish to
This small, fawn, lightweight savanna red-fawn
coat
antelope has white underparts, throat,
and eye-rings. A conspicuous gray
patch under the ear marks a scent
Hippotragus niger browsing replaces the usual grazing. Oryx dammah of 20 – 40, males displaying and
In the wet season, herds split into tussling to mate with females. After
Sable antelope bachelor groups of 2 – 12 males, while
dominant males occupy territories
Scimitar-horned 222 – 253 days’ gestation, the mother
leaves the herd to calve, but returns
Length 61⁄4 – 83⁄4 ft
(1.9 – 2.7 m)
and mate with the females there. After oryx within hours. Young are weaned by 14
an initial concealment, calves form weeks and are sexually mature by 2
Tail 141⁄2 – 30 in
(37 – 76 cm) nursery groups, only joining their Length 51⁄4 – 53⁄4 ft years. This species was hunted almost
(1.5 – 1.7 m)
Weight 330 – 660 lb mothers to suckle. to extinction, surviving only on a
Tail 141⁄2 – 171⁄4 in
(150 – 300 kg) (37 – 44 cm)
reserve in north-central Chad. Captive
Location E. to S.E. Africa Social unit Group bred
Status Least concern (180 – 200 kg) animals smooth
Location N. Africa Social unit Group being held horns
Status Extinct in the wild in Tunisia are
facial part of a planned
Similar to the roan antelope (see markings reintroduction program.
resemble
above right) in many respects, the adult’s
sable antelope gathers in herds of 100 Specialized for deserts, arid plains,
or more during the dry season, when and rocky hills, the scimitar-horned
oryx has many physiological
ADULT MALE adaptations to conserve body water.
Mature males Its kidneys are very
are black but efficient and it sweats
with the same only when its body
facial pattern SABLE CALF temperature
as females. The Calf coloration is similar to that of adult females— exceeds 116° F
lower jaw and chestnut or sorrel. It is born after 240 – 280 days’
muzzle are white. (46° C). The large
gestation, and initially is kept away from the herd.
Males have larger, hooves spread
more curved horns the stocky body’s
than females. weight on soft
sand. This oryx
feeds on a wide
variety of plants in faint stripe along ruddy brown
lower flank neck and chest
the early morning
and evening, and on
moonlit nights, resting
by day in any available
shade. It forms
nomadic mixed herds
238 HOOFED MAMMALS
Oryx gazella supplying water. Nomadic herds of up Addax nasomaculatus

to 25 contain females, young, and a PEACE IN THE SHADE
Gemsbok few males. Like many desert species,
gemsbok breed opportunistically,
Addax
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Length 53⁄4 – 61⁄4 ft year-round whenever food is available. Length 33⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft
(1.8 – 1.9 m) (1.2 – 1.3 m)
The single calf (rarely twins) is born
Tail 183⁄4 – 201⁄2 in Tail 10 – 14 in
(48 – 52.5 cm) after 81⁄2 months’ gestation, and stays (25 – 35 cm)
Weight 420 – 530 lb concealed but near the Weight 130 – 280 lb
(190 – 240 kg) main herd, with occasional (60 – 125 kg)
Location S.W. Africa Social unit Group visits from the mother to Location N.W. Africa Social unit Variable
Status Least concern suckle, for up to 6 weeks. Status Critically
endangered
ringed horns
The gemsbok, or southern oryx, is a

large, distinctively colored antelope Gemsbok deal with their hot, Rare and remote, the addax has similar
of arid grassy scrub and true dry habitat by grazing at cool adaptations to the gemsbok (see left) for
desert. Its many adaptations times, mainly twilight and at desert survival. It wanders in search of
for moisture conservation night. They gather in available shade almost any vegetation, following rains, and
include not panting or from about 11 am to 3 pm. In most rests in shade at midday. Formerly more
sweating until the body other antelope species, individuals numerous, a mixed herd of up to 20 was
temperature exceeds grouped so closely would begin led by an older male; individuals now
113° F (45° C), kidneys dominance or mating disputes, but live alone or in small bands of
that make very gemsbok suspend social interaction 2 – 4. The coat is
concentrated urine, for the greater need of survival. gray-brown in winter,
and very dry sandy to white
droppings. The main in summer, with a
BLACK, WHITE, AND SHADES OF GRAY
diet is grasses and white facial
black lower The gemsbok has a fawn-tinged gray body and
low shrubs, with wild side stripe contrasting black and white face, ears, belly, and patch topped
cucumbers, melons, legs. The broad muzzle and wide row of incisor by a chestnut
and similar plants teeth are adapted to crop coarse grasses. forehead tuft,
and spiral horns
(11⁄2 – 3 turns).
MAMMALS
Damaliscus pygargus to the flattened, lyre-shaped horns, Damaliscus lunatus Alcelaphus caama
which are ringed for most of their 28-in
Bontebok (70-cm) length. Adult males posture and
spar with their horns—although rarely
Western tsessebe Red hartebeest
Length 4 – 7 ft fight—to gain a territory. This allows Length 4 – 7 ft Length 63⁄4 – 71⁄4 ft
(1.2 – 2.1 m) (1.2 – 2.1m) (2 – 2.2 m)
them to dominate a herd of females and
Tail 4 – 231⁄2 in Tail 4 – 231⁄2 in Tail 153⁄4 – 191⁄2 in
(10 – 60 cm) young. The male keeps (10 – 60 cm) (40 – 50 cm)
Weight 120 – 190 lb its members together Weight 150 – 340 lb Weight 230 – 360 lb
(56 – 86 kg) and initiates the herd’s (68 – 155 kg) (105 – 165 kg)
Location Southern Africa Social unit Group travels. Females give Location Southern Africa Social unit Group Location Southern Africa Social unit Group
Status Least concern birth at traditional Status Least concern Status Least concern
calving grounds, after a
gestation period
of about 8
Also known as the blesbok, months; unlike Resembling the western tsessebe (see
the bontebok has a many similar antelopes, left) in diet and sloping profile, this is
white blaze on they do not isolate or the southernmost species of a genus
its long muzzle, conceal their young. The of hartebeest characterized by heavily
which single newborn can walk ringed horns and prominent glands
narrows within 5 minutes, and below the eyes. It has a dark tan coat
at the soon follows its mother; it is and curving Z-shaped horns. Like other
eyes, and weaned by 6 months. The species, there are paler hip patches and
continues bontebok grazes mixed black markings on forehead, muzzle,
grasses and herbs, early and shoulder, and thighs. Historically,
late in the day. It was almost hunting constricted its range,
rich brown exterminated in the wild by the but following reintroduction
coat has 1830s, but herds were preserved The western tsessebe, or topi, has to southern Africa, it is
purple sheen
in parks and reserves where its a long head, a shoulder hump, and a expanding again.
numbers are now slowly increasing. downward-sloping back. Its glossy,
red-brown coat is purplish on the upper
limbs and darker on the upper muzzle,
belly, and lower limbs. It has L-shaped,
ringed horns. The western tsessebe
lives in seasonally flooded grasslands,
and has 2 breeding systems according
to conditions: leks (see kob, p.237)
in migratory populations; and male
territories with harems when resident.
Connochaetes taurinus DANGEROUS JOURNEY Oreotragus oreotragus Ourebia ourebi
Blue wildebeest Cape klipspringer Southern oribi

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Length 5 – 73⁄4 ft Length 21⁄2 ft Length 3 – 41⁄2 ft

(1.5 – 2.4 m) (0.8 m) (0.9 – 1.4 m)
Tail 31 – 40 in Tail 2 – 5 in Tail 3 in
(80 – 100 cm) (5 – 13 cm) (7.5 cm)
(164 – 295 kg) (8 – 18 kg) (7.5 – 17 kg)
Location Southern Africa Social unit Group Location Southern Africa Social unit Pair Location Southern Africa Social unit Variable
Previously considered a subspecies Although some wildebeest remain This small, short-muzzled, tiny-hoofed
of the wildebeest, the blue wildebeest in a home range, other species antelope leaps skillfully over the steep,
has an unmistakable large, long- band into large herds and migrate rocky terrain of its native mountains and
muzzled head, cow-like horns, and hundreds of miles on an annual river gorges. It has a short tail, and the
high shoulders. The single calf is born journey to find seasonal grazing. hairs of the coat have white and brown
after 8 – 9 months’ gestation. It bleats The route may be altered by unusual bands and yellow tips, which gives it
like a lamb, and its fiercely protective rains stimulating grass elsewhere. a rather speckled appearance. The
mother lows like a domestic cow in At river crossings (above), they are male has small, spiky horns.
reply. Males form bachelor herds at vulnerable to crocodile attack. The Cape klipspringer
1 – 4 years of age. They have territories, browses on evergreen and
but females move between them and other shrubs, and lives in
mate with several males. pairs with 1 – 2 offspring.
Small, slender, and long-necked, the
oribi has fine, silky fur, sandy to rufous
above, and white below and on the
chin and rump, with longer tufts on
the knees. The male has 2 small,
spiky, ringed horns. The diet consists
horns up to of grasses and, in the dry season,
32 in (80 cm)
MAMMALS
long in male tiny leaves. Southern oribi are socially flexible,
hooves with male–female pairs or small herds
of 7 – 8 with 2 – 3 adult males. The male
LONG MANE may help to clean and guard the calf,
The blue wildebeest’s which is weaned at 2 months.
copious black mane
extends from neck to
shoulders, and hairs spill
over the forehead. The main
Madoqua kirkii Antilope cervicapra
coat is silver-gray with brown hues
fading rearward, and the tail Kirk’s dik-dik Blackbuck
is long and black. Length 201⁄2 – 28 in Length 33⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft
(52 – 72 cm) (1.2 – 1.3 m)
Tail 14 – 22 in Tail 31⁄4 – 51⁄4 in
(35 – 56 cm) (8.2 – 13.5 cm)
Weight 20 lb Weight 55 – 75 lb
(9 kg) (25 – 35 kg)
Location E. and S.W. Social unit Pair Location S. Asia Social unit Group
Africa
Status Least concern Status Near threatened
The blackbuck grazes on grasses,

including cereal crops. Females are
fawn to yellow, dominant males become
black with age, and other males are
brown. All have a white underside,
Raphicerus campestris feet, which lack the 2 lateral toes. Its rump, muzzle, and eye-ring. The male’s
color is bright rufous-fawn, sometimes horns, up to 27 in (68 cm) long, are
Steenbok tinged silver-gray, pale beneath. There
is also a white eye-stripe or ring, and
ringed at the base and
spiral up to 5 turns.
Length 24 – 37 in black “finger lines” in the ear, patches When breeding, the
(61 – 95 cm)
on the nose, and between the horns, male defends his territory
Tail 11⁄2 – 31⁄4 in
(4 – 8 cm) which are present only in the male. and harem.
Weight 15 – 35 lb The 4 dik-dik species are named after
(7 – 16 kg) their alarm call. Kirk’s dik-dik has a
Location E. and southern Social unit Individual/Pair soft, lank coat, grizzled gray to brown,
Africa
Status Least concern and more reddish brown on the head,
with a forehead crest. The rubbery-
bottomed hooves grip effectively on
rocks. It eats a wide range of plants and
The steenbok, or steinbuck, lives alone lives as a close-bonded male–female
or as a pair with largely separate lives, pair and a single offspring, born after
within a territory marked by scents and 169 – 174 days’ gestation. The newborn
dung. It both browses and grazes, remains hidden for 2 – 3 weeks, and
and digs up roots and tubers with its suckles for 3 – 4 months.
240 HOOFED MAMMALS
Aepyceros melampus Litocranius walleri of one male and 2 – 4 females, with Antidorcas marsupialis
offspring. Only territory-holding males
Impala Southern gerenuk breed, from about 3 years old. Younger
males form bachelor herds, although
Cape springbok
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Length 31⁄2 – 5 ft Length 41⁄2 – 51⁄4 ft one male may attach to the periphery Length 4 –41⁄2 ft
(1.1 – 1.5 m) (1.4 – 1.6 m) (1.2 – 1.4 m)
of a female band, and the occasional
(25 – 40 cm) (22 – 35 cm) female may be solitary. (15 – 30 cm)
(40 – 65 kg) (28 – 52 kg) (27 – 31 kg)
Location E. and southern Social unit Group Location E. Africa Social unit Individual/Group Location Southern Africa Social unit Group
Africa
Status Least concern Status Near threatened Status Least concern
Impala are noisy antelopes. Males Also called the giraffe-gazelle, the The Cape springbok is among several
(which are horned) make loud, hoarse southern gerenuk has a very long, bovids that “stott” or “pronk”—leap
grunts when rutting; calves bleat; and slender neck and similar legs. It can stiff-legged, high and repeatedly, as if
all emit loud warning snorts as they curve its spine into an S shape, bouncing. This behavior may serve to
race off with high leaps, kicking the balancing its weight over its rear legs, in deter predators. This adaptable
hind legs out straight and landing order to stand vertically for long herbivore is highly gregarious, but
on the forelegs. Adaptable grazer- periods. This allows it to browse higher migratory herds once
browsers, impala form mixed herds than similar-sized herbivores in open millions-strong now
in the dry season. At breeding time, woodland and scattered bush. Seen number only 1,500.
bachelor males compete for territories from the front, its neck, head, and long, Breeding habits are as
and females. The coat is reddish fawn wedge-shaped muzzle are extremely for other gazelle
with black streaks on the hips and tail. narrow, for probing into acacias and species.
other thorny foliage. The southern
gerenuk uses its long, pointed tongue,
mobile lips, and sharp-edged incisors
to pluck and nip the smallest leaves. It reddish
brown
is mainly reddish fawn, with a broad, band
dark band along the back and upper white on face
sides, and white on the underparts, underparts
MAMMALS
neck, chin, lips, and around the eyes;

the tail is black tufted. Only the males
have horns, which are 14 in (35 cm) long,
relatively thick and curved. Social units
are male–female pairs, or small groups
Eudorcas thomsonii RAPID BREEDING Saiga mongolica
Eastern Thomson’s Thomson’s gazelle is one of the few

bovids that can breed twice yearly.
Mongolian saiga
gazelle The first calf is born in January or Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 ft
(1 – 1.4 m)
February, after the rains; the second
Length 3 – 4 ft Tail 21⁄4 –43⁄4 in
in July. A newborn is quickly on its (6 – 12 cm)
(0.9 – 1.2 m)
feet, but spends the first few weeks Weight 57 – 150 lb
Tail 71⁄4 – 101⁄4 in
(19 – 26 cm) lying hidden until it can keep up with (26 – 69 kg)
Weight 33 – 55 lb the herd. It is weaned Location C. Asia Social unit Group
(15 – 25 kg) by 4 months. Status Critically endangered
Location E. Africa Social unit Group
dark, ringed horns

(longer in the male, females and young join male bachelor This medium-sized Asian “goat-antelope”
shown, than in the bands, and even lone males, to migrate has an enlarged nose with down-pointing
female)
This small gazelle is graceful and speedy. between grasslands (in the rainy season) nostrils, perhaps to control body
It “stotts” (see springbok, above right) and bush (when it is drier). Thomson’s temperature and/or give a keen sense of
energetically when threatened by, for gazelles usually produce a single smell. The thick, woolly coat is cinnamon-
example, many of the big cats, hyenas, offspring, which is born after about 180 buff above, paler on the underparts, and
dark
jackals, and similar carnivores, for which fingerlike days’ gestation. Although initially mottled thickens greatly for winter. The Mongolian
it is a staple part of their diet. The most pattern on darker than the parent, the coat of the saiga lives in semi-desert areas on low-
common gazelle in its region, it some inside of ear young gazelle lightens in 1 – 2 weeks. sloping, rather than flat, steppe and eats
times forms mixed herds with impala and varied plants. Smaller breeding groups
other gazelle species. It mainly grazes DISTINCTIVE MARKINGS join to form larger herds for migration.
short grasses, yet also A black flank band separates the sandy fawn back Only males of the species have horns.
browses. Small from the white underside. The rufous head has
herds of 10 – 30 a darker blaze, and white eye-rings that extend
along the muzzle, above the black cheek stripes.
Oreamnos americanus This woolly haired goat survives Hemitragus jemlahicus spring, to browse and graze in mixed
among ice, snow, rocks, and glaciers. forests at altitudes of 16,500 ft (5,000 m).
Mountain goat Its large, sharp hooves have hard rims
and soft inner pads, to grip slippery
Himalayan tahr It returns to temperate forests as low as
8,250 ft (2,500 m) in fall, when herds of
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Length 41⁄2 – 53⁄4 ft surfaces, and its long, yellow-white Length 3 – 51⁄2 ft 2 – 23 females are joined by
(1.4 – 1.8 m) (0.9 – 1.7 m)
outer coat and thick, dense underfur rutting males, who lock
Tail 4 – 8 in Tail 31⁄2 – 43⁄4 in
(10 – 20 cm) conserve body heat. The sharp, (9 – 12 cm) horns and try to topple
Weight 130 – 250 lb back-curved horns are up to 113 ⁄4 in Weight 120 – 270 lb each other off
(60 – 115 kg) (30 cm) long and are slightly thicker (55 – 124 kg) balance. Young
Location W. Canada, N. Social unit Variable in males, which may be 30 percent Location S. Asia Social unit Group are born the
and W. USA
Status Least concern larger than females. These goats Status Near threatened following May
feed on grass, moss, lichens, and or June.
twigs. It forms single-sex groups,
except in the mating season. reddish
The sure-footed Himalayan tahr has a brown
coat
shaggy, conspicuous mane on its neck
Rupicapra rupicapra the tips. It feeds on herbs and flowers in and shoulders, extending to its knees; its
alpine pastures during summer, and face and head fur are contrastingly short.
Alpine chamois moves lower in winter for mosses, lichens,
and shoots, as groups disperse.
The horns, flattened from side to side,
reach up to 113 ⁄4 in (30 cm ) long in
very
short
Length 33⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft During the summer they feed in the males—twice as long as in females. Like tail
(1.1 – 1.3 m)
morning and late afternoon, but rest many mountain mammals, the Himalayan
Tail 3 – 4 in
(8 – 10 cm) during the heat of the day. One kid tahr migrates high into the mountains in
Weight 55 – 130 lb is born in May/June, after a
(25 – 60 kg) gestation of 165 – 175 days.
Location S. Europe, W. Social unit meet at a central boss, curving down
Asia Individual/Group
Ovibos moschatus
and then up at the tips. The body is
Muskox massive; the neck, legs, and tail are
short. In summer, the muskox grazes
Length 61⁄4 – 71⁄2 ft valley sedges and grasses. In winter,
(1.9 – 2.3 m)
it browses on higher ground, where
Tail 31⁄2 – 4 in
The Alpine chamois is an agile climber, (9 – 10 cm) wind keeps the ground clear of snow.
able to leap 61⁄2 ft (2 m) high, spring 20 ft Weight 440 – 900 lb Almost exterminated by humans, the
MAMMALS
(6 m) along, and run at 31 mph (50 kph)—its (200 – 410 kg) muskox has recovered through wildlife
flexible hoof pads giving sure grip on Location N. North Social unit Group management and reintroductions.
America, Greenland
uneven, slippery terrain. Both sexes have Status Least concern
slender, black, close-set horns, which are DOUBLE COAT
up to 11 in (28 cm) long, and curve back at The muskox’s outer coat of dark brown guard
hairs reaches almost to the ground, to shed rain
The muskox is named after the strong and snow effectively. The undercoat of fine, soft,
pale brown hair provides excellent insulation.
Capra ibex odor of rutting males, who charge
CLASH OF HORNS and ram each other for females. Both shoulder
Alpine ibex sexes have broad horns, which nearly hump
Length 13⁄4– 41⁄4 ft paler midback

(0.5 – 1.3 m)
Tail 6 – 111⁄4 in
(15 – 29 cm)
(40 – 120 kg)
Location S. Europe Social unit Individual/Group
The Alpine ibex dwells at or above the Like many wild (and domestic)
tree line, up to 15,780 ft (4,810 m). The goats, male Alpine ibex compete
female has a tan coat in summer and for herd dominance and females by
the male a rich brown one with postures, head tosses, and fights.
yellow-white patches on the back and Opponents rear up on their back
rump. Both sexes grow a thicker winter legs, then lunge
coat of more variable color. In spring, forward and pale legs
they migrate up to alpine pasture, clash heads
scimitar-
descending in fall to browse buds shaped
and horns
and shoots. Females horns with skull-
and young form jarring force.
stable groups
of 10 – 20;
males form HUGE HORNS
single-sex The Alpine ibex has DEFENSIVE CIRCLE
herds. thick, curved horns, When threatened—for example, from
which are up to 31⁄4 ft
wolves or a polar bear—adult male
woolly (1m) in males, but one-
quarter this length in and female muskoxen gather in a
beard
females. circle, facing outward. The vulnerable
youngsters are protected in the
middle. Larger herd members may
break from the circle to charge or
otherwise intimidate the enemy.
242 HOOFED MAMMALS
Capra aegagrus Capra falconeri Pseudois nayaur Ammotragus lervia
Wild goat Markhor Greater blue sheep Barbary sheep

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Length 4 – 51⁄4 ft Length 41⁄2 – 6 ft Length 4 – 51⁄2 ft Length 41⁄4 – 51⁄2 ft

(1.2 – 1.6 m) (1.4 – 1.8 m) (1.2 – 1.7 m) (1.3 – 1.7 m)
Tail 6 – 8 in Tail 31⁄4 –51⁄2 in Tail 4 – 8 in Tail 6 – 10 in
(15 – 20 cm) (8 – 14 cm) (10 – 20 cm) (15 – 25 cm)
Weight 55 – 210 lb Weight 70 – 245 lb Weight 55 – 175 lb Weight 88 – 320 lb
(25 – 95 kg) (32 – 110 kg) (25 – 80 kg) (40 – 145 kg)
Location W. Asia Social unit Group Location C. and S. Asia Social unit Variable Location S. to E. Asia Social unit Group Location N. Africa Social unit Individual/Group
Status Vulnerable Status Endangered Status Least concern Status Vulnerable
The wild or Bezoar goat, probably the Also called the bharal, the greater
ancestor of domestic goats, grazes blue sheep is camouflaged to survive
and browses in varied habitats, from in rocky, icy alpine zones between
arid scrub to alpine pasture, at tree- and snow-lines. Males are
elevations up to 13,800 ft (4,200 m). brown-gray, tinged with slate-blue,
Females are red-gray to yellow-brown; white below, with a white eyebrow strip,
adult males (a young male is pictured) and black flanks and leg stripes. The
are bearded and silver-gray with dark smooth, 32-in (80-cm) horns splay
markings. Both are outward. Females are smaller with
horned. Males fight to shorter horns, and lack most of the
dominate their bachelor herd black markings. Breeding habits
and for females. resemble other sheep, with rams
competing for harems. The rufous-tawny coat of the Barbary
The markhor occupies various habitats sheep, or aoudad, has a short, upright
at 2,300 – 13,200 ft (700 – 4,000 m), mane on the neck and shoulders, and
eating tussock grass in summer, and a much longer one on the throat, chest,
black shrubby leaves and twigs on lower and upper forelegs. Both manes and
shoulder slopes in winter, when its short, red-gray the crescent-shaped horns, up to
stripe
coat becomes longer and grayer. The 33 in (84 cm) long, are more developed
MAMMALS
spectacular spiral horns reach 5 1 ⁄4 ft in males. These sheep eat a wide

(1.6 m) in the shaggy-throated males, variety of plant matter. Males charge
yet only 10 in (25 cm) in the females. each other, heads lowered, for
The horns are one reason why the dominance and access to female
markhor is threatened by hunting. groups for breeding.
Ovis ammon Male Altai argali not only charge and Ovis canadensis
clash heads when rutting but also run in OUT OF REACH
Altai Argali parallel and butt the opponent’s flank
and chest. Also called arkhar, this is
Bighorn sheep
Length 51⁄2 – 6 ft the largest wild sheep, with elaborate, Length 31⁄4 – 6 ft
(1.7 – 1.8 m) (1 – 1.8 m)
ridged horns—up to 5 ft (1.5 m) in
Tail 33⁄4 – 43⁄4 in Tail 4 – 6 in
(9.5 – 12 cm) males—that corkscrew sideways, (10.2 – 15.2 cm)
Weight 175 – 390 lb twisting 360 degrees or more with Weight 120 – 320 lb
(80 – 175 kg) age. The coat of this very gregarious (55 – 145 kg)
Location C. and S. Asia Social unit Individual/Group bovid is variably pale brown with Location S.W. Canada, W. Social unit Individual/Group
and C. USA, N. Mexico
Status Near threatened white legs and rump patch. Like many Status Least concern
wild sheep, it is threatened by human
hunting, and habitat loss to livestock.
Twin young are relatively common.
The bighorn sheep’s glossy brown Like many wild sheep, when
summer coat of brittle guard hairs threatened, bighorn sheep use their
Ovis gmelini longer, up to 26 in (65 cm), in males. As over crimped gray underfur fades in gripping hooves and climbing ability
in many other wild sheep, females live in winter. Before the rut, males display, to retreat to nearly vertical rocky
Anatolian sheep small groups with their young, while
lone or bachelor-band males compete
walk away from each other, turn,
advance with a threat jump, and then
bluffs and cliffs, where few predators
can follow. The young bighorns learn
Length 4 – 41⁄4 ft for dominance and access to females. lunge to head butt with enormous about seasonal pathways and
(1.2 – 1.4 m)
Success depends on a male’s strength force. This may continue for hours suitable habitats from adults in
Tail 23⁄4 – 41⁄2 in
(11 – 13 cm) in pushing, butting, and ramming, and until one gives up. The 1 – 3 young their group.
Weight 77 – 150 lb so most do not begin breeding until are born after a gestation period of
(35 – 67 kg) 6 – 7 years old, rutting in late fall. 170 – 180 days.
Location W. Asia Social unit Individual/Group
Status Vulnerable
pale patch
on rump BIGGER HORNS
The smallest wild sheep, and probable The male’s horns curl almost in a circle
ancestor of all domestic breeds, the and may weigh as much as the rest of the
Anatolian sheep frequents uplands and skeleton—up to 30 lbs (14 kg). The female’s
horns are smaller and only slightly curved.
shrubby, grassy plains. The coat is
red-brown with a dark central back
stripe flanked by a paler “saddle” patch,
a short, broad, dark tail, and paler
underparts. The curved horns are
243
FIGHTING FOR DOMINANCE

During the rutting season, male bighorn sheep fight
each other for females with which they will later mate.
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If neither gives way to the other a fight ensues. The

males rear up, as shown here, and then crash their
heads together. The weaker individual will eventually
be chased away.
MAMMALS
244 CETACEANS
Cetaceans
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PHYLUM Chordata Cetaceans—whales, dolphins, and porpoises—

CLASS Mammalia are perhaps the most specialized of all mammals,
ORDER Cetacea with their fish-shaped, hairless body; a flipperlike
FAMILIES 14 front limbs; and vestigial hind limbs (located
SPECIES 89 within the body wall). However, they are true
mammals: they breathe air with lungs, and
CLASSIFICATION NOTE they have mammary glands with which they
This book adopts the traditional suckle their young. Cetaceans, which can
method of classifying cetaceans,
whereby the order is divided be divided into baleen whales (such as the
into 2 suborders: baleen
whales and toothed whales. It is humpback whale and the right whale), and
not certain how they are related
to one another, but genetic toothed whales (such as dolphins and
and morphological evidence
suggests the order Cetacea
porpoises), are found throughout the world’s
is most closely related to the
family Hippotamidae, which is
seas, and some species live in tropical and
in the order Artiodactyla. subtropical rivers. Many species, including
Baleen whales
see pp.246 – 9 the blue whale, have been hunted in such
Toothed whales
see pp.250 – 261 numbers that they are in danger of extinction.
Anatomy
Cetaceans have a hairless, streamlined body to reduce water turbulence.
External projections are reduced to the essentials: flippers for steering, a
MAMMALS
tail with 2 boneless, horizontal flukes (fish have vertical flukes), and usually
a dorsal fin for stability. Even the genitals are concealed within folds. Other
adaptations to underwater life include a thick layer of blubber (fat and oil)
beneath the skin, which conserves body heat, and
light, spongy, oil-filled bones. Cetaceans breathe
through one (toothed whales) or 2 (baleen whales)
blowholes—muscular nostrils usually situated on
the top of the head. Toothed whales have a brain Senses
that is relatively as large as that of primates, and Cetaceans have extraordinarily
they are known for their intelligence. Baleen sensitive hearing. Vision is
whales have a relatively smaller brain. reasonable—underwater it is excellent blowhole
up to about 31⁄4 ft (1 m), and in air up to outgoing clicks
(to prey)
81⁄4 ft (2.5 m), but color vision is very
conical limited. Some species can focus both
baleen teeth eyes ahead, above, or behind them,
plates
and some can move their eyes
melon
independently. Some freshwater
long dolphins, however, are nearly or
jaws beak POWERFUL TAIL entirely blind. Members of the
incoming incoming
In cetaceans, the main toothed whale group produce (reflected) clicks (reflected) clicks
BALEEN WHALE TOOTHED WHALE propulsive force is the high-frequency clicks for echolocation
Instead of teeth, a baleen The teeth of the toothed up-and-down movement of and can also communicate using USING ECHOLOCATION
whale has 130 – 400 horny whale group are simple, the tail. This motion is powerful a wide range of sounds audible to Toothed whales avoid obstacles and catch
(baleen) plates on each side conical, and in most species enough for a whale, such as humans. Other cetaceans employ prey by emitting high-frequency clicks that are
of the upper jaw. The inner numerous. The jaws may this humpback, to push two- a variety of vocalizations, but these reflected off objects in their path. The melon (a
edge of each plate has be extended to form a beak, thirds of its body out of the are not as well studied. Cetaceans fluid-filled swelling) changes shape to focus the
bristles used to sieve food. as seen in dolphins. water when breaching. have no sense of smell. clicks. Incoming clicks pass through the jaw.
BREACHING
1 2 3 4
THE ASCENT THE FLIPPERS APPEAR STARTING TO GO DOWN ASCENT COMPLETED
As this southern right whale begins to breach, it The front flippers clear the surface as the As the upward surge, which is powered by the tail, is As the whale crashes back into the
surfaces vertically, creating little water turbulence. whale continues to propel itself upward. completed, nearly half of the whale is exposed. water, it also turns onto its side.
CETACEANS 245
OCEANIC GIANT
This sperm whale has a typically large, Reproduction CONSERVATION
elongated head that is continuous with the long, Some whales, including rorquals (such as the humpback
torpedo-shaped body. Like many cetaceans, whale), breed during the winter. They migrate from their
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sperm whales grow to enormous summer feeding grounds in polar seas to tropical waters
proportions—in males, up to 59 ft (usually around island groups or close inshore), where they
(18 m) in length and over 55 tons give birth and then immediately become pregnant again.
(50 tonnes) in weight. In spring, they return to colder waters to feed. Other whales
may breed seasonally, but do not migrate to do so. In all
cetaceans, copulation is very brief. The male’s penis, which
is S-shaped, is held inside the body wall. It becomes erect Modern whaling technology—making
not by filling with blood but by straightening as a result of hunting more accurate and efficient—
muscular action. After giving birth, the mother (and in some threatened certain species with
dolphins, other members of the pod) assists the newborn extinction, until the International
to the surface to take its first breath. Whaling Commission (IWC) enforced
a moratorium on commercial whaling
CALF SUCKLING in 1986. Since then, populations have
Young cetaceans are increased, helped by the setting up of
suckled on milk until they protected areas—such as the 1994
are old enough to eat solid food. Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary,
The nipples of this Atlantic which covers the feeding grounds of
spotted dolphin are housed most of the world’s whales. But some
in a pouch in the body species remain “vulnerable,” and
wall, as is typical pro-whaling nations—such as Japan
of cetaceans. and Norway—continue to push for a
return to commercial quotas.
Surviving underwater
Even though all cetaceans breathe air, they are able to remain
underwater for extended periods, returning to the surface
only to exhale (“blow”). In order to remain underwater, the heart
MAMMALS
rate slows by a half. Also, the water pressure squeezes blood
out of the vessels near the skin—the blood can then nourish
the vital organs. The water pressure compresses the lungs,
which forces air into the trachea and nasal passages
where some of the air is absorbed by foamy secretions
along the respiratory tract wall. Some toothed whales
dive to great depths in search of prey.
SEARCHING THE DEEP

Sperm whales in search
of squid dive deeper than
other cetaceans. They
are known to descend to
depths of up to 3,300 ft
(1,000 m) and can remain
underwater for 45 minutes.
BLOWING
Cetaceans open their
blowholes as they surface
and explosively release
air and a spray of oil
droplets before taking
another breath.
5 6 7 8
REENTERING THE WATER GOING UNDER MAKING A SPLASH THE WHALE DISAPPEARS
The noise made by a whale striking the surface As the head disappears, only one front The whale’s reentry creates a huge splash compared With the sequence complete, the whale may breach
may be heard up to 3,300 ft (1,000 m) away. flipper and part of the body is visible. with the initial breach of the water’s surface. again. Why whales breach is not clearly understood.
246 CETACEANS
Baleen whales
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PHYLUM Chordata The most striking feature of baleen and usually surround their prey. although they feed little, they give
whales is their size, which ranges from As they feed, the grooves in the birth and mate again immediately.
CLASS Mammalia
throat are relaxed, and the lower In spring, they then slowly move
ORDER Cetacea
up to 21 ft (6.5 m) in the pygmy right jaw becomes a vast sac into which back toward higher latitudes, with
SUBORDER Mysticeti
whale to 110 ft (33 m) in the blue whale. water is gulped. When the water is their suckling calves. Although
Also characteristic are the baleen plates, expelled, the prey remains on the humpback whales usually migrate
FAMILIES 4 baleen plates. The larger species along coastlines, other rorquals
which filter prey from the water. The group of rorquals have finer bristles on prefer deeper water. The gray
SPECIES 14
consists of the gray whale, the rorquals their baleen plates, which trap whale holds the record for the
(which include the humpback whale and crustaceans such as krill and longest migration—13,988 miles
sometimes small fish. Smaller (22,511 km).
the blue whale), and right whales. Although commonly found
species have coarser bristles to
in Antarctic and Arctic regions, they are distributed throughout catch larger crustaceans and small Communication
all the world’s oceans, usually in deep water. fish. The gray whale feeds by stirring Baleen whales communicate using
up sediments with its relatively short, a variety of sounds, from squeals
firm snout, then gulping down its to rumbles. The most famous
Anatomy Feeding prey, often together with sand, silt, whale sounds are the “songs”
All whales in this group have 2 rows While the gray whale feeds on small and pebbles. of male humpbacks. These are
of baleen plates (see p.244) that are crustaceans called amphipods produced during winter breeding
anchored to either side of the upper (which are found on the sea bottom), Migration and consist of a repeated series of
jaw. To support these structures, right whales and rorquals eat Most baleen whale species are high and low notes that are gradually
the jaws are elongated. This means planktonic crustaceans, which live migratory. Rorquals, which are varied as the season progresses.
that the head, which has 2 blowholes, near the surface. Right whales feed known for traveling long distances, The songs are vital for communication
is large in relation to the body. In by swimming slowly through dense feed in the Arctic and Antarctic in the vast oceans. Other species
right whales, the head comprises schools of prey with their mouths (where krill is abundant) during employ different sounds; the fin
up to half the body length, and the open, skimming the plankton the summer. In autumn and whale, for example, produces a
jaws are deep (to accommodate long out of the water. Rorquals winter, they migrate to call that is below the range of
baleen plates). The body is relatively are more active hunters tropical waters. Here, human hearing and travels huge
short and stout. Rorquals, on the distances through the ocean.
MAMMALS
other hand, have a long, slender

body, and shorter baleens.
UNUSUAL FEEDING TECHNIQUE

Baleen whales feed by taking large quantities of
small prey. This humpback whale, having circled
upward through a school of small fish, is gulping a
large mouthful of water and fish. As the mouth closes,
the water presses against the rigid upper jaws and
flows out over the baleen plates, leaving the fish behind.
BALEEN WHALES 247
Eschrichtius robustus CONSERVATION SPY-HOPPING

Gray whale Gray whales feed near shore so
thay are accessible to watchers,
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Length 43 – 46 ft especially in the east Pacific, though

(13 – 14.2 m)
whale watchers are urged to keep
Weight 15 – 381⁄2 tons
(14 – 35 tonnes) at least 300 ft (90 m) from whales at
Social unit Group all times. These whales migrate in
Status Least concern groups of up to 10, north to the
Location North Pacific Arctic for summer feeding, and
south to warm-water lagoons to
rest and produce calves in winter.
Populations in the east Pacific
Gray whales filter-feed like other have risen since legal protection
baleen whales. Unusually, however, was introduced in 1946. However,
they also rely on diving to the shallow west Pacific numbers are still low. Many baleen whales, including the
sea bed, scooping up huge mouthfuls gray whale, “spy-hop,” becoming
of mud, and filtering worms, starfish, vertical in the water with the head
series of 8 – 9 bumps mottled gray skin encrusted
shrimps, and other small creatures replace dorsal fin with barnacles, whale lice, well out. They may be detecting
with their short, coarse baleen. and other growths other whales, viewing landmarks,
This whale’s sounds include grunts, or checking water currents for
wails, moans, and clacking migration. Gray whales swim in a
knocks, but the function coordinated way, staying in line or
of these sounds is arching out of the water together.
little understood.
notched flukes
MAMMALS
COMPARATIVELY SLEEK
The gray whale is sleeker than the right whale but
stockier than the rorqual. It has short baleen, the long, slender head
plates being only about 16 in (40 cm) long. There
are 130 – 180 plates on each side of the jaw.
Eubalaena japonica Balaena mysticetus The bowhead whale has a massive

FILTER FEEDING head, around one-third of its total
North Pacific Bowhead whale weight. The bowhead stays near
spreading polar ice all year, enduring
right whale Length 59 – 66 ft
(18 – 20 m)
weeks of darkness when it may echolate
to navigate between and under floes.
Weight 981⁄4 tons
Length 43 – 56 ft
(100 tonnes) It surface-skims with its mouth slightly
(13 – 17 m)
Social unit Group agape. Shallow dives can last less than
Weight 1921⁄25 tons
(18 tonnes) Status Least concern
a minute, but deeper dives may last up
Location Arctic and to an hour. It can eat in midwater or
subarctic waters
Status Endangered
even grub on the bottom. The newborn
Location Temperate and calf is 13 – 15 ft (4 – 4.5 m) long and is
subpolar waters
suckled for 5 – 6 months.
white around lower
The North Pacific right whale jaw, chin, and
The most endangered of the large feeds alone or in small groups, base of tail
whales, this massive whale is at risk swimming with mouth open to
from collisions with ships and from filter plankton as water rams into
fishing equipment because it swims its mouth. The narrow baleen
slowly, dives for only a few minutes, plates, mainly blue-black but SMOOTH SURFACE
and feeds near the surface. It migrates sometimes white, are up to The mainly black body is clear
to the far north or south in summer 93⁄ 4 ft (3 m) long. They number of whale lice, barnacles, skin
and returns to warmer, mid-latitude 200 – 270 on each side of the callosities, and similar growths.
waters in winter, when the female characteristically down-curved
produces one calf, 13 – 20 ft (4 – 6 m) upper jaw.
long. Twin blowholes give a bushy,
V-shaped blow. Sounds include BIGGEST BALEEN
flipper-slaps and breaching. The bowhead has the longest
baleen of any whale. The brown-
or blue-black baleen plates reach
161⁄4 ft (5 m) in length, with 230 – 360
baleen plates on each side of the
strongly curved or “bowed” upper jaws
HUGE HEAD
(hence the name bowhead). This whale
The head takes up about fibrous has no throat grooves and no dorsal
growths fin either, giving its body surface a
one-quarter of the total length
and is encrusted with barnacles scattered white remarkably uncluttered appearance.
and whale lice. patches
248 CETACEANS
Balaenoptera physalus migrations from high latitudes in

summer, where it feeds on fish and krill, RIGHT-SIDED FEEDING
Fin whale toward tropical regions for winter and
breeding. The gestation period is 11
Fin whales carry out high-speed
lunge-feeding, on krill and fish such
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Length 72 – 89 ft months, the newborn calf 21 ft (6.4 m) as capelin or herring. The whales
(22 – 27 m)
long, and weaning takes place at 9 – 10 synchronize attacks and take in huge
Weight 59 – 89 1⁄2 tons
(60 – 90 tonnes) months. This means each female has volumes of water, close the mouth,
Social unit Variable only one offspring every 2 years, so low and force out the water to trap fish on
Status Endangered
populations take decades to recover. the baleen. The whale swims on its
Location Worldwide (except right side, which may be why the left
E. Mediterranean, Baltic,
Red Sea, Arabian Gulf) FIN, FLIPPERS, AND FLUKES part of the mouth is black but the right
The fin whale’s back, flippers, and flukes are is white. Such asymmetry in color is
gray. The dorsal fin, set two-thirds of the way very unusual in mammals.
along the back, has a concave rear edge.
The fin whale is the second-largest
whale, and one of the
fastest. In addition to
some hums and squeals, it
produces an immensely loud, deep
moan that can be heard hundreds
of miles away. Like other great whales, 55 – 100
the fin whale undertakes long throat pleats white underside
Balaenoptera musculus school of prey and its throat swells Balaenoptera omurai
to 4 times the normal width. It ANATOMY OF A DIVE
Blue whale closes its mouth, expels the water,
and swallows the thousands of food
Omura’s whale
Length 104 – 107 ft items retained by the baleen. Length 323⁄4 – 391⁄4 in
(31.7 – 32.6 m) (10 – 12 m)
Feeding occurs mainly in
Weight 111 1⁄2 – 113 1⁄2 tons Weight 22 tons
(113 – 115 tonnes) summer, in and near rich (20 tonnes)
Social unit Individual polar waters. The blue whale Social Not known
Status Endangered
is thought to migrate to warmer, lower Status Data deficient
Location Worldwide (except Location Pacific Ocean
MAMMALS
latitudes for winter, when the females

Mediterranean, Baltic, Red
Sea, Arabian Gulf) give birth. The calf is 23 ft (7 m) long,
2 3/4 tons (2.5 tonnes) in weight, and is
suckled for 6 – 8 months. Blue whales When making a deep dive, the
are usually solitary or in mother–calf whale “headstands,” exposing its Previously considered a pygmy form
The biggest animal on the planet, the pairs, although they may gather as distinctively wide tail flukes, then of Bryde’s whale, this new species
blue whale can consume more than loose groups to feed. They make descends steeply to a maximum was recognized by Japanese
6 5 /8 tons (6 tonnes) of small euphausiid grunts, hums, and moans, which at depth of some 655 ft (200 m). The researchers from studies of material
crustaceans, of which its diet almost volumes greater than 180 decibels long, narrow flippers play no part collected by sresearch whaling ships
exclusively consists. It lunges into a are the loudest of any creature sounds. in propulsion, the thrust coming in the Pacific in the 1970s and 1990s,
from the powerful back muscles and was subsequently determined to
STREAMLINED GIANT
that swish the rear body and flukes be a more primitive baleen lineage.
The blue whale has a slim outline, especially in up and down. It is known from only 9 specimens—
variable pale gray
winter, although it fattens in summer. The tiny or white mottling one a stranding, and others caught
dorsal fin is set well to the rear, near the tail. in deep waters—between Japan,
Its coloration is mainly pale blue-gray. New Guinea, and Indonesia, but
the full extent of its range is not yet
well known. An estimate of global
population size (1,800 individuals)
is likely to be unreliable. Studies
on stomach contents of these
whales suggest that—like
55–68 skin grooves other baleen whales—
or pleats run along they feed primarily
half the body length
on krill.
Balaenoptera edeni Bryde’s (pronounced “Broodah’s”), throat grooves, coarse-bristled baleen swimmers, changing speed and
Bryde’s whale is mainly coastal in the plates, and a small dorsal fin set direction frequently. They surface
Bryde’s whale Eastern Indian and West Pacific oceans.
The larger, more offshore subspecies
two-thirds of the way along the stocky
body. These whales dive for up to 20
steeply to reveal the head first, arch over,
and expose the rear of the body but not
Length 421⁄2 – 471⁄2 ft Bryde’s whale is found in the Atlantic minutes to feed mainly on schooling fish the tail flukes as they dive. The female
( 13 – 14.5 m)
and Indian oceans, and parts of and krill. They usually live alone or in reaches sexual maturity at 8 – 11 years
Weight 15 – 16 tons
(15 – 16 tonnes) the North, East, and South Pacific. small, loose herds, but may gather in and produces a single calf after a
Social unit Variable Apart from their size difference, both dozens where prey is plentiful. Both gestation of 11 – 12 months.
subspecies have blue-gray coloration subspecies of Bryde’s whale are rapid
Location Tropical and
small, crescent-shaped
that is paler on the underside, 40 – 70 dorsal fin
warm temperate waters
worldwide
3 ridges on snout
40 – 70 skin
grooves or pleats pale underside
BALEEN WHALES 249
Balaenoptera borealis Sei whales frequent more temperate There are 320 – 340 close-spaced, found in schools of 2 – 5 individuals.
waters (46 – 77° F/8 – 25° C) than their delicate-fringed baleen plates hanging They rarely dive deeper than 1,000 ft
Sei whale more widespread close cousins, the
blue and fin whales. The sei whale is
from each side of the upper jaw.
These enable sei whales to take a
(300 m), staying underwater for up
to 20 minutes. Most births among
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Length 553⁄4 – 651⁄2 ft slender with a long, slim, pointed variety of plankton, from copepods sei whales are single, although
(17 – 20 m)
head and slightly downcurved jaw (water-flea-like crustaceans) less than twins occur occasionally.
Weight 221⁄2 – 37 tons
(22 – 38 tonnes) line. Its upper surfaces are dark gray, 3
⁄ 8 in (1 cm) across to schooling fish
Social unit Group with a relatively sharp transition to and squid 12 in (30 cm) long. distinctively tall,
Status Endangered
the white or pale gray underside. Sei whales are usually pointed dorsal fin
Location Worldwide (except small flukes
Mediterranean, Baltic, Red
Sea, Arabian Gulf)
approximately 50
throat grooves
Balaenoptera acutorostrata The smallest of the rorqual and near ice sheets, coasts, fjords, and midwinter and weaned after about 4
whales, the common minke estuaries. It feeds alone by gulping in months. A smaller minke whale was
Common Minke whale whale has small baleen plates, 12 in
(30 cm) long, with 230 – 360 in each side
tight-knit swarms of krill or fish. Yet it is
not shy, and will approach stationary
recently recognized as a separate
species—the Antarctic minke
Length 211⁄4 – 29 ft of the upper jaw. It has no universal boats. The 9 3 ⁄4-ft (3-m) calf is born in (Balaenoptera bonaerensis).
(6.5 – 8.8 m)
migration pattern and is found in a
Weight 2 – 3 tons
(2 – 2.7 tonnes) variety of waters, including open ocean
DOLPHINLIKE WHALE
Social unit Individual SMOKY PATTERNS
The minke has a dolphinlike shape, with
Location Worldwide
Status Least concern The minke has gray, “smoky” patches where the
black back meets the white belly. The white a sharp snout, pointed head, and
(except E. Mediterranean)
band on the flipper may extend to the chest. a ridge from the snout up to the paired
blowholes, which are set well
back on the forehead.
It is a speedy, agile
MAMMALS
swimmer, able to “surf”
huge ocean breakers, and
makes an occasional spectacular
surface lunge.
smoky patches
Megaptera novaeangliae edges to the longest flippers of any upward. The whales then move up BODY AND FINS
animal. In spite of its size, it is graceful with open mouths and catch the fish. The humpback whale has a dumpy body and a
Humpback whale and athletic, being able to leap out of the
water (see below). The humpback whale
An extremely vocal whale, it also emits
numerous sounds, perhaps partly to
fatty pad at the base of the dorsal fin, which is
variable in shape, from almost flat to tall and
triangular. The span of the tail flukes is about
Length 491⁄4 – 553⁄4 ft migrates from cold, food-rich summer coordinate its feeding. In winter calving
(15 – 17 m) one-third the length of the head and body.
waters near the poles to warmer, coastal areas, solitary males produce a long,
Weight 291⁄2 – 331⁄4 tons
(30 – 34 tonnes) shallows at lower latitudes for winter complex series of sounds of amazing
Social unit Variable calving. Pregnant females spend longest variety (see panel below).
in the feeding areas. It has a wide array of
Location Worldwide (except food-gathering methods and small fatty pad
Mediterranean, Baltic,
Red Sea, Arabian Gulf) groups engage in bubble-net feeding—
a feeding method in which the
whales blow bubbles under a 12 – 36 throat
school of fish, forcing them grooves or pleats
The humpback whale
is dark blue-black
above, with paler or
SINGING
white patches below.
Color variations,
particularly on the
underside of the slight ridge from
tail, can be used to identify individual dorsal fin to tail
humpbacks, as can the knobbly leading
BREACHING
flippers up
The humpback whale generates to one-third
sufficient upward force with its of total body The song of the male humpback
length
tail to lift almost all of its 20-plus whale develops from year to year.
tons out of the water. It then Lasting up to 30 minutes, it may
twists in the air and falls on its attract females, warn off males, or
back with a tremendous splash. be a form of sonar to detect other
leading edge to flippers
It is not clear why whales “breach,” (pectoral fins) has knobs whales. Above, a male humpback
as such a movement out of the or tubercles moves into a singing posture,
water is called. It may be to create hanging vertically with head
massive sound waves or to ease downward some 33 – 130 ft
irritation from skin parasites. (10 – 40 m) below the surface.
250 CETACEANS
Toothed whales
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PHYLUM Chordata A much more diverse group than baleen the front of the skull). Another have fewer teeth. Sperm whales have
whales, toothed whales make up almost feature of many toothed whales is functional teeth only in the lower jaw
CLASS Mammalia
the streamlined head and the long, (which is very narrow), and prey is
ORDER Cetacea
90 percent of all cetaceans. The group narrow beak seen in most species. held firmly between these teeth and
consists of dolphins (which include the the roughened palate in the upper jaw.
SUBORDER Odontoceti
killer whale), river dolphins, porpoises, Feeding All toothed whales use echolocation
FAMILIES 10 While baleen whales trap their prey (see p.244) to help find prey (and to
white whales, sperm whales, and beaked en masse, toothed whales capture avoid objects in their path).
SPECIES 75
whales. Most are medium-sized—although victims individually. The even,
the sperm whale grows to up to 59 ft conical teeth found in this group Social behavior
are perfect for catching slippery fish, Most toothed whales live in groups
(18 m)—and all possess teeth instead of baleen plates. On
which form the diet of most species. called pods or schools, which vary
the forehead, there is a fluid-filled swelling called the melon, Sperm whales, however, mostly eat in size from less than 10 to over
in front of which there is usually a beak. Most species are squid (but also other prey, such as 1,000 (as seen in some dolphin
found around the world in deep water and coastal shallows, octopus), and beaked whales have species). The exact organization
a mixed diet of fish and squid. Killer of these associations is poorly
although a few live in freshwater. Some toothed whales whales eat other whales (which they understood, although it is thought
migrate, but only the sperm whale travels long distances. attack in packs), fish, and seals, which that subgroups form to perform
they sometimes seize from land, using independent tasks, such as feeding.
waves to slide onto the beach. They This suggests the presence of
Anatomy baleen whales, toothed whales have also upset pack ice to knock prey complex social structures. Some
Most toothed whales have simple, only one blowhole, which means that into the water. species, especially killer whales,
conical, pointed teeth that are not the skull is asymmetrical. The single Fish-eating species (including killer appear to practice cooperative
divided into incisors, canines, blowhole usually opens at the top of whales) usually have numerous teeth hunting, whereby prey is “herded”
premolars, and molars (as in most the head (except in the sperm whale, to hold wriggling prey, while those that until trapped or surrounded. When
other mammals). Each tooth has a where the opening is left of center at eat squid or octopus, for example, swimming in formation, dolphins
single root and is either straight or often leap out of the water, which
slightly curved. One set of teeth lasts may simply be playful behavior, or
the whale’s lifetime. The number of it may function as a form
MAMMALS
teeth present varies from more than of communication.

40 pairs in each jaw in some dolphins,
to a single pair (in the lower jaw)
in beaked whales. Unlike
STREAMLINED FOR SPEED

Atlantic spotted dolphins are fast, energetic swimmers,
and, like several other toothed whale species, they
often travel in large pods. The torpedo-shaped body is
propelled through the water by powerful thrusts of
the tail. The mottled coloration camouflages them from
predators and prey in shallow, sunlit waters.
TOOTHED WHALES 251
Platanista gangetica pairs of lower, sharp teeth. The front Inia boliviensis
teeth extend outside the beak’s tip, to
Ganges river dolphin form a catching cage for fish, shellfish,
and similar prey on or near the bottom.
Bolivian boto
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Length 51⁄2 – 81⁄2 ft The flexible neck allows the head to Length 91⁄4 ft
(1.7 – 2.6 m) (2.8 m)
bend at right angles as the dolphin
Weight About 242 lb Weight 396 lb
(110 kg) grubs in the mud or “scans” the area (180 kg)
Social unit Variable with echolocating sound pulses. The Social unit Individual/Pair
Status Endangered
Ganges river dolphin lives in small Status Not evaluated
Location S. Asia (Indus groups, usually 4 – 6 but occasionally Location C. South America
and Ganges-Brahmaputra
river systems) up to 30. However, its social life and
breeding habits are largely unknown.
There are 2 subspecies: Platanista
gangetica minor in the Indus river and Once recognized as a smaller, gray
Also known by the local names susu its tributaries, and Platanista gangetica subspecies of the pink Amazon river
and bhulan, this exclusively freshwater gangetica in the Ganges-Brahmaputra dolphin, this dolphin is now considered waterfalls arose. Like the Amazon
species has distinctively broad flippers river system. Both are extremely to be a distinct species. It is found in river dolphin, the Bolivian boto preys
and a long, narrow beak armed with rare and face numerous threats the Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé rivers on bottom-dwelling fishes while
26 – 39 pairs of upper, and 26 – 35 from humans. of Bolivia—and isolated from other Inia swimming, which it snatches using a
populations by 240 miles (400 km) of falls long beak—helped by a flexible neck.
tiny eyes
gray back in the Madeira river. Various It is more abundant in lagoons and
studies have demonstrated confluences, where prey becomes
that it is genetically distinct concentrated by eddies and whirlpools
from its more widespread cousin and so is more easily trapped. These
Inia geoffrensis. They also indicate that dolphins usually travel alone or in
Bolivian boto probably became isolated pairs. They are less likely to be seen
long, narrow in the Beni region about 5 million years during high water season, perhaps
pinkish beak ago—when Andean mountains were because they then can disperse
underside forming and before Madeira’s into flooded forest.
Inia geoffrensis by echolocating sound pulses. The

Amazon river dolphin has 25 – 35 pairs CAUTIOUS APPROACH
Amazon river dolphin
MAMMALS
of teeth in both upper and lower jaws. Known for its slow, apparently
At the front, the teeth are peglike, for lethargic lifestyle, the Amazon river
Length 6 – 81⁄4 ft seizing prey, but at the rear, they are dolphin usually lives alone or in twos,
(1.8 – 2.5 m)
flatter with peaks or cusps, and thus occasionally in groups of up to 20.
(70 – 207 kg) suited to crushing freshwater crabs, In some areas, it may approach
Social unit Variable river turtles, and armored catfish. boats or swimmers out of curiosity,
Status Data deficient The single calf, 32 in (80 cm) long, but in regions where it is hunted, it
Location South America is born between May and July. has become more cautious.
(Amazon and Orinoco
basins)
BACK HUMP
Also called the pink river dolphin or Unlike other river dolphins,
bufeo, this species ranges through the this species lacks a proper
Amazon and Orinoco river systems. It dorsal fin and in its place
possesses a long, slim beak and flexible has a low back ridge.
neck, for poking in mud for prey during
short dives of 1 – 2 minutes. Being touch-sensitive
small-eyed and living in murky water, it bristles on beak variable coloration with
probably finds its way and food mainly pink and gray blotches
Delphinapterus leucas The beluga, or white whale, the bulging melon. The beluga feeds
CONSERVATION
keeps mainly to the edges of the on fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and
Beluga Arctic ice-fields and has been
radio-tracked diving to 985 ft (300 m),
other prey, which it crushes with its
8 – 11 pairs of teeth both the upper
As global warming opens up Arctic
sea routes, belugas are increasingly
Length 10 – 143⁄4 ft presumably navigating by echolocation and lower jaws. The calf is dark gray threatened by pollution from shipping
(3 – 4.5 m)
to find prey and breathing holes. This and 5 ft (1.5 m) long at birth. It is paler and oil exploration, as seen at the
(0.5 – 1.6 tonnes) vocal whale emits varied calls, including by 2 years old, and blue-tinged white St. Lawrence estuary. Belugas
Social unit Group squeaks, whistles, mews, clicks, and by the age of 5. are also targeted by subsistence
hums. These are audible through the hunters, but commercial hunting
Location Arctic Ocean hulls of boats, giving the beluga its is banned by conservation treaties.
ALL-WHITE WHALE
nickname of sea canary. The outgoing The only all-white cetacean, the adult
echolocation sounds are focused by beluga blends with the Arctic ice floes and
icebergs. Its skin may be tinged yellow
before the summer molt.
fibrous ridge along back
(no dorsal fin)
252 CETACEANS
Monodon monoceros Like belugas—indeed, often with

them—narwhals can sometimes form MALE NARWHAL’S TUSK
Narwhal large schools of thousands, which may
be segregated by age and sex. They
The narwhal’s tusk grows with age,
through the upper lip, spiraling
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Length 12 – 161⁄4 ft communicate with a wide variety of clockwise, to reach 93⁄4 ft (3 m) long.
(3.7 – 5 m)
sounds, including humlike tones that It may be used as a weapon by rival
Weight 3⁄4 –15⁄8 tons
(0.7 – 1.8 tonnes) may be for individual recognition. males at breeding time, but recent
Social unit Group findings indicate that it has a sensory
function. Any use in feeding seems
COLORATION
Location Arctic Ocean unlikely, since most females lack
The narwhal (female pictured here) is speckled
gray and black on a pale background, with more tusks. Some males have 2 tusks,
patches on the back merging into larger areas and some females have one.
of dark gray.
The narwhal has the most
northerly range of any mammal,
among ice-fields and floes of
Arctic waters. It has one
ever-growing tooth, the
upper-left incisor, which forms a long
tusk (see panel, right). Fish, mollusks,
crustaceans, and other prey are C-shaped flukes small flippers
probably sucked into the mouth by the with upturned tip
narwhal’s powerful lips and tongue.
Phocoena phocoena being snared in underwater fishing Phocoena sinus of California porpoise, its habits are little
nets when, as an air-breather, it known. It is usually solitary, or in groups
Harbor porpoise asphyxiates. Apart from humans,
its main predators are killer whales,
Vaquita of 2 –4, but may also form groups of up
to 10 if food is plentiful. It takes a mixed
Length ⁄2 – 6 ⁄2 ft
1 1
bottlenose dolphins, and large Length 4 – 5 ft diet of small fish, squid, and other prey
(41.4 – 2 m) (1.2 – 1.5 m)
sharks. The harbor porpoise generally on or near the sea bed, and uses
(45 – 75 kg) forages alone, in waters down to (30 – 48 kg) high-frequency clicks for echolocation.
Social unit Variable 655 ft (200 m), for seabed dwellers Social unit Variable The main body color is gray, darker
MAMMALS

such as fish and shellfish. It uses very Status Critically endangered
above than below and also around the
Location North Pacific, high-pitched echolocation and grips Location Gulf of California eyes and mouth. The calf is only 28 – 32 in
North Atlantic, Black Sea
prey with its spade-shaped teeth, (70 – 80 cm) long at birth and is suckled
numbering 19 – 28 pairs in the upper by the mother for several months. Illegal
and lower jaws. Groups usually form fishing has reduced populations by
because prey such as schooling fish This small porpoise’s very restricted 92 percent since the mid 90s, and
The most numerous cetacean over are particularly rich in small areas. range, in shallow waters less than 130 ft only an estimated 60 individuals are
much of its range, the harbor porpoise The single calf is born in early summer (40 m) deep at the northern end of the left. Also, threats suh as entanglement in
has nevertheless suffered, like other and cared for by the mother for up Gulf of California, makes it one fishing nets, pollution, boat noise, and
inshore sea creatures, as a result of to 12 months. of the most vulnerable of all sea oil exploration mean that the vaquita’s
human activity. A major danger is mammals. Also called the Gulf future is bleak.
black or chocolate- triangular, slightly

brown back sharklike dorsal fin dark gray
back
stripe from pale gray to stripe from chin

chin to flipper cream underside white underside to flipper base
Neophocaena phocaenoides rolls gently while taking breaths. The estuaries and up rivers. Like other look around. It feeds alone or in groups
vaguely dolphinlike bulging forehead porpoises (and unlike dolphins), it leaps of up to 6, more if food is plentiful.
Indo-pacific Finless and a slightly beaked snout make it
distinctive among the 7 porpoise
from the water only rarely, yet it may
“spyhop” in the manner of whales,
Small fish, mollusks, and crustaceans
on or near the seabed are caught using
porpoise species. The finless porpoise frequents holding its body vertically, half out of the 13 – 22 pairs of spade-shaped
coastal waters around the Indian and the water, as though standing up to teeth in both upper and lower jaws.
Length 41⁄2 – 51⁄2 ft
(1.4 – 1.7 m)
West Pacific oceans, including
Weight 65-120 lb
(30 – 55 kg)
Status Vulnerable
Location Indian Ocean,
W. Pacific
low, warty back ridge

from above flippers
to tail
Lack of a dorsal fin makes this medium- slightly pointed

snout
sized porpoise difficult to identify, or pale underside
even see, because it surfaces briefly and
TOOTHED WHALES 253
Phocoenoides dalli flippers are small compared to the Sousa teuszii mainly on schooling fish. It has 26 – 32
body, and there are 23 – 28 pairs of pairs of peglike teeth in the upper and
Dall’s porpoise teeth in the upper and lower jaws. Small
schools of Dall’s porpoises sometimes
Atlantic humpback lower jaws. This dolphin forms schools
of up to 25 and also associates with
dolphin
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Length 51⁄4 –73⁄4 ft merge to form vast groups numbering humans, following shrimp boats for
(1.6 – 2.4 m)
thousands. They make a variety of disturbed fish or herding fish toward
(60 – 200 kg) clicking sounds, and feed on fish and Length 73⁄4 – 91⁄4 ft shore-based nets in return for a share
(2.4 – 2.8 m)
Social unit Group squid—from pilchards at the surface to of the catch. It is very similar to Sousa
Weight 620 lb
lanternfish at middle depth. They can (280 kg)
plumbea, which frequents the Indian
Location North Pacific swim up to about 34 mph (55 kph). Ocean, and Sousa chinensis in the
Social unit Group
Status Vulnerable
coastal West Pacific. The Atlantic
Location E. Atlantic humpback dolphin, however, is slate
forward-tilted gray with pale underparts. Those in
dorsal fin the Indian Ocean are larger and darker,
perhaps with blue-black flecks.
The Atlantic humpback dolphin Individuals around China are smallest,
inhabits shallow coasts, reefs, almost pink with gray flecks around the
mangrove swamps, estuaries, and head and eyes, and the dorsal fin lacks
rivers. It swims slowly and feeds the inward curve on its trailing edge.
white flank patch

This large, robust-bodied, rapid-
swimming porpoise is mainly black
apart from a white patch along each
flank and perhaps white tips to the melon forms
flukes and dorsal fin. The head and angle with beak
Sotalia fluviatilis around the coasts and river estuaries coast. It may leap, somersault, and squid. In some places, local tradition
MAMMALS
of northeast South America, and as surf waves—but the reason for this is forbids hunting these dolphins.
Tucuxi a river form in the lower reaches and
lakes of the Amazon system. It is
not clear. Prey up to 14 in (35 cm) long
is swallowed whole, including fish
However, many are accidentally
asphyxiated in fishing nets, and some
Length Up to 5 ft a different species to the solely such as anchovies and catfish, and are deliberately killed for meat or
(1.5 m)
freshwater Amazon river dolphin (see fishing bait; the eyes and other parts
Weight Up to 115 lb
(52 kg) p.251). The tucuxi lives alone or in large dorsal have been valued as love charms.
Social unit Variable twos, although larger schools occur, fin
up to 10 in rivers and 30 around the prominent
Status Data deficient beak
Location Central America,
N.E. South America
large, broad
tail flukes
The tucuxi (pronounced “too-koo-

shee”) is one of the smallest dolphins,
stocky with large flippers, flukes, and line from eye to
dorsal fin. It occurs as a marine form pale underside flipper base
Lagenorhynchus obscurus subspecies based respectively around fish, such as anchovies, and squid;
CONSERVATION
South America (Lagenorhynchus off New Zealand, feeding is mainly
Dusky dolphin obscurus fitzroyi), southern Africa
(Lagenorhynchus obscurus obscurus),
by night at middle depths. Schools
of dusky dolphins change rapidly
Length 51⁄2 – 7 ft and New Zealand (unnamed). It prefers in size and composition, varying in
(1.7 – 2.1 m)
waters of 50 – 64° F (10 – 18° C) and less number from 2 up to 1,000. Groups
(70 – 85 kg) than 655 ft (200 m) deep. Off South often engage in much leaping,
Social unit Variable America, it feeds by day on schooling chasing, and rubbing.
Location S. Atlantic,
Indian Ocean, S. Pacific tall, crescentlike COMPLICATED PATTERNS
dorsal fin The dusky dolphin has complex markings
in shades of blue-black, dark gray, pale gray,
and white. The black “lips” and beak tip are
a distinctive feature.
The dusky dolphin is Like many small cetaceans, the
mainly dark gray to dusky dolphin often falls victim to
blue-black on its fishing nets as it pursues its prey.
upperside, and Once entangled in their mesh, it
pale gray or soon drowns. This species was
white on the formerly hunted off
underside. These areas are the coast of
separated by a tapering gray stripe Peru, for human
from the face along the flank to near consumption and for fishing bait,
forked pale patch
the tail base. The head has a smooth pale gray flank stripe on upper flank but as dolphin numbers fell, this
profile that widens gradually from beak practice was banned in 1996.
to blowhole. The species occurs as 3
254 CETACEANS
Lagenorhynchus obliquidens A pale stripe from the tail base extends Lagenorhynchus albirostris angle. Coloration is mainly dark gray
forward to level with the dorsal fin, then or black with variable gray or white
Pacific white-sided it may fork, arching over the shoulder
region to near the eye. This dolphin eats
White-beaked patches extending along the upper and
lower flanks; the underside, including
dolphin dolphin
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a variety of fish and squid, using 23 – 36 the beak, tends to be white. It has
pairs of small teeth in both the upper 22 – 28 pairs of robust, cone-shaped
Length 7 – 81⁄4 ft and lower jaws. It forms fast-changing Length 73⁄4 – 10 ft teeth in both upper and lower jaws,
(2.1 – 2.5 m) (2.4 – 3.1 m)
schools numbering tens to thousands, for feeding on open-water shoaling
Weight About 440 lb Weight 395 – 770 lb
(200 kg)
and often associates with other (180 – 350 kg)
fish such as herring, although sea
Social unit Group
dolphins and whales. After a gestation Social unit Group
bed-dwelling flatfish and squid are
period of 10 – 12 months, the female Status Least concern
also taken. The single calf, 31⁄2 – 4 ft
Location North Pacific gives birth to a single calf, which is Location North Atlantic (110 – 120 cm) long, is born, like many
3 ft (90 cm) long. This dolphin makes other dolphins, in summer. White-beaked
up a sizable part of the catch in some dolphins congregate in rapidly changing
fishing industries of the northwest schools numbering from 5 to more than
Distinguished by its tapering head, Pacific Ocean. This large, stocky dolphin is an 1,000. They produce machine-gun-like
coloration, and tall dorsal fin, this acrobatic swimmer. Its stubby beak bursts of clicks and a range of squeals
dolphin often rides ship bow meets the bulging melon of to communicate with each other and
waves in the North Pacific. It has the forehead at a distinct also to navigate and find prey.
a dark back, a gray-white belly,
and a lower flank patch from the
tall, black,
beak to level with the sickle-shaped
dorsal fin. dorsal fin
side stripe extends from dark leading

tail to above eye edge to flippers
MAMMALS
Grampus griseus coloration. It forms schools of 10 – 50, other dolphins, Risso’s dolphin
but these may aggregate into groups suffers from human activities. It is COMMUNICATION
Risso’s dolphin of several hundreds mixed with other
cetaceans, especially smaller dolphins
asphyxiated in fishing nets, accumulates
pollutants in the body through the food
Length 121⁄2 – 13 ft and pilot whales. In chain, and swallows pieces of plastic
(3.8 – 4.1 m)
common with many and other refuse.
Weight 880 – 1,102 lb
(400 – 500 kg)
Social unit Group tall, sickle-shaped
Status Least concern dorsal fin
Location Pacific, Atlantic,
Mediterranean, Indian
Ocean
Risso’s dolphins dive deeply

and eat mainly squid. Water
This distinctive dolphin is readily darkens with depth, so sounds
identified by its large size, blunt of echolocation are more important
and “beakless” head, long, than sight for locating prey. Parties
central crease down sickle- of dolphins may monitor each
WHITE WITH AGE shaped
the bulging melon, Wounds and scratches accumulate with age, healing flippers other’s clicks and echoes, to find
tall dorsal fin, and as pale, scarred patches. Older individuals, perhaps prey more efficiently.
overall gray, white-scarred over 30 years, may appear almost white.
Tursiops truncatus West Pacific. There may even and dorsal fin. In colder, open oceans
be more species, considering the they are almost twice as long, with ADAPTABILITY
Bottlenose dolphin wide variation across regions and
habitats. Around tropical coasts, the
proportionately smaller extremities.
Social groupings and feeding methods
The bottlenose dolphin, named for
its short and robust beak, is an
Length 61⁄4 – 13 ft bottlenose dolphin is an average of are similarly varied over its range, as are adaptable, successful generalist.
(1.9 – 4 m)
6 1⁄2 ft (2 m) long, and has relatively the leaps, water-slaps, sounds, and It eats many kinds of fish, mollusks,
Weight 300 – 1,400 lb
(136 – 635 kg) large flippers, flukes, calls of the bottlenose dolphin. and crustaceans, which it grips with
Social unit Variable 18 – 27 pairs of small, conical teeth
Status Least concern large, sickle- in both jaws.
Location Worldwide shaped dorsal fin
(except polar regions)
This largest of the beaked

dolphins is the “performing”
species of marine life centers.
pointed
In fact, there are probably 2 species: flippers
Tursiops truncatus, which is found VARIABLE COLORATION
worldwide, and the smaller Tursiops cream underside
The basic coloration of dark gray or black
aduncus, which has a more limited back, fading to cream underneath, varies
range off the coast of India and in the in hue and pattern between individuals.
TOOTHED WHALES 255
Stenella longirostris of sharp teeth in each of the upper and or thousands, which often associate
lower jaws, except the smallest of the with other cetaceans, and even with SPINNING ACTION
Spinner dolphin subspecies, which has only 40–52
pairs. Coloration is black or dark gray,
predatory fish such as tuna—although
the reason for this is not clear.
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Length 41⁄4 – 9 ft fading to a pale or white underside,

(1.3 – 2.8 m)
with black edging to the eyes and lips,
Weight Up to 175 lb
(80 kg) although this is very variable. The BODY FORM
Social unit Group spinner dolphin dives deep to eat The spinner is slender but muscular, with a long,
midwater fish and squid. It forms slim beak, tall, crescent-shaped or triangular
Location Tropical waters massive schools of hundreds dorsal fin, and pointed flippers and flukes.
worldwide
The acrobatic spinner dolphin

performs high leaps when it twists
in the air or spins on its
No other dolphin, or vertical axis several
possibly cetacean, varies so times. The purpose of this
greatly in body proportions, color, behaviour is unclear. It may be to
and pattern across its range. There demonstrate fitness and/or attract
are at least 4 spinner subspecies. gray flanks a mate, or to dislodge parasites.
Thespinner dolphin has 40 – 60 pairs
Stenella attenuata One of the commonest cetaceans, forehead to just behind the dorsal juveniles, and other subgroups. These
this dolphin is usually found in waters fin. The flanks are lighter gray and the all associate with other cetaceans,
Pantropical spotted warmer than 72° F (22° C). It has a
slender, streamlined body and slim
underside is pale. Large superpods of
thousands are often segregated into
especially spinner dolphins and tuna
fish. Pantropical spotted dolphins eat
dolphin beak with 34 – 48 pairs of teeth in both mothers with mainly mackerel, flying fish, squid, and
upper and lower jaws. An elongated, young, older other near-surface prey.
Length 51⁄4 – 81⁄2 ft oval, dark gray “cape” extends from the
(1.6 – 2.6 m)
Weight Up to 260 lb
(120 kg)
Social unit Group
Location Tropical and
MAMMALS
temperate waters
worldwide
spotting increases with age adult may have

and varies with habitat white lips
Stenella frontalis also uses various techniques to catch Stenella coeruleoalba

fish, squid, and other prey from surface SURFING SCHOOL
Atlantic spotted and midwaters. It has 32 – 42 pairs of
teeth in the upper jaw and the same
Striped dolphin
dolphin in the lower jaw. The Atlantic spotted Length 7 – 81⁄2 ft
(2.2 – 2.6 m)
dolphin forms schools of up to 15
Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 ft individuals near coasts, but these may (131 – 156 kg)
(1.7 – 2.3 m)
gather into larger groups to follow Social unit Group
(110 – 143 kg)
seasonal food. Like its pantropical Status Least concern
relative (above), the newborn calf lacks Location Tropical and
Social unit Variable temperate waters
spots. These develop with age, starting worldwide
Location Atlantic on the belly and extending to the sides
and back over several years. Schools of 50 – 500 striped
dolphins race across the ocean
STOUTER SPECIES This species lives in areas of changeable and may gather in thousands,
The Atlantic spotted dolphin The Atlantic spotted dolphin is distinguished water temperature and may dive as leaping high and whistling to keep
digs with its beak in the sandy from its pantropical cousin mainly by its deep as 655 ft (200 m) to seize small in contact. They ride pressure
sea bed, poking so deep that stouter body and beak. fish and squid, using the 40 – 55 waves just in front of migrating
the whole head is immersed. It sharp-pointed pairs of teeth present in great whales, and the man-made
each jaw. It derives its name from the equivalent—ship bow waves,
complex pattern of black and gray especially in Mediterranean and
stripes along its back and Atlantic waters.
flanks. This active dolphin is
capable of a wide variety of
acrobatic leaps and spins. Although COLORATION
it is relatively common, its numbers The thin black and wider gray stripes branch
SPOT THE HABITAT have declined in recent years. or fork and overlay a dark, blue-gray back, blue-
In several spotted dolphin species, In particular, infection by a morbilli gray sides, and pale cream or pink underside.
including the Atlantic and virus drastically reduced It has a black beak and eye patches.
pantropical, the dark patches and Mediterranean populations
wide, pale
flecks increase in extent with age in the early 1990s. gray stripe
but may also vary with habitat.
These marks are generally less
prominent in oceanic groups. In
populations that stay near coasts,
the spots may be so extensive as
to obscure the background color.
256 CETACEANS
techniques. Fish, ranging from herring to INGENIOUS HUNTER

Orcinus orca Killer whales are versatile hunters, using a
great white sharks, and marine mammals,
Killer whale including whales and seals, are taken, as
well as turtles and birds. Resident killer
number of different techniques that give them
one of the most varied diets in the oceans.
They often hunt in pods, chasing down prey
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Length 321⁄2 ft whales of the northwestern coast of or herding fish together before attacking from
(Up to 9.8 m)
North America feed almost exclusively on different angles. Those living off southern South
Weight Up to 65 tons
(66 tonnes) salmon, whereas the transient killer whales America have perfected the technique of
Social unit Group in the same area hunt marine mammals, catching sea lions by intentionally beaching
and do not consume fish. Killer whales themselves to pursue the sea lions in the
Location Worldwide from the Norwegian fjords are known to shallows (shown right), while other
consume herring. Elsewhere, there are methods include tipping over ice floes
other dietary preferences. This has led to to unbalance seals and penguins, and
breaching next to rocks to wash birds
different hunting techniques. Despite its
into the sea.
Distinctive black-and-white markings name, the killer whale is approachable
make the killer whale—which is also and very inquisitive. It has a variety of
commonly known as the orca—the most elaborate surface habits, including spy
easily recognized of the toothed whales hopping (rising slowly vertically, until its
and dolphins. It is a highly social whale, head is above the water), tail and flipper
living in long-lasting family groups called slapping, and breaching.
pods, which consist of adult males and
females, and calves of various ages. Pods
typically number up to 30 individuals, but
groups of as many as 150 whales occur
when pods come together to form
superpods. Pods are matriarchal and
both male and female calves tend to stay
with their mother for life. When the young
reproduce, their offspring remain to build PARENTAL CARE
up multigenerational groupings around The whole pod may provide parental care, but
the original mother. Generally, the killer a newborn calf stays closest to its mother—a
whale’s diet is as diverse as its hunting bond that will remain strong for the rest of its life.
MAMMALS
POD FORMATIONS
Pods may travel in tight formations, with the females and calves
at the center, and the males on the fringes, or spread across
distances of up to 2 ⁄3 mile (1 km). They communicate using sets
of highly distinctive cries and screams, which also act as social
signals that reinforce group identity.
taller, less
curved dorsal
fin in male
conspicuous
eye patches gray
rounded, saddle patch
tapering wide tail
head flukes
large, white
paddle-shaped underside
flippers
BUILT FOR HUNTING

The killer whale has a powerfully built, stocky
body ideally suited to hunting. The broad tail
flukes help propel the whale at high speeds,
and the dorsal fin—which reaches up to 6 ft
(1.8 m) in males—and paddlelike flippers provide
stability. Underwater, its markings have the effect
of camouflaging the whale from above and below.
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MAMMALS
257
258 CETACEANS
Delphinus delphis This species has a yellow to buff Lissodelphis borealis CONSERVATION
blaze along the flank, from the face
Short-beaked to below the dorsal fin. It tapers to a
point, then widens again toward the tail,
Northern right- Due in part to its schooling habits,
the northern right-whale dolphin
common dolphin whale dolphin
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but as pale gray. There are also dark, is at high risk from drift nets set
narrow stripes from mouth corner to for fish and squid. In the 1980s,
Length 51⁄4 – 71⁄2 ft eye and chin to flipper. The short-beaked Length Up to 93⁄4 ft over 20,000 died every year. A
(1.6 – 2.3 m) (3 m)
common dolphin has 41 – 52 pairs of UN moratorium on drift-netting
Weight 440 lb Weight Up to 250 lb
(Up to 200 kg)
small, sharp teeth in the upper jaw, (115 kg)
has since slashed this figure, and
Social unit Group
and the same in the lower jaw. It lives Social unit Group
bycatch losses have reduced due
offshore in the deep ocean; the inshore Status Least concern
to acoustic warning systems.
Location Temperate and form is regarded as a separate species, Location North Pacific
tropical waters worldwide
Delphinus capensis, with 2 subspecies.
Both species hunt schooling fish and
squid to a depth of 985 ft (300 m).
This sociable dolphin forms schools of
HOURGLASS PATTERN 100 – 200, which merge into gatherings
The flanks have yellow and creamy gray of thousands. It makes varied sounds
areas that form a distinctive and associates with other cetaceans,
hourglass shape. leaping high and riding ship bow
waves. Its main foods are midwater SLIM AND FAST
fish and squid, down to 655 ft The body is slender, with relatively small flippers
(200 m). A similar species, Lissodelphis and tail flukes, indicating that this dolphin is a
SCHOOLING peronii, is found in southern oceans. speedy swimmer. It has no dorsal fin.
Short-beaked common dolphins are
very social, forming fast-swimming
schools of thousands. They leap
and tumble, ride waves from ships and
great whales, and make many sounds
such as clicks, squeaks, and creaks.
Their whistles are loud enough to
be heard from nearby boats. narrow, white band
along underside
MAMMALS
Orcaella brevirostris head and body. The head muscles water, roaming almost 930 miles usually in groups of 2 – 6, and up to
allow a wide range of facial expressions, (1,500 km) inland in the major 25. It feeds on fish, squid, octopus,
Irrawaddy dolphin giving this dolphin an animated
appearance to human observers;
waterways of the Irrawaddy (Burma)
and Mekong (Vietnam). But overall,
prawns, and similar prey on or near the
seabed, using its 8 – 19 pairs of teeth
Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄4 ft however, equating expressions to this is an estuarine and coastal species in the upper jaw and 11 – 18 pairs in
(1.1 – 1.3 m)
ours is extremely conjectural. Some frequenting muddy, silt-laden river the lower. Gestation is estimated at 14
(90 – 150 kg) Irrawaddy dolphins live solely in fresh mouths and deltas. It swims slowly, months, and the single calf is about
Social unit Variable 39 in (100 cm) long and 26 lb (12 kg) at
Status Vulnerable small dorsal fin set just birth. In some regions, these dolphins
bulging forehead
Location S.E. Asia and behind midpoint of back traditionally work with people to herd
N. Australia
fish into nets,
receiving reward
of food for their
cooperation, and
This river dolphin’s distinctive features even being revered as sacred. However,
include a bulging forehead, no proper in other places, Irrawaddy dolphins are
beak but ridgelike lips, and “creases” viewed as pests at river fisheries or
demarcating a neck region between slightly paler underside killed for their meat.
Cephalorhynchus commersonii Commerson’s dolphin has similar Cephalorhynchus hectori beak or melon bulge. It is gray
coloration to that of the killer whale. with black flippers, dorsal fin, and
Commerson’s Its forehead slopes smoothly from the
snout, merging with its stocky body.
Hector’s dolphin tail. The white underside extends
a projection up each flank toward
dolphin The newborn calf, 26 – 30 in (65 – 75 cm) Length 51⁄4 ft
(Up to 1.6 m)
the tail. Active and sociable, it forms
long, is gray and becomes two-tone small schools of up to 5, and spends
Weight Up to 140 lb
Length 6 ft with age. The species forms schools (Up to 65 kg) much time chasing, touching, flipper-
(Up to 1.8 m)
of less than 10 that sometimes expand Social unit Group slapping, and generally interacting
Weight Up to 190 lb
(86 kg)
up to 100. It feeds on seabed dwellers, Status Endangered
with others. It feeds at various depths,
such as fish, crabs, starfish, and squid. Location New Zealand mainly on fish and squid. As an
Social unit Group
There are 2 populations (probably inshore species, Hector’s dolphin is
Location S. South America, subspecies), separated by more than at particular risk from entanglement
Falkland Islands, Indian
Ocean (Kerguelen Islands) 4,970 miles (8,000 km)—those around in fishing nets and from pollution.
South America being 10 – 12 in One of the smallest dolphins, this
(25 – 30 cm) shorter than those in species is similar to a porpoise
the Indian Ocean. in outline, with a smoothly
tapering snout and
rounded dorsal fin no distinct
fingerlike white flank

markings
TOOTHED WHALES 259
Pseudorca crassidens with a paler underside patch between

CONSERVATION
the flippers, and perhaps pale patches
False killer whale on the sides of the head. It prefers deep
oceans but appears occasionally off
The false killer whale makes a
wide variety of echolocating and
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Length 20 ft oceanic islands, in schools of 10 – 20, communicating sounds, such as

(Up to 6.1 m)
rarely up to 300. Equipped with 7 – 11 clicks and whistles. It also leaps
Weight 21⁄8 tons
(Up to 2.2 tonnes) pairs of large, conical teeth in both the with agility and skillfully surfs breakers
Social unit Group upper and lower jaws, this formidable and ship bow waves. However, this
hunter pursues large oceanic fish, such confident navigator is often stranded
Location Temperate and as salmon, tuna, and barracuda. It also on beaches in vast groups of up
takes squid and even to 1,000. Why this happens is not
smaller dolphins. known but, with help to return to
the water, some survive.
One of the largest dolphins, this rapid

swimmer has a long, slim body and
a tall, sicklelike dorsal
fin. Coloration is
uniform black or BULL-NOSED WHALE
slate-gray, The pronounced, rounded melon combined
angled flippers with the absence of a beak gives the false killer
whale a bull-nosed profile.
Globicephala macrorhynchus BONDING

Short-finned pilot Pilot whales form schools of tens to
hundreds and also associate with
whale other cetaceans such as bottlenose
and common dolphins, and minke
Length 16 – 23 ft whales. Within a pilot whale school,
(5 – 7 m)
adults form long-term bonds and
(1.5 – 3.5 tonnes)
probably recognize each other by
MAMMALS
Social unit Group
individual “signature” whistles.
However, many offspring are not
Location Temperate and closely related genetically to the
school’s males, suggesting that
mating occurs between schools.
Females past reproductive age may
suckle calves that are not their own.
Nocturnally active, the pilot whale
feeds mainly on deep-water squid and
octopus, diving below 1,600 ft (500 m) battles for females. After a gestation of STOCKY BODY
for more than 15 minutes. There are almost 15 months, the female gives large, rounded The pilot whale has a stocky body, a markedly
dorsal fin bulbous forehead, and a dorsal fin set about
2 very similar species: the short-finned birth to a single calf 41⁄2 – 6 ft (1.4 – 1.8 m)
(Globicephala macrorhynchus) has long. Pilot whales are still hunted, one-third of the way along the body.
smaller flippers (pectoral fins) than the by driving them into the shallows
long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala for slaughter.
melas). In both, there is an anchor-
shaped pale patch on the throat and
chest, and white streaks behind the
dorsal fin and each eye. Females are
about half the weight of males, but
live 15 years longer, up to 60 years.
overall gray,
Along with skin scarring, these features brown, or black
suggest competition between males with coloration
Hyperoodon ampullatus The northern bottlenose whale is at the tip of the beak. Other teeth whale is long and slim, the
one of about 22 species of beaked are present but the degree of growth flippers small, and the erect dorsal fin
Northern bottlenose whales—mostly medium-sized,
open-ocean cetaceans that make
above the surface of the gums (eruption)
is very variable. Feeding is probably by
is set about two-thirds of the way to
the tail. Like most other beaked whales,
whale long, deep dives for squid, starfish, suction, using the tongue as a piston to this species congregates in small
fish, crab, and other food. This species draw in water, seabed mud, and prey. groups with 1 – 4 members, but can
Length 20 – 33 ft has a bulging forehead and dolphinlike The body of the northern bottlenose be up to 20 individuals, usually all of
(6 – 10 m)
beak. Males, which grow larger than the same sex and of similar ages.
Weight 71⁄4 – 93⁄4 tons scars from combat with other
7.5 – 10 tonnes
females, have 2 tusklike teeth growing
males of the species
Social unit Individual/
Group orange- or gray-
Location North Atlantic brown back
streamlined flukes
pale brown
slim body underside
260 CETACEANS
Ziphius cavirostris and other creatures using suction whale is streamlined for fast swimming, Cuvier’s beaked whales tend to live
(see northern bottlenose whale, p.259). using only its tail flukes, down to great alone. Most males have 2 cone-shaped
Cuvier’s The jawline curves up at the tip of the
snout and then down. Along with the
depths. The pale brown to blue-gray
body is scarred by parasites and
teeth, which project like tusks from the
lower jaw. Females and young are
beaked whale
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relatively smooth forehead, this leads also, in males, by bites from males toothless. Younger males, females, and
to the alternative name of goose-beak of the same species. These wounds offspring, which are nearly 9 ft (2.7 m)
Length 20 – 23 ft whale. The small flippers fit into probably occur during dominance long at birth, form schools of rarely
(6 – 7 m)
indentations in the body so that the battles at breeding time. Older male more than 10.
(2.5 – 3.5 tonnes)
“goose-beak” tan or pale brown to
Social unit Variable snout gray-blue coloration
Location Temperate and
This species has the long, slim body

and small dorsal fin set well to the
rear typical of the beaked whale scars from skin parasites
family. It feeds on deep-living squid 2 throat grooves and inter-male battles
Kogia simus Smallest of the 3 species of sperm dwarf sperm whale lives alone or in appears to vary between 9 and 11
whales, this whale dives to nearly small schools (fewer than 10), and months, and the single calf, about
Dwarf sperm whale 1,000 ft (300 m) for fish, squid,
crustaceans, and mollusks. The
releases a cloud of feces to repel
predators. Little is known about its
3 ft (1 m) long, is usually born in
autumn. These whales seem prone
Length 83⁄4 ft lower jaw has 8 – 13 pairs of sharp breeding habits: the gestation period to group strandings.
(2.7 m)
teeth, and is slung almost sharklike
Weight 300 – 620 lb tall, dolphinlike pale, crescent-
(135 – 280 kg) under the large, bulbous head; the
dorsal fin shaped markings
Social unit Variable upper jaw has only 3 pairs of teeth.
Back, fin, flippers, and flukes are
Location Temperate and blue-gray, shading to cream below.
Just behind the mouth and eye is a
MAMMALS
contrasting, pale crescent, which, in

size and position, resembles the gill
slit of a fish. A shy creature, the
Physeter catodon deep dives may be in part due to its

spermaceti organ (see panel, right). SPERMACETI ORGAN
Sperm whale Between dives, the whale lies loglike
at the surface, a plume of misty air
The sperm whale’s enormous head
contains a spermaceti organ—a
Length 34 – 63 ft emerging with each exhalation at 45 large mass of waxy oil. It was
(10.4 – 19.2 m)
degrees from the single blowhole. The thought to work as a buoyancy aid,
Weight 69 tons
(Up to 70 tonnes) long, narrow lower jaw is slung under becoming denser with changing
Social unit Individual/ the huge head and bears 26 pairs of temperature and pressure, to assist
Group conical, round-tipped teeth; there are very deep dives. However, its
Location Deep waters Status Vulnerable no visible upper teeth. The main color function is now considered to
worldwide
is dark gray or brown, paler on the be that of a focussing lens for
underside, with white or cream around echolocation.
the lower jaw. Bull (male) sperm whales
are twice the weight of females (cows)
One of the world’s largest carnivores, and tend to migrate farther north and
this massive cetacean makes extremely south, into colder waters, for summer KEEPING IN TOUCH
deep dives for food, mainly squid and feeding. They form loose, bachelor Sperm whales often swim near, touch, and caress
octopus, but also fish and, sometimes, pods when young but then become others in their school. They also produce loud,
giant squid. It can stay submerged for more solitary. Females stay nearer the rhythmic clicking and banging sounds, which may
over an hour and has been tracked by tropics and form mixed groups with aid individual recognition.
sonar to nearly 4,000 ft (1,200 m) deep, their young and juveniles to about 10
with indirect evidence—such as types years old. In summer or autumn, after a wrinkled skin on rear
of bottom-dwelling fish found in its gestation period of 14 – 15 months, the parts of body
stomach—of dives below 10,170 ft single calf is born, 13 ft (4 m) long, and
(3,100 m). The ability to make such suckles for 4 years or more. LARGE HEAD
The sperm whale’s tall, narrow, boxlike head
comprises up to one-third of its total length.
The low dorsal fin is set well to the rear.
row of knobs
along back
between dorsal
fin and tail
pale underparts
261
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MAMMALS
DIVING DEEP
A sperm whale leaves the sunlit upper levels of
the ocean and heads into the dark ocean depths in
search of food. Diving to greater depths than any
other mammal, it descends at a rate of up to 10 ft
(3 m) per second. Away from the light, its eyes are
of little use and the whale relies on echolocation.
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BIRDS
264 BIRDS
birds
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PHYLUM Chordata Birds are the most accomplished

CLASS Aves of all flying animals. Their ability to
ORDERS 40
fly has allowed them to spread
FAMILIES240
SPECIES 10,797
throughout the world, often to
places, such as remote islands and
Antarctica, that are beyond the reach of many other
animals. Like mammals, birds are endothermic (warm-
blooded) vertebrates. However, unlike most mammals, they
reproduce by laying eggs. Birds have several adaptations for flight,
including wings, feathers, a light but strong skeleton, and a highly
efficient respiratory system.
Evolution advantage for animals that feed on

insects, which become inactive and
Archaeopteryx could fly or just glide,
since it lacked the keeled breastbone
Birds evolved from reptilelike slow-moving in cold conditions. that provides attachment sides for the TAKING OFF
ancestors, possibly from tree-dwelling Feathers, which were derived from muscles needed for powered flight. The power of flight has
dinosaurs that fed on insects. A reptilian scales, probably first evolved During the Cretaceous Period enabled birds to exploit aerial
lifestyle of arboreal hunting would to provide insulation, although they (145 – 65 million years ago), birds niches. In many habitats, birds of prey
have promoted the development of were no doubt put to the purpose diversified and their anatomy evolved (such as this tawny eagle), with their
such birdlike characteristics as large of flight very early on. to make possible increasingly powerful wings, acute vision, and sharp
BIRDS
eyes, grasping feet, and a long snout, One of the earliest-known bird efficient flight. It was in this period bill and talons, are the top predators.
later to evolve into a bill. It might also fossils is about 150 million years old, that the ancestors of living birds
have resulted in the transition from dating from the Jurassic Period appeared. Toward the end of the flight surface (see panel, below, and
being cold- to warm-blooded—an (205 – 142 million years ago). Named Cretaceous, a wave of mass p.266); they also provide protection
Archaeopteryx lithographica, this extinctions saw the end of the age and insulation.
animal was about the size of a of the dinosaurs. It is not clear why The skeleton of a bird combines
crow and showed a combination of birds survived—perhaps being remarkable lightness with strength,
reptilian and avian features: it had warm-blooded helped them attributes that are essential for
wings and feathers like a bird but withstand a prevailing climatic powerful flight. To restrict the bird’s
also had a snout, rather than a bill, catastrophe. But having survived,
and the toothed jaws of a reptile. birds as a group flourished into the
There is some doubt about whether diversity of forms alive today.
impressions made
by feathers Anatomy
ARCHAEOPTERYX FOSSIL A bird has several physical
Archaeopteryx lithographica is thought adaptations for flight. Its body is CROSS SECTION OF A BIRD’S BONE
to represent a link between reptiles short, strong, and compact, with Many bones in a bird are hollow, including
and birds: the jaws, snout, and tail powerful muscles for moving the the major limb bones, parts of the skull,
(which is supported by vertebrae) are wings, and strong legs to launch it and pelvis. This reduces the bird’s weight,
reptilian, but the wings and feathers into the air and cushion the impact to conserve energy for flight. The bones
are birdlike. of landing. Its feathers form the are strengthened by internal struts.
FEATHERS
Feathers are highly complex structures that are outer vane FEATHER TYPES
unique to birds. However, they are formed from (windward edge) Down feathers form an
the same material, keratin, that is found in the insulating underlayer, while
hair of mammals and the scales of reptiles. inner vane small contour feathers
(leeward
Feathers are subject to considerable wear and edge) provide a streamlined
tear. To keep them in good condition, birds covering over the body.
regularly clean, oil, and reshape their plumage The long tail feathers are DOWN CONTOUR TAIL
using their bill, an activity known as preening. used for flying and steering. FEATHER FEATHER FEATHER
Other forms of maintenance include scratching, WING FEATHER
bathing, and sunning. Feathers are shed The feathers along the FEATHER STRUCTURE
(molted) and replaced at least once a year. edge of the wing are long The structure of feathers is extremely
Flying birds have 4 different kinds of and rigid with a clearly defined complex. Most feathers have a central
feathers, each of which is modified shape, providing the lift for flight shaft (rachis), from which closely
to serve a distinct function: there are and maneuvering. Unlike the spaced branches (barbs) project
2 types of flight feathers (wing and quill tail feathers, which are often outward to form a continuous,
tail feathers), as well as down symmetrical, wing feathers flat surface. Minute side branches
feathers and contour feathers. are unevenly shaped. (barbules) lock the barbs together.
BIRDS 265
wrist body, which help inflate and deflate

radius
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM the lungs. Instead of air flowing
Since they lack teeth, birds are forced to break up particles of food farther alternately in and out, as it does
ulna down the alimentary canal, in the stomach. The lower part of the stomach in mammals, it flows in a single
digits
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(gizzard) grinds down material, often aided by an abrasive paste containing direction. Working in tandem with
HUMAN humerus ingested grit or stones, while the upper part (proventriculus) secretes gastric this efficient oxygen-extraction
ARM juices. The food is often stored in the esophagus for later assimilation. In some system, birds have a large heart that
fused wrist humerus birds, the esophagus expands near its base to make a saclike crop, a further pumps at a relatively rapid rate.
bones storage vessel. Food can be transferred there very quickly, Birds need to maintain a constant
radius allowing for large quantities to be ingested in a relatively internal temperature of about 104° F
digits
short time. This is valuable for birds that must risk (40° C) to remain active. To achieve
BIRD ulna exposure to predators while feeding. this, they control their rate of heat
WING loss (see below). In some species,
esophagus
proventriculus when there is not enough energy to
ARM AND WING BONES large sustain the metabolism, the internal
In comparison with a human arm, a bird’s intestine temperature falls and the bird enters
forelimb (or wing) has undergone a dramatic an inactive state called torpor. Some
reduction in the number of bones, especially crop birds that live at high altitude, such
around the wrist and hand. as certain hummingbirds, become
torpid overnight; others, such as
weight, a number of bones are greatly gizzard cloaca some swifts and nightjars, can stay
reduced in size, and many have fused small in this state for days or even weeks.
together, making a rigid frame without intestine CROP FEEDING
the need for large muscles and FEEDING AND STORING FOOD Adult pigeons are unusual
ligaments to hold the bones together. A bird’s digestive system is adapted for a dynamic lifestyle. in producing a milky secretion head
Most birds’ bones are also hollow, Food is ingested without chewing, and can be stored in the from the crop to feed to their
lacking marrow. To compensate for esophagus or the crop. This allows the bird to feed quickly, young. Here, a turtle dove gives trachea
their lightness, they are supported by but to digest in a safer place. crop milk to a nestling. neck cervical air
a network of internal struts (trabeculae) sacs
at points of stress, giving them great anterior
strength. Several bones, including the exceptional vision, particularly owls thoracic interclavicular
humerus, contain air sacs, which are 3 forward- and birds of prey. With their high- air sacs air sac
enlarged pointing
connected to the respiratory system. inner toe speed aerial lifestyle, birds rarely
toes
A bird’s wing is the anatomical (and in some cases, never) use their
counterpart of the human arm, sense of smell.
BIRDS
although birds have relatively few
digits, and some of the “hand” bones
are fused together, which contributes Respiration and wing lung
to the general rigidity of the structure.

Similarly, the “elbow” and “wrist”
circulation
OSTRICH RHEA
joints of the wing bones are inflexible Birds are active animals that have
in the vertical plane. As a result, when 2 backward- a high metabolic rate. They have
pointing toes posterior
the bird is flying, the wings are held an efficient respiratory system that thoracic abdominal
straight out and flapped only at the hind toe extracts large amounts of oxygen air sacs air sacs
shoulder, providing rigidity and saving from the air, and a circulation system
energy by preventing unnecessary that can move the oxygen rapidly
movement. The powerful wing around the body. Efficient oxygen AIR SACS
muscles are attached to a keel, a large extraction is also necessary so that A bird’s lungs are only part of its air-intake
projection that extends at right angles birds can remain active at high system. Connected to the lungs is a system
from the breastbone. PIPIT WOODPECKER altitude, where oxygen is less of air sacs, which have thin, nonmuscular walls
Another feature unique to birds abundant. Although the lungs are and perform a similar function to the diaphragm
is their light, flexible bill (or beak). In FEET AND TOES small, they are connected to a series in humans. In all, there are 9 air sacs throughout
some birds, such as parrots, both Ostriches and rheas have fewer toes than most of air sacs found throughout the the body, 8 of which are arranged in pairs.
jaws (or mandibles) move, giving a birds, enabling them to run quickly. The pipit
wider gape. In mammals, only the has the perching foot typical of passerines,
lower jaw moves. The bill itself has an with 3 toes pointing forward and 1 back. RESTRICTING HEAT LOSS
external covering of keratin, which is The arrangement of a woodpecker’s toes To control the rate of heat loss from
light and strong and allows for great allows it to climb easily in all directions. the body, birds (here, a fieldfare)
variety in form. The bill shape is always adjust the volume of insulating air
adapted to a bird’s particular method conical bill for cracking seeds, trapped between the skin and the
of feeding, and reflects its diet—for whereas herons have a pointed, outermost feathers by erecting,
example, finches have a strong, daggerlike bill for seizing fish. Birds or fluffing, the feathers. The
that feed on insects, such as greater the volume of air, the
jaw extends to form bill covering of warblers, have a small, slender bill, less heat is lost.
horny plates
while in flesh-eaters, such as hawks,
the bill is sharp and hooked for
tearing open prey.
Birds have between 2 and 4 toes
on their feet, the arrangement and
shape varying according to the bird’s
way of life. Most have 4 toes, of
which 3 point forward and one back,
a good system for perching (see
SKULL p.342). Many swimming birds have
The skull of a bird is very light, with many webs between their toes.
of the bones fused together. The bill consists of Like humans, birds rely primarily
an upper and lower mandible, with a highly on their sense of sight, followed by
variable horny sheath on both. hearing. Indeed, many birds have
266 BIRDS
over the surface of the wing and

produce lift. This is why most birds
have to flap their wings to take off.
When gliding, birds hold their wings
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outstretched and steady to the wind.

A gliding bird consumes little energy,
but it loses height as its speed, and
hence the amount of lift, drop (unless
it is riding a current of rising air).
Birds exhibit a great variety of wing
shapes, reflecting the way they fly
and their general lifestyle. Those AERIAL MANEUVERING
that rely on a rapid takeoff and a Frigatebirds are highly distinctive in outline,
short burst of speed to escape soaring and gliding above the open sea in
from predators tend to have broad, search of food. Their narrow, angular wings
rounded wings, since these provide enable them to fly with great speed and
the required acceleration. Species agility, and the characteristic long, forked
that fly for long periods and need to tail helps them steer.
FAST FLYER save energy have long wings. Fast,
A blue and yellow macaw powerful fliers, such as swifts and balance; its long legs can also deliver
in flight displays its highly falcons, have long, curved wings with a powerful kick to fend off predators.
colorful plumage and long, elegant pointed tips to reduce drag. Tail In penguins, the wings have become
tail. The relatively narrow, tapering shape is also important. Birds that similar to flippers and are used by the
wings of macaws enable these birds to fly make sudden changes of direction in bird to propel itself through water.
remarkably quickly, despite their large size. midair, such as swallows and kites,
often have forked tails.
Although most birds can fly, some
Reproduction
Flight the surfaces. Since it is the slower-
moving air that exerts the greater
are flightless—these include the
ostrich, rheas, cassowaries, kiwis,
Most birds are monogamous,
breeding in pairs. In general, courtship
Birds are not the only animals pressure, the resulting force is the emu, and penguins. It is generally consists of a male attracting a female
capable of powered flight (bats and upward. The strength of this upward thought that these birds evolved from with a visual display or by singing.
insects are similarly able), but they force (called lift) increases with the ancestors that once had the power Some birds perform spectacular
include among their number the size of the bird’s wing and its forward of flight, since flightless birds have displays: they may show off physical
largest and most powerful of all speed (see panel, below). many adaptations for flight, such as attributes, evident in the dazzling
airborne animals. There are 2 main modes of flight: hollow bones and wings (although plumage displays of peacocks and
BIRDS
A bird’s wing achieves lift in the flapping and gliding (or soaring). the wings of many flightless birds birds of paradise; engage in dancing,
same way as does the wing of an Flapping does not create lift directly; have since become reduced in size). as, for example, in cranes (see below);
aircraft. As the bird moves forward, instead, it generates the horizontal Flightlessness seems to have come or make aerobatic flights, such as the
air flows more quickly over the upper motion needed to increase airflow about in one of several ways. For dramatic swoops and dives of eagles.
surface of the wing than the lower some birds in Many birds also draw attention to
one, creating a pressure environments themselves using songs. The song,
differential between with relatively which is unique to the species, serves
few predators, to repel male rivals and establish a
flight seems to breeding territory; it may also be used
have become to attract a mate.
unnecessary—many birds of isolated All birds reproduce by laying eggs,
FLAPPING FLIGHT islands, such as the weka and takahes and they go to great lengths to ensure
In the upstroke of flapping flight (second from left of New Zealand (which are closely the survival of their clutch. Most do
in this sequence), a bird bends its wings so that the tips are related to cranes), are in this category. this by placing their egg (or eggs) in
close to its body. On the downstroke, during which most power Alternatively, flightlessness may have a specially built nest, which is either
is generated, the wings are fully extended. arisen in situations where size and hidden or placed out of reach of
strength on the ground were more predators. The eggs are incubated
important for survival than flight. by one or more adults, almost always
HOW BIRDS FLY This is the case for the ostrich, which including the female. The number
Birds have a large, keeled breastbone, to which massive flight muscles can run quickly, using its wings for of eggs laid in a clutch varies greatly
are attached. When the muscles contract, they bring about the powerful
downstroke of the wing, which produces forward propulsion. When the COURTSHIP DANCE
muscles relax, the wing is pulled back up. Feathers (see p.264) also enable A male and female red-crowned crane
birds to fly efficiently. Those on the trailing edge of the wings and on the tail take part in their elaborate dance at
are designed to provide lift and aid maneuverability, while the visible body the onset of the breeding
feathers (contour feathers) streamline the body in flight. In most birds, flying season. One or both birds
consists of wing-flapping or gliding. Several birds are capable of hovering in bow or bob their
midair; hummingbirds can also fly backward. heads and leap
into the air.
faster air flow wing low air pressure
AERODYNAMICS OF THE WING

A bird’s wing is curved outward along
the upper surface. As a result, air
passing over it has to travel a slightly
longer distance at a faster pace than the
air traveling along the lower surface. The
slow-moving air passing under the wing
exerts greater pressure, producing an
upward force known as lift.
slower air
flow high air pressure
BIRDS 267
EGGS AND NESTING

Although many birds lay their eggs directly onto the ground or some other
surface, most build a structure, known as a nest, in which to put them. Nests
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provide safety, insulation, and a fixed point for the adults to concentrate on
nurturing their eggs and young. An important part
of nest-building is choosing a suitable site—one
that will provide concealment or inaccessibility
from predators. Nests are made from
various materials, depending on what
is available—usually vegetation, but
also animal hair, feathers, or even
shed snake skin or human artifacts.
PROTECTIVE NEST COMMUNAL FEEDING

The most common type of nest is an open Flamingos are among the most sociable of all birds, living in vast groups (sometimes flocks of
cup. Most nests are made of more than a million or more) throughout their lives and performing all living functions in company with others.
one material: this chaffinch’s nest is Even their courtship displays are communal, synchronized affairs.
BLACK-HEADED SOUTHERN
TROGON BOUBOU
bound by spiders’ webs and built up
with moss, lichen, grass, and feathers. between group members can cause
weaker individuals to become
Migration
EGG COLOR marginalized, unable to feed properly Many birds undertake seasonal
Birds’ eggs have a wide range of colors. and vulnerable to predators; such migrations. Most migratory species
However, all shell colors are the product birds would be better off on their own. breed in spring and summer in high
of just 2 pigments, one derived from Another disadvantage of social living latitudes, taking advantage of the
hemoglobin and the other from bile. These is the threat of diseases, which relatively long days, but move in winter
NATAL CETTI’S BLUE are added as the egg moves down the spread more rapidly through a group to lower latitudes, where temperatures
CHAT WARBLER SHORTWING female’s urogenital tract. than they do among a population of are higher. Many species show
solitary individuals. complex patterns of movement, with
only certain populations—or in some
between species, and some birds the hatchlings are blind and without cases, just females—leaving the
BIRDS
produce more than a single clutch feathers; they also lack the ability to breeding areas while others remain
in a year. regulate their internal temperature, behind. Birds that behave in this way
A bird’s egg is contained by a light so they must be brooded. These are referred to as partial migrants.
but strong shell that protects the dependent chicks are referred to as Not all birds migrate, partly because
developing embryo and acts as a nidicolous or altricial young and are migration consumes a lot of energy;
barrier against bacteria. The shell is completely reliant on their parents for those that do not migrate at all
made of calcium carbonate, which warmth and food. In contrast, some (including many tropical species)
the female absorbs from her food. groups of birds, such as waterfowl are referred to as sedentary.
Despite appearing to be hard, the and gamebirds, hatch nidifugous or The urge to migrate is triggered by
shell is porous, allowing for the free precocial young, which are covered a combination of internal physiological
exchange of oxygen and carbon with down and are able to feed cycles (such as hormone levels) and
dioxide across its surface. Inside, themselves within hours of hatching. changes in day length. As the time
the embryo is nourished by a large to migrate approaches, birds lay
reservoir of nutritive material that
promotes its growth. Even so, when
Social groups FLOCKING TOGETHER
down reserves of fat to sustain
them on their journey and show signs
young birds hatch out, they are often Birds vary greatly in the way that they European starlings feed and roost together, of restlessness. Some birds have
poorly developed. In most species, relate to their own kind. Some are and most also breed in small colonies. Starling an impressive ability to navigate,
solitary or form pairs within a defined roosts are famous for their spectacular aerial traveling thousands of miles to arrive
territory. Many meet up with others for maneuvers prior to settling down. Up to 2 million at a destination with pinpoint
specific activities, such as roosting, birds may share the same roost site. accuracy (see panel, below).
feeding, or breeding. Others live in
groups throughout their lives.
A social lifestyle carries both MIGRATION ROUTES
advantages and disadvantages. Birds have various ways of navigating.
Birds in groups benefit from the They orient themselves mainly using
collective effort put into searching their efficient internal body clock, which
EURASIAN BLUE TIT HATCHLINGS for food, particularly where supplies enables them to measure changes in
are sparsely distributed. Birds in day length, as well as the position of the
flocks are also less at risk from sun and, at night, of the moon and stars.
predators: to be one among many Many species, if not all, can also detect
reduces the chances of being variations in Earth’s magnetic field,
singled out and caught, and which they use as a compass. Birds that
individuals are more likely to have have already made several migratory
early warning of a predator’s journeys recall landmarks and may use
DUCK HATCHLING approach. This state of collective clues such as smells or ultrasounds.
vigilance allows birds in a group to
THE FIRST DAYS OF LIFE spend more time feeding or sleeping LONG-DISTANCE MIGRANTS
Most young birds, including passerines (such than they would if they were alone. In Swallow populations that winter in different parts
as the Eurasian blue tit), depend on adults for addition, some birds huddle together of Northern Europe follow a range of migration
food and warmth. Their eggs are laid in well- while roosting to share body heat and routes. Some travel the relatively short distance
protected nests. Waders, waterfowl, and reduce heat loss. However, there are to southern Spain or North Africa. Others cover
gamebirds produce more independent young that also disadvantages in being part of the length of the African continent.
can walk and fend for themselves within hours. a flock. If food is scarce, competition
268 TINAMOUS
Eudromia elegans stripe runs behind the eye, and
Tinamous CAMOUFLAGE
When threatened, this
Andean tinamou remains
Elegant
another runs below it. This relatively
shy bird usually moves in small to
moderately large groups through
crested tinamou
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motionless, protected by woodland, grassland, and brush.

PHYLUM Chordata These ground-living its excellent camouflage.
CLASS Aves birds, which look Height 141⁄2 – 16 in
(37 – 41 cm)
ORDER Tinamiformes similar to grouse Weight 14 – 29 oz
FAMILIES 1 (Tinamidae)
and partridges, have (400 – 800 g)
Plumage Sexes alike
SPECIES 47
a plump body and
Migration Nonmigrant
small wings. When Location S. South America
running or flying,
they tire easily because they have
a small heart relative to their size. The long, usually forward-curving
Tinamous are common in woodland, crest is the distinguishing feature of
scrub, and grassland throughout this tinamou. Light to dark brown, the
Central and South America. elegant crested tinamou has wings
that are spotted white. One light
Struthio camelus
Ostrich Common ostrich

Height 7 – 91⁄4 ft
PHYLUM Chordata
The largest of all birds, ostriches are (2.1 – 2.8 m)
unmistakable in appearance. They have Weight 220 – 350 lb
CLASS Aves (100 – 160 kg)
a long, bare neck and small head, a massive FIGHTING MALES Plumage Sexes differ
ORDER Struthioniformes
body, and long, muscular legs. The wings Male ostriches compete for territory and Migration Nonmigrant
FAMILIES 1 (Struthionidae) social status with aggressive displays and Location W. to E. Africa
are small and covered with loosely packed (south of Sahara), southern Status Least concern
SPECIES 2 occasionally by fighting. The winner of a
feathers. Ostriches are unique among birds Africa
contest acquires a territory and several
in having only 2 toes on each foot. Although females, although only one female, the
BIRDS
too heavy to fly, they are capable of running with remarkable “major hen,” remains during incubation
speed and stamina—they can travel up to 45 mph (70 kph) for and chick-rearing. Once widespread in Africa and West
as long as 30 minutes. There are two species of ostriches, Asia, ostriches are now restricted
largely to eastern and southern Africa,
Common and Somali.
although they are also farmed in
other parts of the world. In the wild,
they are seminomadic, traveling long
distances to find grass and other plant
food. They typically form mixed-sex
herds, and are rarely found on their
own. During the breeding season, males
make loud, booming calls and perform
elaborate displays. Several females
often lay in a single nest, producing a
joint clutch of up to 30 eggs. The male
takes part in incubation; once
the eggs hatch—after about
40 days—he is usually in sole
charge of the young.
Common ostrich
has a pink neck
black and white

plumage in male
pink legs
2-toed feet
RHEAS 269
Rhea americana males are solitary for part of the year.
Rheas Greater rhea

In the mating season, males produce
a booming call to attract females, then
court them with an impressive wing
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Height 3 – 5 ft display. The male mates with up to

Chordata
Although rheas look similar to the ostrich, (0.9 – 1.5 m)
PHYLUM 12 females and then scrapes out
they are much smaller and have 3 (rather Weight 33 – 66 lb
a nest, in which the females lay
than 2) toes on each foot. The head, neck, Plumage Sexes differ up to 60 eggs between them.
ORDER Rheiformes
and thighs are all covered with feathers, and Migration Nonmigrant After the eggs are laid, the male
FAMILIES 1 (Rheidae) Location E. and S.E. South takes sole charge of
each wing ends in a claw, which is used to America Status Near threatened
SPECIES 2 incubation and protecting dark collar
fight predators. When running, rheas use
the young chicks. The in male
their wings for balance. They occur on rhea has suffered
upland and lowland plains in most parts through hunting
of South America. This long-legged, flightless bird lives and habitat
in grassland and semiarid scrubland. loss, although
It is generally gray to brown, and white, it is still locally
CARE OF THE YOUNG the plumage offering effective abundant.
Only the male bird incubates the eggs and watches camouflage against tall grass and 3-toed
feet
over the young (lesser rheas are shown here). The scrubby vegetation. The male has a
female goes off in search of other males. dark collar at the base of its neck during shaggy wing
feathers
the breeding season. A sociable bird, it
lives in groups, although breeding
Cassowaries and Emus

PHYLUM Chordata These flightless birds have a long neck, long legs, and small
CLASS Aves wings hidden under loose, hairlike plumage. They are fast PATERNAL CARE
runners and can also swim. Cassowaries and emus have 3 The male emu (shown here)
ORDER Casuariiformes
toes on each foot; in cassowaries, the innermost toe bears does not eat or drink while
FAMILIES 2 incubating. After hatching,
BIRDS
a sharp claw, which can inflict lethal wounds. Cassowaries he cares for the young for
SPECIES 4
have a protective casque on their head, and neck wattles up to 8 months.
that can change color according to the bird’s mood.
Casuarius casuarius of 3 cassowary species—is Dromaius novaehollandiae flocks that can contain furlike
the only one found in Australia dozens of birds. It feathers
Southern cassowary as well as in New Guinea. Emu feeds mainly on seeds
During the breeding season, and berries, and will
Height 41⁄4 – 51⁄2 ft males make a low booming Height 5 – 61⁄4 ft travel long distances
(1.3 – 1.7 m) (1.5 – 1.9 m)
sound to attract females, when food is hard
(17 – 70 kg) but when not (30 – 60 kg) to find. Emus are
Plumage Sexes alike breeding, adults are Plumage Sexes alike now extinct in
Migration Nonmigrant solitary. Their diet Migration Nonmigrant Tasmania, but
Location New Guinea, Location Australia
N.E. Australia Status Vulnerable consists chiefly Status Least concern on the Australian
of fallen fruit. mainland, they
have benefited from
powerful legs
cereal farming, and are
Australia’s largest native bird, the now a serious pest in
All cassowaries inhabit dense tropical emu has shaggy, drooping, gray-brown some areas.
forest, and as a result are rarely seen. feathers, large legs, but tiny wings. It 3-toed
The southern cassowary—the largest is highly gregarious, and lives in loose feet
Apteryx mantelli and stoats. When feeding, it walks
Kiwis SENSES
Although kiwis have poor
eyesight, they have acute
North Island brown kiwi
slowly, tapping the ground with its bill
and sniffing. It may push its entire
bill—up to 6 in (15 cm) long—into the
senses of hearing and Height 20 – 26 in ground to get at food, which consists
Chordata
The strange, flightless (50 – 65 cm)
PHYLUM smell and a highly touch- of earthworms, cicadas, beetle larvae,
kiwis all look much the sensitive bill. Weight 31⁄4 – 83⁄4 lb
centipedes, and fallen fruit. Females
CLASS Aves (1.5 – 4 kg)
same. They have a Plumage Sexes alike
lay one to 2 eggs that
ORDER Apterygiformes
stout body covered in Migration Nonmigrant
are very large in
FAMILIES 1 (Apterygidae) Location New Zealand proportion to
soft, hairlike plumage, a Status Endangered
SPECIES 5 the bird’s size.
slender, curved bill, and
no tail. Unlike larger
flightless birds, kiwis have 4 toes on Once widespread throughout New long bill
each foot. These nocturnal birds Zealand’s North Island, this brown
are native to New Zealand. bird has been severely affected
by deforestation and introduced short, stubby legs
predators such as pigs, dogs, cats,
270 WATERFOWL
Waterfowl
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PHYLUM Chordata Also known as wildfowl, members of Reproduction

CLASS Aves this group include ducks, geese, and The reproductive cycle of waterfowl is
ORDER Anseriformes swans, as well as a family of 3 South suited to a life spent on water, which
often involves exposure to cold and
FAMILIES 3 American species known as screamers. predators. Unusual among birds, the
SPECIES 177 Aided by waterproof plumage and males have an organ similar to a penis,
which is inserted inside the female’s
webbed feet, they are among the cloaca, making it possible for them to YOUNG
dominant birds of freshwater wetlands. They are also mate on the surface of water. Water fowl Waterfowl hatch in a well-developed state,
usually nest near water, most often with their eyes open and a covering of down
found in estuaries and inshore coastal waters, while a among ground vegetation, although that dries quickly. Hours after hatching, the
few species are entirely marine. Waterfowl are strong some species use holes in trees or rock chicks (such as these Canada geese) can
crevices. The females of some species, walk or swim. Leaving the nest, they follow
swimmers. They feed mostly from the surface of water,
such as eiders, pluck their own down to the adult to the relative safety of water, and
although many ducks dive in search of food, make an insulating cover for their eggs. soon begin to search for their own food.
while some species (notably geese,
swans, and screamers) graze
on land. Waterfowl are
powerful fliers, and some
species undertake annual migrations
of thousands of miles between their
wintering and breeding areas.
Anatomy
BIRDS
Waterfowl have a plump, buoyant body, with

a small head and, usually, a short tail. Most
species have a broad, flattened bill (see below)
and a long neck for reaching down to feed
underwater. Many species are gaudily colored.
When molting, most lose all their flight feathers
simultaneously. To hide them from
predators during the period when
they are unable to fly, the males
(drakes) acquire a drab coloring,
known as an eclipse plumage.
Waterfowl are insulated from cold
by a layer of down and a layer of fat
beneath the skin. Screamers look different
from other waterfowl in several respects: they
have longer legs, spurred wings, a chickenlike
bill, and toes webbed only at the base. TAKING OFF
Although some waterfowl can spring
BILL almost vertically from water, the heavier
Like most waterfowl, the common species have to resort to a running takeoff.
hardened tip shelduck has a wide, flattened bill. The Swans, in particular, need a long runway,
(nail) edges have small ridges, called lamellae, gaining speed by pattering with their feet
which are used to grip prey or filter edible across the surface of the water.
particles out of the water. The tip of the
upper bill may be hardened into a nail
broad
bill for tearing vegetation.
Movement
Several adaptations help waterfowl move
easily through water. The smooth outline
PREENING of their body reduces water resistance,
Plumage care is important for waterfowl while their webbed feet (see left) act as
such as this greylag goose, because it powerful paddles. Thick plumage adds to
is essential that their feathers remain their buoyancy, although many duck species
waterproof. A gland on the bird’s that dive to find food sleek their plumage to
rump secretes a water- FEET expel air and reduce their buoyancy before FLYING FORMATION
repellent oil. The Waterfowl use their webbed submerging. With their huge wings and Flocks of waterfowl (here, snow
bird stimulates feet to help propel themselves exceptionally light bones, screamers can geese) fly in a characteristic
the gland with through water. Only the front fly for hours on end, often soaring. Other V-formation. By staying in the
its bill and then 3 toes are webbed; the smaller species of waterfowl have smaller wings that slipstream of the leading bird,
spreads the oil hind toe is raised. This enables must be flapped constantly when in flight. those further back meet with less
around its body by waterfowl to walk on land, Once airborne, however, they are fast and turbulence and thereby save energy.
rubbing and preening although they do so with a powerful fliers, with some species capable The position of hard-working leader
its feathers. waddling gait. of exceeding 60 mph (100 kph) in level flight. is changed regularly.
WATERFOWL 271
Anhima cornuta Dendrocygna eytoni Cygnus olor independent at about 5 months. Young
swans often remain with their parents
Horned screamer Plumed whistling Mute swan for longer than this, but they are driven
away by the male at the onset of the
duck
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Length 33 in Length 5 ft following breeding season. It takes

(84 cm) (1.5 m)
3 – 4 years for the young to become
Weight 41⁄2 – 61⁄2 lb Weight 26 lb
(2 – 3 kg)
(12 kg) fully mature and able to raise young
(40 – 60 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike of their own.
Migration Nonmigrant (0.5 – 1.5 kg) Migration Partial migrant
Location N. South Location North America,
America Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike Europe, Africa, Asia, Status Least concern
Migration Partial migrant Australia
Location N. and E.
Australia Status Least concern
long, flexible
neck for feeding
Although related to other waterfowl, Originally from Europe and underwater
screamers have many distinctive Central Asia, this extremely
features, including turkeylike bodies, Like all 8 species of whistling ducks, this elegant bird has been introduced orange-red
narrow bills, and long legs ending in species has long legs and large, webbed as an ornamental species in many bill with
black knob
partly webbed feet. The largest of the feet, with a netlike pattern on the ankle other parts of the world. When at tip deep, powerful
3 species in the screamer family, the and heel, a characteristic that is more young, the mute swan is grayish body
horned screamer is black and white, typical of a goose than a duck. The brown, but the adult has pure white
with a remarkable slender spike, up to plumed whistling duck also has some plumage, an orange-red bill, and black
4 in (10 cm) long, that curves upward gooselike behavioral traits: it mostly legs and feet. One of the world’s
and forward from its forehead. Like its feeds on land, pulling and heaviest flying birds, it runs or paddles
relatives, it often feeds on land rather clipping grasses. It is across the water to take off, but once
than in water. Females lay 4 – 6 eggs believed to remain airborne, is a powerful flier, making a
in a nest on the ground, and these monogamous for life. distinctive pulsating sound with its
take 6 weeks to hatch. The male also cares wings. Mute swans feed mainly on
for the young. water, often up-ending to reach plants
and small animals in underwater mud.
straw-colored, They mate for life, and nest by the
pointed flank water’s edge or on small islands,
plumes
making a mound of vegetation often
more than 31⁄4 ft (1 m) across. Females
lay up to 8 eggs in a clutch, and take
BIRDS
strong
sole charge of incubation. Once the black legs
young have hatched, both parents
long legs look after them, until they become
Cygnus atratus FAMILY TIES Anseranas semipalmata Anser anser
Black swan Magpie goose Greylag goose

Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄2 ft Length 30 – 35 in Length 30 – 35 in
(1.1 – 1.4 m) (75 – 90 cm) (75 – 90 cm)
Weight 13 lb Weight 61⁄2 lb Weight 61⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb
(6 kg) (3 kg) (3 – 4 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Nomadic Migration Partial migrant Migration Migrant
Location Australia Location S. New Guinea, Location Europe
(including Tasmania), Status Least concern N. Australia Status Least concern (including Iceland), Asia Status Least concern
New Zealand Like other swans, this species is
strictly monogamous. The male and
female have a strong bond and both
participate in building the nest and
This is the only swan that is almost caring for the young. The greylag goose is the wild ancestor
entirely black. The innermost flight of barnyard geese, originally bred in
feathers are curiously twisted, and Central Europe, and the basis for almost
when threatened, the swan raises on land. Compared to most other swans, all European goose folklore. The name
these feathers and exposes the white black swans are highly sociable, and also “greylag” derives from its gray coloration
primaries. Exclusively vegetarian, seminomadic. After breeding, and the fact that it undertakes late
it feeds on aquatic plants; they sometimes gather in migrations, or “lags” behind
occasionally, it may graze flocks thousands strong. other geese. Males swim
in a haughty posture to
bright red bill attract the female, and
LONG-NECKED SWAN mating is often preceded
The black swan has pink
white The only species in its family, this by mutual head-dipping. bill
the longest neck of
all swans, making
primaries gooselike bird is unique among
up much more waterfowl in many ways: its toes are
than half the only slightly webbed; the hind toes are
total length of unusually long, enabling it to perch
the bird in flight. easily on small branches; and it is the
only waterfowl with legs so long that
the ends of the feet extend beyond the
tail during flight. It is also the only
waterbird to form breeding groups of
one male and 2 females. The male is
larger, with a more distinctive bony
“bump” on his crown.
272 WATERFOWL
Branta canadensis GRAZING Cereopsis novaehollandiae Alopochen aegyptiaca
Canada goose Cape Barren goose Egyptian goose

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(55 – 100 cm) (75 – 91 cm) (63 – 73 cm)
Weight 41⁄2 – 18 lb Weight 83⁄4 – 13 lb Weight 51⁄2 lb
(2 – 8 kg) (4 – 6 kg) (2.5 kg)
Migration Migrant Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location North America, Location S. Australia Location Africa (south
N. Europe, N.E. Asia, Status Least concern (including offshore islands Status Least concern of Sahara) Status Least concern
New Zealand and Tasmania)
Canada geese are diurnal feeders,
foraging on dry land as well as on
water for plants. Now a common
Originally from North America, sight in parks outside their native With reduced webbing on its toes, this
the highly sociable Canada range, flocks leave the water at dove-gray goose has adapted for life
goose has been introduced dawn to feed on grasses, seeds, mainly on land. Its black, stubby bill is
widely to Northern Europe and grains. mostly hidden by a pale green cere—
and New Zealand. It is a fleshy pad at the base of the upper
becoming increasingly part of the bill. Aggressive and
common, a result of territorial, it performs several threat
its ability to adapt to a wide displays, and may bite or strike with
range of climates, tolerate its knobbly wings. Mating occurs
ecological change, and feed on land and is followed by a
on grass as well as other low “triumph” ceremony by pairs A close relative of the common
vegetation. One of the most after aggressive encounters shelduck (see below, left), this
variable of all geese in size, with rival males. long-legged bird lives in lakes, rivers,
subspecies range from the small and subtropical wetlands, but also
Arctic forms, up to 41⁄2 lb (2 kg), to the spends much of its time on land. Its
large, most southerly populations, white below “bullying” behavior toward smaller
black blackish tail
which may occasionally weigh as feet species is notable, as is its aggressive
much as 18 lb (8 kg). behavior within its own species. The
female chooses the most aggressive
COLORATION male as a mate, which means there
This goose has a black head and neck, white is much fighting during the pairing
BIRDS
cheeks, and a brown body, with blackish wing-tips season. Males have husky calls, while
and lighter underparts. The bill and feet are black. females make loud, nattering sounds.
Tadorna tadorna Anas platyrhynchos UP-ENDING Anas crecca
Common shelduck Mallard Eurasian teal

Length 23 – 26 ⁄2 in
1
1
(58 – 67 cm) (50 – 65 cm) (34 – 38 cm)
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb Weight 13 oz
(1 – 1.5 kg) (1 – 1.5 kg) (350 g)
Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes differ
Migration Partial migrant Migration Partial migrant Migration Partial migrant
Location Europe, Asia, Location North America, Location Europe
N. Africa, E. North Atlantic, Status Least concern S. Greenland, Europe, Asia Status Least concern (including Iceland), Status Least concern
Mediterranean, W. Pacific Asia, N. to C. Africa
Mallards often feed by up-ending
to reach submerged plants and
invertebrates. They also eat by
An inhabitant chiefly of marine or The mallard has a wide distribution in dabbling, grazing or, rarely, The smallest dabbling duck,
saline waters, this duck has iridescent, the Northern Hemisphere, its success diving in shallow water. At the Eurasian teal breeds
greenish black, white, and chestnut being due to its great flexibility—it can certain times of the year, in tundra, wet grassland,
plumage. The male has a knob at the adapt to almost all types of aquatic they are a common sight and beside small pools in
top of its red bill, absent in the female habitats for breeding, even urban in fields of grain crops. bogs and moors. Its tiny bill helps
(shown below). Like all shelducks, it is environments, and is able to feed in a it to feed on small seeds of aquatic
intermediate in behavior between a number of ways (see panel, right). The plants; invertebrates also form
goose and a typical duck. It forages at male has a low-pitched quack and a part of its diet. The male has
the tide-line, usually standing in shallow sharp whistle, while the female is more bright breeding plumage, and
water, probing for molluscs and other vocal and has many distinctive utters a cricketlike call that is
marine invertebrates. Nesting quacking calls a double-note whistle, while
often takes place in holes, such females produce high-pitched
as the abandoned burrows of neck ring quacks. Both sexes have a green
other animals. wing patch called “speculum.”
FEMALE
The female is mottled brown, buff, or
white; the nonbreeding male has
a similar plumage, called
BREEDING MALE eclipse plumage.
The breeding male
has a green head
with a white neck ring,
a rufous breast, gray
curled central
pink feet flanks, black rump, and a feathers of tail
white tail with curled central
feathers. The bill is yellow.
WATERFOWL 273
Aix galericulata long and broad, acting as a brake to Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos

slow the duck down before it lands in
Mandarin duck the trees. It also has very large eyes,
which help it see at night. The mandarin
Blue duck
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Length 16 – 191⁄2 in duck feeds on land, in the trees, and Length 21 in

(41 – 49 cm) (53 cm)
in water, where it dabbles, up-ends,
Weight 22 oz Weight 28 – 32 oz
(625 g) and only rarely dives. Its diet consists (775 – 900 g)
Plumage Sexes differ of seeds and nuts, as well as some Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Partial migrant
invertebrates, such as insects and land Migration Nonmigrant
Location N.W. Europe, snails. Courtship is highly social, with Location New Zealand
E. Asia Status Least concern Status Endangered
several males competing for a female’s
attention. Originally from East Asia,
introduced birds have established caddisflies, mayflies, stoneflies, and
themselves in Western Europe. Unique among waterfowl for its midges, which it obtains by diving. It
The male mandarin duck in its breeding large eyes
slate-blue plumage, this duck is highly also feeds by dabbling at the surface,
prominent crest
plumage is among the most ornate and adapted for life in cold, clear, rapidly up-ending, and foraging around the
beautiful of all birds. It has a prominent flowing streams, where few other birds riverbed rocks and boulders, where it
crest on its head, golden hackles, can survive. Its main food is the uses its unique bill to scrape wet algae
and a pair of usually bright yellow, aquatic larvae of insects such as from the rocks.
sail-shaped feathers on each
inner wing. These can be
erected above the flanks— Merganetta armata Zealand (see above) is its closest
their function is purely ecological counterpart. It dives and
ornamental. Females
and nonbreeding
Torrent duck swims upstream, remaining very close
to the bottom, probing under rocks
males are mostly Length 17 – 18 in and among stones for insect larvae and
(43 – 46 cm)
olive-brown. pupae. Females are rufous, while males
Weight 16 oz
This is one (450 g) are black and white.
of the most Plumage Sexes differ
arboreal of all Migration Nonmigrant
ducks, often roosting or Location W. South
America Status Least concern
perching on branches and
nesting in tree cavities; ducklings
have to jump from the nest hole to the
sharp claws
ground at only one day old. Like other
BIRDS
perching ducks, its claws are sharp, to This highly streamlined, Andean duck
help it cling to branches, and its tail is never leaves rapid mountain streams,
a habitat that few other ducks are able
to exploit owing to the swiftness of
Cairina moschata adaptations for perching in trees. The the currents—the blue duck of New
adult male also has a slight crest on
Muscovy duck the top of the head, a knob above the
nostrils, and bare, warty skin around Melanitta deglandi Mergus merganser
Length 26 – 33 in the eyes. Domesticated birds (below)
(66 – 84 cm)
Weight 41⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb
show many color variants. Unlike most
ducks, both sexes are nearly mute.
White-winged scoter Common merganser
(2 – 4 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike (51 – 58 cm) (58 – 66 cm)
Migration Nonmigrant Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
Location Central America
to C. South America Status Least concern (1.5 – 2 kg) (1.5 – 2 kg)
Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes differ
Migration Migrant Migration Partial migrant
Location N.W., W., and Location North America,
E. North America, Europe, Status Least concern Europe (including Iceland), Status Least concern
W., N., and E. Asia Asia
This large, heavy-bodied duck is mostly
blackish as an adult (brownish black
when young), and has a long tail, broad
wings, and sharply clawed toes—all One of the swiftest of all waterfowl,
and the largest of the 5 species of
fish-eating mergansers, this duck has
Polysticta stelleri side, is probably adapted for scraping a streamlined body that is adapted
invertebrates off rocks, or may serve as for rapid underwater swimming and
Steller’s eider a tactile device when foraging in deep,
dark waters. It lives entirely in the open
flight—its air speed may approach
60 mph (100 kph). It has a long, narrow,
Length 17 – 181⁄2 in sea except during the breeding season, serrated bill to catch and hold slippery
(43 – 47 cm)
when it may be observed in coastal fish, which form the main part of its
Weight 23 – 32 oz
(650 – 900 g) waters, just before building its nest in Closely related to the velvet scoter, diet. Females are mostly gray above,
Plumage Sexes differ low, grassy tundra. the white-winged scoter spends much while males have black backs.
Migration Migrant
of the year at sea, although it breeds
Location N.W. North on freshwater inland, and sometimes
America, N. Europe, Status Vulnerable rufous head
N.E. Asia winters on large lakes. It forages by in female
diving to depths of up to 23 ft (7 m),
often remaining underwater for nearly a
minute, or longer in deeper waters. It is
This is the smallest of the 4 eider a stout duck, with a heavy bill adapted
species, and the only one with an for eating mollusks. Its large nostrils
orange-rust breast and underparts may be related to well-developed
(breeding males only). Its gray bill, glands that excrete salts from any
which has soft, flaplike margins on each seawater that it swallows.
274 GAMEBIRDS
Gamebirds
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Chordata
This group of mainly ground-dwelling
PHYLUM DISPLAY
species includes some of the birds most This is the display of
CLASS Aves
useful to humans. In their domestic forms the Palawan peacock-
ORDER Galliformes
(including the chicken), they provide an pheasant. The “eyes”
FAMILIES 5 on the fan are
important food source, and many other
SPECIES 299 thought to attract
species (such as pheasants, partridges,
the female.
and grouse) are hunted for sport or food.
Also in this group are the spectacular curassows and the
less conspicuous guineafowl and megapodes. Gamebirds
are found almost worldwide (even within the Arctic Circle)
in a wide range of habitats, including
dense forest and high mountains.
Anatomy
Most gamebirds are plump with
a small head and short, rounded
wings. Their powerful flight muscles
are ideal for rapid escape, but are Reproduction
usually unable to support their heavy Most gamebirds nest in a shallow
body for long distances. The short depression in the ground.
bill is slightly curved, and the feet are Megapodes are unusual in that,
stout and strong for scratching and instead of incubating their eggs, they
digging for food. Many species have TAKEOFF store them in mounds or burrows,
bare areas of colored skin or long Like most CAMOUFLAGE allowing the sun’s heat, microbial CLUTCH SIZE
and spectacular tails gamebirds, Reeves’s Ground-dwellers, like this female activity, or geothermal energy to keep Compared with other birds,
or crests. pheasant launches itself black grouse, need cryptic plumage them warm. Young gamebirds fly very many gamebirds lay large
quickly into the air with a to avoid detection. Another grouse soon after hatching—often within a clutches. Some produce up to
BIRDS
flurry of rapid wingbeats species, the ptarmigan, changes week or, in the case of megapodes, 20 eggs (a pheasant’s eggs
to escape danger. color with the seasons. within a few hours. are shown here).
Leipoa ocellata a giant heap of leaves, sticks, and bark, Ortalis motmot Crax daubentoni
up to 5 ft (1.5 m) high and 15 ft (4.5 m)
Malleefowl across, and the heat given off as this
decomposes incubates the eggs. During
Little chachalaca Yellow-knobbed
Length 24 in
(61 cm)
the lengthy incubation period, lasting up Length 15 in
(38 cm)
curassow
to 11 weeks, the parents stay close to
Weight 41⁄2 lb Weight 21 oz
(2 kg) the mound and monitor its temperature (600 g)
Length 35 in
(90 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike with their bills. If it gets too hot, they Plumage Sexes alike Weight Not recorded
take some of the vegetation away; if too Migration Nonmigrant
Location W. and Location N. South Plumage Sexes alike
Status Vulnerable
cool, they add more to it. When the Status Least concern
S. Australia America Migration Nonmigrant
young hatch, they dig their way out—
Location N. South Status Near threatened
fully feathered and able to look after
America
themselves. Male and female malleefowl
form pairs that last for years; they live
The malleefowl and its close relatives— fairly separately much of the time, but This species is the smallest member of
known as megapodes—are the only come closer together during the summer the Cracidae—a family of gamebirds
birds that do not directly incubate their breeding season. The malleefowl lives on from the Americas that also includes
eggs. Instead, eggs are laid in a largely vegetarian diet consisting of the curassows. Compared to these,
fruit, buds, and seeds; however, it will chachalacas are slim-bodied and plain
small head with also eat invertebrates such as ants, in color, and they do not have crests.
short bill beetles, spiders, and cockroaches. There are about 16 species and they
are all noisy birds—their name
comes from their call. They
heavily spotted live mostly in trees, and feed
flanks on berries and other fruit.
Like other curassows, this large forest
bird feeds mainly on the ground, but it
flies up into trees if threatened. Its most
striking features are its crest, made of
feathers that curl forward, and the
fleshy yellow knob at the base of its bill.
It eats fruit, leaves, seeds, and small
animals. Unusually for gamebirds,
curassows nest off the ground, with
both sexes helping in the construction.
The female lays just 2 eggs—a tiny
clutch compared to those of many
ground-nesting gamebirds.
GAMEBIRDS 275
Meleagris gallopavo breast. For much of the year, this Callipepla californica
turkey is seen in groups of around
Wild turkey 20, but in the breeding season,
the males set up individual
California quail
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Length 4 ft territories. Each male mates Length 10 in

(1.2 m) (25 cm)
with a number of females,
Weight 22 lb Weight 6 oz
(10 kg) courting them with tail (175 g)
Plumage Sexes differ fanned, wings spread low, Plumage Sexes differ
and head held high, giving Migration Nonmigrant
Location North America the characteristic gobbling Location S.W. Canada,
Status Least concern W. USA, N.W. Mexico Status Least concern
call. The wild turkey is
omnivorous: chicks take up to
4,000 insects per day; adults eat
The wild turkey is a large gamebird with seeds, herbs, roots, buds, and
bronze, iridescent plumage and a naked flowers, as well as insects. To A long, black, teardrop-shaped crest,
head with conspicuous blue and red defend itself, it pecks with its bill, black and white facial feathers, and
fleshy ornaments. The male has a scratches with its claws, and buffets scaly plumage on the belly are
“beard” of hairlike feathers on the upper with its wings. distinctive features of this elegant
gamebird. The female is smaller than
the male, has a smaller crest, and is
Tetrao urogallus Centrocercus minimus Lagopus lagopus generally drabber in appearance. Shy
and elusive, the California quail is more
Western capercaillie Gunnison grouse Willow ptarmigan often heard than seen. It lives in small
flocks of usually 25 – 30, and eats a
Length 32 – 45 in Length 121⁄2 – 20 in Length 15 in variety of seeds and bulbs,
(80 – 115 cm) (32 – 51 cm) (38 cm)
as well as leaves
Weight 83⁄4 – 10 lb Weight 2 – 41⁄2 lb Weight 20 – 25 oz
(4 – 4.5 kg) (1 – 2 kg) (550 – 700 g) and buds.
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location N., W., and S. Location W.C. USA Location N. North
Europe, W. to C. Asia Status Least concern Status Endangered America, N. Europe, Status Least concern scaly plumage
N. Asia
Tetraogallus caspius
Males of this large-bodied grouse This exceptionally hardy gamebird—of
BIRDS
congregate at display grounds (leks) in
their native northern forests, where they
which there are 16 subspecies—is well
adapted to life in the harsh conditions
Caspian snowcock
strut to display to females; their calls of the northern winter. Like other Length 231⁄2 in
(60 cm)
sound like a bottle being uncorked. In grouse, its legs and nostrils have
Weight Not recorded
summer, it feeds on leaves, buds feathers for insulation. It
Plumage Sexes differ
and berries; in winter, tunnels in snow to keep
it eats almost warm, and—except in the
Location S.E. Europe, Status Least concern
exclusively pine British subspecies—the
W. Asia
needles. The smaller of 2 species of North normally reddish brown
American sage grouse, this species plumage turns white in
was named in 2000 and is restricted winter, giving the
to southwestern Colorado and bird excellent
southeastern Utah. It is—so far—the camouflage. Typical of the 5 species of snowcocks,
only new species of bird to be described this bird has mottled brown, gray, and
from the USA since the 1800s. Male white plumage that provides good
sage grouse strut in groups with inflated camouflage against bare rock. It feeds
chest sacs and make drumming sounds in small flocks, and migrates vertically
to attract mates; they favor open country with the seasons, often descending
dominated by sagebrush. below the treeline in winter.
Perdix perdix the males become more aggressive, Coturnix coturnix safely hidden. The common quail roosts
even fighting with one another. Although on the ground at night in tight groups.
Gray partridge changes of mate are common early on,
stable pairs soon form, usually of males
Common quail Its diet is remarkably varied, and
includes seeds, flower buds, leaves,
Length 12 in and females from different coveys. Length 7 in small fruit, and insects and other
(31 cm) (18 cm)
invertebrates. This is one of the few
Weight 11 – 16 oz Weight 21⁄2 – 5 oz
(300 – 450 g) tawny head (70 – 150 g) gamebirds that migrates long distances;
Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes alike those that breed in Europe arrive in
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Migrant
spring from Africa.
Location Europe, W. and Location Europe, Asia,
C. Asia Status Least concern grayish breast Africa, Madagascar Status Least concern
black and buff
streaks on flanks
dull gray
belly
The gray partridge is a farmland bird, A small and secretive gamebird, this
feeding and nesting among crops as quail is heard much more than it is
well as in pasture. It has a tawny head seen. The first sign of its presence is
and grayish breast, and the male has a most often the male’s repeated “whit
conspicuous chestnut horseshoe mark wit-wit” call. During the breeding
on the abdomen. Coveys of 15 – 20 season, the male and female establish
birds live together in winter, but late in contact by calling, which means they
the season these begin to break up as can locate a mate while remaining
276 GAMEBIRDS
Tragopan temminckii Gallus gallus smaller and drabber. Hens and chicks
INFLATED DISPLAY use calls to keep in contact and
Temminck’s Red jungle fowl signal danger; the male’s
“cock-a-doodle-doo” is
tragopan
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Length 32 in used to attract females

(80 cm)
and advertise his
Length 25 in
(0.5 – 1.5 kg) presence to
(63 cm)
Plumage Sexes differ rival males.
Weight Not recorded
Plumage Sexes differ Migration Nonmigrant
Location S. and S.E. Asia
Migration Nonmigrant Status Least concern
Location S.E. Asia Status Least concern
This bird is the original ancestor of the

domesticated chicken, first raised in
Male gamebirds often have flamboyant captivity at least 5,000 years ago. The
plumage, and this species is no male is brightly colored, with fleshy
exception. However, with Temminck’s red wattles and comb. The female is
tragopan, the male’s most conspicuous During his courtship display, the
feature is a blue and red throat wattle, male inflates his colorful throat wattle
which looks like a multicolored bib. until it covers his breast, and then Argusianus argus Phasianus colchicus
Like the other 5 species of tragopans shakes it to attract the female’s
(all from central and southern Asia),
Temminck’s is a forest bird, often
attention. If the female is sufficiently
impressed, she
Great argus Common pheasant
nesting in bushes or low down in trees, allows the male Length 61⁄4 ft Length 35 in
(1.9 m) (89 cm)
where it makes a simple platform out to mate.
Weight Not recorded Weight 13⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
of sticks. It lives at altitudes of up to (0.75 – 2 kg)
14,850 ft (4,500 m), and feeds mainly Plumage Sexes differ
on plants—including young shoots Migration Nonmigrant
Location S.E. Asia Status Near threatened Location North America,
and berries—but also eats insects Status Least concern
Europe, Asia
scratched up from the
colorful throat
forest floor. wattle on male
Male common or ring-necked pheasants

BIRDS
speckled
plumage have a dark head with a purple and
green gloss and red facial wattles;
FORAGER
Like many gamebirds, Temminck’s many also have a white neck ring and
strong, stout legs
tragopan uses its large feet to clear with large feet maroon breast. Compared to the drab
away leaves and scratch at the soil, brown female, the male is very colorful
exposing small insects that it eats. and larger, with a long tail. With 30
subspecies, this pheasant has
been widely introduced,
Pavo cristatus courting females. The train is not the chiefly so that it can be
true tail, but consists of elongated One of the world’s largest pheasants, hunted for food.
Indian peafowl tail coverts, each ending in a colorful
“eye.” The female—the peahen—is
the male of this species has very large
secondary flight feathers, decorated
Length 6 – 71⁄2 ft relatively drab, with a shorter train with egg-shaped “eyes,” and a tail
(1.8 – 2.3 m)
lacking the “eyes.” The female much longer than that of the female. To
(4 – 6 kg) chooses a mate on the basis of his attract a mate, he calls loudly, raises his
Plumage Sexes differ appearance, and he usually turns to tail, and fans out his wings. The females long tail
face her, shaking the train, erect and with which he mates raise the young of male
Location S. Asia fanned, to reinforce its effect. He on their own.
mates with many females, and gives
a loud “kee-ow” call to advertise his
presence. The male plays no part in Numida meleagris encounters with other males and while
The male Indian peafowl, or the building nests or raising the young. courting. Compared to most gamebirds,
peacock, is one of the world’s most
spectacular gamebirds, with an
Like almost all gamebirds, the
peafowl feeds on the ground, but
Helmeted guineafowl it is well able to defend itself and its
young—by pecking and scratching, and
iridescent blue body and a long train roosts in tall trees at night, safe Length 22 in buffeting with its wings. A very noisy
(55 cm)
that is spread out like a fan when from most predators. bird, when alarmed it gives a staccato
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(1 – 1.5 kg) “kek-kek-kekkek-kekkekkek” call.
Plumage Sexes alike dark plumage, dotted
Migration Nonmigrant with white
Location Africa (south of
Sahara) Status Least concern
Domesticated long ago as a source

of food, the helmeted guineafowl is a
flock-forming gamebird whose natural
habitat is the open grassland of tropical
Africa. Its most conspicuous features
are its spotted plumage and bony,
hornlike helmet on top of its naked head.
Males have a characteristic lateral,
hump-backed posture during
277
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BIRDS
GREATER PRAIRIE CHICKENS

Typical of other members of the grouse
family, the males of this North American
bird have an elaborate courtship display
to impress the females. Males gather on
mating grounds called leks—but the
tension can lead to aggressive attacks
that involve much leaping into the air.
278 PENGUINS
Penguins
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PHYLUM Chordata These distinctive flightless seabirds are Swimming

CLASS Aves adapted for swimming and surviving life Penguins use 3 different swimming
in extreme cold. Penguins spend most of techniques. When idling, they swim
ORDER Sphenisciformes
slowly at the surface, paddling with
FAMILIES 1 (Spheniscidae) their lives in water, propelling themselves their wings, and with their head and
SPECIES 18 with flipperlike wings in pursuit of fish, tail raised. When hunting, they dive
below the surface and effectively fly
krill, and squid. They have a thick coat underwater, flapping their wings to
of short, stiff, overlapping feathers that streamlines the body, provide power. Most dives last about
a minute, but dives of 20 minutes
repels water, and conserves heat. Most species come ashore have been recorded. The third form DIVING
during the warmer months to breed, usually forming large of movement is called porpoising, Penguins (here, a king penguin) move much
in which penguins swimming near more efficiently in water than they do on
colonies. On land, they do not perch but instead stand or
the surface periodically leap out land. Some species can swim at speeds
glide over ice and move with a waddling gait. Penguins are of the water to breathe. of 9 mph (14 kph).
confined to the seas of the Southern Hemisphere.
Although most common in cold climates, several
species are also found where cold currents flow
north into tropical regions. Only 2 species,
the emperor and Adelie penguins,
spend winter in Antarctica.
Anatomy
Penguins have a plump body
with short legs and webbed
feet that are set so far back
BIRDS
that they must stand upright

on land, balancing on their
feet and short, stiff tail.
When walking, they put
their weight on the soles
of their feet, hence their
awkward gait. On snow or
ice, they may toboggan on
their bellies, using their feet
and flippers for propulsion.
A penguin’s body is
streamlined in water, and
is covered with extremely
short feathers that form a sleek,
friction-free surface. The wings are
specially flattened into flippers (see COMMUNICATION IN COLONIES
below). When underwater, they use their feet Apart from the yellow-eyed penguin,
and tail as a rudder. Penguins have 3 layers that all penguins (such as these king penguins)
provide waterproofing and insulation: a dense form colonies. When gathered in large
mass of overlapping, oil-tipped feathers; a thick numbers, they use calls and visual
layer of fat under the skin; and, in between, a layer displays to locate their mates and young.
of air that is warmed by the body. The plumage of
penguins is black or gray above and white below.
Any coloration or ornamentation (such as crests
and eye tufts) is confined to the head and neck. Colonies BURROWING
Not all penguins nest above
Most penguins breed in colonies, ground. In open terrain,
flat, solid bones “elbow” which can consist of hundreds of Magellanic penguins nest in
thousands of birds. Nests are made shallow burrows to protect
short feathers of grass, feathers, or pebbles, and themselves from the elements
“wrist”
the female lays either one or 2 eggs. and from predators, including
In some species, once an egg is laid, mammals and other birds.
the female leaves the nest to feed,
WING STRUCTURE while the male keeps the egg warm,
The wing of a penguin is unlike holding it on top of his feet and
that of any other bird. The bones beneath folds of skin on his belly.
are flattened to make a flipper, and are Penguins are still able to walk when HUDDLING
solid instead of hollow, increasing their density the egg is in this position. The first In harsh conditions, emperor
and strength. The wing as a whole forms a period of incubation can last weeks penguins and chicks huddle
rigid structure—free movement is possible only at or even months, during which time together for warmth. The center
the shoulder—the joints that form the equivalents of the male does not feed but lives on of a huddle can be about 18° F
the wrist and elbow in humans being relatively inflexible. stored fat. When the female returns, (10° C) warmer than the edges.
Well-developed muscles, as large as those of flying birds, the pair take turns to guard the eggs Birds take turns to occupy the
help power the flapping of the wings. while the off-duty bird feeds at sea. outermost positions.
PENGUINS 279
Aptenodytes forsteri Spheniscus humboldti and sardines, and they nest in

under ground burrows, caves, or
Emperor penguin Humboldt penguin crevices between boulders. Direct
hunting and over-fishing by humans
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Height 31⁄2 ft Height 22 – 26 in have led to a decline in their population.

(1.1 m) (56 – 66 cm)
Weight Up to 82 lb Weight 10 – 11 lb
(37 kg) (4.5 – 5 kg) white
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike head stripe
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location Circumpolar Location W. South fleshy pink
around Antarctica Status Near threatened America Status Vulnerable area at base
of bill
black band
from flank
to thigh
The largest of all the penguins, this Small colonies of this penguin occur
bird has highly unusual breeding habits. along the west coast of South America,
In winter, the female lays one egg and in the cold but fish-rich Humboldt
goes to sea, not returning until the Current. Coloration is mostly blackish
spring. The male carries the egg on gray with white underparts, but adults
his feet and protects it with a “pouch” have a distinctive black, horseshoe-
of feathery skin, huddling with other shaped breast band and a white head
incubating males to keep warm. He stripe. The penguins usually hunt in
fasts until his mate returns, just as groups in shallow water, pursuing black legs
the chick hatches, and then goes to small, schooling fish such as anchovies and feet
sea, later returning to help rear the
chick. This species can dive to depths
of 1,750 ft (530 m) for as long as Eudyptula minor 2 eggs on a bed of sticks or grass, and
20 minutes, and travel up to 625 miles the parents take turns at incubation.
(1,000 km) on foraging trips. Little penguin Chicks are brooded for 7 – 10 days and
guarded for a further 13 – 20 days. At
Height 16 in sea, the little penguin feeds alone or in
(41 cm)
Pygoscelis adeliae Pygoscelis antarcticus small groups, catching small fish and
Weight 21⁄4 lb
(1 kg) swallowing them beneath the surface.
Adelie penguin Chinstrap penguin Plumage Sexes alike pale-colored
BIRDS
Migration Partial migrant eye
Height 18 – 24 in Height 28 – 30 in Location S. Australia
(46 – 61 cm) (71 – 76 cm) (including Tasmania), Status Least concern
New Zealand slate gray ear
3
1
coverts
(4 – 5.5 kg) (3 – 4.5 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike short, wedge-
Migration Migrant Migration Nonmigrant shaped tail
Location Circumpolar Location Circumpolar This mainly blue-gray bird is the
around Antarctica Status Least concern around Antarctica Status Least concern
smallest species of penguin, and also
one of the few that remain fully active
after dark. During the day it forages at blue-black
sea, but after sunset in the breeding upperparts
One of the few penguins that nests Characterized by a thin, black line season, it returns to land, coming
on mainland Antarctica, along shores that runs from ear to ear under the ashore under the cover of darkness.
that are free of ice in summer, the chin, the chinstrap penguin is mostly A highly vocal bird, it calls at sea and
Adelie penguin is mainly blue-black blue-black with white underparts, on land. Little penguins normally nest
with pure white underparts and a cheeks, chin, and throat. It prefers in underground burrows, but they
distinctive white ring around its eye. areas of light pack ice, and breeds in also breed in caves, crevices, under
It breeds in summer in vast colonies high-density, sometimes large, colonies vegetation among rocks, and
of 200,000 or more synchronized pairs, on ice-free areas of coasts. The nests sometimes under houses. They lay
each female laying 2 eggs roughly comprise a circular platform of small
2 days apart. Both the male and the stones, with a shallow nest cup, and
female incubate the eggs in shifts. The often include bones and feathers. Eudyptes chrysolophus one chick ever survives to the fledgling
Adelie penguin is relatively aggressive, The breeding success of chinstrap stage—usually the chick from the
and adults are often observed stealing
rocks from their neighbors’ nests.
penguins is highly variable: it is lower
in years when sea ice persists close
Macaroni penguin second, larger egg. Both sexes share
incubation duties but, unlike most other
to colonies, since this restricts access Height 28 in penguins, the female takes the first shift.
(71 cm)
white ring to the sea for foraging adults.
around eyes blue-black (3.5 – 6.5 kg)
upperparts
Plumage Sexes alike
white
underparts Migration Nonmigrant
Location S. Chile, South
Atlantic, S. Indian Ocean Status Vulnerable
Like all 7 species of crested penguins,

the macaroni penguin has a
conspicuous crest of golden plumes on
its head. It also has a large, bulbous,
orange-brown bill, often ridged in adults.
Noisy, aggressive, and demonstrative, it
makes raucous braying sounds in its
colonies on land and gives short barks
at sea. Although 2 eggs are laid, only
280 LOONS
Loons PLUMAGE
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Loons spend a lot of

Chordata
Also known as divers, loons are superbly
PHYLUM time taking care of their
adapted for underwater swimming. With their feathers and can often
CLASS Aves
streamlined bodies, legs set far back on the be seen rolling on their
ORDER Gaviiformes
body for efficient propulsion, and strong, side to reach their belly
FAMILIES 1 (Gaviidae) feathers. A varied
webbed feet, they can reach depths of
SPECIES 6 breeding plumage (seen
250 ft (75 m) and stay underwater for several
here in the Pacific loon)
minutes. Dense plumage insulates them in is replaced by simpler,
the Arctic and sub-Arctic waters where they live. Despite having less colorful patterns
small, pointed wings and a pinlike tail, loons fly well. But with feet in winter.
set so far back, they are almost incapable of walking on land.
Gavia stellata and marshes in northern forests and Gavia immer invertebrates, which it seizes with
Arctic tundra during the breeding its bill, sometimes spearing them.
Red-throated loon season, where it emits a loud yodel
or wail to attract a mate or establish
Common loon It may also dive to avoid predators
such as mammals, hawks, and eagles.
Length 22 – 28 in territory. Courtship behavior involves Length 28 – 35 in Both sexes care for the young, and
(55 – 70 cm) (70 – 90 cm)
splashing dives, dipping and shaking the chicks stay with their parents
Weight 21⁄4 – 51⁄2 lb Weight 61⁄2 – 10 lb
(1 – 2.5 kg) of bills, and rushing across the water (3 – 4.5 kg) until fledged, at about 10 – 11 weeks.
Plumage Sexes alike in pairs. Nests are usually a simple Plumage Sexes alike Parents sometimes swim with the
Migration Migrant
platform of reed, rushes, and grass. Migration Migrant
young on their backs.
Location North America, Location North America,
Greenland, Europe, Asia Status Least concern Greenland, W. Europe Status Least concern
large, white
squares on
back
thick
neck
Distinguished from other loons by the This gray to black and white bird is
BIRDS
reddish brown throat patch at the base usually solitary or found in pairs,
of its thick, long neck, this bird has a although large groups of up to 300 may
plump, oval body that is dark grayish to be seen feeding along the coast when
black with white spots; the underparts not breeding. Like other loons, this
are whitish. An inhabitant of coastal species can dive to great depths when
bays and inlets, it moves inland to lakes hunting for fish and aquatic
Tachybaptus ruficollis Podiceps nigricollis
Grebes Little grebe Black-necked grebe

1
Length 12 – 14 in
PHYLUM Chordata
Found in sheltered waters throughout (25 – 29 cm) (30 – 35 cm)
the world, grebes are strong swimmers Weight 4 – 8 oz Weight 9 – 21 oz
CLASS Aves (125 – 225 g) (250 – 600 g)
and accomplished divers. They are ideally Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
ORDER Podicipediformes
suited to aquatic life: their small head and Migration Partial migrant Migration Migrant
FAMILIES 1 (Podicipedidae) Location Europe, Asia, Location North America,
thin neck enable them to dive easily when Africa, Madagascar, Status Least concern Europe, Asia, N. and Status Least concern
SPECIES 23
hunting for food, and their feet—which are New Guinea southern Africa
set well back on the body—have lobed

toes with highly flexible joints that give these birds great
agility when swimming. Their soft, dense plumage is very The smallest grebe in Europe and
water-resistant. Grebes northern Asia, this short-billed bird
is brown with a bright chestnut throat
are remarkable for
and cheeks. It stands and walks on
their often elaborate land more easily than other grebes,
courtship rituals. and is also more likely to fly outside
of migration. Both sexes build nests of
aquatic vegetation, anchoring them
to surface water plants or branches
of bushes growing in water.
short, dark brown This small, dark grebe (non-breeding
stout bill upperparts plumage shown), with a slender, slightly
upturned bill, is highly social all year.
During the non-breeding season, it
“WEED DANCE” prefers saline waters, with thousands
During the “weed dance,” a courting pair gathering on some saltwater lakes.
(here, great crested grebes) dive for vegetation, However, it breeds in freshwater lakes
then rise out of the water to face each other, and marshes, where it makes floating
holding the plants up high. nests. Adults carry young on their
backs for the first few weeks, but little
parental care is required after 3 weeks.
GREBES 281
Podiceps cristatus PARENTAL CARE Aechmophorus occidentalis COURTSHIP RUSH

Great crested grebe Western grebe
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(46 – 51 cm) (55 – 75 cm)
Weight 11⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb Weight 21⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
(0.6 – 1.5 kg) (1 – 2 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Partial migrant Migration Migrant
Location Europe, Asia, Location C. and S. North
Africa, Australia, New Status Least concern America Status Least concern
Zealand Parents take turns carrying the
young on their backs and bringing
them food. Each parent develops
a preference for particular young,
The largest grebe in Europe and resulting in the adults dividing the A large grebe with black and white
northern Africa, the great crested brood in order to care exclusively plumage, this bird has a long, slender
grebe is famous for its remarkably for their favorites. neck. Mates are in close contact from This species engages in an energetic
elaborate courtship displays, which pairing to taking care of the young. Both courtship, following the same rituals
involve complex, ritualized postures, sexes build nests on water, anchored as the great crested grebe. The
dives, and head-shaking; during to 100 ft (30 m) deep. Populations of to surface plants. Parents take turns most famous display is the “rush”
the displays, its crest is raised the great crested grebe declined in the carrying young on their backs for the (shown above), in which birds run
and the tippets are flared. mid-19th century, but have recovered first 2 – 4 weeks, and feed them until across the water side by side. If
It often peers into the water with protection and an increase they are 8 weeks old. At the end of the they continue to be interested in
while swimming on the surface in man-made habitats, 19th century, tens of thousands of each other, they then perform
to locate fish, then dives up such as gravel pits these grebes were hunted for their the “weed dance” (see opposite),
and reservoirs. silky belly feathers, used in coats and in which each bird dives for aquatic
brown and
black tippets hats. Populations have recovered, vegetation, then holds it high
grayish brown CREST AND TIPPETS although they are still in danger from while turning from side to side.
upperparts This elegant bird is distinguished by the pollution, oil spills, habitat loss, and In established pairs, the male
ornamental black crest on its crown
white
disturbance by humans. brings fish to his mate.
and its elongated, chestnut and
underparts black cheek feathers (tippets).
black crown PLUMAGE FOR ALL SEASONS

Unlike its smaller North American relatives,
the western grebe does not develop any special
BIRDS
plumage in the breeding season, and keeps
its black crown all year round.
black
upperparts short,
vestigial
tail tuft
Podiceps gallardoi males and females come face to face
and vigorously move their heads up
Hooded grebe and down. Populations are small,
occurring on isolated lakes in remote
Length 131⁄2 in (34 cm) areas of Patagonia; the species
Weight 19 oz winters in sheltered bays along the
(525 g)
Patagonian coast. It is
Plumage Sexes alike
endangered because of
effects of pollution and
Location S. South America Status Critically habitat disturbance
endangered
during breeding.
Rollandia microptera Poliocephalus poliocephalus
First described in 1974, this medium-
sized, black and white grebe has a
Titicaca grebe Hoary-headed grebe
cinnamon and black crest and a small, Length 15 ⁄2 – 18 in
1
(39 – 45 cm) (29 – 31 cm)
pointed bill. Courtship involves a
Weight 22 oz Weight 8 – 9 oz
unique “sky jabbing” display in which (625 g) (225 – 250 g)
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nomadic
water or in brackish estuaries. Strongly Location W. South Location Australia
Podilymbus podiceps America (Lakes Titicaca Status Endangered (including Tasmania), Status Least concern
territorial and aggressive, it threatens and Poopo) S. New Zealand
Pied-billed grebe and chases birds of the same species
as well as other waterbirds. Mates may
Length 12 – 15 in perform a “triumph ceremony” after
(31 – 38 cm)
chasing off an intruder; this involves From a distance, this medium-sized Distinguished by the “brushed back”
Weight 9 – 21 oz
(250 – 575 g) the pair rising into an upright posture South American grebe looks like white, hairlike plumes on its head
Plumage Sexes alike facing each many of its relatives, with a crested and upper neck, this bird differs from
dark bar
other, and on bill head, brown back and flanks, and other grebes in numerous ways. It flies
Location North America, turning back white underside. However, its wings more than other species of grebes,
Central America, N.W. and Status Least concern
S.E. South America and forth. black throat are so small that it cannot fly. If and is probably the least vocal and most
patch threatened, the short-winged grebe social, often found in huge flocks.
patters across the water at speed, Courtship is relatively simple compared
flapping its wings rapidly without being with that of other grebes, and the nests
Small and stocky, with a short, arched able to take off. This unusual bird is are typically built in shallower water.
bill, this brown and white bird is found found primarily on 2 large lakes of the The hoary-headed grebe has a dark
in freshwater bodies in the breeding Central Andes, at an altitude of about bill with a pale tip; the males have
season, and winters in areas with open 11,900 ft (3,600 m). longer bills.
282 ALBATROSSES AND PETRELS
Albatrosses and petrels

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PHYLUM Chordata
Albatrosses and their relatives are oceanic Reproduction
birds that occur throughout the world. They All birds in this group breed on
CLASS Aves
are usually encountered far from land, flying land, mostly on inaccessible islands
ORDER Procellariiformes
low over waves or dipping into the water to or cliffs. They return each year to
FAMILIES 4 established breeding sites, where
feed on fish, plankton, or various other marine
SPECIES 147 they form large colonies of up to a
animals. Besides the very large albatrosses,
million pairs. The female always lays
this group includes the smaller fulmars, gadfly a single egg, often in a burrow dug
petrels, and shearwaters, as well as the tiny storm petrels and in soft soil or in rock crevices. After
diving petrels. All members of the group have tubular nostrils on a long incubation, the parents feed BREEDING COLONY
their upper bill—a unique feature among birds; as a result, they the chick on their highly nutritious Like other birds in the group, fulmars often
but foul-smelling stomach oil. form dense colonies in safe, inaccessible
are often known as tubenoses.
places. Many species visit the colony only
after dark, as protection against predators.
SOARING
The long wings of this
black-browed albatross
Anatomy are adapted for extended
Albatrosses and their relatives have a short soaring, often for hours on
neck, tail, and legs. The front 3 toes are joined by end without a wingbeat.
webbing. Most species have very long wings; the
wandering albatross, with a wingspan of 11 ft (3.5 m),
has the longest wingspan recorded for any bird.
Another notable feature of birds in this group is their
exceptionally acute sense of smell, which they use to detect
food and locate nest sites in the dark. It is thought that each
bird may exude its own particular scent. Flight
These ocean-going birds are adapted to
BIRDS
ALBATROSS BILL continuous flight, often traveling great distances

tubular nostril Birds in this group have a and riding out powerful storms. Their flight
bill with a hooked tip and method varies according to the bird’s size and
bill made of
horny plates sharp blades for dealing wingspan. The larger species, including the
with slippery prey. Albatrosses albatrosses, typically glide rather than fly, making
differ from other species in use of the updrafts of wind over waves to give FINDING FOOD
having nostrils positioned on them lift for long periods without expending too Storm petrels fly low over water in search
either side of the upper bill much energy (a practice known as dynamic of food. Some species patter on the surface
rather than being fused into soaring). The tiny, lightweight storm petrels fly with their feet to alarm their prey or draw
hooked tip one on the top (see left). with a combination of wingbeats and glides. it toward the surface.
Diomedea exulans NESTING Thalassarche chlororhynchos
Wandering albatross This albatross’ nest is a crude but

substantial mound of grasses and
Atlantic yellow-nosed
Length 31⁄2 ft
(1.1 m)
moss, built on the ground. The albatross
parents take turns to incubate the
Weight 18 – 25 lb
(8 – 11.5 kg) solitary egg. Once it Length 30 in
(76 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike has hatched, they
Weight 51⁄2 lb (2.5 kg)
Migration Migrant
tend their chick
Location Circumpolar Plumage Sexes alike
Status Vulnerable
for 9 months
around Antarctica Migration Migrant
or more.
Location South Atlantic Status Endangered
This albatross has a wingspan of up to

11 ft (3.5 m), one of the largest of any bird. The smallest albatross in the southern
It feeds mainly at the surface, primarily ocean, this black and white species
on squid. It breeds only every other year takes its name from the yellow
(at best), since rearing a chick takes a ridge and orange tip on
year, and molts in the intervening year. its black bill. Squid
These birds are in decline because they and fish make up the
often get caught on baited hooks used bulk of its diet, but it also
in long-line fishing for fish such as tuna. follows ships, feeding on
offal thrown overboard.
Both parents rear the
PAIRED FOR LIFE
chick, which is able
Albatrosses are monogamous and the
male–female bond is very strong. An elaborate to fly relatively
courtship display, involving much posturing, head quickly for an
shaking, beak snapping, and ritualized preening albatross—within
is usually initiated by the female. about 4 months.
ALBATROSSES AND PETRELS 283
Macronectes giganteus Fulmarus glacialis Most petrels return to breed at the Pagodroma nivea
colony where they were born, but
Southern giant petrel Northern fulmar the northern fulmar rarely does so. It
lays its egg in a barely lined hollow on
Snow petrel
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Length 36 in Length 18 – 20 in an earthy or grassy ledge, usually on a Length 121⁄2 in

(92 cm) (45 – 50 cm) (32 cm)
cliff, but it will nest on flatter ground
Weight 11 lb Weight 25 – 30 oz Weight 9 – 16 oz
(5 kg) (700 – 850 g) where there is no danger from predators. (250 – 450 g)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike The adults go off in search of food Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Migrant Migration Migrant
once the chick is about 2 Migration Migrant
Location Circumpolar Location Arctic, North weeks old. If threatened, the Location Circumpolar
around Antarctica Status Least concern Pacific, and North Atlantic Status Least concern around Antarctica Status Least concern
oceans youngster defends itself
by vigorously spitting
an unpleasant
smelling oil.
Large and aggressive, with a large bill The fulmar is a common bird of pure white dark eyes
plumage
capable of opening intact carcasses, northern waters, flying on characteristic
this bird is one of a few petrels to obtain stiff, straight wings. Its numbers have
a significant amount of its food on land. increased dramatically in the past
Males in particular prey at seal and 200 years, particularly in temperate
penguin colonies and feed on the waters of the North Atlantic, possibly
bodies of whales washed ashore. due to the increase in offal available
The adult usually has mottled, grayish from trawlers gutting fish at sea. gray
brown plumage, but some As well as scavenging from ships, upperparts One of the few birds, apart from
individuals may be white it eats fish, squid, and penguins, that breed on the Antarctic
with black flecks. animal plankton, seizing continent, the dovelike snow petrel is
most of its prey at the rarely seen away from pack ice. It may
surface but sometimes nest inland, up to 185 miles (300 km)
plunging into the water. from open water, but breeding is much
affected by snowfall, and in some
wings held years only one in 5 nesting sites may
straight for be occupied. It fiercely defends its
gliding
nest from other petrels, spitting
a foul-smelling oil at them.
BIRDS
Pterodroma cahow Pachyptila vittata Oceanites oceanicus alights on the sea, but catches small
fish and crustaceans when pattering
Bermuda petrel Broad-billed prion Wilson’s storm petrel on or hovering just above the surface.
It can detect prey by smell, and it has
Length 13 in Length 11 in Length 61⁄2 in been suggested that prey are attracted
(33 cm) (28 cm) (17 cm)
when the bird stirs its yellow-webbed
Weight 9 oz Weight 5 – 8 oz Weight 17⁄16 oz
(250 g) (150 – 225 g) (40 g) feet around in the water. When faced
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike with predators, this petrel may squeak
Migration Migrant Migration Migrant Migration Migrant
and eject stomach oil at them.
Location Bermuda (ocean Location South Atlantic, Location Pacific, Atlantic,
range 625 miles/1,000 km) Status Endangered South Pacific, S. Indian Status Least concern Indian Ocean Status Least concern
Ocean
One of the world’s rarest seabirds, This medium-gray bird has a darker A small, soot-black bird with a
the Bermuda petrel was brought to the “M” across both wings, and white conspicuous white rump, the storm
brink of extinction as long ago as the underparts. Its bill is broad, with petrel is often said to be one of the
17th century, as a result of predation by comblike plates used for filtering world’s most numerous seabirds,
introduced mammals and competition planktonic prey from the sea. It feeds with populations running into millions.
for nesting sites with the white-tailed mainly by “hydroplaning”—with wings It breeds around Antarctica, but
tropicbird. Conservation measures are outstretched and feet paddling, during the southern winter, it flies
helping this black, gray, and white petrel pushing the sieving bill through north, especially to the northern
to stage a gradual recovery. the surface water to trap its prey. Indian and Atlantic oceans. It rarely
Puffinus puffinus air with calls that sound like screams rocks. Both parents incubate the egg,
and wails. Although it feeds at sea by working in shifts of 6 – 7 days, and they
COLORATION
Manx shearwater day, it is active at the colonies only
after dark, to avoid attack by gulls.
feed the chick for up to 70 days,
leaving it about a week before it starts
Length 12 – 14 in This bird usually nests in an earth to fly. As winter approaches, the
(31 – 36 cm)
burrow, but it sometimes shearwater flies south to warmer
Weight 13 – 18 oz
(375 – 500 g) lays its single egg under waters off Brazil.
Plumage Sexes alike black
Migration Migrant
upperparts
Location Atlantic
HOOKED BILL
The Manx shearwater
has a relatively slender Black above and white below, this
and hooked bill, with
This shearwater breeds in the North bird produces a characteristic black,
which it seizes fish
Atlantic, forming colonies on offshore at the water surface. then white flash as it flies over the
islands—mainly Skomer and Skokholm It may swim a few sea, looking for small schooling fish
off the western coast of Wales, and yards underwater such as sprat.
Rhum in the Outer Hebrides—filling the to pursue its prey.
284 FLAMINGOS
Flamingos
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PHYLUM Chordata With their extremely long legs Colonies GROUP DISPLAY
During courtship
CLASS Aves and neck, and colorful pink or red Flamingos are among the most displays, flamingos
ORDER Phoenicopteriformes plumage, these tall wading birds are social of birds, even performing their may engage in “head-
courtship displays in groups. flagging,” raising their
FAMILIES 1 (Phoenicopteridae) striking and instantly recognizable. Thousands of individuals open their neck and bill, and
SPECIES 6 They are found in the tropics and wings or lift up and turn their heads turning their head
in one vast, synchronized movement. from side to side.
subtropics, usually in the shallows of These group displays seem to bring
salt or brackish water or alkaline lakes, sometimes massed all the birds of the colony to the same
readiness to mate, to ensure rapid,
in vast flocks of up to one million birds. Despite their fragile synchronized egg-laying as soon as
appearance, flamingos occur in many parts of the world conditions allow. Breeding colonies
often form when the water level of
where few other animals can survive. They are frequently
a salt lake drops—the surface is
found in conditions of extreme salinity or alkalinity, and are suddenly covered with piles of raised
remarkably tolerant of changes in temperature. Flamingos mud, which form the flamingos’ nests. CRECHES
The parents care for their young for Young flamingos form large groups of up
are specialized feeders, using their unusual downturned the first week or two. Once a young to 300,000 birds (here, lesser and greater
bill to filter tiny plants and animals from water. flamingo is able to walk and swim, flamingos). They are still fed by their parents
it joins a “creche” (see right). but are guarded by an unrelated adult.
FLIGHT
Flying flamingos, with their thin neck and legs
outstretched, are unmistakable. Large flocks often
form long, curving lines. Their long wings and light
body enable a relatively easy takeoff.
BIRDS
Anatomy
Flamingos have a slender body set on greatly elongated
legs, which are longer in relation to body size than those
of any other bird. The limbs are completely bare, allowing
the birds to wade deep in highly saline or alkaline water
without soiling their plumage. Flamingos have a long,
flexible neck that, in the case of the larger species, is
also remarkably thin. The head is small, and the bill has
a characteristic downward bend. The way in which the
upper and lower parts of the bill fit together, combined
with the comblike plates on the bill’s edges, make it a
useful tool for sieving food from
water (see right). The flamingo’s tongue lower bill
unique pink or red coloration moving water lamellae
arises from a dye extracted
from food such as algae upper bill
Feeding
and shrimps. hook for
BILL fastening
bill
A flamingo usually feeds while wading By opening its bill CROSS SECTION
STANDING IN WATER in shallows, using its feet to stir up mud only slightly when
Flamingos (here, a greater flamingo) on the bottom. To feed, it puts its head feeding, a flamingo filters tongue
often stand on one leg for long periods, to the surface (so that its bill is upside out unwanted items. A second
even when asleep, with the head laid down and the tip points backward) filtration happens inside the bill,
on the body and the other leg tucked and sweeps its head from side to side. where rows of tiny plates (lamellae),
under the abdomen. This posture cuts By a rapid action of the tongue, it pumps often with minute hairs attached,
heat loss through the legs and feet. water in and out of the slightly opened act as a sieve to trap the smaller lamellae
bill. Along the inside edge of the bill are particles that the flamingo needs. FEEDING
rows of plates, known as lamellae, some
FEET of which have tiny hairs on them. The FEEDING ON ALGAE
Compared with their long legs, the flamingo filters out food particles by Lesser flamingos (left)
feet of flamingos are relatively small. sieving them past the lamellae and their and other smaller species
The front 3 toes are webbed, and the hairs. The size of particles taken differs usually feed from the water
back one is either tiny or missing. between species. Larger flamingos tend surface. Larger flamingos
The webbing is useful for walking to feed on crustaceans, mollusks, and immerse their heads
over mud or other soft surfaces. worms, and the smaller species on algae. completely to feed.
FLAMINGOS 285
Phoenicopterus roseus and in all regions they fly long

distances—sometimes up to 300 miles MASS BREEDING
Greater flamingo (500 km)—to find food, traveling at night.
The greater flamingo’s large size
For a social species, the greater
flamingo shows a remarkable range
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Height 5 ft enables it to wade out into relatively of colony size. In some parts of
(1.5 m)
deep water, whereas other flamingos the world, breeding colonies contain
Weight Up to 83⁄4 lb
(4 kg) are restricted to the shallows; it also huge numbers of birds, but in
Plumage Sexes alike sometimes swims, up-ending like a others—such as southern Europe—
duck in order to reach food. This they may contain only a few dozen.
Location Central America, flamingo usually feeds with its head This variability is one of the reasons
South America, Caribbean, Status Least concern
S.W. Europe, Asia, Africa fully immersed, sometimes keeping it why greater flamingos, unlike some
underwater for up to 20 seconds. of their relatives, are relatively easy
Unlike smaller flamingos, it rarely takes to breed in captivity.
food from the surface, which reduces
With its exceptionally long neck and competition with them. Diet is varied,
legs, the greater flamingo is the largest and includes insects, worms, complex, synchronized dances—
member of the flamingo family. It is microscopic algae, and pieces of neck stretching, ritualized
found in a wide variety of freshwater vegetation. The greater flamingo feeds preening, loud honking—
and saline habitats, particularly salt mainly during the day, even in the performed by large numbers of
lakes, estuaries, and lagoons. Greater hottest conditions. Highly gregarious, males and females. It has a
flamingos outside the tropics often it breeds in colonies of up to 200,000 quieter contact call
migrate to warmer regions for winter, monogamous pairs. Courtship involves while feeding.
exceptionally
NESTS AND CHICKS long, thin neck
As with all flamingos, nests of
greater flamingos are flattened
PINK OR PALE
cones of mud, often surrounded
The greater flamingo is usually
by a shallow “moat,” and spaced
paler than other species,
about 5 ft (1.5 m) apart, just beyond nostril including the American
pecking distance. Both parents flamingo, which is similar
extremely
incubate the single egg. They defend in habits and in size. long legs
the nest when breeding, but are
otherwise nonterritorial. Once the
chicks can walk, they gather in large blunt,
BIRDS
angled bill
creches under the supervision of a
small number of adults. short, webbed toes
Phoenicoparrus jamesi CONSERVATION Phoeniconaias minor
James’s flamingo With its small size and localized

distribution, the James’s flamingo
Lesser flamingo
Height 31⁄2 ft is vulnerable to anything that affects Height Up to 31⁄4 ft
(1.1 m) (1 m)
its reproductive success. In the past, its
Weight 41⁄2 lb Weight Up to 41⁄2 lb
(2 kg) meat and eggs were widely used for (2 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike food, and during the first half of the Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Nonmigrant 20th century, it suffered a marked Migration Nomadic
Location W. South population decline. The major breeding Location W., C., and
America Status Near threatened southern Africa Status Near threatened
colonies are protected, and its
numbers have responded well.
In 2010, the total population was
estimated to stand at just over
An alternative name for this flamingo, 105,000 birds. The smallest but most numerous
puna flamingo, derives from a local flamingo, the lesser flamingo may be
word for a high Andean plateau. Its diet light to dark pink, with a relatively long,
consists of diatoms—microscopic algae dark-colored beak. It is nonmigratory,
that abound in salt lakes. It feeds by but will readily move to a new site in
day in shallow water, walking slowly search of food. Its diet consists almost
forward with its bill dipped just under pink red streaks entirely of microscopic blue-green algae,
the water surface. Diatoms are filtered coloration abundant in soda lakes.
out of the water in the bill and It feeds in shallow
swallowed. This flamingo has a variety water at dusk
of calls, both when feeding and on and after dark,
the wing. It is one of 3 South American avoiding
flamingos, the other 2 being the Chilean COLORATION
strong
flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis) and The James’s flamingo daytime
the Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus is pink with red winds. Some
andinus). All 3 species can be found streaking, especially colonies are over
together in salt lakes, usually at long, in the breeding season. a million strong—
altitudes over 9,900 ft (3,000 m). Most slender among the largest
short- legs
James’s flamingos migrate to lower hooked bill bird aggregations in
altitudes in winter, but some remain at the world. Courtship
lakes where there are hot springs. The rituals often involve
courtship and breeding habits of this hundreds of birds
bird are similar to those of the greater moving and displaying
flamingo (see above). in synchrony.
286 TROPICBIRDS
Phaethon aethereus flying fish. An elegant bird, with silky
Tropicbirds RED-BILLED
TROPICBIRD
The serrated
Red-billed
white, pink-flushed plumage, it has
extremely long tail streamers that it
switches from side to side in an
tropicbird
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edges of this elaborate, airborne courtship display.

Chordata
All three species of tropicbird
PHYLUM bird’s bill helps The red-billed tropicbird is one of only
have elongated tail streamers; it grasp slippery, Length 31 – 32 in 3 species in its family, all restricted to
CLASS Aves
slender bodies; and long, muscular fish. (78 – 81 cm)
the tropics.
ORDER Phaethontiformes Weight 21 – 29 oz
pointed wings, giving great (600 – 825 g)
FAMILIES 1
aerial efficiency. They can Plumage Sexes alike
SPECIES 3
remain far offshore over Location E. Pacific,
Migration Migrant
the sea almost C. Atlantic, and Status Least concern
N. Indian oceans
indefinitely, soaring high over the
waves. On land, they merely
shuffle on short, weak legs.
Although it is a poor swimmer, spending
Nests are often hidden in
little time on the water, this highly aerial
rock cavities or vegetation, seabird is often found hundreds of
in loose colonies on remote miles from land. It feeds by plunge-
tropical islands. diving, sometimes from a considerable
height, to catch squid and fish, especially
Storks WHITE STORK

These birds build huge
nests, which a pair will
reuse year after year.
PHYLUM Chordata
Storks are tall, upstanding, long-striding birds
with daggerlike bills for catching small prey or
CLASS Aves
tearing meat from carcasses. Although big and heavy,
ORDER Ciconiiformes
they excel in the air, having long, broad wings with upcurved,
1
FAMILIES
deeply “fingered” feathers that reduce turbulence at the
BIRDS
SPECIES 19 wingtip, helping them soar on rising currents.
Leptoptilos crumenifer Mycteria americana open, moving it from side to side. White,
large, black with black wingtips, it has a dark gray
wings
Marabou stork Wood stork head and neck. The wood stork feeds
either alone or in groups, and breeds
Height 4 ft Height 34 – 43 in colonially, building a nest often over
(1.2 m) (85 – 110 cm)
water at treetop level, and very
Weight 11 – 17 lb Weight 51⁄2 lb
(5 – 7.5 kg) (2.5 kg) occasionally on the ground where
Plumage Sexes alike throat Plumage Sexes alike there are no ground predators.
wattle
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Partial migrant
Location Africa (south of Location North, Central,
Sahara) Status Least concern and South America, Status Least concern
Caribbean
UNGAINLY AIR
This huge, ungainly looking stork Often described as The wood stork locates food by both
is slaty gray, black, and white, and “ugly,” this large sight and touch, enabling it to feed
has a wingspan of nearly 9 3 ⁄4 ft (3 m), bird has a nearly by day or night, and in murky water.
one of the largest of any land bird. featherless head and The scaly head and neck are bald.
Its elegant, soaring flight contrasts neck and a massive, While feeding by touch, the bird walks
wedge-shaped bill.
markedly with its hunched and through the water with its long, thick bill
Its pinkish to pale
unappealing aspect when on the magenta pouch, or
ground. Because of its feeding habits wattle, may extend
(see panel below), the marabou stork to 14 in (35 cm) Ciconia ciconia winter. Today, largely due to habitat
has done very well, and is increasing from the base change, far fewer storks breed in
in numbers throughout its range. of the bill. White stork Northern Europe, but their rooftop nests
are still considered good luck. The white
Height 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft stork feeds primarily in shallow water
(1 – 1.3 m)
SCAVENGING and grassland, but also at the edges of
Weight 51⁄2 lb
(2.5 kg) crop fields. It migrates mainly over land,
Although it is a stork, the marabou often Plumage Sexes alike where thermals help its soaring flight.
behaves more like a vulture. It soars Migration Migrant
high up in search of food, and uses its Location Europe, Africa,
Asia Status Least concern
large beak to tear rotting meat from
carcasses. Like a true vulture, it has an
almost featherless head and neck—
an adaptation that helps to prevent it In parts of Northern Europe, this elegant,
from getting soiled with blood and gore black and white bird is a harbinger of
when it inserts its head in carrion. spring, migrating from as far away as
southern Africa, where it spends the
HERONS AND RELATIVES 287
Herons and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata This group of water birds includes

FEEDING INLAND
CLASS Aves herons, egrets, bitterns, pelicans, ibises, The western cattle egret
ORDER Pelecaniformes and spoonbills. All have large, plump finds most of its food away
from water. Flocks typically
FAMILIES 5 bodies with long necks and powerful gather around cattle and
SPECIES 118 bills. Their long legs help them wade other large mammals to
feed on insects disturbed
in shallow water, where they feed on fish, by their movements.
amphibians, snails, and crabs. Most feed alone to avoid
other birds disturbing their prey, but at night they gather in into the shade. As a group, the order monogamous and form tight
is represented on most wetland, pair bonds that may involve
groups to roost, and many species breed in colonies. These coastal, and open terrestrial regions elaborate courtship displays.
birds are found in freshwater habitats throughout the world, worldwide, with ibises generally Their nests range from low-lying
favoring warmer latitudes. Those platforms among reedbeds to
mostly in warm regions not subject to winter freezing. species found in the Northern large, untidy stick-nests
Hemisphere are migratory, but in trees. Both sexes incubate the
and egrets retract their neck, species in the tropics are sedentary. eggs and care for their young—
Anatomy whereas all ibises and spoonbills which hatch with at least a partial
Herons and their relatives have hold them straight out. Breeding coat of down but are nevertheless
several adaptations for walking While many herons are gregarious helpless and must remain in the
and feeding in shallow water. Long Feeding and may breed in large colonies, nest for a number of weeks.
legs allow the bird to keep its Most herons and their relatives bitterns—their close allies—lead The hamerkop and shoebill
plumage dry while it extends use sharp eyesight to find their prey, more secretive solitary lives. Ibises were formerly classified with
its flexible neck to lower its head scanning the water for signs of and spoonbills are colonial. All storks, but are now thought to
toward the water. The feet have movement below the surface. Once members of the order are be allied to pelicans.
4 widely spaced toes, the front 3 sighted, a fish or frog will be grabbed
joined by webbing that spreads the (but rarely speared) with a thrust
bird’s weight as it walks on mud of the bill. Some birds refine the
or marshy vegetation. All birds in technique—for example, the black
BIRDS
this group have broad wings. heron spreads its wings to cast a
During flight, herons, bitterns, shadow on the water and lure fish
BILL SHAPES
A long bill is a useful tool for pulling
animals from water or mud. Ibises
have a long, thin, downcurving bill.
Herons have a long, straight bill
that tapers to a point, while a IBIS
spoonbill’s flat bill broadens at
the end to form a shape
similar to a spatula.
WADING
Herons and their relatives wade slowly and
deliberately. Spoonbills (seen here) sweep the
water with their bills, using touch-sensitive
cells to find small fish and crustaceans.
HERON
SPOONBILL
often in a tall tree, but sometimes APPEARANCE black crest

Ardea cinerea A large and distinctive
on the ground. The female usually lays black shoulder
Gray heron 3 – 5 eggs. Like other herons, they use

ritual courtship and defense displays,
bird, the gray heron
has a long neck
patches
and long legs. Its grey flanks

Length 90 – 98 cm such as stretching upward with an
(35 – 39 in) plumage is gray,
arching neck. white, and black.
Weight 1 – 2 kg
(21⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb)
Plumage Sexes alike
FISHING BY SIGHT
Location Europe, Asia, The gray heron relies on stealth
Africa Status Least concern
and rapid reactions to catch its
prey. When fishing, it stands close
to the water’s edge, monitoring
the movement of any fish close by.
The most common and widespread If a fish comes within striking range,
heron in Europe, this bird can be the heron tips forward and partly
found in all kinds of shallow, freshwater extends its neck, before suddenly
habitats from reedbeds to lakes. It flies stabbing with its bill. It swallows long, narrow
toes
with slowly flapping, deeply bowed small fish whole, but takes larger
wings. Gray herons pair for life; the ones back to land.
male and female build the nest together,
288 HERONS AND RELATIVES
Butorides virescens Nycticorax nycticorax Botaurus lentiginosus as in Canada—migrate southward

to overwinter in southern USA and
Green heron Black-crowned American bittern the Caribbean. Its nest is a well-
concealed platform of vegetation
night heron
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Length 16 – 19 in Height 231⁄2 – 34 in placed in rushes just above the water

(40 – 48 cm) (60 – 85 cm)
level or on solid ground.
Weight 4 – 8 oz Height 23 – 251⁄2 in Weight 18 – 32 oz
(125 – 225 g) (58 – 65 cm) (500 – 900 g)
Plumage Sexes alike Weight 18 – 29 oz Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Partial migrant (500 – 800 g) Migration Migrant
Location North and Location North and
Central America Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike Central America, Status Least concern
Migration Partial migrant Caribbean
Location North, Central,
and South America, Status Least concern
Africa, Asia
With its streaked and mottled brown

plumage, the American bittern is
Unlike most other herons, this small superbly camouflaged for life in dense
bird feeds at night or at dusk, using reedbeds and overgrown marshes.
its exceptional vision to glossy This daytime feeder preys primarily on
pinpoint its prey in black fish and frogs, stabbing with a lightning-
crown
dim light, and fast lunge of its daggerlike bill. Like
occasionally other bitterns, when disturbed it
also responding assumes a peculiar defensive posture,
A common bird of American wetlands, to sounds. It grasps with its bill upturned and its neck
the green heron is one of the few birds food with its bill while extended, and may sway in the wind
known to use a tool to acquire food: it standing still or walking with the surrounding grass in order
drops bait—worms, twigs, or stolen slowly in the water. It to remain inconspicuous. This bird is
bread—into shallow water in order usually feeds singly, widespread across North America,
to lure fish. Tropical and subtropical but nests and breeds but northern populations—such
populations are sedentary, but in colonially. A good
temperate North America, these herons climber, it is often seen
migrate—overwintering in warmer clambering over roots Bubulcus ibis and in the fields and marshes of Iberia.
coastal regions, especially favoring or branches close to They feed on amphibians, insects, and
mangrove swamps. the water’s edge. Western cattle egret earthworms, foraging more successfully
around large herbivores, including cattle,
BIRDS
Height 35 – 38 in or even farm machinery, than elsewhere.

(88 – 96 cm)
Ardea alba In the breeding season, long plumes They breed, often alongside other herons
Weight 12 – 18 oz
develop on the back, trailing over (300 – 500 g) and egrets, in treetop colonies.
Great egret the relatively short tail. These egrets
stalk their prey alone or in loose groups,
Plumage Sexes alike
Length 34 – 39 in but within groups individuals defend Location Africa, Asia,
(85 – 100 cm) Europe Status Least concern
small territories. Their young in the
Weight 34 – 36 oz
(950 – 1,000 g) nest are extremely aggressive, often
Plumage Sexes alike resulting in the death of weaker chicks.
Location North, Central, Western cattle egrets spread from the
Africa, Asia, Australia Old World to the New World, reaching
South America in 1877, North America
in 1941, and settling to breed in Florida
by 1953. Early arrivals were windblown
The most widespread of all herons, strays, but the species spread widely
the great egret is found in all kinds of through the Americas and, from the
wetlands from the Americas to Asia 1940s, southeastward to Australia.
and Australia. Its plumage is entirely Flocks are familiar in African savannas,
white, and its legs and feet are black. associating with herds of large mammals,
Threskiornis aethiopicus habitations, insects in grassland Geronticus eremita

areas, and aquatic animals
African sacred ibis in shallow pools. Northern bald ibis
Length 26 – 35 in Length 32 in
(65 – 89 cm) (80 cm)
Weight 31⁄4 lb Weight Not recorded
(1.5 kg) Plumage Sexes alike
Plumage Sexes alike Migration Migrant
Migration Migrant Status Critically
Location Africa (south of Location N.W. Africa,
Sahara), Madagascar, Status Least concern W. Asia endangered
Aldabra Island, W. Asia
This medium-sized white ibis, Once widespread throughout

bald head
with its strikingly black, featherless and neck southern Europe, North Africa, pools and dry river beds, using
head and upper neck, was revered and West Asia, this ibis is now its long, curved bill to probe for
in ancient Egypt. A generalized extremely rare. It has a bare red insects and other small animals in
black legs
feeder, it easily cohabits with people head, a straggly black crest on the loose ground. It nests in colonies
and consumes a variety of foods— nape of its neck, and brownish black on steep cliffs, where its young are
refuse and offal around human iridescent plumage. It feeds near relatively safe from attack.
PELICANS AND RELATIVES 289
Eudocimus ruber Platalea alba spoon-shaped tips of their bills. Like

TREETOP ROOST its relatives, it swings its bill from side
Scarlet ibis African spoonbill to side in the water, creating currents
that bring fish within range, which the
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Length 22 – 27 in Length 30 – 351⁄2 in spoonbill speedily snaps up. It may

(56 – 68 cm) (75 – 90 cm)
also feed by night, looking for fish
Weight 28 – 33 oz Weight 41⁄2 lb
(775 – 925 g) (2 kg) and running after them in a sprint.
Location S. Central Location Africa (south of
America, N. and E. South Status Least concern Sahara), Madagascar Status Least concern
America
The scarlet ibis feeds on the ground

during daytime, but at dusk, it flies
This vividly colored bird gathers in large up into waterside trees to roost. This This graceful, red-legged white
flocks—sometimes of tens of thousands behavior—common among ibises, bird belongs to a group of 6 species
of birds—in the breeding season, on the herons, and their relatives—reduces that get their name from the broad,
coastal wetlands of northern South the danger of being attacked by
America, in swamps, lagoons, and predators at night.
mangroves, as well as on tidal rivers. Pelecanus crispus driving fish into shallow water, where they
Birds of a colony pair off for black can then scoop them up. These pelicans
breeding (although they often
mate with other partners, too),
wing-tips
Dalmatian pelican often breed in large colonies, each pair
usually rearing one young. Chicks are
building their nests in trees Length 51⁄4 – 6 ft helpless when first hatched and entirely
(1.6 – 1.8 m)
close to water. Like other long, gently dependent upon parents; when they
curving bill Weight 22 – 29 lb
ibises, the scarlet ibis finds (10 – 13 kg) are 3 or 4 weeks old, they live in “pods”
its food primarily by touch instead of by Plumage Sexes alike largely unattended by their parents,
VIVID COLORATION
sight, probing into soft mud with its long, Migration Partial migrant which do, however, continue to bring
With its bright red Location S.E. Europe, S.
gently curving bill, usually while walking them food. At about 6 weeks, the chicks
plumage and black- and S.W. Asia, N.E. Africa Status Vulnerable
along. It may also feed like a spoonbill, tipped wings, the begin to catch fish, and a month or so
sweeping its bill from side to side in the scarlet ibis is one later they make their first proper flight.
water. Crabs, shellfish, and aquatic of the world’s most pouch enables
insects are the major items of prey. strikingly colored birds. ingestion of large
This pelican is the largest found in quantities of food
Europe. Despite its size and
BIRDS
main diet consists of amphibians. It feeds weight, it is a strong flier, black wing
Scopus umbretta margins
in shallow water, using its bill to rake soaring high up during
Hamerkop the bottom for frogs and fish; it also flies
above groups of tadpoles and snatches
migration on its very
large, broad wings. Its plumage is
Length 16 – 22 in them up. The hamerkop builds the essentially silvery white, with black tips
(40 – 56 cm)
largest roofed nest of any bird. Made of to the wings, and it has an orange-red
Weight 15 oz
(425 g) twigs, mud, and grass, it is oven-shaped pouch beneath a pale yellow, orange-
Plumage Sexes alike with an entrance tunnel, up to 6 1⁄2 ft (2 m) tipped bill. The Dalmatian pelican feeds
Migration Nonmigrant across and deep, and sited high up in on a wide variety of fish, needing on
Location Africa (south of a tree. While the hamerkop breeds average 21⁄4 lb (1 kg) a day. It swims on
Sahara), Madagascar, Status Least concern lead-gray
S.W. Asia solitarily, nests are often found near the surface, up-ending to seize prey. legs and feet
each other. Sometimes a number of birds feed
large, dense crest cooperatively, forming a semicircle and
From the German “hammerkopf” strong dark brown

black bill primaries
meaning hammerhead, this bird’s Pelecanus occidentalis However, the Peruvian pelican—
common name is a good description a subspecies of the brown pelican—
of its unusual shape, with its relatively Brown pelican nests on the ground.
short bill and heavy crest on the back
of its head. Dull brown, it has darker black legs Length 31⁄4 – 5 ft
(1 – 1.5 m)
brown primary feathers, and a paler
Weight Over 73⁄4 lb deep brown
chin and throat. While many waterbirds (3.5 kg) hind neck greenish
feed primarily on fish, the hamerkop’s Plumage Sexes alike skin of
Location North, Central, Migration Partial migrant GROUP LIFE face
and South America, Status Least concern Highly gregarious, the
Caribbean brown pelican roosts,
Balaeniceps rex mammals. The shoebill frequently adopts
an unusual method of hunting: it plunges migrates, and often
feeds in groups. It also
Shoebill on prey as if falling on it and then cuts up
the food with a scissorlike
breeds colonially, on
bare, low-lying islands.
Height 31⁄2 – 41⁄2 ft action before swallowing. The brown pelican is mainly silver-gray
(1.1 – 1.4 m)
The shoebill breeds in and brown, with a white or white
Weight 10 – 14 lb
(4.5 – 6.5 kg)
almost inaccessible papyrus and yellow head and chestnut mane.
Plumage Sexes alike
swamps, and usually nests The greenish skin of the face and
on floating vegetation. throat pouch becomes much more
Location Central Africa
Status Vulnerable
In hot weather, it pours vivid in the breeding season. The only
beakfuls of water pelican that feeds by plunge-diving
over the eggs to instead of by swimming and fishing at
cool them. the surface, it glides low over the water
The shoebill, or whale-headed stork, on outstretched wings, and on sighting
has a highly distinctive, large, broad, a fish, flies up as high as 30 ft (10 m)
clog-shaped bill. It often hunts for prey in before folding back its wings and
grey body
pools that are drying out, feeding mainly plunging into the sea. It usually nests
on lungfish, and also on frogs and small in trees or shrubs—often in mangroves.
290 GANNETS, CORMORANTS, AND RELATIVES
Gannets, cormorants, and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata
This substantial group of water birds is
characterized by long, daggerlike or slightly DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANT
CLASS Aves
hooked bills; long wings with extended Eating almost nothing but fish, cormorants
ORDER Suliformes
“elbow” joints giving extra reach; and unusual dive from the surface, wings tightly closed,
FAMILIES 4 propelling themselves with powerful feet.
feet, having all four toes joined by webbing.
SPECIES 60 Large fish are brought to the surface
Gannets and boobies are strictly marine
and swallowed whole.
birds, while some of the cormorants
can also be found on fresh water far inland. They include
successful and abundant species, some very widespread,
while others have a restricted geographical range, exploiting
rich feeding areas associated with localized oceanic conditions.
Anatomy
Gannets are capable swimmers and divers, and spend long
periods far from land. Cormorants and shags have poor
waterproofing and come to land regularly to dry their plumage.
They are buoyant swimmers, but heavy, waterlogged feathers
help them dive from the surface for fish, while gannets and boobies
must reach greater depths by plunge-diving from a height.
Breeding
Some shags and cormorants breed in huge colonies on rocky
islands, exploited for the copious guano or droppings of these
fish-eaters. Others build bulky stick-nests—colonies typically
kill the trees that support them. Gannets have highly ritualized
displays and social behavior to ensure that breeding in their
BIRDS
dense island colonies is synchronized and effectively organized,

and so maximize breeding success.
Phalacrocorax auritus Phalacrocorax carbo POWER SWIMMING

Double-crested Great cormorant
cormorant Length 32 – 39 in
(80 – 100 cm)
Length 30 – 36 in Weight Up to 73⁄4 lb
(76 – 91 cm) (3.5 kg)
Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb Plumage Sexes alike
(1.5 – 2 kg) Migration Partial migrant
Location E. North America,
Plumage Sexes alike S. Greenland, Europe, Asia, Status Least concern
Migration Partial migrant southern Africa, Australia
Location North America
One of the world’s most widespread

coastal seabirds, the great cormorant Although the great cormorant
This bird is the only cormorant in is also common inland and can be prefers to hunt in shallow water, it
North America that is widespread found on almost any large area of can dive to depths of 100 ft (30 m)
inland as well as on the coast. As with water—fresh, brackish, or saline, or more. When underwater, it swims
other cormorants, it has a streamlined natural or artificial—in Europe, under its prey with its wings pressed
body, a serpentine neck, and large, Asia, and Africa. It makes its nest closely to its body. Sturdy legs
webbed feet. Unlike other cormorants, in a wide range of habitats, from with large webs make for powerful
for a brief period in spring, it has a cliffs and bare rocks to trees propulsion to catch fast-moving fish.
double crest on the head. Its increasing and reedbeds. The great
population has made it a serious pest cormorant breeds in colonies,
of catfish farms on the Mississippi. in some cases returning to black body with
the same location year after bronze sheen
year, although pairs of birds
stout legs
usually remain together
only for a single season.
LONG AND SLEEK
The great cormorant has
a spare, streamlined body,
a flexible, serpentine neck,
and a stout, hooked bill to
help grasp fish.
GANNETS, CORMORANTS, AND RELATIVES 291
Leucocarbo atriceps Phalacrocorax harrisi The flightless cormorant has a long, Anhinga melanogaster
strong bill that is useful for flushing
Imperial shag Flightless cormorant octopus and fish from the sea bottom.
It breeds in small groups. The male
Oriental darter
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Length 27 – 30 in Length 35 – 39 in rears the young, continuing to feed Length 34 – 38 in

(68 – 76 cm) (89 – 100 cm) (85 – 97 cm)
them for several months, while the
Weight 51⁄2 – 73⁄4 lb Weight 51⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb Weight 21⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
(2.5 – 3.5 kg) (2.5 – 4kg) female deserts them to find a new mate. (1 – 2 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes differ
Migration Partial migrant Migration Nonmigrant Migration Partial migrant
Location Circumpolar Location Galapagos blackish brown, Location Africa (south of
around Antarctica, S. South Status Least concern Islands (Isabela and Status Vulnerable frayed wings Sahara), S. and S.E. Asia, Status Near threatened
America, Falkland Islands Fernandina) Australia, New Guinea
This distinctive, black and white This large cormorant has only One of 4 similar species, this
shag, with blue eye-rings, is from the tiniest of wings and long since cormorant-like bird usually swims
the Southern Hemisphere and found lost the ability to fly—the absence of with only its head and neck above
mostly on rocky coasts and islands. terrestrial predators on the Galapagos dense, the waterline, the rest of the body
A highly gregarious bird, it forms Islands possibly having made flight hairlike being underwater. It has specially
dense winter flocks that forage unnecessary. It produces very little plumage blackish body adapted vertebrae in its neck that
offshore. In summer, it mainly feeds oil from its preen gland, but the soft, form a Z-shaped kink, which straightens
alone. There are several subspecies dense body plumage, more like hair short tail explosively and enables the darter to
of the imperial shag, differing slightly than feathers, traps air, which prevents feathers spear its prey with its pointed bill. It
in color and markings. the bird from becoming waterlogged. builds a nest of twigs sometimes as
high as 16 ft (5 m) above water, where
it lays 3 to 6 eggs.
Fregata minor species—one of 5 in the family—has slender,
a typically long, hooked black bill and a blue-black bill inflated throat
pouch on male
Great frigatebird long, forked tail. The male is black, with
a glossy green sheen and long, pale
Length 34 – 41 in wingbars, and when courting, exhibits
(85 – 105 cm)
a scarlet, balloonlike throat pouch. The
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(1 – 1.5 kg) female is black and white. The great
Plumage Sexes differ frigatebird breeds on small, mostly
uninhabited islands, forming colonies
BIRDS
Location Tropical Pacific, of up to several thousand pairs.
Atlantic, and Indian Status Least concern
oceans
With their remarkably light bodies

and immense, slender wings, great
frigatebirds spend their lives gliding
effortlessly over the sea, taking food
from the surface or from other birds.
Their plumage is not waterproof so,
when feeding, they dip only their bill
into the water, holding the wings up
to avoid getting them wet. This
Sula nebouxii mainly fish such as flying fish, Sula leucogaster fish. Making spectacular dives from
sardines, anchovy, and Pacific 100 ft (30 m) or more, it penetrates the
Blue-footed booby mackerel, or squid. The blue-footed
is one of the rarer boobies, with a
Brown booby water to great depths, bombarding
shoals of squid and fish such as mullet.
Length 32 – 34 in limited distribution. Even its dispersal Length 25 – 29 in With its long, sturdy wings, the brown
(80 – 85 cm) (64 – 74 cm)
is relatively restricted; for example, booby is also a graceful flier, and the
Weight 3 ⁄4 lb
1
Weight 11⁄2 – 31⁄4 lb
(1.5 kg) the Galapagos birds move only to (0.7 – 1.5 kg) only member of the family in which the
Plumage Sexes alike nearby Ecuador. Plumage Sexes alike male advertises for a mate in flight.
Migration Partial migrant Migration Partial migrant
Location W. Mexico to densely Location Tropical Pacific,
N.W. South America, Status Least concern streaked head Atlantic, and Indian Status Least concern
Galapagos Islands oceans
chocolate-brown
plumage
long, sturdy
long, bill
This distinctive seabird, with vivid pointed tail Like all boobies and gannets, this
blue legs and feet, is one of 10 species is superbly adapted to
species that make up the gannet marine feeding and diving. It has a
and booby family. Like its relatives, streamlined, cigar-shaped body,
it has a cigar-shaped body adapted airsacs to cushion the impact of
for plunge-diving, and narrow wings vivid blue plunge-diving, and a long,
that angle back just before it hits feet tapering bill for grabbing
the surface. The male is much smaller
white belly
and lighter than the female and so
especially adept at diving into very
shallow, inshore water—even in
rock pools. Small groups of birds
sometimes dive together for food—
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BIRDS 292
GANNETS, CORMORANTS, AND RELATIVES 293
Morus bassanus One bluish white egg is laid and then

incubated by both parents. Young
Northern gannet gannets typically leave the nest around
3 months after hatching and migrate
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Length 32 – 35 in without their parents. Juveniles achieve

(80 – 90 cm)
full adult plumage within 5 years.
Weight 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 lb
(2.5 – 3 kg)
Plumage Sexes similar buff-colored
Migration Partial migrant head and neck
Location N. Atlantic,
Mediterranean Status Least concern
powerful
bill
The northern gannet is a very black,

tapering
streamlined seabird, with a wing-tips
torpedo-shaped body, long, narrow
wings, and a daggerlike bill, perfectly
adapted to plunge-diving for fish. It
nests in densely packed colonies,
or “gannetries,” on steep cliffs
and raised slopes. Highly
developed pair-bonding webbed
behavior persists feet
throughout the nesting season pure white
feathers
and, once paired, gannets will
remain together for years,
DAZZLING PLUMAGE
returning to the same nest The northern gannet is a very distinctive seabird.
season after season. First Most of its plumage is dazzling white, except
breeding occurs between for its jet-black wingtips, and the head and
the ages of 3 and 5 years. back of the neck which have a buff-colored hue,
contrasting with its icy blue eyes and bill.
NESTING GANNETS
Within their colonies, gannets
BIRDS
space their nests at a distance
of 2 birds’ reach. Gannetries
are so densely populated that
viewed from afar the high
slopes and cliffs can have
the appearance of being
covered in snow.
SHOW OF AGGRESSION
The northern gannet can be exceptionally
aggressive when defending its nest site, using
its powerful bill to stab and grip when fighting.
BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS
Few seabirds are as sophisticated in their
behavioral patterns as the northern gannet.
Both its plunge-diving technique and
pair-bonding behavior are highly
dramatic, while the level of parental
care it offers is advanced.
COURTING COUPLE
During spectacular bonding
displays, partners fence with
their bills, as the female aims to
allay the male’s
aggression.
DRAMATIC PLUNGE-DIVERS
From up to 150 ft (45 m) above the
water, the gannet uses its binocular
vision to track fish before plunging
at speeds of up to 60 mph (100 kph).
FEEDING A NESTLING
The young gannet
reaches deep into its
parent’s throat to feed
on regurgitated fish.
294 HAWKS, EAGLES, AND RELATIVES
Hawks, eagles, and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata This diurnal group of hunters (sometimes also Hunting

CLASS Aves referred to as raptors) once included the falcons and Catching live prey takes much practice and often has a high
ORDER Accipitriformes caracaras, but genetic studies have placed them into failure rate. Adult birds are usually better hunters than young
ones, but even adults miss more often than they strike. Some
FAMILIES 4 a separate group. Although many other birds feed on species vary their technique according to their prey—buzzards,
SPECIES 265 living animals, these birds of prey are set apart by for example, hover over small mammals but search for earth-
worms on the ground. Others, such as the osprey, are more
their remarkably acute eyesight, muscular legs, and specialized (see below). Most birds of prey hunt alone, but in
sharp bill and talons—as well as by their aerial ability and sophisticated a few species (including some eagles) pairs work together,
one bird flushing out the prey and the other striking.
hunting techniques. This large group includes eagles, hawks, vultures,
buzzards, and ospreys, among others. Most birds of prey hunt by day, FISHING
The osprey feeds almost
which distinguishes them from owls. As a group, raptors feed on a large
entirely on fish and has
assortment of living animals, from worms and snails to fish, reptiles, a unique catching technique.
amphibians, mammals, and other birds. They also eat carrion. Birds of It approaches in a low-angled
dive and throws its long legs
prey are found almost worldwide but are most common in open country forward to grab a fish with
in warm parts of the world. its talons. To help it grip, the
osprey may reverse one of its
3 forward-pointing toes.
Anatomy
Birds of prey range in size from the tiny hawk, no larger than
a starling, to condors, which have a wingspan of up to 10 ft
(3.2 m). Some are broad-winged and heavy, while others are
slight and streamlined. Most species have a large head and
short neck, although vultures have a long, bare neck that
allows them to reach inside carcasses. One of the most
distinctive features of the group is the bill: in almost all
BIRDS
species, it is powerful and hooked, with sharp edges for

tearing flesh. The exact form of the bill varies, reflecting
differences in diet (see below, right). A bird of prey’s
other main tool is its feet, which are strong and
muscular with long, sharp claws known as talons
(see below, left). The plumage of most species is
in subdued colors (such as brown, gray, black,
or blue), often combined with white.
thick,
scaly skin
sharp,
curved talon hooked
bill
BALD EAGLE
long,
backward- BILLS
toothlike
pointing talon ridge The distinct hook and sharp
edges of a bald eagle’s bill
TALONS are typical of many birds of
Most birds of prey kill with their talons rather than prey. Variations on this shape
their bill. The talons pierce vital organs and break HAWK can be seen in other species.
slender bones. Three of the 4 toes point forward, Hawks have a toothlike ridge
and one points backward. In many species (including this long, in the upper bill for breaking
hooked
white-tailed sea eagle), the backward-pointing claw bill the spine of their prey, while
is the longest and sharpest. It gives the foot a powerful the snail kite uses its long,
pincerlike action for holding and crushing prey that hooked bill to pull snails
can be difficult for the bird to release. SNAIL KITE from their shells.
Senses deep eye

cavity
Birds of prey hunt mainly by sight, and they are forward-facing eyes
renowned for their acute vision. It is estimated
that they can see at least 4 times as much detail EYE PROTECTION
as a human, an ability that helps them to pick out Like many birds of prey, the
prey from a great distance. This arises from having goshawk has a ridge over
a high concentration of cone cells in the retina, each eye, which provides
and also from having relatively large eyes. Some shade and protects the eye
species have excellent hearing, notably the harriers, from struggling prey. In many
which hunt over thick vegetation. A few vultures species, the eye is also protected
also have an exceptional sense of smell, by which by a transparent third eyelid
they can locate hidden carrion. (nictitating membrane).
HAWKS, EAGLES, AND RELATIVES 295
Feeding CARRION-FEEDERS
Up to 6 species of vultures
Most birds of prey feed on live animals; the larger may gather around a carcass
the species, the larger the prey that they are able at one time, each feeding on
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to carry. The bald eagle, for example, is capable of different parts of the body.
taking a deer fawn if it is not too heavy. Many birds For example, some may
of prey are specialized feeders, including the honey feed on soft body parts, while
buzzard (which eats wasps and their grubs), and others eat the skin and hide.
the secretary bird (which eats snakes). As well as The lappet-faced vulture (left)
live prey, many species also eat carrion from time is one of the largest species
to time. A few, such as vultures and kites, feed and is often dominant
almost entirely on dead animals. One carrion- over others.
feeder, the bearded vulture, eats bones, breaking
the larger ones by dropping them onto rocks.
The palm-nut vulture, named after its favorite
food, is unusual in that it feeds mainly
on plants.
FEEDING PERCHES
Rather than eating in
flight, many birds of prey
carry their kill to a favored perch, where they
carefully remove all unpalatable parts before
eating it. This European sparrowhawk (above)
is plucking a blackbird.
Flight
All birds of prey are able fliers.
They use different patterns of flight
to suit the way they hunt. Using their
large, broad wings to ride thermals
BIRDS
or updrafts next to cliffs, vultures and
condors can stay aloft for hours, barely
flapping their wings and using their high
vantage point to search for carrion. In
contrast, the smaller raptors may attack
other birds in midair, maneuvering on long,
thin, pointed wings and sometimes diving (or
stooping) from a great height (see below). Hawks
plan their strikes and then use a burst of speed
to surprise or ambush prey. Harriers fly slowly
forward over the ground and then drop onto
unsuspecting prey. Kestrels and buzzards can
hover in one place, watching for movement below
and then lunging downward, talons first.
AERIAL KILLER
One of the most distinctive
features of birds of prey is the
way they kill with their feet,
seizing prey from the ground,
water, or air. Steller’s sea eagle
(seen here) uses its feet to catch
Pacific salmon. It also hunts
geese, hares, and young seals. SOARING
Condors and vultures have the largest wings of all birds
of prey (the bearded vulture, above, has a wingspan of up
to 9 3⁄4 ft/3 m). Both are common in mountainous areas,
CONSERVATION where rising currents of air help keep them aloft.
Many birds of prey are threatened by human

activity. Most are listed by CITES, and they DIVING
include some of the world’s most endangered Large eagles of open
animals, such as the California condor, with a country, with little cover
current population of just over 400. Even to conceal them from their
widespread species are vulnerable because they prey, use a low, fast pursuit,
are at the top of food chains. They are also often followed by a short,
routinely persecuted, because of the perceived powerful stoop. Bald eagles
threat they pose to livestock. Also, widespread also dive acrobatically to
use of diclofenac, a chemical used for treating take fish from water using
cattle, has reduced South Asian populations of vultures by more than 90 percent. their feet.
Despite the availability of safe options, the chemical has recently been licensed for
use in Africa and Iberia.
Cathartes aura little is known about its courtship Vultur gryphus feed mainly on carrion, and soar at
behavior, this bird has been seen altitudes of up to 18,000 ft (5,500 m)
Turkey vulture performing a ritualized dance on the
ground. The female lays 2 eggs and
Andean condor to search for food. Their diet is
wide-ranging, and includes not only
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Length 25 – 32 in both parents bring food to the young, Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft mountain animals, but also the
(64 – 81 cm) (1 – 1.3 m)
which are fed by regurgitation from remains of stranded marine animals,
Weight 13⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb Weight 24 – 33 lb
(0.85 – 2 kg) the parents’ crops. Once past their (11 – 15 kg) such as seals and whales. In some
Plumage Sexes alike first year, the young birds are likely Plumage Sexes differ places, they also feed at seabird
to live for 12 – 17 years. Migration Nonmigrant
colonies, plundering large numbers
Location S. Canada to Location W. South of eggs. They breed on inland cliffs
S. South America Status Least concern long, broad wings America Status Near threatened
for soaring and reproduce slowly, typically
laying a single egg
every 2 years.
Often called a “buzzard” The Andean condor has the largest

in the USA, the turkey bald head wing area of any bird. Because outspread
vulture is found in an and neck of its immense size, it relies on flight feathers
exceptionally wide updrafts from mountains and
range of habitats coastal cliffs to remain airborne, juvenile
from southern and can travel huge distances
Canada through to with only the occasional flap white
Tierra del Fuego. This of its wings. From the ground, its neck ruff
on male
vulture and its close relatives silhouette is highly distinctive, with its
are the only birds of prey with a large flight feathers spreading out like
good sense of smell, enabling them the fingers of a hand. The males are
to locate food even in thick jungle. It larger than the females—unusually for
soars and glides as soon as the birds of prey—and while both sexes
day has warmed up, and often strong, have bald heads, the males also have
feeds on road kill, possibly bare legs a characteristic white ruff at the
explaining its increase in base of their necks.
populated areas. Although Andean condors
Gymnogyps californianus Pandion haliaetus the eye, and strongly curved

neck ruff talons and bill. It plucks live fish
BIRDS
California condor Osprey from the water during a spectacular,

feet-first dive, sometimes totally
Length 4 – 4 ⁄4 ft
1
Length 211⁄2 – 25 in submerging itself. Its feet have evolved
(1.2 – 1.3 m) (54 – 64 cm)
to hold onto slippery prey, with spiny,
Weight 18 – 31 lb Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
(8 – 14 kg) (1.5 – 2 kg) dry scales on the undersides and a
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ reversible outer toe for carrying
fish head-first through the air.
Location W. USA Location Worldwide
(California, Arizona) Status Critically (except Antarctica) Status Least concern
endangered
The California condor is the largest One of the most widespread

flying bird in North America, and also birds of prey, the osprey is
one of the most endangered. Once found on every continent
found from California to Florida, by BLACK PLUMAGE
except Antarctica. It has
1987 the species no longer existed The California condor has mainly black plumage white underparts and chocolate-brown
in the wild, but a captive-breeding with white tips to the smaller wing feathers upperparts, with a dark stripe through
program (see panel, below) is slowly and a black neck ruff. The head and the upper
helping it recover. California condors part of the neck lack feathers.
are expert at soaring and spend much Sagittarius serpentarius after faster quarry. The secretary bird
of their time circling high in the air. abundant food source rapidly declined. walks up to 15 miles (24 km) a day
At one time, they fed mainly on the
remains of bison and pronghorns, but
Today, captive-bred condors that have
been released feed mainly on dead
Secretary bird through grassland searching for prey.
Food includes grasshoppers and other
with the arrival of Europeans, this cattle and deer. Length 41⁄4 – 5 ft large insects, small mammals, frogs,
(1.3 – 1.5 m)
snakes, lizards, and tortoises. The bird
flushes out the prey by stamping on tufts
CONSERVATION (2.5 – 4.5 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike
of grass. It then runs after and catches
Through the California Migration Nonmigrant
moving items,
Condor Recovery Program, Location Africa (south of dealing them
Sahara) Status Vulnerable
a captive-bred population of repeated
condors numbering just 27 blows with
in the 1980s has steadily its strong
grown to just over 400 birds feet. The orange
today. About half of them are With its storklike legs, long, wedge- wings act face
in captivity, and the remainder shaped tail, and crest of black feathers as shields
in the wild. The aim of the on the back of its head, the secretary when the
program is to re-establish bird is unlike any other raptor. The crest bird attacks
a number of separate breeding resembles a number of quill pens, as snakes.
colonies, which exist used in the past by secretaries. The flight long,
independently of human feathers are black, and the rest of the powerful
legs
help, finding their own food. body plumage is gray. The powerful legs
are used for striking prey and running
Pernis apivorus Rostrhamus sociabilis snails. It inserts its fine, heavily curved, Gypaetus barbatus
hooked bill into the snail and
European honey Snail kite cuts the muscle that attaches
it to its shell, allowing it to
Bearded vulture
buzzard
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Length 16 – 18 in remove the animal’s body. Length 31⁄4 – 4 ft

(40 – 45 cm) (1 – 1.2 m)
Adult males are dark gray
Weight 13 – 14 oz Weight 10 – 15 lb
Length 201⁄2 – 231⁄2 in
(350 – 400 g) with black primaries; (4.5 – 7 kg)
(52 – 60 cm)
Plumage Sexes differ females are brown Plumage Sexes alike
Weight 16 – 36 oz
(450 – 1,000 g) Migration Partial migrant
with streaked Migration Nonmigrant
Location S.E. USA buff underparts. Location Europe, Asia,
Plumage Sexes alike (Florida), Cuba, Central Status Least concern N., E., and southern Africa Status Near threatened
Migration Migrant America, South America Rare in its
Location Europe, W. and south Florida
C. Asia, Africa Status Least concern
range, it can
be abundant
Formerly called the Everglades kite, this elsewhere, The bearded vulture is one of the largest
bird is a specialist feeder on aquatic as on the Old World vultures, with huge wings, a
Compared to similarly sized birds snails. It flies slowly over shallow Argentine conspicuous wedge-shaped tail, and
of prey, the European honey buzzard marshland, snatching up surface-feeding pampas. distinctive beardlike feathers at the base
has small feet, relatively undeveloped of its bill. It eats carrion, but it also
talons, and a shallow, curved bill. specializes at feeding on bones, carrying
This reflects its unusual lifestyle as a Milvus milvus flies with its wings partly bent, and uses large ones high into the air and then
predator of wasps and other insects. its tail like a rudder, constantly tilting it dropping them onto rocks
It catches its food in midair, and also
follows insects back to their nests,
Red kite as it searches for food. Two centuries
ago, the red kite was a common
below. Once the bones
have shattered, the
to feed on their developing Length 24 – 26 in scavenger in European pale bearded vulture lands
grubs. Because it depends (61 – 66 cm)
towns and cities, head to feed on the
Weight 27 – 36 lb
on insects, it has to (750 – 1,000 g)
but improved marrow
migrate southward Plumage Sexes alike
garbage inside.
in winter. Migration Partial migrant
disposal has
Location Europe, W. Asia, made it
shallow N. Africa, Canary and Cape Status Near threatened
Verde islands much less
bill long wings
common. for soaring
It nests in
trees, often
Kites are agile fliers, typically with long using old nests
BIRDS
legs and forked tails. The red kite is the of crows, laying long,
relatively largest species, feeding mainly on small 2 – 3 eggs forked tail
long tail Neophron percnopterus
mammals, carrion, and young birds. It each year.
Egyptian vulture
Length 23 – 28 in
Gyps africanus FEEDING (58 – 70 cm)
White-backed White-backed vultures are

legendary for their ability to
Weight 31⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
(1.5 – 2 kg)
vulture find food. They have a poor

Plumage Sexes alike
sense of smell, but extremely Location Europe, Africa,
Asia Status Endangered
Length 37 in (94 cm) good eyesight, enabling them
3
to spot dead remains from
(4 – 7 kg)
high in the air. Vultures also
Plumage Sexes alike
keep an eye on each other.
If one bird sees food and The smallest Old World vulture is now
Location Africa (south of Status Critically
endangered
makes a sudden descent, endangered because of pollution and
Sahara)
others quickly follow suit. decline of large ungulates. Adults have
yellow faces and off-white plumage,
apart from their black flight feathers;
juveniles are speckled brown (shown
This widespread African scavenger is here). Egyptian vultures scavenge all
a griffon vulture—one of a group of 8 white primary kinds of food, but are renowned for
feathers
species that have long necks that appear collar of using stones to break open the eggs
to be bald, but that are actually covered feathers of ostriches and other birds.
in fine down. This absence of large neck Because of their long, thin
bill
feathers allows griffon vultures to reach small size, they
deep into carcasses without becoming have difficulty
soiled. They make a variety of competing
hissing and cackling sounds as with other
they jostle for a chance to eat. vultures at
The white-backed vulture carcasses,
gets its name from a collar and are
of white feathers at the top often the
of its back, which last to feed.
contrasts with its
gray neck. This off-white
species is one of downy head plumage
Africa’s most common and neck
black flight
vultures, but is severely LARGE WINGS feathers
threatened by both accidental The large, broad wings of the white-backed
and deliberate poisoning, which vulture enable it to soar and circle on thermals
kills hundreds at one go. for hours, looking for carrion.
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BIRDS 298
AMERICAN ICON separate then come together again

The bald eagle, whose name
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
at breeding sites. They reinforce their
derives from the conspicuous
appearance of its white- Bald eagle pair bond through often spectacular
flight displays involving undulating
feathered head, has been
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the national bird of the

Length 28 – 38 in flight, swooping at one another, and
(71 – 96 cm)
USA since 1782. The cart-wheeling through the air with
only eagle solely native (3 – 6.5 kg) clasped feet. Together, they build a
to North America, the Plumage Sexes similar very large nest (in a tree or sometimes
bald eagle has been Migration Partial migrant
on the ground), reaching up to 13 ft (4 m)
a protected species Location North America tall. Bald eagles start to breed at about
since 1940. 5 years of age, and usually 2 or 3 eggs
are laid. Although the young are cared
for by both parents for many weeks,
The majestic bald eagle is a large, a high percentage do not survive
powerfully built bird, with a wingspan their first year.
of up to 81⁄4 ft (2.5 m). Although often
found well away from water when white head large, yellow
wintering, bald eagles are commonly and neck bill
seen close to lakes, rivers, and coastal
areas, where they have ample access
to fish. Bald eagles pair for life, and
while sedentary birds stay together dark brown
wings
throughout the year, those that migrate
strong
talons
BIRDS
white tail
feathers
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
The bald eagle is easily spotted by its pure white
head and tail, its broad, brown-black wings, and
its large, yellow bill. Juveniles take up to 5 years
to gain full adult plumage.
FEEDING HABITS
The bald eagle takes food FISHING TECHNIQUE
from a range of sources, live The bald eagle uses its
and dead, including small strong feet equipped
birds, carrion (especially with sharp claws to
snatch fish from the
during the winter months),
water’s surface.
and fish. When hunting for
fish, it does not usually enter
the water like the osprey
(see p.296), but instead
searches for dead or dying
fish or those that live
near the surface.
FOOD FIGHT
As well as piratically stealing food
from other predatory birds such as
ospreys, bald eagles often fight
between themselves over prey items.
WINTER DIET
In winter, bald eagles
sometimes collect in large
groups close to where
salmon come to spawn.
Circaetus pectoralis Terathopius ecaudatus shoulders and black-edged, white

chestnut-red mantle
secondary flight feathers; males
Black-chested Bateleur have black secondaries. The long,
pointed, almost falconlike wings
snake eagle
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Length 231⁄2 in and the short tail make this bird

(60 cm)
unmistakable in flight—it tilts from
Weight 41⁄2 – 61⁄2 lb
Length 26 in
(2 – 3 kg) side to side like a tightrope walker
(65 cm)
Plumage Sexes differ trying to balance. The bateleur is
Weight 21⁄4 – 51⁄2 lb
(1 – 2.5 kg) Migration Nonmigrant
mainly a scavenger, but will also take
Location Africa (south of small mammals, birds, reptiles, fish,
Plumage Sexes alike Sahara) Status Near threatened
eggs, and insects. Groups of these
Location E. to southern eagles may gather at termite mounds
Africa Status Least concern red feet
when the insects fly from their nests
to breed. During courtship, the bird
The bateleur is a colorful eagle with displays a rocking and rolling flight,
a chestnut-red mantle on its back, a almost stopping in midair with the
black body and head, and a bare, red wings held open. It builds its large
large, yellow or orange face. Females have gray stick nest in an open-branched tree.
eyes
Circus hudsonius Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawks feed on birds up to

the size of crows and pigeons, and
Hen harrier Northern goshawk mammals up to the size of small hares.
They often hunt from a perched position
Length 17 – 20 1⁄2 in Length 19 – 28 in at the forest edge, and are shaped for
white lower (43 – 52 cm) (48 – 70 cm)
chest pursuit at close quarters, with short,
Weight 13 – 19 oz Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(350 – 525 g) (1 – 1.5 kg) rounded wings, and a long tail that is
Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes alike used for steering and braking. Apart
Migration Migrant Migration Partial migrant
from these sudden sorties after their
Location North America Location Canada to prey, they are secretive, and often go
to N. Central America, Status Least concern Mexico, Europe, Asia Status Least concern
Europe, Asia unseen. When courting, prospective
partners call loudly as they soar into
the air, and once their nest is built, they
are extremely territorial, driving any
small feet A high-speed hunter of woods and intruding birds away. In cold winters,
BIRDS
forests, the northern goshawk varies when food is scarce, they are
considerably across its very wide range. sometimes found well to the south
A specialized hunter of reptiles, the Asian birds are usually pale, while North of their normal range.
black-chested snake eagle has tightly American ones often have dark heads.
meshed scales on its legs and toes Females are always larger than
that protect it from biting snakes. It males—sometimes weighing up to half white front
has a large head with large, yellow as much again—and young birds are with gray barring
eyes. The bird has strong legs and Instead of soaring, the hen harrier brown, eventually turning gray.
white brow
small feet, and is bare of feathers. It flies close to the ground with
is often found soaring over open hill its wings held in a shallow
slopes as it searches for prey, and will “V.” It has keen eyesight and
occasionally hover. It feeds primarily good hearing, which it uses
on snakes—usually avoiding poisonous to locate small animals hidden in
ones—but will also take lizards, birds, vegetation. The female (shown above)
bats, and even fish. The female lays is larger than the male, and is brown, rounded wings
one egg and incubates it for 48 days. with a white rump, whereas the male
Both parents care for the young; once is gray. Unusually for a bird of prey, the
fledged, the young is dependent for hen harrier nests on the ground,
up to 6 months. making a nest of sticks and grass. long tail
Buteo buteo ground, especially in winter, Buteo galapagoensis female is considerably larger than
feeding on insects and large the male. This hawk hunts mainly
Common buzzard earthworms. During
courtship, the buzzard
eyes
Galapagos hawk from the air, gliding in to take prey,
but can also hover. It feeds on small
Length 20 – 221⁄2 in displays a high, soaring Length 22 in mammals, birds, reptiles,
(50 – 57 cm) (55 cm)
flight with spectacular and insects. Both parents
Weight 19 – 36 oz Weight 23 – 30 oz
(525 – 1,000 g) climbs and stoops, and (650 – 850 g) care for the young—
Plumage Sexes alike the male passes Plumage Sexes alike usually one—and will
nesting material Migration Nonmigrant
allow it to remain
Location Europe, Asia, N. to the female Location Galapagos close for up to 4
and E. to southern Africa Status Least concern Islands Status Vulnerable
in midair. months before
driving it away.
This medium-sized raptor, known as the This is the only diurnal bird of prey
common buzzard, has large, broad large, broad
on the Galapagos Islands. It is also
wings and a shortish tail, and is built wings one of the few bird species that have
for soaring on thermals. It is very cooperative breeding habits—females
variable in color. Although large, the that have extra males helping them are
common buzzard catches relatively more successful in producing young.
small prey, such as voles, mice, and The Galapagos hawk is sooty brown
insects. It is often seen on the all over, with a gray-barred tail. The
Aquila chrysaetos FEEDING THE YOUNG Pithecophaga jefferyi
Golden eagle This eagle has a wide-ranging diet,

including carrion and living prey, such
Philippine eagle
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Length 30 – 35 in as rabbits, squirrels, and grouse, and Length 34 – 39 in

(75 – 90 cm) (86 – 100 cm)
even tortoises in the southern parts of
Weight 61⁄2 – 14 lb Weight 10 – 18 lb
(3 – 6.5 kg) its range. Parents feed their chicks, by (4.5 – 8 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike tearing food up into strips, for several Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Partial migrant months after they have fledged. Young Migration Nonmigrant
Location North America, birds take 4 – 5 years to mature, but Location Philippines
Europe, Asia, N. Africa Status Least concern Status Critically endangered
mortality is high, especially in the first
12 months.
Threatened by forest clearance and

With a wingspan of up to 71⁄2 ft (2.3 m), cruising low down across suitable by hunting, this gigantic eagle is one
this striking bird is one of the largest terrain. It breeds on cliff ledges and of the world’s rarest birds of prey.
land eagles in the Northern Hemisphere. in tall trees, making platform nests up It feeds on a wide variety of animals,
Its plumage is generally dark brown, to 61⁄ 2 ft (2 m) across. Widely persecuted including monkeys, snatching them
but it gets its name from the tawny or in the past—through the mistaken in a low-level attack. Attempts are
gold feathers on its nape and crown. belief that it attacks livestock—the being made to breed the eagle in
The golden eagle is skilled at soaring, golden eagle is now protected in captivity, but with a rapidly shrinking
but it generally catches its prey by many countries. habitat, its future looks uncertain.
BROAD WINGS large talons
BIRDS
This eagle has broad wings for soaring,
and “slotted” flight feathers, spread like the fingers of a hand,
for increased lift. It soars at a considerable height, flapping its
wings as little as possible, surveying the land below for food.
Aquila audax on a wide range of animals, Harpia harpyja macaws. Harpy

including other birds and rabbits, and eagles make stick
Wedge-tailed eagle it also eats carrion, taking the place
of vultures in a continent that has no
Harpy eagle nests high up in old trees, and they
often perch on exposed branches,
Length 32 – 39 in vultures of its own. Wedge-tailed Length 35 – 39 in watching the forest canopy below
(81 – 100 cm) (89 – 100 cm)
eagles usually nest in trees, lining for signs of prey.
Weight 41⁄2 – 12 lb Weight 83⁄4 – 20 lb
(2 – 5.5 kg) their nests with leaves. (4 – 9 kg) POWERFUL PREDATOR
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike The harpy eagle has gray, black,
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant and white plumage and a long,
Location S. New Guinea, Location S. Mexico to
Australia (including Status Least concern C. South America Status Near threatened barred tail. It has a double
Tasmania) crest, a strong bill,
and very thick,
powerful legs
and feet.
This eagle is Australia’s largest bird In habitat and lifestyle, this immense
of prey, with dark brown plumage, and bird closely matches the Philippine
a long, graduated tail that gives it a eagle (see above), although it lives
distinctive silhouette in flight. It feeds in a quite different part of the world.
Despite its great size, it is unusually
agile, which enables it to steer
Polemaetus bellicosus steppes to foothills, and also in through the treetops to catch its
moderately forested areas. prey. Sloths make up about a third
Martial eagle Its prominent brow gives
it a menacing
of its food by weight, but it also
eats a wide range of other animals,
Length 31 – 34 in expression. The including snakes, lizards, and
(78 – 86 cm)
abdomen is white
with gray to black
(3 – 6 kg) CONSERVATION
Plumage Sexes alike speckling. The
martial eagle soars The population of the harpy eagle
Location Africa (south of for extended periods is declining as a result of habitat
Sahara) Status Vulnerable
in good weather, destruction. It needs a very large area
searching for prey to hunt, which makes it vulnerable when
such as gamebirds, a continuous stretch of forest is divided
hares, hyraxes, small into isolated tracts. Young birds are
This is the largest of the African eagles, antelopes, monitor now being radio-tracked via satellite,
and one of the biggest eagles in the lizards, and other to determine their range and the
world. It can be found in a wide variety medium-sized space they need to survive.
of open habitats, from semidesert and vertebrates.
302 BUSTARDS
Ardeotis kori
Bustards HOUBARA BUSTARD

Long white plumes
provide an impressive
Kori bustard
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display for the houbara. Length 4 ft

PHYLUM Chordata
Most species of bustard are threatened; (1.2 m)
dependence on extensive, undisturbed habitats Weight 24 – 42 lb
makes them increasingly vulnerable. They are large
ORDER Otidiformes Plumage Sexes alike
to very large, including some of the world’s heaviest Migration Nonmigrant
FAMILIES 1 Location E. and southern
flying birds. Long, strong legs and stout toes hint Africa Status Near threatened
SPECIES 26
at their terrestrial lifestyle, but long, broad wings
make them powerful fliers when necessary.
Males have dramatic displays early in the breeding season.
Weighing up to 42 lb (19 kg), the kori
bustard is one of the world’s heaviest
flying birds. Like its relatives, however,
Chlamydotis undulata the ground. The houbara it lives on the ground and is reluctant
bustard searches for food to fly unless in serious danger. It often
tan plumage
Houbara bustard as it walks through its desert
homeland, eating seeds and
spotted
with brown
associates with
large, herding
Length 26 – 30 in shoots, insects, and small reptiles animals, feeding
(65 – 75 cm)
such as lizards. Of all bustards, on insects
Weight 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 lb
(1.5 – 3 kg) it is the one best adapted to frightened by the
the desert, and seldom drinks, herd as it moves. It
obtaining most of the water it also inhabits areas
Location Canary Islands, needs from food. The male uses that have recently
N. Africa, W., C., and Status Vulnerable
E. Asia a traditional courtship arena for been burned,
mating, adopting a curious method eating the new
of attracting the females’ attention: shoots of grass
it trots blindly about its display ground, and insects
This stout, long-legged bird is a typical with its ruff and crest feathers raised exposed by the
member of the bustard family—a over its head. Although not globally lack of vegetation.
group of about 26 species that are threatened, the houbara bustard
found only in the Eastern Hemisphere. is declining fast across its range,
BIRDS
Like other bustards, it has cryptically and in many parts of West Asia,
colored plumage, and although it can it is the focus of intensive
fly well, it spends most of its time on conservation measures.
Mesitornis variegata short, rounded wings and stout legs
Mesites White-breasted
are typical of a ground-living bird.
It feeds mainly on insects and spiders,
flicking through fallen leaves or lifting
Mesites are relatively little known— mesite up larger ones in order to find prey.
PHYLUM Chordata A tangled mass of vegetation piled
even their relationship with other bird Length 12 in into a tree or bush, 31⁄4 – 9 3 ⁄4 ft (1 – 3 m)
CLASS Aves
families is obscure. Although possibly (31 cm)
above the ground, serves as a nest.
ORDER Mesitornithiformes Weight 35⁄8 oz
related to pigeons, their appearance (100 g)
1
FAMILIES
and behavior suggests no Plumage Sexes alike
SPECIES 3 close relationship with Migration Nonmigrant
Location Madagascar
other groups. Status Vulnerable
SUB-DESERT MESITE
A downcurved bill used for digging insects This small forest bird is one of 3
from the soil distinguishes this species. species in the mesite family, all unique
It lives in low-level thorny thickets. to Madagascar, and threatened by the
destruction of their natural habitat. Its
Cariama cristata red-legged seriema often captures large
Seriemas RED-LEGGED SERIEMA

This long-legged bird
associates with domestic
Red-legged seriema
prey in its bill, beating it on the ground to
break it into pieces. It usually runs from
predators, but may lie down and rely on
livestock, catching insects Length 30 – 35 in its cryptic coloring
Chordata
The strikingly upright (75 – 90 cm)
PHYLUM and reptiles disturbed by to escape detection.
stance of the seriemas the animals. Weight 31⁄4 lb
Out of the breeding
CLASS Aves (1.5 kg) grey-brown
resembles the season it is highly plumage
ORDER Cariamiformes Plumage Sexes alike
larger, flightless Migration Nonmigrant
vocal, and its call is
FAMILIES 1 Location E. South America one of the most
rheas. Usually Status Least concern
SPECIES 2 characteristic sounds
striding around
of South American
in pairs, they can grasslands.
fly but rarely do so, nesting and In both shape and behavior, this species Although generally
roosting in the safety of treetops. resembles the secretary bird (see p.296): solitary, this species
both have long legs and crests, and both may also be found
hunt by striding across the ground. The in groups at times.
KAGU AND SUNBITTERN 303
Rhynochetos jubatus
Kagu and sunbittern SUNBITTERN

Beautifully camouflaged at rest, the
sunbittern bursts into color when
Kagu
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displaying its wings. Length 211⁄2 in

PHYLUM Chordata
These two birds have similar foraging (55 cm)
behavior and a dramatic spread-wing Weight 32 oz (900 g)
CLASS Aves
courtship display, most colorful in the Plumage Sexes alike
ORDER Eurypygiformes Migration Nonmigrant
sunbittern. Both species also have
FAMILIES 2 Location New Caledonia Status Endangered
powder down, insulating them in
SPECIES 2
the extremes of wet tropical forest
climates. Such down is shared by
herons and mesites, but not cranes. Although visually With its stocky body, weak wings,
so different, the two are clearly more closely related and large, erectile crest, the kagu is a
to each other than to any other group. typical island species that has evolved
a distinctive appearance and way of life.
It lives on the ground, and often stands
motionless on one leg, watching and
listening for prey. If it strikes and misses,
red eyes Eurypyga helias deliberately, then quickly stabs it will use its bill to dig
it with its slender bill. If threatened erectile out the prey; unique
long bill
Sunbittern when in the nest, it moves its neck
backward and forward, and hisses
crest flaps of skin over the
nostrils keep out debris
Length 17 – 19 in like a snake. At other times, it will while the kagu
(43 – 48 cm)
turn to face its predator, and fan forages in soil.
Weight 7 oz
(200 g) its tail and spread its wings (like the When threatened,
Plumage Sexes alike
kagu, right) to expose large, eyelike it raises its shaggy
patches. The large “eyes” and crest and spreads its
Location Central America, the spread of the wings and tail wings to expose the
N. South America Status Least concern
make the sunbittern look very shieldlike pattern
big and imposing. Its mottled, on its flight feathers.
mottled plumage cryptic plumage is soft,
enabling it to fly silently.
An inhabitant of shady rainforest A solitary bird, even
BIRDS
white
streamsides, the sunbittern is a wary paired adults are seldom plumage
bird that stalks its prey slowly and seen together.
Rails, cranes, and relatives

Chordata
Rails are small to medium-sized, mostly waterside birds,
PHYLUM RED-CROWNED CRANE
typically keeping well hidden in dense vegetation. Cranes are Cranes’ dramatic courtship displays
CLASS Aves
much larger heron- or storklike birds of more open habitats. involve rhythmic “dancing” actions,
ORDER Gruiformes
Some other groups, including finfoots, trumpeters, and the deep bows, and short leaps from
6 the ground, and synchronized, fluid
FAMILIES
limpkin, are included in the order, based largely on DNA
189 movements of the head and neck.
SPECIES
analysis, creating a large and diverse group.
Anthropoides paradiseus since the 1970s. This has been caused Grus grus
by factors such as insecticide poisoning long
Blue crane on agricultural land and conversion of
its grassland habitat into forest; birds
Common crane bill
Length 39 – 43 in are also killed by power-line collisions. Length 4 ft

(100 – 110 cm) (1.2 m) thick neck
Conservation programs are widens into
(4 – 6.2 kg) now assisting this species. (5 – 6 kg)
shoulders
Location S. Africa Location Europe, Asia,
Status Vulnerable N. Africa Status Least concern
This arid country crane has long

wing plumes that appear like Like other members of its family,
a tail from a distance. It is the common crane is a large, elegant
restricted to South Africa bird, with a long bill and long legs. long legs
for foraging
(where it is the national Gray, with a black head and neck,
bird) and Namibia. it has a white stripe down the nape,
Although it may gather into and a red spot on the crown.
large flocks outside the It gives a loud, trumpeting call,
breeding season, overall the sound being amplified by an
numbers of this species enlarged windpipe that is fused
have sharply declined with the breastbone.
304 RAILS, CRANES, AND RELATIVES
Grus japonensis Balearica regulorum fields, this bird has a relatively

CONSERVATION
short, versatile bill, unlike more
Red-crowned crane Gray-crowned crane aquatic cranes. It stamps its
feet while foraging
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Length 5 ft Length 31⁄4 – 31⁄2 ft to flush out potential

(1.5 m) (1 – 1.1 m) red throat
prey, and travels with wattle
Weight 15 – 26 lb Weight 61⁄2 – 83⁄4 lb
(7 – 12 kg) (3 – 4 kg) large mammals to
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike feed on the insects
Migration Migrant Migration Nonmigrant
frightened by their
Location E. Asia Location E. and movement. Another
Status Endangered southern Africa Status Endangered
The total population of red-crowned species, the black
cranes stands at about 2,750 birds. crowned crane,
About 1,000 of these live in Japan— occurs in
gray
With its intricate courtship dances and a spectacular increase from the tropical Africa. plumage
lifelong partnerships, this elegant bird 1920s, when numbers dropped to Gray-crowned cranes are easily identified
has long been a symbol of happiness just 20. However, the species is still by their golden crests, or “crowns,”
and good luck. The in danger, particularly during its and by their ability to perch in trees— well-developed hind
heaviest member long migration flights. something that other cranes cannot do. toe for perching
Found in both marshland and cultivated
of the crane family, it is mainly white,

with black flight feathers and a black Psophia crepitans of 6 – 8 live on the forest floor, bathing
face and neck. Large flocks congregate and roosting together, and foraging for
on feeding grounds in winter, but in the
breeding season, pairs of birds establish
Gray-winged the fallen fruit that are their main food.
They use a variety of calls, some loud
territories, defending them vigorously trumpeter and trumpeting, to warn of danger, beg
against other cranes. for food, mark territory, and threaten
Length 20 in intruders. Unusually for birds, several
(50 cm)
COURTING DANCES males mate with one female.
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
During courtship, the red-crowned crane performs (1 – 1.5 kg)
elaborate dances involving head bobbing, bowing, Plumage Sexes alike
pirouettes, jumping, and tossing material in the air. Migration Nonmigrant
Location N. South
America Status Near threatened
Aramus guarauna enable it to extract snails from their

BIRDS
shells with ease. Breeding pairs often

Limpkin stay together year after year, and the
male defends the nest by charging This black, humpbacked bird is one
Length 22 – 28 in intruders, fighting with its feet, and of 3 species in the trumpeter family, all
(56 – 71 cm)
uttering an unearthly, mournful call. found in South America. Small groups
Weight 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(1 – 1.5 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Nonmigrant Gallinula chloropus Porphyrio porphyrio
Location S.E. USA
Common moorhen Western swamphen
(Florida), Central and
South America
slender,
sharp bill Length 12 – 15 in Length 15 – 20 in
(30 – 38 cm) (38 – 50 cm)
An ibislike bird with a striking brown and (175 – 500 g) (500 – 1,300 g)
white spangled neck, the limpkin has a Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
long, slender bill that is sharpened and Migration Partial migrant Migration Nonmigrant
slightly twisted at its tip—features that Location Worldwide Location S. Europe, W.,
except Australia Status Least concern S., and S.E. Asia, Australia, Status Least concern
Africa
Crex crex practices and because the damp

pastures it inhabits are increasingly
Corn crake drained and plowed. The moorhen is one of the world’s most
widespread freshwater birds. A member
One of the biggest members of the rail
family—almost as big as a chicken—
Length 101⁄2 – 12 in of the rail family, it has distinctive the western swamphen is a powerful,
(27 – 30 cm)
white markings along the flanks robustly built bird with purple and black
Weight 4 – 7oz
(125 – 200 g) and a conspicuous red “shield” and plumage, a reddish orange bill, and long
Plumage Sexes alike yellow-tipped red bill. Although not as legs and toes. It feeds on all manner of
Migration Migrant shy as other rails, and often seen moving vegetation, pulling it up with its bill, as
Location Europe, W. to in the open, if threatened, the common well as on aquatic and terrestrial
C. Asia, S.E. Africa Status Least concern
moorhen will flee into dense cover. invertebrates. It will also eat the eggs
white flank and young of other waterbirds, climbing
markings if necessary to reach the nest.
colorful
Heard far more easily than seen, this plumage
cryptically colored bird has a loud and
rasping, 2-syllable call, which the male
makes both to advertise its territory thick, reddish
and to attract females. The call orange bill
becomes a growling, piglike squeal
before mating, or during encounters
with other males. The corn crake is
declining in many parts of its range
as a direct result of changes in farming
305
DANCING CRANES
Like other members of their family,
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red-crowned cranes (Grus japonensis)

are built for ostentatious courtship: long
legs for dancing, long wing feathers for
display, and an elongated coiled windpipe
for amplifying their calls.
BIRDS
306 WADERS, GULLS, AND AUKS
Waders, gulls, and auks

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PHYLUM Chordata In many parts of the world, these birds are a common sight
CLASS Aves at sea, along shorelines, and in wetlands. Most are strong
ORDER Charadriiformes fliers that feed on other animals in or near water.
FAMILIES 19 Waders or shorebirds (which include sandpipers,
SPECIES 384 plovers, avocets, stilts, snipes, curlews, and
jacanas) are long-legged birds that feed by
the water’s edge. Gulls (which embrace terns, skuas,
and skimmers) use their flying skills to catch prey.
Auks (including puffins and murres) dive
underwater for food. Auks look strikingly similar
to penguins but are able to fly and are confined
to the Northern Hemisphere. Waders and gulls
occur worldwide, but many species are
threatened by habitat destruction, oil
pollution, or hunting.
Anatomy
Most of the birds in this group have subdued
black, white, brown, or gray plumage, but some
have colorful bare parts, such as the bill, eyes, legs,
and mouth linings. Many go through radical plumage
changes, both between seasons and in maturing to
adulthood. The 3 groups exhibit major differences,
BIRDS
especially in the legs, which are long in the waders

but short and web-footed in the rotund, upright
auks. Most birds in the group have salt glands
above the eyes that enable them to extract the
fluids they require from seawater and expel
the excess salts through the nostrils.
long, touch-sensitive bill
bill curves down

at tip
CURLEW
short,
compact bill
BILL SHAPES
upper bill These birds exhibit a wide variety
swollen at tip
of bill shapes, each adapted for a NESTING TERNS
PLOVER different feeding method—the curlew Most terns (including these elegant terns)
has a long, downcurved, touch-sensitive bill breed in colonies, seeking an isolated
strong bill that is ideal for probing deep into mud, while place such as an island or reef for
slight hook plovers have a short, pigeonlike bill used for protection. The colonies are usually
picking up food that is detected by sight, not found on flat, open ground and are
red spot for touch. Gulls have a robust, multipurpose bill often densely populated.
GULL chicks to identify that is slightly hooked for tearing food.
CATCHING FISH
1 2 3 4
FINDING PREY CAPTURE TAKING OFF STEADY FLIGHT
A western gull detects a fish beneath the surface With rapid wingbeats, the gull plunges its stout bill Having successfully captured its prey, the gull The gull flies low over the water, heading
of the water and swoops down toward it. into the water and plucks out the fish. takes off with the fish in its bill. toward a suitable feeding site.
Reproduction CLIFFSIDE COLONY Flight

Most birds in this group nest on the ground, laying Auks often nest in The auks, with their short, pointed wings,
between one and 6 camouflaged eggs. Other species extremely dense colonies. can fly rapidly in air, but only for limited
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nest on cliffs, and a few, such as some terns and auks, Murres (left) crowd distances. They use their wings to propel
prefer trees. Many nest colonially, in great numbers together on cliff ledges at themselves underwater as they swim.
(over a million pairs in some auks), and some at up to 20 pairs per square The waders have long, pointed wings to
extraordinary densities: incubating guillemots virtually yard, their bodies virtually help them fly fast and efficiently, but
rub shoulders with their neighbors. Numerous waders defining the extent of their although they are adept at rapid changes
have unusual mating systems, in which either females territory. These birds lay a of pace and direction, they cannot soar.
or males have several mates. In jacanas, painted single egg, each with its This skill can be seen in the gulls and
snipes, and phalaropes, the usual roles of own pattern—a way of their relatives, which spend hours on
male and female are reversed, the more detecting it among the end on the wing, often traveling
colorful female initiating display, the many similar-looking extremely long distances over water.
male alone incubating the eggs nest sites. Every year, the Arctic tern, which breeds
and tending the young. north of the Arctic Circle and winters in
Antarctica, travels a distance of about
10,000 miles (16,000 km) each way.
LONG-DISTANCE MIGRANTS
The Arctic tern spends much of its life in flight,
feeding on the wing by catching insects in midair
and flying low over water to take fishes. It breeds
and migrates in large colonies. All terns perform
BIRDS
spectacular aerial courtship displays.
CARRYING PREY
The Atlantic puffin has an
extremely large, colorful
bill. As with all puffins, the
upper bill and tongue are
ridged with spikes that
enable the bird to hold a
remarkable number of
fishes at a time—up to 62
has been recorded.
Feeding FEEDING WADERS

Apart from seedsnipes, which eat plant matter, all members These American avocets
of this group feed on other animals. The waders probe for are catching their prey by
invertebrates on beaches, estuarine mudflats, and leaf litter. swishing their bill from
Gulls are opportunists, picking up fish, eggs, small birds, and side to side through
mammals where they can, even scavenging at garbage dumps. WALKING ON WATER water or very soft mud,
Gulls and skuas sometimes feed by piracy, intimidating smaller The jacanas (here, a comb-crested jacana) a technique known as
birds into giving up their food. Terns plunge-dive for fish, while walk on floating vegetation, their long toes scything. As the bill
skimmers fly low over the water, the lower bill just touching the distributing their weight and preventing them moves, it comes into
surface and snapping shut when prey is touched. Auks pursue from sinking. They eat insects and seeds that contact with edible
their prey underwater. they find under the leaves. particles in suspension.
5 6 7 8
HOSTILE RIVALS CHANGING COURSE MIDAIR SNATCH ESCAPE
Suddenly, 2 more birds appear, harrassing the Turning on its side, the gull heads off in One of the chasing birds has caught up with the Having successfully grabbed the fish, the “pirate”
gull by squawking and flapping their wings. a different direction to escape the pursuers. gull and is pulling the fish out of its bill. gull flees, pursued by the other 2 birds.
Jacana jacana The female, much larger than the male Dromas ardeola
and weighing about 51⁄4 oz (150 g), mates WALKING ON WATER
Wattled jacana with up to 3 males. Each male builds a
nest, incubates a clutch of eggs, and
Crab plover
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Length 61⁄2 – 10 in rears the young. The female defends Length 15 – 16 in

(17 – 25 cm) (38 – 41 cm)
the territory
Weight 31⁄4 – 51⁄4 oz Weight 8 – 12 oz
(90 – 150 g) from intruders. red (225 – 325 g)
wattles
Location S. Central COLORS Location E. Africa, S.W.,
America, South America Status Least concern S., and S.E. Asia Status Least concern
This small, black
and dark chestnut
bird has big red wattles
around a yellow bill. When the
As with the other species of jacanas,
wings are open, its yellow flight
The 8 species of jacanas are notable feathers make a striking contrast the wattled jacana has extraordinarily This thickset, black and white wader
for their long legs and very large feet. with the darker plumage. long toes that spread its weight as it has an exceptionally large, powerful
They also have a distinctive spur on walks, enabling it to move easily over black bill, which it uses to crush the
the leading edge of each wing. The the leaves of floating waterplants. shells of crabs before swallowing them
wattled jacana feeds mostly on insects Because of this behavior, jacanas whole. The crab plover is also unusual
and other aquatic invertebrates, but are also called lily-trotters. among waders in that it digs a long
sometimes eats seeds from rice plants. extremely long toes burrow, in which it lays a single egg.
Rostratula benghalensis Haematopus ostralegus
Greater painted-snipe Eurasian

Length 9 – 11 in
(23 – 28 cm)
oystercatcher
Weight 31⁄4 – 7 oz Length 16 – 19 in
(90 – 200 g) (40 – 48 cm)
Plumage Sexes differ Weight 14 – 29 oz
Migration Nonmigrant (400 – 800 g)
Location Africa, S., E.,
and S.E. Asia Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Migrant
Location Europe, N.W.,
BIRDS
N., and E. Africa, S.W., Status Near threatened

cautiously and mainly at night—to C., E., and S. Asia
probe the mud for food. The greater bright orange bill. It feeds mainly on
A medium-sized wader of freshwater painted-snipe has a rather weak, mussels, limpets, and cockles—either
marshes, the greater painted-snipe fluttering flight, with legs dangling. The by cutting the muscle that holds the 2
has a distinctive broad, white patch male usually incubates the eggs and A widespread coastal and freshwater halves of the shell together and stabbing
around each eye. It spends much of rears the young, while the female goes wader, the Eurasian oystercatcher is the prey inside, or by hammering the shell
its time in deep cover, emerging—very off to find another mate. recognizable by its noisy calls and open on rocks or hard sand.
Ibidorhyncha struthersii Himantopus himantopus Recurvirostra avosetta FEEDING IN WATER

Ibisbill Black-winged stilt Pied avocet
Length 15 – 16 in Length 14 – 16 in Length 161⁄2 – 18 in
(38 – 41 cm) (35 – 40 cm) (42 – 45 cm)
Weight 10 – 12 oz Weight 5 – 7 oz Weight 8 – 14 oz
(275 – 325 g) (150 – 200 g) (225 – 400 g)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Migrant Migration Migrant
Location C. and E. Asia Location Europe, Asia, Location Europe, Asia,
Status Least concern Africa, North, Central, Status Least concern Africa Status Least concern
and South America
When feeding, the avocet sweeps
its upcurved bill from side to side
A unique wader with a long, thin, so that only the tip is immersed.
downcurved red bill, the ibisbill is slender, upcurved bill However, if it sees something
gray-brown above, and has a bluish edible, it will lunge quickly forward,
gray breast, neck, and head, with a sometimes submerging its head
black face, and red legs. In spite of Breeding in a band from as it pursues the prey.
its striking coloration, the bird blends Western Europe across Asia
remarkably well with stony river banks. to China, this bird is the most black wing markings
It feeds in mountain rivers, raking widespread of the world’s
through the surface and probing 4 species of avocets. In winter,
under stones to find prey. it can be found in large flocks,
mostly on the coast, in estuaries,
and in nearby wetlands. It frequently
In relation to its body size, this wader roosts floating or swimming on water, UPTURNED BILL
has the longest legs of any bird, which and groups of birds can form large The pied avocet is whiter
enables it to feed in deeper water than “rafts,” looking from a distance rather than most other
waders, with black
most other waders. The black-winged like gulls. During the breeding season,
markings on the head
stilt hunts by sight or touch, scything it tends to move inland, to slightly
and wings, but its most
its fine, straight bill through the water brackish or saline marshes. The avocet distinctive feature is the
to detect prey. This bird also chases defends its territory very aggressively, long, slender, upcurved bill,
insects on and above water, often calling loudly if it senses danger and the male’s being longer and
twisting and leaping to catch them. chasing off intruders. straighter than the female’s.
Cursorius rufus juvenile pictured), Vanellus armatus Pluvialis dominica

which provides
Burchell’s courser excellent camouflage
in the barren country
Blacksmith lapwing American
golden plover
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Length 8 – 9 in in which it lives. Length 11 – 12 in

(20 – 23 cm) (28 – 31 cm)
When threatened,
Weight 21⁄2 – 27⁄8 oz Weight 4 – 8 oz
(70 – 80 g) the bird stands (125 – 225 g)
(24 – 28 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike still and upright Plumage Sexes alike Weight 4 – 7 oz
to avoid detection, Migration Nonmigrant (125 – 200 g)
Location Southern Africa and then runs Location Southern and
Status Least concern E. Africa Status Least concern Plumage Sexes differ
away very quickly. Migration Migrant
If forced to, it will Location N. North
America, S. South America Status Least concern
fly far and fast. It
Unlike most waders, the 9 species feeds in a jerky,
of coursers live in dry habitats, and stop-start
get their name from their rapid run. manner, taking
Burchell’s courser is sandy brown, insects from This medium-sized plover has a
with a slight rusty tone (as in the the ground. remarkable migration pattern, flying
northward over land, but southward
largely over the sea. It travels very long
Stiltia isabella above and pale tan underneath except distances, wintering on coastal marshes
for a large, dark chestnut patch on the and inland grassland in South America
Australian pratincole belly. Its downcurved bill has a red base
and black tip. The Australian pratincole
and breeding in drier areas of the Arctic
tundra. Although mottled brown in winter,
Length 81⁄2 – 91⁄2 in runs very fast to catch it has beautiful breeding plumage—a
(21 – 24 cm)
insects on the ground, Widespread in southern and East gold-spangled black back, and
Weight 21⁄8 – 21⁄2 oz
(60 – 70 g) but will also feed in the Africa, this plover is a medium to a black face bordered by white
Plumage Sexes alike air, sometimes forming large wader with very striking above the eyes and on
Migration Partial migrant aerial flocks that hunt black, white, and gray plumage the sides of
Location S.E. Asia, at considerable and long, black legs; its eyes are an the neck.
heights. intense red. Its diet consists of a wide
range of invertebrates, frequently taken
at night, especially when the moon is
long legs bright. Both the male and female are
This Australian bird is an exception very protective of their young, and will
BIRDS
among the 8 species of pratincoles chase or challenge intruders. The
in having long legs and unusually long blacksmith lapwing gets its name from
wings. It is pale cinnamon-brown its sharp, metallic call.
Charadrius hiaticula Anarhynchus frontalis Numenius arquata gather in very large flocks for roosting,
but feed in smaller groups. Most are
Common ringed plover Wrybill Eurasian curlew strongly migratory—this particular
species breeds as far north as the Arctic
Length 7 – 8 in Length 8 – 81⁄2 in Length 20 – 231⁄2 in Circle, but overwinters in sandy and
(18 – 20 cm) (20 – 21 cm) (50 – 60 cm)
muddy estuaries from Western Europe
Weight 13⁄4 – 21⁄2 oz Weight 17⁄16 – 21⁄2 oz Weight 16 – 48 oz
(50 – 70 g) (40 – 70 g) (450 – 1,350 g) to East Asia. It is a long-lived bird that
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes alike can survive for up to 37 years.
Location N. North America, Location New Zealand Location Europe, Asia,
Greenland, Europe, Asia, Status Least concern Status Vulnerable Africa Status Near threatened
Africa, Madagascar
brown-streaked very long,

plumage downcurved
bill curved
A short bill, a white neck collar, and sideways Famous for its beautiful rising call, bill
black bands on the head and chest the Eurasian curlew is a large, brown-
are distinctive features of this compact streaked wader with an extremely long,
plover. It breeds over a wide range of downward-curving bill. Up to 71⁄2 in
habitats, but in winter is found mostly (19 cm) long, the bill is ideal for extracting
on sandy coasts and inland wetlands. animals buried deep in mud or sand.
It feeds on a variety of invertebrates, Inland, the bird eats mostly insects and
foraging for them at night, especially earthworms; on the coast, it feeds on
when the moon is full. Both male and a wide range of worms, shellfish,
female rear the young and will and crustaceans, especially shrimps
perform a striking “broken and crabs (which the bird usually
wing” display to lure The wrybill is the only bird whose bill swallows whole, after removing the
predators from has a sideways curve. From the side, legs). It breeds in a variety of habitats,
the nest. its bill looks relatively normal—if slightly from sand dunes, bogs, and fens to
long for a plover—but when seen from upland heaths and grassland, and
above or head-on, its unusual shape becomes strongly territorial at this time.
is very evident. The sideways curve Both male and female defend their
is useful when feeding on gravel territory with a distinctive undulating
beaches, allowing the plover to flick flight, planing on wings held in a shallow
white neck stones aside as it hunts for insects and “V” while giving a whistled, bubbling call.
collar worms. The plumage is soft gray above, Some males will even come to blows
orange-yellow legs and white below, with a narrow, black with their wings. The Eurasian curlew is
breastband, more strongly defined in one of 8 related species that are found
males than in females. in different parts of the world. They
Tringa nebularia Actitis macularius Phalaropus fulicarius ROLE REVERSAL

Common greenshank Spotted sandpiper Red phalarope
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Length 12 – 14 in Length 7 – 8 in Length 73⁄4 – 81⁄2 in

(30 – 35 cm) (18 – 20 cm) (20 – 22 cm)
Weight 4 – 11 oz Weight 11⁄4 – 21⁄2 oz Weight 17⁄16 – 27⁄8 oz
(125 – 300 g) (35 – 70 g) (40 – 80 g)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ
Location Europe, Asia, Location North, Central, Location Circumpolar
Africa (mainly south of Status Least concern and South America Status Least concern around Arctic, W. South Status Least concern
Sahara) America, W. Africa The red phalarope’s breeding
system shows an almost complete
reversal of the male and female’s
normal roles. The female—shown
Like its 13 other relatives in the genus Unlike most waders, which live at above right—is more assertive than
Tringa, this long-billed wader is rarely or near the water’s edge, the red the more drably colored male. She
found far from damp ground. It has dark phalarope is an excellent swimmer and establishes a territory and displays
plumage, which is paler below, and long, spends much of its time either at sea to attract a mate, and he takes care
gray-green legs. When feeding, the or on muddy pools. It feeds on small of the young.
greenshank uses the “walk-and-peck” animals at the surface and frequently
technique used by other members of its spins around in tight circles to stir up
STOUT WADER
genus. It often runs at its prey or scythes its prey. The red phalarope breeds in The red phalarope is a small, rather pot-bellied
through the water with its bill until it finds marshy ground in the high Arctic tundra, wader with very short legs and a fairly stout
food, which includes fish, crustaceans, and is remarkable for its breeding bill. The fleshy lobes
insects, and invertebrates. Its call, a behavior. The female takes the lead white face between the toes help
ringing “tu-tu-tu,” is sharper when in courtship, while the male incubates patch the bird swim.
the bird is disturbed. This small sandpiper has a horizontal the eggs and rears the young.
posture, short legs, and a stout, 2-toned
short, gray
bill. Greenish brown above, it has pale tail
underparts that are boldly spotted with black-tipped,
brown in summer; the female has larger, yellow bill
blacker spots. On the ground, it bobs or
teeters in its search for food. As in the
red phalarope (see right), the female
courts the male, with fanned tail and
BIRDS
quivering wings. Some mate with up

to 4 males in a season, and show
little maternal care.
Gallinago media Chionis albus Stercorarius antarcticus
Great snipe Snowy sheathbill Brown skua

Length 101⁄2 – 111⁄2 in Length 131⁄2 – 16 in Length 201⁄2 – 25 in
(27 – 29 cm) (34 – 41 cm) (52 – 64 cm)
Weight 5 – 8 oz Weight 16 – 28 oz Weight 21⁄4 – 41⁄2 lb
(150 – 225 g) (450 – 775 g) (1 – 2 kg)
Migration Migrant Migration Partial migrant Migration Partial migrant
Location N. Europe, N.W. Location S.E. South Location Circumpolar
Asia, Africa Status Near threatened America, Falkland Islands, Status Least concern around Antarctica Status Least concern
pointed, 2-toned bill. There is extensive Antarctic Peninsula
dark barring on the under parts, and the
tail corners have more white than most
other snipes. In the breeding season,
The 18 species of snipes are long-billed male birds gather at a display ground Skuas breed in high latitudes, at times
and beautifully camouflaged waders that (lek) and compete with each other, using close to polar ice. The brown skua is one
feed mostly under cover of darkness. a variety of sounds. After mating, the of 4 – 6 species in its genus and the most
Like most snipes, the great snipe has a female nests alone. widespread species in the far south. This
gull-like scavenger preys on penguins,
shearwaters, and other seabirds of the
Calidris canutus turn brick-red, while the upperparts southern oceans, particularly on their
are dark and spotted with pale chestnut. eggs and young, and scavenges around
Red knot Red knots travel up to 7,500 miles
(12,000 km) to breed, and form large
fishing boats and ships.
Length 9 – 10 in flocks when feeding and roosting. brown

(23 – 25 cm) plumage
(100 – 225 g) The 2 species of sheathbills
Plumage Sexes alike constitute the only bird family
Migration Migrant
whose breeding range is entirely
Location Worldwide, confined to the Antarctic and
except Antarctica Status Near threatened
sub-Antarctic region. This species
scavenges for food at penguin and
seal colonies, feeding on eggs, chicks, white
wing patches
and seals’ afterbirth, and harassing
One of the largest of all sandpipers of penguins into regurgitating the food
the genus Calidris, the red knot has they bring for their young. It makes
gray plumage in winter, but during the a cup-shaped nest from grass, bones,
breeding season, its face and underparts pebbles, shells, and feathers.
Stercorarius longicaudus Larus argentatus

black cap
Long-tailed jaeger white
European herring gull
underside
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(48 – 53 cm) (55 – 67 cm)
(225 – 350 g) (0.73 – 1.5 kg)
Migration Migrant long tail feathers Migration Partial migrant
Location Circumpolar Location Europe
around Arctic and Status Least concern Status Least concern
Antarctica
as long as the rest of the body. The
long-tailed jaeger undertakes one of
the longest of all bird migrations—from The European herring gull, like its close
This gray and black jaeger differs from the Arctic to the southern oceans. relatives in North America and Asia, is JUVENILE
other skuas in having very long central Lemmings constitute its diet on land, a common coastal bird, and is familiar Young herring gulls have brown-streaked
tail feathers, which are clearly visible whereas it feeds on fish and robs other inland, too, especially in winter. Numbers feathers and take 4 years to acquire
when it flies. These feathers may be half birds while at sea. grew rapidly during the last century adult plumage.
in response to increased feeding
red
opportunities at garbage dumps, landfill spot
Pagophila eburnea inland—but the ivory gull is much less sites, sewage outflows, and other places
white head
well known. Its entire life is spent in where it can forage opportunistically. (breeding
Ivory gull the high Arctic, mostly on the edge of
pack ice. This gull feeds chiefly on fish
Adaptability is the key to its success, and
it eats almost anything edible, including
plumage)
Length 171⁄2 – 19 in and invertebrates, but eggs and chicks of other birds, but
(44 – 48 cm) stout bill also follows polar bears numbers have recently begun to decline. grey back
Weight 19 – 25 oz
(525 – 700 g) to feed on the scraps It is very vocal, especially in spring, when
Plumage Sexes alike they leave behind. adults return to the same site to breed
year after year. Herring gulls in America
Location Almost have been split as a separate species,
circumpolar around Arctic Status Near threatened
American herring gull, as have
those in northeast Asia,
such as the Vega gull.
GRAY ADULT
The gull family contains about 50
BIRDS
One of the larger gulls, this pink-legged bird
species, about 35 of which are found has a gray back and wings, with black and
in the Northern Hemisphere. Many are white tips, a white head and underside, and a
familiar birds—both on coasts and yellow bill with a red spot on the lower half.
Larus dominicanus Chlidonias niger Hydroprogne caspia and estuaries, and in the breeding
season is likely to be found in freshwater
Kelp gull Black tern Caspian tern habitats. It catches fish by plunge-diving,
swallowing them
Length 211⁄2 – 26 in Length 9 – 11 in Length 19 – 22 in head-first while
(54 – 65 cm) (22 – 28 cm) (48 – 56 cm)
in flight.
Weight 2 – 31⁄4 lb Weight 21⁄8 – 25⁄8 oz Weight 21 – 28 oz
(0.9 – 1.5 kg) (60 – 75 g) (575 – 775 g) black
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike red wing-tips
Migration Partial migrant Migration Migrant Migration Partial migrant bill
Location South America, Location North and Central Location North to Central
Antarctica, southern Africa, Status Least concern America, N. South America, Status Least concern America, Europe, Africa, Status Least concern
S. Australia, New Zealand Europe to C. Asia, Africa Asia, Australia, New Zealand
Terns are graceful birds, with slender With a wingspan of up to 41⁄2 ft (1.4 m),
bodies and forked tails. Most of them this is the largest species of tern,
are white with a black cap, but the approaching the size of larger gulls.
black tern has dark plumage. Unlike It spends winter on lakes, coasts,
most terns, it does not breed on the
coast, but on inland lakes, marshes,
and bogs. Here, it feeds mainly on Sterna paradisaea nesting place in the north to Antarctica
insects plucked from plants, off the for the southern summer, making the
water surface, or caught on the wing.
Out of the breeding season, when
Arctic tern most of the daylight in both hemispheres.
It probably spends more time in daylight
back in coastal waters, small marine Length 13 – 14 in than any other creature. It feeds mainly
(33 – 35 cm)
This large coastal bird is one of fish make up the bulk of its diet. on fish, hovering then plunge-diving, or
the most widespread gulls black cap (95 – 125 g) dipping into the water.
south of the equator. Its Plumage Sexes alike
back and wings are black, Migration Migrant
Location Arctic, N. North gray
while the head, tail, and underside Status Least concern wings
slate-gray body America, Antarctica
are white. Its large, yellow bill has
a red spot on the lower half. This
opportunistic feeder catches
invertebrates stirred up by whales, black crown
steals food from terns, and kills birds The Arctic tern makes one of the longest
as large as geese. It also feeds on migrations of any bird—a journey of at
termite swarms, and scavenges at least 10,000 miles (16,000 km), twice
fish factories and slaughterhouses. forked tail a year. Each autumn, it flies from its white cheeks
Onychoprion fuscata Larosterna inca Rynchops flavirostris bill with longer lower half
Sooty tern Inca tern African skimmer

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Length 14 – 18 in Length 151⁄2 – 161⁄2 in Length 14 – 161⁄2 in

(35 – 45 cm) (39 – 42 cm) (36 – 42 cm)
Weight 5 – 9 oz Weight 6 – 7 oz Weight 35⁄8 – 7 oz
(150 – 250 g) (175 – 200 g) (100 – 200 g)
Migration Partial migrant Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location Worldwide, Location W. South Location Africa like scissor blades. There are 3 species,
in tropical seas Status Least concern America Status Near threatened Status Near threatened
and they all feed by flying low over
water, plowing the surface with the
lower “blade” and snapping the bill shut
Skimmers are similar to terns in shape when it touches a fish. The birds feed
This wide-ranging, tropical tern white “moustache” and general coloration, but their bill mostly at dawn and dusk. This species,
has white undersides, but is almost with yellow patch structure is unique, with the lower like the other 2 skimmers, is black
completely brownish black above. half much longer than the upper with a white underside, and its feet,
A bird of the open ocean, it is often half, and flattened sideways rather legs, and bill are bright orange-red.
seen in large flocks, hundreds
of miles from land. Unlike
many of its relatives, it does Alle alle family, it is a pursuit diver, using its
not plunge-dive for its food; instead, stubby wings like flippers to speed after
it swoops down close to the water,
snapping up fish and other small
Some terns
can be difficult
Little auk its prey. It feeds mainly on plankton, its
bill being specially adapted
animals near the surface, rarely getting to tell apart, Length 71⁄2 – 9 in so that it can catch small
(19 – 23 cm)
wet. Sooty terns nest in remote islands but this South prey. The little auk breeds
Weight 5 – 6 oz
throughout the tropics, often in American species is (150 – 175 g) in colonies on steep
enormous, noisy colonies. instantly recognizable by its slate- Plumage Sexes alike cliffs along the Arctic
gray color and its remarkable white Migration Migrant
coast, but usually
“mustache” plumes, which trail from Location Circumpolar winters out at sea.
around Arctic Status Least concern
its cheeks for 2 in (5 cm) or more. This
bird occurs in the Humboldt Current white
region, feeding on the abundant small underparts
anchovies found in the nutrient-rich
water. Large numbers of Inca terns Also known as the dovekie, the smallest
BIRDS
congregate over feeding sea lions and auk in the Atlantic is a black and white
humpback whales, diving for fish bird with a short bill and an upright
scraps left by these animals. posture. Like other members of the auk
Aethia pusilla Fratercula arctica PUFFIN SOCIETY Uria aalge
Least auklet Atlantic puffin Common murre

Length 6 in Length 11 – 12 in Length 151⁄2 – 161⁄2 in
(15 cm) (28 – 30 cm) (39 – 42 cm)
Weight 3 oz Weight 14 oz Weight 30 – 39 oz
(85 g) (400 g) (850 – 1,100 g)
Migration Partial migrant Migration Migrant Migration Migrant
Location North Pacific, Location North Atlantic, Location North Atlantic,
Arctic Ocean Status Least concern Arctic Ocean Status Vulnerable North Pacific Status Least concern
Like most members of the auk

The smallest of all auk species, the The puffin is the most colorful auk in family, the Atlantic puffin is a highly A relatively large, blackish brown
least auklet is the same length as a the North Atlantic, with a multicolored social species, nesting in colonies on and white auk, the common murre
house sparrow, although its body is bill and bright orange legs and feet. It rocky coasts and offshore islands. is gregarious, and often forms dense
more heavyset. Breeding colonies may sometimes dives to 200 ft (60 m) to find On land, puffins stand in groups, but breeding colonies. Each pair produces a
contain as many as one million birds, the schooling fish that are when feeding, they gather in “rafts” solitary egg, laid directly on the rock.
which set off in insectlike swarms its main food. These out to sea. Feeding areas are usually The egg is sharply pointed so that it rolls
to feed. Plankton is its only food— include sand eels, within 6 miles (10 km) of a colony. around in a circle
mainly copepods but also young capelins, herring, if disturbed,
crustaceans and fish larvae; the bird rather than upright
dives from the surface and swims relatively and sprats, which are supplemented falling off posture
large head
through the water to find the drifting by animal plankton in winter. When the nesting ledge.
schools. It lays just one egg a year, nesting, the puffin digs a burrow 3 1⁄4 ft The chick leaves
black
in a crack or crevice on bare rock. upperparts (1 m) or more deep in the ground; the the ledge when
burrow is often lined with feathers and about 3 weeks old
plant matter. Both parents incubate and completes its
the solitary egg and rear the young, development
carrying many small fish, packed at sea.
crosswise into their bills, back to
the burrow for it to eat.
black feet
bright
orange legs BREEDING COLORS
During the breeding season, the Atlantic puffin’s
triangular bill is red, yellow, and blue. It fades in
late summer when its outer scales are shed.
SANDGROUSE 313
Pterocles coronatus Pterocles namaqua
Sandgrouse Crowned sandgrouse Namaqua sandgrouse

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PHYLUM Chordata
These intricately patterned birds live (27 – 30 cm) Length 11 in
(28 cm)
in arid areas of Africa and Asia. They Weight 9 – 11 oz
Weight 6 – 7 oz
CLASS Aves (250 – 300 g)
spend most of their time on the ground, (175 – 200 g)
ORDER Pteroclidiformes Plumage Sexes differ
where they are well camouflaged by their Plumage Sexes alike
FAMILIES 1 (Pteroclididae) Location N. Africa, W. to Migration Nonmigrant
brown or gray, spotted or barred S. Asia Status Least concern Location Southern Africa
SPECIES 16
plumage. Sandgrouse resemble both
grouse and pigeons. Like grouse, they
have a small head, a squat body, and feathers on their legs,
yet when they take to the air, they fly strongly on long, This well-camouflaged bird lives in
pointed wings, with fast, steady wingbeats like those of some of the most extreme desert
areas, helped by its low energy and
pigeons. Their thick neck and short legs are also pigeonlike.
water requirements, its ability to tolerate
air temperatures exceeding 122° F
(50° C) for several hours, and its
tolerance of water with a high
salt content. The male has a
sandy-orange crown and a black
mask at the base of his bill, while the
female is grayer and more barred.
The Namaqua sandgrouse shares
many desert-specific adaptations with
the crowned sandgrouse (see left): it
RETAINING WATER needs little food or water, and its thick
Many sandgrouse (including these plumage insulates it from high and low
Burchell’s sandgrouse) need to drink temperatures. A pale brown head, white
once or twice a day. Their belly feathers breastband, and mottled brown wings
hold water that is used to supply chicks provide excellent camouflage against
in the nest, which is normally far from the stony ground and sand. This bird
water sources. travels to areas that have received good
BIRDS
rainfall in search of seeds, which are its
sole source of food.
Pigeons
PHYLUM Chordata
The familiar pigeons seen in cities and on
arable farms throughout the world are only
CLASS Aves
a small part of a diverse group. Tropical
ORDER Columbiformes
forests are home to an immense variety of
FAMILIES 1 (Columbidae)
species, many of them brilliantly colored,
SPECIES 342
living on the ground or in trees. The
ROOSTING
larger kinds are generally known Pigeons and doves often roost
as pigeons and the smaller ones as doves. Adult communally, either in spaced out
pigeons and doves produce nutritious “crop-milk,” groups (like these crested pigeons),
which they feed to their young. or huddled together. When disturbed,
several roosting birds will take off
with sudden wingbeats, a shock
Anatomy tactic designed to alarm a predator.
Pigeons and doves are plump, full-breasted birds
with a small head and bill; the head bobs as the bird
walks, to keep it in a constant position relative to the
body. These birds are strong fliers, their broad wings
driven by powerful breast muscles that enable them
to travel long distances at considerable speed. The
plumage is thick and soft, although most species have
a patch of bare skin around each eye.
PLUMAGE Feeding
Many tropical pigeons and Pigeons and doves eat mainly plant material.
doves, such as the wompoo fruit They can be broadly divided into 2 groups:
dove (left) have bright and seed-eaters and fruit-eaters. All have a specially FEEDING YOUNG
varied plumage. Although other adapted gut, with a well-developed crop and a These young turtle doves
species (such as the stock strong, muscular gizzard; the latter is used for are being fed on “milk”
dove, far left) are less strikingly grinding food, often aided by ingested grit or secreted by their mother’s crop.
IRIDESCENT BRIGHT colored, they have small stones. Fruit-eaters, taking more easily digestible Crop-milk is produced by both
FEATHERS COLORATION iridescent patches. food, have shorter guts than seed-eaters. sexes and is rich in proteins and fats.
314 PIGEONS
Columba livia feral birds. Whereas the wild morph Nesoenus mayeri Streptopelia decaocto
is generally gray, with iridescent
Rock dove highlights on the neck and upper
breast, town pigeons are highly
Pink pigeon Eurasian collared-
dove
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Length 12 – 131⁄2 in variable. Paradoxically, although some Length 12 – 163⁄4 in

(31 – 34 cm) (30 – 40 cm)
feral strains have remarkable homing
(200 – 300 g) black bars
abilities, wild (300 – 325 g)
(31 – 34 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike on wing populations Plumage Sexes alike Weight 5 – 7 oz
Migration Nonmigrant are largely Migration Nonmigrant (150 – 200 g)
Location North, Central, sedentary. The Location Mauritius
and South America, Africa, Status Least concern Status Endangered Plumage Sexes alike
Europe, Asia, Australia wild rock pigeon Migration Partial migrant
nests on sea Location Europe, Asia,
N.E. Africa Status Least concern
cliffs and among
rocks; for town
Originally from Southern Europe, Asia, pigeons, bridges
and North Africa, the rock dove is and window ledges
the wild ancestor of the town pigeon— provide perfect This slim, pinkish buff dove, with its
one of the world’s most widespread nest sites. distinctive black collar, underwent
a dramatic and still unexplained
expansion during the 20th century,
Columba palumbus on the ground, and is also an agile and has become a common sight
feeder in trees, clambering to branch through much of Europe. It feeds
Common wood pigeon tips to feast on fruit and
seeds. Sexually iridescent
One of the
world’s rarest birds,
mainly on the seeds and fruit of grasses
(including cereals) and herbs, and
neck patch
Length 16 – 18 in active males the pink pigeon is one of occasionally on invertebrates and the
(41 – 45 cm)
perform a white many island species that have green parts of plants, typically pecking
Weight 10 – 25 oz
(275 – 700 g) display flight, neck patch been harmed by introduced food from the ground. Highly vocal in
Plumage Sexes alike accompanied predators and habitat loss. the breeding season, its specific name
Migration Partial migrant by wing claps, The wild population had “decaocto” indicates the rhythm of the
Location Europe, N.W. to attract a diminished to fewer than 20 male’s courtship call.
Africa, W. and C. Asia Status Least concern
mate. The birds in the 1980s; however,
female usually successful captive-breeding and
produces only release programs have led to an
a single brood increase in its numbers. This large
The largest pigeon found in Europe, of one or 2 eggs pigeon has a soft pink body, a white
BIRDS
this species has prospered as a per season. The face and forehead, usually brown
result of farming and has become an young are cared for by wings, and a moderately long, strong
agricultural pest. It often feeds in flocks both parents in the nest. bill with a hooked tip.
Zenaida macroura tail. The female is slightly paler than Ptilinopus magnificus Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae
the male. The latter’s courtship display
Mourning dove consists of gliding, spiraling, and flying
above the female, with his wingtips
Wompoo fruit New Zealand pigeon
(23 – 34 cm)
held below the body. A very rapid dove Length 18 – 20 in
(46 – 50 cm)
breeder, this dove may even
Weight 35⁄8 – 6 oz Weight 21 – 29 oz
(100 – 175 g) reproduce in the season Length 111⁄2 – 22 in
(600 – 800 g)
(29 – 55 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike of its birth. Plumage Sexes alike
Weight 9 – 18 oz
Migration Partial migrant (250 – 500 g) Migration Nonmigrant
Location North and bronze sheen Location New Zealand
Central America, Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike Status Near threatened
on neck
Caribbean Migration Partial migrant
Location New Guinea,
N.E. and E. Australia Status Least concern
brown
plumage
The largest pigeon in New Zealand,
The widespread North American this is the only species that is native
dove gets its name from its mournful, to the islands, rather than introduced.
4-syllable call. Small and slender, it has It is dark, with iridescent, bronze and
long, narrow wings and a long, pointed green highlights on the upperparts
and breast, and a white belly and lower
breast. This bird feeds on a wide range
Goura scheepmakeri Generally blue-gray, it has a purple- of plants and fruit, which it is able to
red breast and pale gray wing patches, eat whole because of its extendable
Southern crowned- edged with dark purple. It lives on the
ground during the day, feeding on fallen
gape. Several native New Zealand trees
are almost totally dependent on this
pigeon fruit, and roosts in forest trees at night. pigeon for their seed dispersal.
This species is now
Length 26 – 29 in vulnerable as a result of Named the wompoo fruit dove after
(66 – 74 cm)
loss of its forest habitat its “wompoo” call, this large, heavy,
Weight 51⁄2 lb
(2.5 kg) and humans hunting it long-tailed fruit pigeon is threatened
Plumage Sexes alike
for food and its beautiful by loss of habitat. Despite its richly
plumes. Its rarity has colored plumage—mostly yellow and
Location S. New Guinea also made it a green, with a deep purple breast and
Status Vulnerable
target for upper belly, and a gray or greenish gray
collectors. head and neck—this bird is inconspicuous
and surprisingly well camouflaged in the
One of the world’s largest pigeons, forest canopy in which it lives. It feeds
this species has a distinctive lacy, on fruit (usually figs), taken from trees,
fan-shaped crest on top of its head. and very rarely comes to the ground.
HOATZIN 315
Opisthocomus hoazin to process plant material in a similar
Hoatzin NOISY BUNCH

Movements, such as
wing-spreading, are
Hoatzin
way to grazing mammals. The young
leave the nest before they can fly and
use their tiny wing claws to climb
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often associated with Length 24 – 28 in through vegetation; they dive into water
Chordata
A vegetarian bird of (62 – 70 cm)
PHYLUM loud hisses and grunts. if threatened. As many as 8 birds may
seasonally flooded forest, Weight 25 – 32 oz
live together, defending their common
the colorful hoatzin uses Plumage Sexes alike
territory and helping to rear the young.
ORDER Opiscothocomiformes
its broad wings and Migration Nonmigrant
FAMILIES 1 Location N. South
long tail to balance America Status Least concern
SPECIES 1
elegantly while reaching
for food in dense
foliage. Fermentation of food in its
stomach lends it the distinctive smell This primitive-looking, tree-dwelling
of rotting leaves. bird feeds almost entirely on leaves, a
feat few other species can accomplish,
because its large stomach enables it
Tauraco erythrolophus of its time hopping from branch to
Turacos LIVINGSTONE’S TURACO

This common turaco is
found in evergreen forests
Red-crested turaco
branch, and has a heavy, labored flight.
It usually lives in family groups, foraging
in the rain forest canopy and vigorously
of southeast Africa. Length 16 – 17 in defending both feeding and nesting sites
Chordata
Turacos and go-away (40 – 43 cm)
PHYLUM from other turacos as well as other
birds (named Weight 7 – 12 oz
fruit-eating birds.
from their calls)
ORDER Musophagiformes Plumage Sexes alike
make a distinct group Migration Nonmigrant
FAMILIES 1 Location S.W. Africa
with similarities in form Status Least concern
SPECIES 23
and behavior. Turacos
are colorful birds of
forest canopies, and go-away birds are Like otherer turacos, this species derives
generally smaller, duller, and grayer its bright colors from a copper-based
BIRDS
species of bushy savanna. pigment, unique to the turaco family. broad, dark
A tree-dwelling fruit-eater, it spends most blue tail
Cuculus canorus Geococcyx californianus
Cuckoos COMMON CUCKOO

Although widespread,
the numbers of these
Common cuckoo Greater roadrunner
birds are plummeting Length 12 ⁄2 – 13 in
1
Length 22 in
Chordata
Cuckoos are (32 – 33 cm) (56 cm)
PHYLUM in farmland areas.
characterized by Weight 4 oz Weight 12 oz
CLASS Aves (125 g) (325 g)
short, curved bills;
ORDER Cuculiformes Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
tapered wings; a Migration Migrant Migration Nonmigrant
FAMILIES 1 Location Europe, Asia, Location S. North America
long tail—often N.W. and southern Africa Status Least concern Status Least concern
SPECIES 149
drooped or swayed
to help balance—
and “zygodactyl” feet, with two toes Although it can fly, this long-legged
forward, two back. Mostly arboreal, member of the cuckoo family spends
several are ground birds, and many most of its time on the ground. Over
long body short distances it can reach speeds
drop to the ground to catch prey.
of more than 18 mph (30 kph). It walks
and runs through the desert, trying
to flush out prey—lizards, snakes,
birds, and small mammals—and kills
black-
Clamator glandarius Unlike common cuckoos, the young barred whatever it catches with a blow from
do not evict their nest-mates. However, underside its strong, pointed bill. This roadrunner
Great spotted cuckoo since they grow faster than the other
chicks, they get a larger share of the
also runs to avoid predators, swinging
its long tail from side to side like a
Length 14 – 151⁄2 in food brought by the foster parents, with rudder to make turns while speeding.
(35 – 39 cm)
the result that within the first 8 days of
Weight 4 oz
(125 g) their life they reach half
Plumage Sexes alike their fledgling weight.
Migration Migrant
Location S. Europe, Usually gray with a black-barred, heavily
W. Asia, Africa Status Least concern white markings streaked body
on back white underside, the common cuckoo
breeds mainly in forests throughout
Europe and Asia, but travels long
distances to spend the winter in Africa
The largest cuckoo found in Europe, and southern Asia. This familiar cuckoo
this handsome bird lays its is a classic example of a brood parasite,
eggs in the nests of crows, laying its eggs in the nests of a number
magpies, and starlings. of other species.
316 OWLS
Owls
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PHYLUM Chordata Often heard yet seldom seen, owls are hunters Reproduction
CLASS Aves that operate mainly at night. They resemble the Owls do not build their own nest. Instead,
ORDER Strigiformes day-flying predators, hawks and falcons, in having they rely on the previous years’ efforts of
other birds or simply select a suitable cavity
FAMILIES 2 sharp talons and hooked bills for catching and in the ground, a tree, a rocky crevice, or
SPECIES 242 subduing prey, but in addition owls have several a building. The almost spherical eggs are
laid in the nest or straight onto the surface.
adaptations that help them hunt in the dark. Their Most owls lay 2 – 7 eggs, which usually
eyes are very large, to gather all available light, and are forward-facing, hatch at 2-day intervals, leading to large
discrepancies in the age of the chicks in
to help them judge distance. They have exceptionally acute hearing, a brood. If food is scarce, the older chicks YOUNG
and their soft plumage enables them to fly silently. The 2 families take the larger part of the food offered, The youngest owlet in a
while the younger chicks may starve. brood (here, snowy owls)
of owls—typical owls and barn owls—are found worldwide in most
can be 2 weeks younger
habitats, from dense forest to tundra. than the oldest.
Anatomy
Owls are highly distinctive, with an
BIRDS
upright posture, a large, rounded NOCTURNAL HUNTER

head, and a short tail. The outer toe Under cover of darkness, a little owl
is reversible, allowing it to point forward closes silently upon its prey. Equipped
or backward, improving the ability to perch with sharp talons, acute eyesight,
or grab prey. Owls have excellent eyesight, and exceptional hearing, an owl is
which works as well in daylight as it does a formidable nighttime predator.
at night. They also have exceptional hearing,
easily picking up the faint rustle made by
a small mammal, even under snow. Some
species can hunt in total darkness, their FISHING
asymmetrical ear openings giving them Several species of owls,
a three-dimensional perception of sound. including Pel’s fishing owl
All owls have soft, dense plumage, with (right), feed on fish. They
soft fringes on their flight feathers that swoop down to pluck fish
muffle the sound of air turbulence. from the water surface,
striking them with their
talons and then taking hold
lens
iris
VISION
An owl’s eyeballs are tubular Feeding with their bristly foot pads.
and cannot be swiveled. Owls take a wide variety of living prey, the size intact fur PELLETS
As a result, if the bird of which depends on the owl species. Most feed bones Owls generally swallow their
needs to look to the side, on insects, birds, or small mammals, and large owls food whole, taking in fur,
it must move its whole quite commonly catch and eat smaller owls. Owls feathers, bones, and insect
head. To compensate, that live in woods and forests tend to drop from a chitin. Later, they regurgitate
large pupil
an owl can rotate its head stationary position onto their prey, but those that the indigestible parts (see below)
eye fixed tubular and neck about an arc of occur in open country must hunt on the wing, in in the form of compact pellets, which
in socket eyeball more than 270 degrees. slow, low-level, quartering flight. collect beneath their nest or roosting site.
REGURGITATION
1 2 3 4 5
SWALLOWING PREY PREPARING TO CAST ROUNDED PELLETS CAUGHT IN THE THROAT RELEASING THE PELLET
A barn owl swallows its prey whole, About 6 or 7 hours after eating, the To ease its passage, the undigested Despite being rounded, the pellet Finally, a shiny black pellet is cast from
including much indigestible matter, owl is about to regurgitate (or cast) food is rolled into a pellet, with hard causes the owl to strain as it the mouth. The owl may cast a second
such as fur and bones. the indigestible parts of its meal. parts wrapped in fur and feathers. moves up the esophagus. one within 24 hours.
OWLS 317
Tyto alba dark Otus thilohoffmanni Otus scops

eyes
Western barn owl Serendib scops owl Eurasian scops owl
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Length 111⁄2 – 171⁄2 in Length 61⁄2 in Length 61⁄2 – 8 in

(29 – 44 cm) (17 cm) (16 – 20 cm)
Weight 11 – 23 oz Weight Not known Weight 21⁄8 – 4 oz
(300 – 650 g) serrated long, white- (60 – 125 g)
feathered legs Plumage Sexes alike
Plumage Sexes alike
edges of Plumage Sexes alike
outer flight Migration Nonmigrant
Migration Nonmigrant feathers Status Endangered Migration Migrant
Location North, Central, Location Sri Lanka Location Europe to
and South America, Europe, Status Least concern C. Asia, Africa Status Least concern
Asia, Africa, Australia ON TARGET
The western barn owl is an expert
hunter, its excellent vision and hearing
enabling it to pinpoint prey in total First detected in 1995 by its unfamiliar
Found on all continents darkness. It flies low, slowly and frog-like call in the rainforests of Sri Small and superbly camouflaged, this
except Antarctica, the silently, then swoops swiftly to Lanka, this owl was not seen until owl is heard more often than it is seen,
western barn owl is the the ground. At the last moment, 2001—when it was photographed and its call being a low whistle, repeated
it swings its legs forward,
most widespread of all its identity as a new species was every few seconds. The fine, black
spreading its sharp-clawed
species of owls, and toes to grasp and confirmed. It is a very small, short- flecks in its gray or reddish brown
one of the most widely kill its prey. tailed, brownish red owl and has an plumage make it
distributed of all land indistinct facial disk; its eyes are orange almost invisible
birds. It has a pale, in the male, yellow in the female. This against the bark
short
heart-shaped face, long tail species is known only from the lowland of a tree. When
legs covered in white wet forests of southwestern Sri Lanka, alarmed, it will
feathers, and a very short favoring disturbed areas with tall, stretch itself, and
tail. The female lays eggs in dense secondary vegetation and even sway, to
a hollow tree or an abandoned roosting close to the ground. There imitate a branch
building. She feeds the young with are probably around 250 – 1,000 and remain hidden.
food brought by the male; she also individuals, but the secretive This owl feeds
broods them for up to 3 weeks from habits of this owl make mainly on insects,
hatching, until they have acquired the population estimates swooping down
down they need to keep themselves difficult. However, on them from a
warm. Changing agricultural this small population perch, but also eats
practices have reduced the barn is likely to be in decline spiders, earthworms,
owl’s food supply; in some areas, due to the habitat reptiles, bats, and
BIRDS
this species is now rare. degradation. small birds.
Otus lempiji trees, such as parks and villages, Scotopelia peli it grasp its slippery prey. The plumage
it spends much of the day sitting of Pel’s fishing owl is generally light
Sunda scops owl camouflaged in hiding places, coming
out at dusk to hunt mainly for insects.
Pel’s fishing owl chestnut, with dark spots and bars,
which help camouflage it while it roosts.
Length 8 in Males and females often call together, Length 22 – 25 in This large owl lives on the wooded
(20 cm) (55 – 63 cm)
giving out a short, mellow hooting call. edges of lakes, rivers, swamps, and
Weight 35⁄8 – 4 oz Weight 41⁄2 – 51⁄2 lb
(100 – 125 g) (2 – 2.5 kg)
marshes. It hunts after dark, launching
Plumage Sexes alike prominent ear tufts Plumage Sexes alike
itself from a perch and swooping low
over the water. Having seized its prey,
Location S.E. Asia Location Africa it returns to a perch to feed. It makes
its nest in a tree hole, usually near water.
Females lay one or 2 eggs, but normally
only one young owl is reared. Both
The Sunda scops owl is a small, eared This owl is one of 3 African species parents feed and rear the young, which
owl, with brown eyes. It occurs in both that specialize in feeding on fish, frogs, may remain in the nest area for up to
a brownish gray and a reddish morph. and other freshwater animals. Like its 8 months after fledging. A separate
Inhabiting forests, forest edges, relatives, Pel’s fishing owl has long, group of fishing owls—belonging to
plantations, and areas with scattered bare legs and curved talons that help the genus Keputa—is found in Asia.
very small
of patrolling on the wing like many owls, facial disk
Pulsatrix perspicillata
it hunts from a perch, snatching prey
Spectacled owl from the ground or foliage. It usually
preys on small forest mammals and dark spots
Length 17 – 201⁄2 in insects, but also hunts near water, and bars
(43 – 52 cm)
taking crawfish
Weight 21 – 36 oz
(600 – 1,000 g) and crabs.
Plumage Sexes alike
“spectacles” of
Migration Nonmigrant white feathers
Location S. Mexico to
C. South America Status Least concern
dark brown band

across upper
breast
This owl, common in the American
tropics, gets its name from the ring of curved talons broad flight
white feathers, or “spectacles,” around feathers
its eyes. Most often found in dense rain
forest, it also lives in woodland edges
and coffee plantations. Instead
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BIRDS 318
OWLS 319
Bubo virginianus The great horned owl, with its distinctive large, hornlike
ear tufts, or “horns,” is the largest of the ear tufts
Great horned owl American owls and is found throughout
the Americas. It occurs in a broad range pale yellow eyes
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Length 20 – 231⁄2 in of habitats, from forest to desert, and is

(50 – 60 cm)
known to nest at high altitudes, usually sharp,
Weight 11⁄2 – 51⁄2 lb
(675 – 2,500 g) in old nests of other large birds, but hooked bill
Plumage Sexes similar also in tree cavities and on cliff edges.
It is generally a sedentary bird and,
Location North, Central, especially during the breeding season,
and South America Status Least concern
very territorial in its nesting and hunting
ranges. Usually active between dusk
and dawn, its night vision and hearing
are extremely acute, making it an
effective hunter. Its main prey are
small mammals, but insects, reptiles,
amphibians, and birds, including other
owl species, are also taken. Great
horned owls are very vocal, especially
during courtship; their loud hoot
represents the classic owl call.
large, powerful feet

with sharp talons
POWERFUL BUILD
This very large owl, with its sharp bill, large
wings, and powerful talons, is built for hunting.
Its piercing yellow eyes and prominent ear tufts
add to its intimidating appearance.
BIRDS
PARENTS AND JUVENILES
Great horned owls are very attentive parents,
with both males and females tending and
feeding their young for at least 6 weeks
after fledging. They are also very defensive
birds and have been known to drive away
intruding humans from their nests.
JUVENILE OWL
At about 2 months
old, the horned owl is
SILENT HUNTER almost fully feathered
As well as being the largest American and capable of short
owl, the great horned owl is probably flights. At this stage,
also the fiercest. It mainly still-hunts ON THE NEST it can puff itself up
from a series of favored vantage points The great horned owl lays and turn its wings
throughout its territory. It is very swift, between one and 5 eggs, forward to look
and having spotted a target, it glides laying a greater number even larger when
down, in total silence, to capture its when food is abundant. defending itself.
prey in its immensely powerful talons.
320 OWLS
Bubo scandiacus most active at dusk MOTTLED FEMALE

and dawn, but becomes The female snowy owl is mottled ON THE GROUND
Snowy owl diurnal in summer when
daylight is continuous.
with black—a color scheme that hides
her in rocky outcrops when she
nests after most of the snow has
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Length 22 – 28 in It spends much of the

(55 – 70 cm) melted. She is substantially
time on the ground or
Weight 21⁄4 – 51⁄2 lb larger than the male.
(1 – 2.5 kg) perching on low rocks,
Plumage Sexes differ and uses its extraordinary
eyesight and hearing to
Location Circumpolar locate distant or snow-
around Arctic Status Least concern mottled
covered prey, then plumage
ambushes it silently. The
snowy owl feeds on lemmings,
rabbits, hares, and waterfowl.
With its all-white plumage, the male In fact, its breeding cycle is The snowy owl nests on the tundra,
snowy owl is one of the most distinctive directly related to the abundance forming only a slight hollow in the
of owls. Long, dense feathers extend of lemmings: the population of the ground in which the eggs are laid.
right to the toes, and even the bill is latter tends to rise and fall on a The female tends the young, feeding
largely covered, giving the bird superb 3- to 4-year cycle, and the them with food brought by the male.
insulation against the cold. This owl is snowy owl follows suit.
Strix aluco Glaucidum perlatum Ninox novaeseelandiae Tasmania and New Zealand,
and sometimes considered a
Tawny owl Pearl-spotted owlet Morepork separate species, is lighter,
with contrasting spots. All
Length 141⁄2 – 151⁄2 in Length 61⁄2 – 8 in Length 2 – 14 in have a high-pitched,
(37 – 39 cm) (17 – 20 cm) (130 – 35 cm)
2-syllable “boobook”
Weight 6 – 20 oz Weight 13⁄4 – 5 oz Weight 5 – 6 oz
(1450 – 550 g) (50 – 150 g) (150 – 175 g) call. Wherever it lives,
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike the morepork (also
called the boobook
Location Europe, Asia, Location Africa (south of Location Australia owl) roosts in
N.W. Africa Status Least concern Sahara) Status Least concern (including Tasmania), Status Least concern
S. New Guinea, S.E. Asia trees during the
day, emerging
at dusk to feed.
BIRDS
It specializes
The tawny owl is found in a broad range There are several races of this small, in hunting
of habitats, wherever there is sufficient stocky owl found in Australia and Asia. insects
tree cover to provide a daytime roost. One form, found in Queensland, is and birds
Its usually chestnut-brown plumage is dark brown, while the form found in in midair.
heavily streaked and mottled, providing
excellent camouflage among branches
and leaves. It has a Asio flammeus
wide variety of calls, IN BROAD DAYLIGHT
among which the
best known is the
Short-eared owl
“twit twoo” call Length 141⁄2 in
(37cm)
produced during This compact bird is
Weight 7 – 18 oz
the breeding Africa’s most diurnal owl, (200 – 500 g)
season. This hunting at almost any time Plumage Sexes differ
owl hunts from of the day or night. Its powerful feet Migration Partial migrant
a perch, and enable it to catch prey even larger Location North America,
W. and S. South America, Status Least concern
can locate its than itself. On the back of its head Europe, Asia, Africa In many parts of its vast range,
prey—mainly are 2 black patches ringed with white. the short-eared owl—one of the
small mammals, These “false eyes” serve either to deter most diurnal of owls—is often
birds, reptiles, predators that might attack from seen hunting by day, flying just
and insects— behind, or confuse prey so that they With its long wings and low, flapping a few yards above the ground.
by sound alone. do not know which way to flee. flight, this heavily mottled owl can Its flight is butterflylike, its
easily be mistaken for a hawk. large wings allowing it to fly
Usually a solitary bird, it normally slowly without stalling.
Athene cunicularia areas, from South American pampas roosts on the ground, but in
to airports and golf courses. When on winter, particularly when it
Burrowing owl guard outside the burrow, it adopts a
very upright stance and gives a harsh,
snows, it will perch in groups in
trees. Groups can also be seen
ROUND FACED
The short-eared owl
has a large, rounded
Length 71⁄2 – 10 in rattling call, thought to imitate a when food is scarce, as large
(19 – 25 cm) head with a marked
rattlesnake. It spends much of its time numbers move to richer areas,
Weight 4 – 9 oz facial disk, bright
(125 – 250 g) hunting on the ground. or when there is an abundance yellow eyes, and
Plumage Sexes differ of food in one particular place. 2 short, feathery
This owl finds its prey—mostly tufts that look
Location North, Central, small mammals such as mice and like ears.
Caribbean voles, and at times birds—mostly by
flying, and then pouncing from midair.
It lays its eggs in heather, grass, or
crops, digging a hollow to hold them
Most owls roost and nest in trees, but safely; unusually for an owl, the female
the burrowing owl makes its home may build a nest from sticks that are
underground—an adaptation that allows lying nearby. It is a fairly quiet owl, with
it to live in all kinds of open, treeless a low, gentle hooting call.
NIGHTJARS AND FROGMOUTHS 321
Nightjars and frogmouths

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PHYLUM Chordata These long-winged birds, together with their Feeding

relatives, the nighthawks, potoos, owlet-nightjars, Most of the birds in this group feed
CLASS Aves
and oilbirds, are adapted for a life spent mainly primarily on insects, which they catch
ORDER Caprimulgiformes
in the air; indeed, most cannot walk or hop. in midair; alternatively, they may swoop
FAMILIES 4
They hunt at dusk, dawn, or at night—usually down to take them from the ground.
Many species fly continually, while
SPECIES 123 capturing insects on the wing—and roost
others (such as the potoo) make brief
motionless in trees or on the ground during the but regular sorties from a perch.
day. Many species are known for their loud, distinctive call. Nightjars Frogmouths feed on other birds,
occur almost throughout the world, in forests and open habitats; mammals, and amphibians, as well
their relatives are restricted to the Americas, Asia, or Australasia. as insects. Oilbirds
eat only fruit.
Anatomy
Nightjars and their relatives are round-bodied birds, with
a large head and short neck. They have a remarkably large
mouth, with an extremely wide gape for trapping insects. BRISTLES
Most species have long tails and elongated wings that are Nightjars (here, the European nightjar)
ideal for flying swiftly with rapid changes of direction in and some of their relatives are equipped
pursuit of food. Except for owlet-nightjars, these birds with a set of bristles around the edge
have short legs and weak, tiny feet that are unsuitable of their bills. These bristles may be
for walking. Birds in this group usually have brown or sensitive to touch, and in some species
gray, cryptically patterned plumage. help filter insects into the mouth.
WIDE GAPE
The bill of nightjars and their AVOIDING DETECTION
relatives (here, a red-necked nightjar) Perched on an upright branch, the common potoo flattens
is almost as broad as their head its wings against its body and points its head upward with
and can be opened very wide. In its bill slightly open. This stance, combined with the
nightjars, this makes an effective camouflage coloring, makes the bird resemble a broken
BIRDS
trap for flying insects, which are branch, providing protection against predators.
caught in midair, one at a time.
Steatornis caripensis ECHOLOCATION Podargus strigoides DEFENSE POSTURE

Oilbird Tawny frogmouth
Length 16 – 19 1⁄2 in Length 131⁄2 – 21 in
(40 – 49 cm) (34 – 53 cm)
(350 – 475 g) (175 – 675 g)
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ
Location N. and C. South Location S. New Guinea,
America Status Least concern Australia (including Status Least concern
Tasmania)
The oilbird nests and roosts in

large colonies in caves. It uses
The oilbird is a unique species—the only echolocation to find its way in the Frogmouths look similar to nightjars, If threatened, the tawny frogmouth
nocturnal fruit-eating bird in the world. dark; the signals it produces are but instead of hunting nocturnal stands erect, looking like a broken
During the day, it remains deep inside relatively low-pitched and sound insects on the wing, they pounce on branch on a tree. This posture may
caves, sometimes 2 ⁄3 mile (1 km) like “clicks” to the human ear. small animals and larger insects sometimes be accompanied by a
underground. It leaves the cave at night Birds also call to one another on the ground. The tawny gaping display in which the bird
and may travel over 45 miles (75 km) in to stay in touch, filling the cave frogmouth’s large eyes help opens its large, wide mouth.
search of food. Oilbirds use sight and with their loud, harsh cries. it to see well in the dark,
possibly smell to locate the fruit of trees and it flies through
large head
such as laurels and palms, swooping its territory at night,
down and plucking them from branches. stopping at suitable stocky body
foraging perches and
CAMOUFLAGE
watching for prey to
LARGE-MOUTHED BIRD The tawny frogmouth’s
move nearby. When
The reddish brown oilbird has white spots red- or brown-mottled
necessary, it will beat larger gray plumage blends
on the head, throat, and wings. Its
animals to death before in with the color of
large mouth enables it to carry
plenty of food back to the swallowing them. This branches of trees
young in the nest—a species lives in pairs and bushes.
mound of mud, feces, or family groups,
rotten fruit, and the birds call
and seeds. frequently to maintain
contact over the large territory
in which they feed and breed. The short legs
nest is a simple platform of sticks,
placed in the fork of a tree.
322 NIGHTJARS AND FROGMOUTHS
Nyctibius griseus upright, where it Phalaenoptilus nuttallii

looks like a broken
Common potoo branch. It keeps its
conspicuous yellow
Common poorwill
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Length 13 – 15 in eyes shut to avoid Length 7 – 81⁄2 in

(33 – 38 cm) (18 – 21 cm)
detection by predators,
Weight 5 – 7 oz Weight 11⁄16 – 21⁄8 oz
(150 – 200 g) but creases in the (30 – 60 g)
Plumage Sexes alike eyelids allow it to Plumage Sexes differ
continue to watch Migration Partial migrant
Location S. Central for danger. This bird Location S. Canada,
America, South America Status Least concern W. and C. USA, N. and Status Least concern
comes to life at night, C. Mexico during the day, the intricately patterned
darting from its perch plumage providing effective camouflage
to catch insects in in its often arid habitat. A night forager,
the air. Birds form the common poorwill swoops on flying
One of 7 species of potoos found pairs for breeding, The smallest North American nightjar, insects from a perch. This bird conserves
in Central and South America, the laying a single egg the common poorwill gets its name energy in winter by going into torpor—
common potoo is a solitary bird that in a knothole or from the male’s repetitive 2-note a hibernationlike state that is rarely
spends the day in trees, perching depression in a branch. courtship call. It rests on the ground found in birds.
Caprimulgus vexillarius amongst scattered trees. The plumes Caprimulgus europaeus

are quickly shed after the breeding CAMOUFLAGE
Pennat-winged season, then being an unnecessary
encumbrance. A typical nocturnal
European nightjar
nightjar nightjar, it catches a great variety Length 10 – 11 in
(25 – 28 cm)
of insect prey in its wide gape.
Length 24 – 28 cm Weight 13⁄4 – 3 5⁄8 oz
(10 – 11in) (50 – 100 g
Weight 60 – 88 g (2 – 3 oz)
slitlike Plumage Sexes differ
closed eye Migration Migrant
Plumage Sexes differ Location Europe, W. to
Migration Migrant E. Asia, N.W., W., and Status Least concern
S.E. Africa Like other nightjars, this species
Location Central and Status Least concern
spends the day resting on the
N. America
ground or on low branches. Its
dull, mottled plumage renders
This bird is the only nightjar found it almost invisible on the ground
BIRDS
in Northern Europe. It takes to the air among vegetation.

Males’ remarkable elongated, black- after dark, catching flying insects on
and-white “pennant” feathers in the wing. Males patrol their territories
broad, black-tipped wings are striking, regularly, driving off intruders. During chicks initially, but after about 2 weeks
especially in high display flights. They the breeding season, the male has a she may leave them with the male and
are longest on older males, but become purring airborne song, which sounds then lay a second clutch.
soiled and tattered as the bird roosts like a piece of machinery. It also claps
on the ground and feeds in flight its wings, to display the white patches BROWN AND MOTTLED
on the outer flight feathers. This bird The European nightjar has brown plumage,
does not build a nest; the eggs are laid mottled with black and gray, and
Chordeiles minor down low, making a hollow, booming directly on the ground, usually close to long, pointed wings.
sound with its wings, and almost a tree or shrubs. The female rears the
Common nighthawk colliding with its prospective partner.
This bird nests and roosts in open
Length 9 – 10 in places of all kinds. In some parts of
(22 – 25 cm)
the USA, it has taken to nesting on
Weight 15⁄8 – 35⁄8 oz
(45 – 100 g) flat, gravel-covered roofs—a habitat that
Plumage Sexes differ helps it to avoid some of its predators.
Migration Migrant
The nest is often simply a shallow
Location North, Central, depression made in the ground, and
and South America Status Least concern
the female alone cares for the eggs
and chicks. When disturbed, the bird Caprimulgus longipennis courtship display at canopy level, often
often flies up from the nest and settles chased by females, but will also select
A familiar summer visitor through much

nearby; occasionally, it will lunge at
an intruder. After breeding, large flocks
Standard-winged a perch and show off their pennants
there. More active during the day than
of North America, this nighthawk is move south for the winter, traveling nightjar some nightjars, the birds may forage in
more active by day than as far as Argentina. loose flocks or in pairs, when the female
most other species in Length 81⁄2 – 10 in follows the male; they fly very high
large eyes (21 – 25 cm)
the nightjar family. off the ground, catching insects on
Weight 21⁄8 – 31⁄4 oz
It is commonly mottled, brown, black, (60 – 90 g)
the wing.
seen on the wing and white plumage Plumage Sexes differ
at dawn and dusk, Migration Nonmigrant
hawking for Location W., C., and
E. Africa Status Least concern
insects, and is
recognized by its
distinctive nasal
call. The male has
a highly acrobatic Male standard-winged nightjars are
aerial display when instantly recognizable in flight,
courting—it swoops because their breeding
plumage includes 2 elongated
wing feathers that can be up to 3 in
(78 cm) long. They perform their aerial
HUMMINGBIRDS AND SWIFTS 323
Hummingbirds and swifts

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PHYLUM Chordata
Swifts and hummingbirds share a unique wing
structure that makes them acrobatic fliers, capable
CLASS Aves
of highly intricate aerial maneuvers. However, their FEEDING ON NECTAR
ORDER Apodiformes
appearance and lifestyles differ greatly. The soberly When feeding, a hummingbird
FAMILIES 4 (here, a green violetear from
colored swifts rarely land, spending their lives in
Costa Rica) hovers in front of
SPECIES 470
midair in search of flying invertebrates; they can
a flower, maneuvering its bill
sleep, and even mate on the wing. up the tube to draw up the
The multicolored hummingbirds hover around flowers nectar with its long tongue.
to feed, and perch readily. Swifts occur worldwide,
but hummingbirds are restricted to the Americas.
Anatomy
Both hummingbirds and swifts have a compact,
muscular body, and relatively small feet. Although
swifts are dull in color, hummingbirds are remarkable
for their dazzling colors and patterns. Hummingbirds
have a specialized bill designed for removing nectar
from flowers. The bill length and shape are variable,
and often match the shape of the flowers at which
the birds feed. Swifts have a small bill with a wide
gape for trapping tiny insects in flight. The hummingbird
family contains many of the world’s smallest birds.
SWIFT IN FLIGHT
long “hand” “wrist” shoulder WINGS wifts resemble swallows,
In hummingbirds and swifts, the Flight but are not closely related
joint between the upper and lower Hummingbirds beat their wings in a figure-eight pattern, which to them. They spend more
arm, the “elbow” is very close to allows them great maneuverability; they are the only birds that can time in the air, and are
the body, giving the wings great fly backward, and even upside-down. Smaller species may beat quicker, more erratic
BIRDS
“elbow” flexibility and leverage. This feature their wings 80 times a second. Swifts do not hover, but can vary fliers. Swallows perch
close to body shoulder girdle enables hummingbirds to hover. the speed of their wingbeats to turn sharply. more readily than swifts.
Eutoxeres aquila curved throats, especially heliconias. Ocreatus underwoodii

Unlike most hummingbirds, it perches
White-tipped on the flower while feeding from it.
It also gleans spiders from their webs
Booted racket-tail short,
iridescent green
plumage
sicklebill and catches insects on the wing. Length 41⁄4 – 6 in
(11 – 15 cm)
black
bill
The female lays 2 elliptical eggs in
Weight 1⁄8 oz
Length 43⁄4 – 51⁄2 in a cup-shaped nest, which is loosely (3 g)
(12 – 14 cm)
woven from palm fibers and attached Plumage Sexes differ
(10 – 13 g)
by cobwebs to the tip of a hanging leaf. Migration Nonmigrant
Location N.W. and
Plumage Sexes alike W. South America Status Least concern
Migration Nonmigrant (Andes)
Location S. Central
America to N.W. South Status Least concern
America
Elongated tail feathers with bare

shafts ending in blue-black “racquets” brown
This large hummingbird is green distinguish the male from the female leg puffs
above with streaked underparts, of this tiny species. When courting,
shorter
and has white-tipped tail feathers the male puts on a spectacular flight inner tail
and an unmistakable downcurved display, holding up the fluffy white feathers
bill. The shape of the bill allows it to or brown “puffs” or leg feathers, and
drink nectar from flowers that have flicking his tail feathers up and down
to produce a whiplike sound. The
male and female fly a regular route
Eriocnemis isabellae Discovered in 2005, this hummingbird when foraging for food, calling to one
is restricted to cold, humid elfin forest another to stay in contact. The bird
Gorgeted puffleg (just 19 – 26 ft/6 – 8 m high) in a small
region—scarcely (9 square miles/
hovers in front of a flower, its rapidly
beating wings making a distinct bare tail
Length 4 in 10 square km) in area—dominated humming noise, and pierces the flower shafts
(10 cm)
by rocky outcrops high in the tube with its bill to reach the nectar.
(3.9 – 4.5 g) Colombian Andes. It is threatened Like most hummingbirds, it often
Plumage Sexes differ with extinction by loss of habitat. It becomes torpid at night, its body
has a large, brilliantly colored throat temperature dropping almost to that
Location N.W. South patch with a violet-blue center and of the air in order to save energy.
America (Andes) Status Critically
endangered iridescent green edges. Known as Hummingbirds are so tiny that they long tail
a gorget, this throat patch along with would risk starving to death if they feathers
end in
the white thigh tufts gives rise to its maintained their normal body heat “racquets”
common name. throughout the night. in male
324 HUMMINGBIRDS AND SWIFTS
Topaza pella levels of the forest, Ensifera ensifera its neck. Apart from flying insects, which
and will sometimes it catches by hawking with a wide-open
Crimson topaz defend a whole
treetop when
Sword-billed bill, it feeds almost exclusively from
flowers with very long tubes, such
hummingbird
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Length 81⁄2 – 9 in in bloom. The as brugmansias and daturas. These

(21 – 23 cm)
male’s plumage is blossoms usually hang downward and
(10 – 15 g) striking—glittering Length 61⁄2 – 9 in the bird hovers immediately beneath,
(17 – 23 cm)
Plumage Sexes differ crimson to purple— pushing the bill up into the flower to
Weight 7⁄16 – 9⁄16 oz
Migration Nonmigrant and it has very (12 – 15 g)
extract its nectar. This species follows
Location N. South long, blackish a feeding strategy known as traplining.
America Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike
tail feathers that Migration Nonmigrant
While some hummingbirds defend
cross one another toward Location N.W. and W. clumps of flowers from other birds and
South America (Andes) Status Least concern
the tips. The less flamboyant even butterflies, trapliners make regular
female is generally green visits to a number of scattered flowers,
A relatively short, slightly curved in appearance, with a remembering where each one is and
bill allows this large hummingbird shorter tail. following a set route between them.
to feed from a variety of rain Dark greenish in color, with a deeply The intervals between visits mean
forest flowers. Rarely seen forked, blackish tail, this bird has a that the plants have a chance
on the ground, it lives in slender, sword-shaped bill up to 41 ⁄4 in to produce more nectar.
long tail feathers
the middle and upper (11 cm) long. It is the only bird whose
bill is longer than the rest of its body.
When resting on a perch it holds the bill
Patagona gigas with pale almost vertically to reduce the strain on
rump
Giant hummingbird feathers. It
often flies more
Length 8 – 83⁄4 in like a swift,
(20 – 22 cm) extremely
sometimes gliding,
Weight 5⁄8 – 11⁄16 oz long bill
(18 – 20 g) over dry Andean
Plumage Sexes alike valleys and
arid, steppelike
Location W. South mountain white patch behind each
America (Andes) Status Least concern
slopes. eye typical of most
hummingbirds
Commonly found
around stands of dark green
BIRDS
body
prickly pears and
This species is the largest of all puyas, it hovers while
hummingbirds—even so, it weighs only feeding on the flowers,
11
⁄16 oz (19 g). Its coloring is rather dull occasionally clinging
for a hummingbird: brownish overall to large blossoms. long, pointed wings
Archilochus colubris FEEDING THE YOUNG Mellisuga helenae Oreotrochilus estella
Ruby-throated Bee hummingbird Andean hillstar

hummingbird Length 2 – 21⁄4 in
(5 – 6 cm)
Length 5 – 6 in
(13 – 15 cm)
Length 31⁄2 in Weight 1⁄16 oz Weight 5⁄16 – 11⁄32 oz
(9 cm) (Up to 2 g) (8 – 9 g)
Weight 1⁄8 oz Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes differ
(3 g) Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location Cuba, Isle Location W. South
Plumage Sexes differ of Youth Status Near threatened America (Andes) Status Least concern
Migration Migrant
Location S. Canada,
C. and E. USA, Mexico Status Least concern
to S. Central America
The smallest of all birds, the male bee Common in rocky slopes
hummingbird weighs less than 1⁄16 oz (with grass and scrub) at
This is one of the few hummingbirds Like other hummingbirds, this (1.6 g). It is green with a grayish white altitudes of up to 16,500 ft
that migrate as far north as Canada, bird feeds its young largely on underside, and has an iridescent, (5,000 m), this mountain
on an annual journey from Central insects, because although nectar fiery red head and bright collar. bird does not hover
America that may total over 1,900 miles is a good source of energy, it does The female is in front of the flowers
(3,000 km). For some birds, migration not contain enough protein for slightly larger, from which it feeds,
involves a nonstop flight of about 530 growth and development. weighing 1⁄16 oz but perches on them.
miles (850 km) across the Gulf of (2 g), and has Nocturnal torpor is
no iridescence very important for
red Mexico—a huge distance for such a on the head or it because nights
throat
tiny animal. This hummingbird feeds neck. This bird in the high Andes
on nectar, and also uses the holes feeds mainly can be very
drilled in tree trunks by sapsucker on nectar, hovering cold, and the
woodpeckers to feed on tree sap with its body held bird would not
and on the insects this attracts. horizontally and survive if it tried to
pushing its short, maintain its body
MALE AND FEMALE
straight bill into each temperature at
A glittering red patch on the throat flower. The eggs are daytime level. The
forked tail helps identify this small, iridescent as little as 1⁄4 in (6 mm) male’s iridescent
green hummingbird; the female long—smaller than a emerald-green collar with a black
lacks the male’s vivid coloring. single pea. border distinguishes it from the female.
HUMMINGBIRDS AND SWIFTS 325
Cypsiurus parvus Cypseloides niger Aegotheles cristatus Hemiprocne longipennis
African palm swift American black swift Australian owlet-nightjar Gray-rumped

treeswift
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Length 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in Length 7 – 8 in

(14 – 16 cm) (18 – 20 cm) Length 8 ⁄ – 10 in 1
2
(21 – 25 cm)
Weight 3⁄8 – 5⁄8 oz Weight 15⁄8 oz (45 g) Length 9 in
(10 – 18 g) Weight 11⁄4 – 23⁄8 oz
Plumage Sexes alike (35 – 65 g) (23 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike Migration Migrant Weight Not recorded
Migration Partial migrant Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike
Location Africa, Location W. North Location S. New Guinea, Migration Nonmigrant
Madagascar Status Least concern America, Central America, Migration Nonmigrant
Australia (including Status Least concern
Caribbean Tasmania)
Location S.E. Asia Status Least concern
Fan palms are the preferred This tree-dwelling bird is a small, nocturnal
nesting site of this medium-sized, A typical, sooty black swift, with long, insect-eater that looks very much like There are 4 species of treeswifts
blackish brown swift, although it will pointed wings and a slightly forked tail, a miniature owl. Compared to other that belong to a separate family
use other palms (as well as artificial this fast flier often soars on outstretched owlet-nightjars, it has well-developed feet from all other “true” swifts. All of
sites such as bridges). The nest wings. Like other swifts, it spends most and legs, and a long, slender tail. There them are found in southern Asia.
(seen below) is a pad of feathers of its time in the air, and flocks are often are distinctive dark markings on its face Like a true swift, the gray-rumped
and plant fibers, glued with saliva seen wheeling through the skies, foraging and head. The barred plumage is gray in treeswift catches insects on the wing,
to the vertical side of a drooping for insects. Only when breeding does the male and brown in the female. The but it spends less of its time in the
palm frond, and the eggs themselves it come down to the ground. Choosing Australian owlet-nightjar is an acrobatic air. Between bouts of feeding, it
are glued in place with saliva. Nestlings a site next to a waterfall or running water, flier, with short, round wings permitting it perches on branches—something
have long claws, helping them it builds a half-cup nest formed of living to make brief foraging flights from its perch that true swifts are unable to. This
cling on as the nest blows about plants—mosses and liverworts—held to capture insects, either on the ground or species has long, scythelike wings
in the wind. together with mud. in the air. It is preyed upon by mammals and a deeply forked tail, but its
and monitor lizards. most distinctive feature is a short,
dark markings upright crest, attached not to its
Apus apus on face crown, but to the base of the upper
ON THE WING part of its bill. The gray-rumped
Common swift treeswift makes a minute nest
glued to a branch, and lays a single
Length 61⁄2 – 7 in egg. The parents take turns to
(16 – 17cm)
incubate the egg, covering the nest
BIRDS
Weight 11⁄4 – 13⁄4 oz
(35 – 50 g) completely while resting their weight
Plumage Sexes alike on the branch beneath. Often found
Migration Migrant in small flocks, nesting pairs of this
Location N. and southern bird are known to defend their
Africa, Europe, W. to Status Least concern
C. Asia Small, noisy groups of these territories aggressively.
gregarious birds are often seen
feeding and moving over towns. Like
other swifts, they are fast and agile, Hirundapus caudacutus Chaetura pelagica
One of the most aerial of birds, turning in flight by beating each
the common swift feeds, mates,
and even sleeps on the wing. Its
wing at a different rate. White-throated Chimney swift
nest is a cup-shaped platform formed needletail Length 43⁄4 – 6 in
(12 – 15 cm)
from plants and feathers that are
stiff, bladelike Weight 11⁄16 – 7⁄8 oz
caught in midair and glued with wings
Length 81⁄2 in
(19 – 25 g)
(Up to 21 cm)
saliva. It originally nested on rock Plumage Sexes alike
Weight Not recorded
crevices but now often uses manmade Migration Migrant
Plumage Sexes alike
structures. In cold weather, parents Location E. North
Migration Migrant America, N.W. South
often fly hundreds of miles away America
Location C., E., and Status Least concern
from the nest. The young survive by
S.E. Asia, E. Australia
becoming torpid; they revive when
it warms up, and the parents return
with food. After leaving the nest, themselves. They spend a This small, smoky brown swift is the
young swifts remain airborne for up relatively short time at their only one that breeds in eastern North
to 3 years, before landing to breed summer breeding grounds. Needletails get their name from their tail America. It builds a small, half-cup
feathers, which have spiny tips projecting nest of twigs glued together with
beyond the end of the feathers. There saliva, mostly in manmade structures
Collocalia esculenta in colonies many thousands strong. It are 4 species, and all of them are such as chimneys and old barns.
makes its nest entirely from dried saliva, extremely fast fliers, reaching speeds of When not breeding, chimney swifts
Glossy swiftlet produced by its extra-large salivary
glands. Like other swifts, its diet consists
125 kph (80 mph) during their spectacular
courtship displays. The white-throated
roost in large flocks; just before and
during migration, several thousand
Length Up to 43⁄4 in of airborne insects, and it is most often needletail lives in small flocks or larger birds might roost together. Large
(11.5 cm)
seen over forests and gorges, swooping groups, and feeds in all kinds of habitats, chimneys are a favorite roosting site,
Weight Not recorded
after its prey. In some parts of Southeast including farmland and towns. This bird and birds pour into them at dusk.
Plumage Sexes alike
Asia, swiftlet nests are harvested, and often feeds near the ground, but it also
are used to make birds’ nest soup. soars high up, catching insects that are
Location C., E., and Status Least concern
sucked high into the sky by columns
S.E. Asia, E. Australia
of rising warm air. The white-throated
needletail breeds in Asia and the
Himalayas, and builds a shallow,
cup-shaped nest in rocky crevices or
Also known as the white-bellied swiftlet, hollow trees. In the autumn, this bird
this highly acrobatic flier is one of a small migrates south across the equator,
group of species that nest in caves, often reaching as far as Tasmania.
326 MOUSEBIRDS
Colius striatus preen and even offer food to each other.
Mousebirds Speckled mousebird

At times regarded as agricultural pests,
mousebirds are often exterminated
in farm areas and gardens.
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Length 12 – 16 in
PHYLUM Chordata
Named for their (30 – 40 cm) crested head
ability to run like Weight 15⁄8 – 25⁄8 oz
rodents, mousebirds Plumage Sexes alike
ORDER Coliiformes
scramble about Migration Nonmigrant
FAMILIES 1 (Coliidae) Location C., E., and
branches in search S. Africa Status Least concern
SPECIES 6
of buds, leaves,
or fruit. Their feet
are unique—the 2 outermost toes are
reversible, and can point either forward This plump bird has a long tail of narrow,
(with the other 2 toes, for hanging), or stiffened feathers, a stout, softly crested
head, and a stubby, downcurved bill.
backward (for grasping). Mousebirds
Primarily brown and gray, it has faint
live in flocks and are found only in Africa. barring and speckling on its wings, neck,
and throat, and red legs and feet; the
PERCHING bill is dark gray to blackish above and
Mousebirds, such as these white-headed mousebirds, have an lighter gray below. Like all mousebirds,
unusual perching posture. Using their flexible toes, they hold it often forms groups of 4 to 20—usually
onto branches with their feet held level with their shoulders. consisting of pairs and some immature
They can even perch upside-down. individuals—that sleep together in a tight
cluster hanging from branches. They may
Pharomachrus mocinno male sticking out of the nest hole as
Trogons Resplendent quetzal

he sits on the eggs—and share in
feeding the young.
bristlelike
Length 14 – 16 in short bill with
PHYLUM Chordata
These brilliantly colored birds live in (35 – 40 cm) slightly down-
crest
tropical forests in the Americas, Southeast Weight 7 – 8 oz curved tip
CLASS Aves
BIRDS
(200 – 225 g)
Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. They have Plumage Sexes differ
ORDER Trogoniformes
short, rounded wings, a long tail, soft, often Migration Nonmigrant crimson breast
FAMILIES 1 (Trogonidae) Location Central America
iridescent plumage, and bright patches Status Near threatened
SPECIES 43 of bare skin around the eyes. They grip
branches with
their small feet, which have 2 The male resplendent quetzal is
toes pointing forward and widely regarded as one of the world’s
2 backward; uniquely, it is most beautiful birds. It has brilliantly
colored plumage—mainly iridescent
the first and second toes
emerald-green—and a rich crimson-
that point backward. colored breast. Other characteristics,
The short bill has a unique to the male, are the exceptionally
wide gape for catching long tail coverts, which extend beyond
invertebrates in flight. the tail to form an elegant train, and the
short, bristlelike crest. Both sexes are
plump-bodied and have stout heads.
This bird’s habit of perching motionless
for long periods makes it difficult to
NESTING spot. It flies among trees looking for
Trogons nest in cavities, fruit or insects. Both parents brood
either in existing holes in the eggs—the tail feathers of the
tree trunks, or by digging
their own holes in rotten
wood or in wasp or termite Trogon violaceus black iridescent
nests. This slaty-tailed head
trogon is making a nest
hole in a termite nest.
Guianan trogon violet-blue head,
Length 9 – 10 in a green back and
(23 – 26 cm)
upper tail, and a
Weight 15⁄8 – 23⁄8 oz
(45 – 65 g) yellow-orange breast,
Plumage Sexes differ while females are
primarily gray.
Location S.E. Mexico to The nest
C. South America Status Least concern
consists of an
excavated hole,
usually in a tree but
sometimes built in
Generally solitary, this bird is mainly found old termite or wasp
in tropical rain forest and woodland nests. This bird
(occasionally in dry brushland and feeds on fruit,
farmland), in Central and South America. barred tail insects, and other
Males have a black and iridescent feathers invertebrates.
CUCKOO ROLLER 327
Leptosomus discolor caterpillar hairs. Their lifestyle is
Cuckoo roller Cuckoo roller

poorly known, but about four white
eggs are laid
in an unlined
VetBooks.ir
Length 40 – 50 cm tree cavity

Chordata
Found from sea-level bush to (16 – 20 in)
PHYLUM and incubated
high forests, this Madagascan Weight 160 – 300 g
by the female
CLASS Aves (6–11 oz)
bird is related to trogons and true for about 20
ORDER Leptosomiformes Plumage Sexes differ
rollers. Unlike rollers, the sexes Migration Nonmigrant
days. Cuckoo
FAMILIES 1 Location Madagascar rollers are
differ. Three races show Status Least concern
SPECIES 1 tame and, so
minor plumage differences.
far, relatively
Like cuckoos, their small unaffected by
feet have two toes turned backward. widespread
Cuckoo rollers eat insects and deforestation.
CUCKOO ROLLER small reptiles. Like some cuckoos,
Females and juveniles are richly colored and heavily they take hairy caterpillars that
spotted beneath, for camouflage in their forest habitat. are distasteful to other birds; the
stomach may be lined with
Kingfishers and relatives

Chordata
Famous for their spectacular dives into water,
PHYLUM HUNTING FOR FISH
the kingfishers are arguably the most familiar A kingfisher perches or hovers over water,
CLASS Aves
birds in this group. However, there are 6 very watching below for signs of movement.
ORDER Coraciiformes
different families in all (including bee-eaters, When it sees a fish, it plunge-dives head-
6 first and grabs—never spears—its prey.
FAMILIES
todies, motmots, and rollers), most of which are
SPECIES 160 not waterside birds. They are found worldwide,
mainly in woodland, and all nest in holes.
Anatomy
BIRDS
long,
Most members of this group curved bill BILL SHAPES
have a relatively large head and Most members of this
bill, and a compact body with a group have a strong bill,
vividly colored plumage. Their useful for dealing with
BEE-EATER
legs are often short, and two of animal prey. However,
the front toes are partially fused straight, there is great variation
dagger-
together near the base. Most shaped bill in bill shape and size.
species have broad wings, but in
the highly aerial bee-eaters, they
are relatively long and pointed.
KINGFISHER
Feeding
Kingfishers adopt a hunting strategy that is
CATCHING INSECTS common to many birds in this group. The bird
Rollers, such as this lilac- sits still, watching for movement, and then takes
breasted roller (left), drop off in pursuit. A kingfisher often stuns its prey by
from an elevated perch to beating it on a hard surface before swallowing it.
catch their prey on the Most members of this group are meat-eaters,
ground. A few also catch feeding on all kinds of animals, including other
flying insects in mid-air. birds, fish, mammals, and insects.
Megaceryle alcyon crustaceans, amphibians, and reptiles. Ceryle rudis hovers over the water when locating
During courtship, these birds circle high prey, before diving down to make a
Belted kingfisher overhead and chase each other while Pied kingfisher catch. The pied kingfisher nests in sandy
uttering shrill cries. The male offers fish banks, with up to 4 young nonbreeding
Length 11 ⁄2 in
1
to the perching female as part of the Length 10 in adults acting as helpers for a breeding
(29 cm) (25 cm)
courtship ritual. This kingfisher builds its pair. Assertive and vocal, it has a
Weight 5 oz Weight 31⁄4 oz
(150 g) nest in a chamber at the end of a burrow (90 g) high-pitched call,
Plumage Sexes differ excavated in earth, usually in a river Plumage Sexes differ which it often
rough crest
Migration Partial migrant bank, but also in man-made earthworks. Migration Nonmigrant makes on
Location North America Birds in the north of the range migrate Location Africa, W., S., the wing.
to N. South America, Status Least concern and S.E. Asia Status Least concern
Caribbean south when lakes and rivers freeze over. prominent
markings
This is one of the few species of Unlike most other kingfishers, this boldly
kingfishers to be found in North America. marked kingfisher is equally at home over partial
The female has a prominent reddish fresh and salt water, and sometimes breastband
in female
brown band across the lower breast. ventures far out over estuaries and
It feeds mainly on fish but also eats shallow coasts. It flies rapidly, but often
328 KINGFISHERS AND RELATIVES
Alcedo atthis from Western Europe and northern LIGHTNING STRIKE

Africa through to East and Southeast PLUNGE-DIVER Having captured its prey by a
Common kingfisher Asia, and 7 subspecies are recognized.
In the western sector of its range, it
dramatic plunge-dive, the common
kingfisher then takes it back to its
perch, on which it strikes the fish
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Length 61⁄2 in inhabits most aquatic habitats, but

(16 cm) repeatedly before swallowing it
prefers lowland, freshwater streams
Weight 11⁄4 oz headfirst. Any undigested remains
(35 g) or rivers. In eastern areas, it is more are usually regurgitated as pellets.
Plumage Sexes alike prevalent in coastal or subcoastal
habitats, notably estuaries, mangroves,
Location Europe, Asia, and intertidal pools. At high latitudes,
N. Africa Status Least concern
freezing conditions force winter
migration, although in warmer areas,
birds move locally or are partially
resident. Although it supplements
The common kingfisher is the only its diet with crustaceans, amphibians,
kingfisher encountered in most of and insects, the common kingfisher
Europe, where it is also known as the primarily eats small fish, which it takes After a steep dive from a favored
Eurasian kingfisher. It is a small, swift, by plunge-diving. Each breeding vantage perch or, less often, from
and active bird with vivid, distinctive pair occupies a territory of up to 2 ⁄3 mile hovering flight, the kingfisher
plumage. Size and coloration vary (1 km) along river banks. Pair-bonds catches its fish usually no deeper
throughout its range, which stretches are maintained through the breeding than 10 in (25 cm) below the water.
season, and both sexes incubate their Its natural buoyancy and a swift
long, sharp
bill eggs then care for the chicks for up downstroke of its wings send it
white ear to 4 weeks, until they are ready to clear of the water’s surface.
tufts leave the nest.
cobalt-blue
feathers
cinnamon
underside
BIRDS
DAZZLING PLUMAGE
The common kingfisher is
a dazzling bird with a deep COURTING COUPLE
cinnamon underside, greenish blue crown, Courtship behavior is elaborate and includes
back, and wings, and dazzling cobalt-blue erratic twisting and turning flights, as well
rump and tail. Its sharp bill is well adapted as courtship feeding in which the kingfishers
for striking and grasping fish. offer each other fish just before copulation.
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BIRDS
329
330 KINGFISHERS AND RELATIVES
Dacelo novaeguineae FEEDING Momotus momota
Laughing Amazonian
kookaburra motmot
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Length 4161⁄2 in Length 181⁄2 in

(42 cm) (47 cm
Weight 13 oz Weight 5 oz
(350 g) (150 g)
Unlike river kingfishers, this Migration Nonmigrant
Location E., S.E., and kookaburra captures prey on the Location Central America
S.W. Australia (including Status Least concern to C. South America, Status Least concern
Tasmania), New Zealand ground. It sits on an exposed perch Trinidad and Tobago
waiting for likely victims—such as
insects, snails, frogs, small birds,
fish, and reptiles—and then swoops
The largest of all kingfishers, the laughing down on them. It crushes small prey The Amazonian motmot is a robust bird
kookaburra is known throughout in its bill; larger prey, like the snake with elongated central tail feathers that
Australia for its raucous call, which the bird pictured above has caught, are bare except for the tips. Its plumage
it delivers with partly opened are beaten to death against a branch. is generally green and it has a black
bill pointing skyward and eye-stripe. For most of the day,
its tail cocked. this quiet, unobtrusive bird sits
EYE-STRIPE
In urban areas, it on a low branch, intermittently
The kookaburra’s back and
becomes quite tame wings are dark brown, while swinging its racquet-tipped
and may even be its underparts are a dusky tail like a pendulum. However,
fed by hand. white. Its white head it is very active in the early morning
It is found in has a distinctive and evening, emitting a far-carrying capturing prey on the ground or probing
strong family black eye-stripe. “hoot-hoot” call. The Amazonian into leaf litter; it also snatches prey from
groups, which during the motmot feeds mainly on insects, either tree trunks.
day keep within sight or sound
of each other, and at night,
roost together. This bird has been Merops apiaster dark
introduced in southwest Australia, eye-
Tasmania, and New Zealand. European bee-eater yellow
stripe
BIRDS
throat
Length 12 in
(30 cm)
Coracias garrulus prey on the
Weight 21⁄2 oz
ground. It feeds mainly on insects, but (70 g)
European roller also eats small reptiles, mammals,
birds, and fruit. The nest is built in a
Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Migrant
Length 121⁄2 in hollow limb or hole in a tree. Location Africa, Europe,
(32 cm) W., C., and S. Asia Status Least concern
Weight 5 oz
(150 g)
Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Migrant blue
Location Africa, Europe, One of the most aerial of all bee-eaters,
W. and C. Asia Status Least concern underparts
this medium-sized bird has long wings
and a sharply pointed bill. During the
day, it perches on telegraph wires,
fences, or branches. It preys on stinging
The European roller is a heavy-bodied insects, which it de-venoms by rubbing
bird with conspicuous, blue and the insect’s tail-end rapidly against the bluish
green tail
tobacco-coloured plumage and black perch and squeezing it in its bill to
wing-tips. It spends long periods sitting expel the venom and sting. It breeds
on a prominent perch, such as a bare in colonies and nests in burrows.
branch or a power line, looking for
Merops bullockoides members of different clans

Todus todus twigs. It usually darts out rapidly to greet each other, and regularly
snatch prey, but will sometimes hover. White-fronted visit other burrows at the
Jamaican tody Extremely active from dawn to dusk, nesting colony.
it has one of the highest feeding bee-eater
Length 41⁄4 in rates known in birds. Its call consists scarlet throat
(11 cm)
of a loud, nasal “beep”. Length 9 in
Weight 7⁄32 oz (23 cm)
(6 g) Weight 11⁄4 oz
Plumage Sexes alike (35 g)
Migration Nonmigrant Plumage Sexes alike
Location Jamaica
Status Least concern Migration Partial migrant
Location Southern Africa
The Jamaican tody is one of 5 species

of small, vivid green, kingfisherlike The white-fronted bee-eater lives in a
birds with a large head, a long, flat, social unit, known as a clan, of up to
bicolored bill, and a prominent crimson 16 individuals. These clans associate
bib. It perches on small branches with its in nesting colonies of 500 or more
bill upturned, looking for insects on the birds. Although each clan vigorously
undersides of over hanging leaves and defends its own foraging territory,
HOOPOES AND HORNBILLS 331
Hoopoes and hornbills

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PHYLUM Chordata
These two groups are quite distinct, and previously grouped together with kingfishers and
rollers in a very diverse order. The hoopoe is a ground-living, boldly barred and crested
CLASS Aves
species, with six or eight subspecies or races (two are sometimes considered full species).
ORDER Bucerotiformes
A separate group of nine glossy, long-tailed species are the more
FAMILIES 4 GREAT HORNBILL
socially organized wood hoopoes. Hornbills are mostly forest or
SPECIES 74 Mainly fruit-eating, the
savanna woodland birds, but the very large ground hornbills form a
great hornbill uses its
separate subgroup. They all have long, tapered bills, some adorned long beak to reach fruit
with decorative casques. The length and fine but strong tips aid feeding, but the color on trees and toss them
and shape are clearly for show, and largely related to species recognition and display. back into its gullet.
Upupa epops its bill in search of insects. Its diet also canopy, the hornbill moves
Buceros bicornis
includes earthworms, snails, slugs, and easily through it with a series
Eurasian hoopoe spiders. This bird has an undulating flight
with strong wingbeats interspersed
Great hornbill of sideways hops. It follows a
regular routine, visiting certain
Length 11 in by pauses. Hoopoes Length 5 ft trees at the same time each day.
(28 cm) (1.5 m)
are notoriously It feeds mainly on fruit, especially
Weight 2 ⁄8 oz
5
Weight 61⁄2 lb
(75 g) foul-smelling barred figs, but also preys on reptiles,
(3 kg)
Plumage Sexes alike and unhygienic; wings amphibians, small mammals, and
Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Partial migrant the fetid state birds. Fruit and small prey are grasped
Location Europe, Asia, Migration Nonmigrant
Status Least concern of their nests, Location S. and S.E. Asia with the tip of the bill and moved down
Africa, Madagascar Status Near threatened
arising from the the gullet by throwing the head up
accumulation of and back. Larger prey is crushed in
excreta, food the bill and battered against a branch
remains, and the before being swallowed. Like other
With its bold colors, long, curved bill, nestlings’ body The most spectacular of the hornbills, hornbills, this species builds its nest in
and fan-shaped crest, the hoopoe is secretions, is this species is distinguished by its large the natural hollow of a tree trunk, which
BIRDS
unmistakable. It spends much of the thought to size, resounding call, and the loud it seals with mud, leaving only a narrow
day on the ground, probing the soil with deter predators. “swooshing” of its wingbeats. It has a opening through which the male passes
massive bill with a prominent casque, food to the nesting female. The female
and long, rounded wings. The bill, breaks out of the nest after almost 3
Phoeniculus purpureus Tockus leucomelas casque, white head, and neck are often months, but the entrance is resealed
stained yellow with oil from the preen by the chick, which is fed for a further
Green wood hoopoe Southern yellow- gland. Mostly confined to the forest month in the nest.
Length 15 in
(38 cm)
billed hornbill
and among the few that feed
Weight 25⁄8 oz Bucorvus leadbeateri
(75 g)
Length 20 – 231⁄2 in mainly on the ground. Its plumage
Southern ground
(50 – 60 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike is almost entirely black, apart from
Weight 9 oz
Migration Nonmigrant (250 g) white wing patches, and its most
Location Africa (south
of Sahara) Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike hornbill conspicuous feature is a patch of bare,
brightly colored skin on its face and
Location Southern Africa Length 41⁄4 ft throat. The male has a red wattle,
(1.3 m) whereas the female’s is blue. Southern
Weight Not recorded ground hornbills live in groups of up
This slim bird Plumage Sexes alike to 8 birds, and feed mainly on small
has a long This small hornbill has a curved, bright Migration Nonmigrant animals. They nest in tree holes, but
tail and a slender, yellow bill and black wings with white Location Southern Africa Status Vulnerable in each group only the dominant pair
downcurved bill. The spots. It feeds on insects and fruit, breeds—the junior birds help collect
plumage is black with especially figs. This species sometimes food and defend the nest.
an iridescent sheen forms cooperative foraging parties with
of green and dark dwarf mongooses, which flush out This turkey-sized bird, and the
violet that changes locusts on which the birds feed. The Abyssinian ground hornbill (Bucorvus brightly coloured
color and intensity hornbill, in turn, warns them abyssinicus), are the 2 largest hornbills, patch
with differing light of approaching danger.
sources. The bill is
adapted to probing for
insects in crevices or under white-spotted
bark as the bird climbs wings
through trees. Green wood
hoopoes live in close-knit
groups, which include up to
16 birds headed by a dominant strongly
pair. When neighbouring groups curved red wattle
bill
meet, a peculiar “flag waving”
display often ensues, with one or
2 birds waving pieces of bark in
the air. The other members clump long,
together, rocking their bodies and black tail
calling loudly.
332 WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS
Woodpeckers and toucans

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This group of arboreal birds includes

PHYLUM Chordata Reproduction
CLASS Aves woodpeckers, toucans, barbets, jacamars, Although all birds in this group nest in holes,
ORDER Piciformes honeyguides, and puffbirds. They all have not all use living trees. The smaller woodpeckers
prefer to bore into the softer bark of dead and
FAMILIES 9 a similar type of foot, with 2 toes pointing decaying trees. Jacamars, puffbirds, and
SPECIES 447 forward and 2 backward, which helps them barbets may dig out burrows, either in the
ground or in termite mounds. Unlike the other
climb easily. All the birds in this group also families, the honeyguides are brood parasites,
nest in holes. Woodpeckers and barbets carve out their own laying their eggs in the nests of other birds,
including woodpeckers. The heels of young
nest holes, the woodpeckers using their stout bill as a chisel.
toucans are fitted with pads of spikelike NESTING
These are mainly tropical birds; only woodpeckers are also projections that protect the ankles from Like most barbets, the black-
widespread in temperate areas. Curiously, not a single damage against the unlined nest floor. collared barbet nests in dead
trees, sometimes communally.
species occurs in Australia. Toucans and barbets help A few species burrow into
disperse the seeds of some trees by eating their seeds and banks or termite mounds.
then passing them through their body, while woodpeckers

limit the spread of some tree diseases by feeding on the
insects that carry them.
Anatomy
The main climbers in this group, woodpeckers and
barbets, have strong leg muscles and use their tail for
support when holding themselves vertically upright on
tree trunks; woodpeckers have specially stiffened tail
feathers for this purpose. Chiseling involves delivering
powerful blows to the wood surface, so the skull of
BIRDS
woodpeckers is unusually thick to absorb the shock; the

nostrils are also slitlike to prevent woodchips from entering
the airways. Woodpeckers also have a highly distensible, slightly
barbed tongue that is coated with a sticky
substance for catching insects. Honeyguides
have thick skin to protect them from bee
stings and specialized bacteria in their gut
chisel-
shaped bill that enable them to digest beeswax.
WOODPECKER
BILL SHAPE
There is great variation in
conical bill bill shape in this group. A
BARBET woodpecker’s long, sharp
bill is ideal for chiseling
out wood, while the stout
bill of barbets is used to
serrated handle animal prey. The FEET
TOUCAN edges large, serrated bill of The feet of woodpeckers and
toucans is adapted for all their relatives are described
grasping and tearing fruit. as zygodactylous. Two toes
Puffbirds and jacamars point forward and 2 back, an
sharp, have a sharp-tipped bill arrangement that helps them
PUFFBIRD slim bill for catching flies. climb and perch on tree trunks.
GUIDING
Feeding Honeyguides, such as the lesser
Insects form the greater part of the diet honeyguide (right), take their
of most birds in this group. Woodpeckers name from their habit of leading
take insects from both the tree surface large mammals to bees’ nests.
and deep holes in bark, finding and
extracting them with their long tongue.
Other species pounce on insects or
grab them in midair; jacamars, which
take insects in flight, are the only birds
to eat the giant morpho butterflies of EATING FRUIT
the American tropics, removing the Toucans, such as NESTING AND FEEDING YOUNG
wings first. Toucans and most barbets the toco toucan Woodpeckers use their sturdy bill to bore their own nest
feed almost exclusively on fruit. (left), eat mainly fruit. The holes in tree trunks and defend them vigorously against
Honeyguides are the only birds that long bill helps them take other hole-nesters. Here, a green woodpecker is feeding
eat beeswax; however, they also feed fruit from otherwise out-of- its young with ants that it has collected from the ground.
on insects and fruit. reach, slender branches.
WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS 333
Galbula ruficauda jacamar has a metallic golden-green Psilopoon virens Pogoniulus bilineatus
head and upper breast, while the lower
Rufous-tailed breast, belly, and tail are rufous. The
daggerlike bill is long, thin, and straight.
Great barbet Yellow-rumped
jacamar tinkerbird
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Males have a white chin, the females Length 121⁄2 in

(32 cm)
buff. The
Weight 7 – 11 oz
Length 10 in chicks (200 – 300 g)
Length 4 in
(25 cm) (10 cm)
hatch with Plumage Sexes alike
Weight 7⁄8 oz Weight 7⁄16 oz
(25 g)
down, unlike most Migration Nonmigrant (13 g)
piciform birds. The Location C., S.E., and
Plumage Sexes alike E. Asia Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike
rufous-tailed jacamar Migration Nonmigrant
Location S. Central usually forms pairs Location W. to S.E. Africa
America, N.W. and Status Least concern Status Least concern
C. South America or family groups,
and perches
upright on exposed One of the largest barbets, this clumsy
twigs to wait for prey. looking bird has a large, pale bill with
black bill
Found only in Central and South Both the male and numerous long bristles. Like other white facial
America, jacamars are a family of 18 the female incubate the barbets, it often engages in dueting, stripes
species of brilliantly colored, iridescent eggs and feed the young. the male and female singing alternate
birds that feed on large insects, catching This bird has a sharp call notes. While calling—a loud, musical
most of their prey in midair. Their diet and a distinct loud song: an sound that is repeated monotonously
includes butterflies, bees, winged ants, accelerating “pee-pee-pee” for several
and dragonflies. The rufous-tailed that ends in a trill. minutes—the bill
remains closed
and the throat
Bucco capensis Chelidoptera tenebrosa inflates and deflates.
Although usually
Collared puffbird Swallow-winged solitary, it may at
times be found
A wide-ranging African bird with many
regional forms differing in pattern and
Length 81⁄2 in
(21 cm)
puffbird in feeding color, the yellow-rumped tinkerbird
flocks in has a metallic call consisting of a
Weight 2 oz
(55 g)
Length 7 in treetops. The series of popping sounds. While
(18 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike bird excavates calling, the bird sits upright, puffing
Weight 11⁄4 oz
Migration Nonmigrant (35 g)
its nest in a up its throat and making its rump
Location N. South tree hole; both feathers erect. This tiny barbet moves
BIRDS
America Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike
parents feed rapidly through canopy, bushes,
Location N. and C. South the young. and vines, picking up fruit and insects.
It occasionally hunts insects on the
dark green or wing. Rather aggressive toward other
Puffbirds comprise a family of about blue streaks small barbets, it defends its territory
on belly
32 species of dull-colored, small to vigorously. Courtship appears to
medium-sized, sit-and-wait hunters. The disproportionately long wings involve flutter flights.
Most puffbirds hunt in treetops, and of the swallow-winged puffbird make
the larger species may catch small it look like a bat or a large butterfly
reptiles with their strong, hooked bills. in flight. It is an Trachyphonus darnaudii this yellow-orange, black, and red
The collared puffbird has an orange excellent, almost barbet spreads and swings its tail,
bill, brown upperparts, and whitish
underparts with a large breastband.
acrobatic, flier
and soarer. Black
D’Arnaud’s barbet bobs its head, and wipes its bill. It is
a social bird, living in pairs or small
Its plumage is fluffy, and it has tiny to dark gray, it sits Length 8 in family groups consisting of the breeding
(20 cm)
feet. Inhabiting humid, lowland more in the sun, and pair and subordinate individuals who
Weight 11⁄16 oz
forests, it sits quietly most of the is easier to spot than (30 g) may assist in raising the young. The
time; only the head moves other puffbirds. It sits Plumage Sexes alike mating pair defend their territory
occasionally as it scans the and waits before sallying Migration Nonmigrant
aggressively, marking the boundaries
surroundings for prey. This out to snatch prey on the Location E. Africa vocally by their duets. Both the male
behavior has earned it names wing, occasionally hovering and female D’Arnaud’s barbet dig the
like “sleeper.” in the process. nest vertically into the ground, and
line the nest chamber with grass.
Most barbets live in trees,
Lybius dubius black breastband and white flanks. but a small number—
white markings
Its bill is large and powerful, and it particularly in on wings
Bearded barbet feeds mainly on fruit, showing a
particular liking for wild figs. It also
tropical Africa—are
equally at home on the
Length 10 in gleans insects from bark. ground. D’Arnaud’s barbet is
(25 cm)
one of these species, and is
(70 – 125 g) often seen hopping over bare
Plumage Sexes alike earth or through grass as it
searches for food. It may also
Location W. Africa forage in low bushes and trees for
insects, fruit, and seeds. It inhabits
flat terrain: grassland with scattered
trees, bushland, and open woodland.
Found in Asia, South America, and D’Arnaud’s barbet is not shy in the
Africa, barbets are usually solidly built presence of humans, and is best known
birds with gaudy plumage. Most have for the dueting of mating pairs, during
conspicuous bristles at the base of their which the crown feathers are erect
bill—a feature that gives them their and the tail is cocked every now and
yellowish
name. The bearded barbet has black then. The bird has various other calls, white bars
upperparts and red underparts, with a including alarm calls. While displaying, on tail
334 WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS
Indicator indicator Melichneutes robustus in coffee plantations. Unlike the greater Pteroglossus castanotis
honeyguide (see left), this species is
Greater honeyguide Lyre-tailed not known to lead other animals to
bees’ nests. It is best known for its
Chestnut-eared
honeyguide aracari
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Length 8 in spectacular flight displays that take

(20 cm)
place all year round. During these
Weight 13⁄4 oz
(50 g)
Length 33⁄4 in displays, performed by both sexes, Length 13 – 16 in
(9.5 cm) (33 – 40 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike the bird flies high above the forest,
Weight 2 oz Weight 101⁄2 oz
Migration Nonmigrant (55 g)
then descends swiftly in a zigzag or (300 g)
Location Africa (south spiral flight. The sound heard during
of Sahara) Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
the flights is probably produced Migration Nonmigrant
Location C. Africa by the air passing through the tail Location N. to C. South
Status Least concern America Status Least concern
feathers. This unusual behavior
is associated with feeding sites
The greater honeyguide is famous for (bee hives). This honeyguide feeds
guiding humans and animals—such The lyre-tailed honeyguide has a mainly on beeswax, but also hunts
as honey badgers—to wild bees’ nests. lyre-shaped tail and brownish plumage insects in the air. Like the greater
Once the nest has been broken open, with white markings on its outer honeyguide, it does not build
the honeyguide flies down to it to feed. feathers. It inhabits lowland and low a nest, and probably
Apart from beeswax and bees, this bird mountain forests and is also found parasitizes barbets.
also feeds on ants, termites, other
insect larvae, and even the
eggs of other birds. The Aulacorhynchus prasinus small groups, nesting and yellow belly
greater honeyguide is roosting in holes. Noisy
a brood parasite and
does not build its
Emerald toucanet groups may form in
fruiting trees. The call Compared to most other toucans,
own nest. Nestlings Length 12 in is loud and varied, and aracaris are smaller and more lightly
(30 cm)
have hooked bills includes croaking sounds built, with a slender bill. The long,
Weight 51⁄4 oz
with which they (150 g) as well as imitations of many local brightly colored bill of the chestnut-
kill the nestlings Plumage Sexes alike species of birds. The long, black eared aracari has yellow, teeth
of the host. Migration Nonmigrant
and yellow bill, white at the base, markings. Living in the forest and forest
Location Mexico, helps this toucanet reach for edge, this bird may be seen restlessly
S. Central America, Status Least concern
W. South America fruit and animal prey. hopping through the tree canopy. It
streaked usually occurs in small groups that
wings roost huddled in tree holes and hunt
BIRDS
for insects and other small animals

Toucanets are medium-sized members together, large flocks sometimes
of the toucan family with relatively gathering at fruiting trees. Paired birds
modest-sized bills. This species is feed and preen each other. Like other
an upland bird typically found in toucans, the chestnut-eared aracari
mountain forests. It lives in pairs and has an undulating flight.
Ramphastos toco on the end of thin twigs that cannot Jynx torquilla Picumnus cirratus
support its weight. Once collected, food
Toco toucan has to be moved from the tip of the bill
into the bird’s throat—a task that is
Eurasian wryneck White-barred piculet
1
achieved with a quick backward toss of Length 6 ⁄2 in
1
Length 4 in
(53 – 60 cm) (16 cm) (10 cm)
the head. Less sociable than other
Weight 20 oz Weight ⁄8 oz
3
Weight 3⁄8 oz
(550 g) toucans, this bird sometimes (10 g) (10 g)
Plumage Sexes alike participates in periodic invasions of new Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
areas, which occur in certain years. It Migration Migrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location N.E. to C. South also migrates locally during some Location Europe to Asia, Location N.E. and C.
America Status Least concern N. Africa Status Least concern South America Status Least concern
winters. The toco toucan makes its nest
in existing holes in dead or living trees
and in earth banks; it may also use the
nests of terrestrial termites. Its call,
a deep, low snore, is often made The Eurasian wryneck derives its name Piculets (about 30 species)
high up from a branch. from its habit of twisting and writhing are the smallest members
its neck, in snakelike fashion, as a form of the woodpecker family.
of defensive display. The speckled, Unlike typical
brown, gray, buff, and white plumage woodpeckers,
black oval spot bare, yellow to orange glossy black camouflages it well against bark and they do not use
on bill skin around eyes plumage the ground. It feeds on the larvae and their tails to brace
The largest of all toucan species, pupae of ants, opening ant hills with its themselves against
the toco toucan has a spectacular bill and using its sticky tongue to pick trees. The white-barred
orange bill, up to 7 1⁄2 in (19 cm) long. up its food. piculet has a short, soft
The huge bill, white rump, and red tail and brownish gray
undertail coverts are especially plumage, the male having a
conspicuous during the bird’s distinctive red crown. Found
undulating flight, with alternating flaps in a wide variety of habitats,
and glides. The toco toucan is found including open woodland, savanna,
in woodland, gallery forest, wooded brush, and forest edges, it forages at
savanna, groves, and even open low heights on thin twigs, vines, and
country. It usually reaches for fruit bamboo. This tiny bird feeds on small
and prey from a perch, but may insects, getting most of its food by
descend to the ground for fallen fruit. vigorous hammering. It nests and
The large bill helps the bird reach food roosts in holes in dead branches.
WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS 335
Melanerpes formicivorus red crowns, but the forecrown is moderately

black in females. The tail and bill long bill STORING ACORNS
Acorn woodpecker are moderately long. Restricted to
oak and pine-oak woodland, this
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Length 9 in sociable woodpecker is often found

(23 cm)
in a group or breeding unit of 3 – 12
Weight 23⁄8 – 31⁄4 oz
(65 – 90 g) individuals, who share work on the
Plumage Sexes alike communal acorn store and on building
the nest, and defend the common
Location W. North glossy
territory that contains foraging sites,
America to N. South black
America sap trees, the group larder, roosts, and plumage
the nest site. The acorn woodpecker is
characterized by a complex breeding The acorn woodpecker drills small,
pattern that may be described as neat holes in tree bark, and jams
Dry acorns may comprise half of “polygynandrous”. Pairs may breed an acorn firmly into each one.
CONTRASTING
the daily food intake of the acorn alone, but are typically assisted by Working together, birds belonging
COLORS
woodpecker, which has a unique habit males and females that usually belong to a single breeding unit can store
The acorn woodpecker
of storing acorns (see panel, right). It to previous broods. Helping males has bold, shiny, black, up to 50,000 acorns in one “granary
is also known to feed on other seeds, participate in reproduction only after white, and red plumage tree,” creating a store of food to last
sap, and fruit. Insects form important their mother has been displaced by that makes it easily them through the winter.
food for the nestlings. Both sexes have another female. recognizable.
Sphyrapicus varius Picus viridis Dendrocopos major woodpeckers, the strong feet, stiff
tail, bill, and tongue of this species
Yellow-bellied European green Great spotted are adapted for climbing trees,
drilling holes, and
sapsucker woodpecker woodpecker probing into
cavities. The
Length 83⁄4 in Length 121⁄2 in Length 8 – 91⁄2 in great spotted
(22 cm) (32 cm) (20 – 24 cm)
woodpecker
Weight 21⁄8 – 27⁄8 oz Weight 7oz Weight 23⁄8 – 35⁄8 oz
(60 – 80 g) (200 g) (65 – 100 g)
feeds on fruit,
berries, sap
Migration Migrant Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
from trees,
Location North and Location Europe, W. to Location Europe, Asia, insects and
BIRDS
Central America, Status Least concern C. Asia, N. Africa Status Least concern N. Africa Status Least concern
Caribbean Islands their larvae, and
even nestlings of
other birds. Early
in the breeding
The yellow-bellied sapsucker drills red crown This small, black and white woodpecker season, the bird can
holes into trees to extract has a red lower belly and undertail be easily detected by
sugary sap. A series of coverts. The male has a red band the loud drumming
holes are chiseled across the nape. As is typical in sound it makes.
into the trunks of greenish
broadleaved trees plumage
such as maple, Dryocopus martius trees. This bird lays up to 6 eggs,
fruit trees, birch, in holes that it carves out every year.
and poplar. After a
short while, the bird
Like the northern flicker (see below),
the European green woodpecker feeds
Black woodpecker Old holes are very useful to other birds,
which take them over when their
returns to feed on mainly on the ground, although it uses Length 18 in original owner moves on.
(45 cm)
the sap oozing out, trees as a refuge, and as places to breed.
Weight 13 oz
and on the insects It has an exceptionally long tongue—even (350 g)
attracted by the by woodpecker standards—and it uses it Plumage Sexes differ
sap. This bird has to probe into ant nests, extracting them Migration Nonmigrant
a mewing call-note with its sticky tip. The green woodpecker Location Europe to Asia
and drums slowly has a loud, laughlike call and steeply
and irregularly. undulating flight.
This crow-sized bird is Eurasia’s largest

Colaptes auratus while the tail and wings are flicked and woodpecker, easily recognized both by
spread. Often found on the ground, this its size and by its jet-black plumage and
Northern flicker bird feeds mainly on ants, digging into
the earth and pillaging ant nests,
crimson crown. Females have a smaller
crown patch than males, placed farther
Length 12 – 14 in with the help of its long tongue. back, but apart from this the 2 sexes
(30 – 35 cm)
When feeding arboreally, it usually are the same. The black woodpecker
(100 – 175 g) concentrates on the dead parts of lives in mature forests and woodland,
Plumage Sexes alike a tree. The female, shown here, where it actively chisels out prey that
lacks the black mustachial is hidden deep within living and dead
Location North and stripe of the male. wood. It feeds mainly on tunneling
Central America Status Least concern
insects, such as sawfly grubs and
ants, and, when probing for food,
it can hack out vertical gashes
up to 20 in (50 cm) long. This
The northern flicker has a long, woodpecker’s excavations produce
pointed, and slightly curved bill. During woodchip the size of clothes’ pins,
confrontations, the bill points forward, spotted which build up in piles on the forest
and the head and body engage whitish floor. It also pecks at cones, often
long tail underparts
in swinging movements, wedging them in the stumps of fallen
336 FALCONS AND CARACARAS
Falcons and caracaras

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PHYLUM Chordata
Falcons are dark-eyed, diurnal birds of prey with a small “tooth” on
the bill; unlike hawks, buzzards, and eagles, they kill prey with the
CLASS Aves
bill rather than the claws or tight grip with the feet. Pygmy falcons
ORDER Falconiformes
are tiny, but gyrfalcons, sakers, and the caracaras are big, bulky,
FAMILIES 1
heavy-bodied birds. Males are smaller and tend to eat smaller
SPECIES 66
prey than females, so the pair compete less for food. Absent
only from polar areas, densest forests, and most remote islands,
falcons are found almost worldwide. Some are long-distance migrants, exploiting
food sources in cold or temperate regions in summer and moving to the tropics
outside the breeding season. Smaller species feed on small birds, insects,
and rodents; larger ones, such as the prairie falcon, hunt bigger birds and
mammals. Caracaras are versatile scavengers.
Reproduction
Caracaras build bulky nests and falcons use abandoned nests of
another species, or lay eggs on a bare ledge or in an unlined tree
cavity. Red-footed falcons are colonial and use nests of rooks,
while pygmy falcons use the nests of African weavers. Both
parents incubate eggs and care for the young; often highly
secretive in the early stages, pairs may be noisy and obvious if
nests with large chicks or newly fledged young are approached.
Falcons are susceptible to insecticide poisoning, but some have
recovered after catastrophic population declines in the 1960s.
PEREGRINE FALCON
A short “thumb” and tapered tips to the outer
BIRDS
wing feathers allow falcons to control their

wing shape and airflow over its surface.
Caracara plancus One of 2 similar American crested Micrastur ruficollis Falco punctatus
caracaras, this striking bird of prey
Southern crested has a cream head and breast; Barred forest falcon Mauritius kestrel
black cap; and bare, orange face.
caracara It reveals large pale patches in the Length 13 – 15 in
(33 – 38 cm)
Length 8 – 10 in
(20 – 26 cm)
wings and tail when it flies. Its Weight 6 – 8 oz
Weight 5 – 8 oz
Length 191⁄2 – 23 in outstretched head; straight, flat (150 – 225 g) (175 – 225 g)
(49 – 59 cm)
wings; and narrow tail give a distinctive Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
Weight 13⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(0.85 – 1.5 kg) cross shape in the air. It occupies Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location S. Mexico to Location Mauritius
Plumage Sexes alike open country with scattered trees, N. South America Status Least concern Status Endangered
Migration Nonmigrant often close to people. Although related
Location South America
to falcons, it looks buzzard-shaped
yet behaves like a vulture. It has long
legs and spends much time walking
on the ground, where it takes whatever Compared to other falcons, forest This chestnut-brown, cream-fronted
black cap food it can find, catch, or steal from falcons have relatively short, rounded bird nearly became extinct because
other birds, including black and wings—a shape that helps them of destruction of its natural habitat of
turkey vultures, which it dominates maneuver as they hunt among trees. evergreen primary forest, but is now
at carcasses. It eats anything from This species has long and slender being raised in zoos and encouraged
white cheek
dead animals, young chicks, frogs, legs, with small feet and sharp talons. to inhabit secondary forest and scrub.
snakes, and freshwater turtles to It hunts from trees, with short dashes In the 1970s, there
rotting vegetables, fish, worms, out to seize lizards, and also catches were thought to
and insects, but is rarely able to army ants on the ground. be only 4 – 8 birds
catch fit, mobile prey. Pairs build left, but, due to a
large nests of sticks and grass successful breeding
in trees, which become soiled program, there are
with uneaten food. nearly 1,000.
white underparts
with dark spots
bare legs
FALCONS AND CARACARAS 337
Falco tinnunculus Falco rusticolus ground, in a low, fast chase, less often dark
in a fast, peregrine-like stoop. There brown eye
Common kestrel Gyrfalcon are several forms of gyrfalcon, and
identification is further complicated
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Length 121⁄2 – 151⁄2 in Length 19 – 26 in by hybrids between gyr and saker

(32 – 39 cm) (48 – 65 cm)
falcons appearing in some areas.
(125 – 325 g) (0.8 – 2.1 kg) Greenland birds are the whitest,
Plumage Sexes differ Plumage Sexes alike while Scandinavian and north Siberian
Migration Partial migrant Migration Migratory
birds are noticeably darker and more
Location Europe, Asia, Location Subarctic “hooded,” with darker facial patches
Africa Status Least concern Status Least concern
approaching those of the peregrine.
Young birds are darker and browner
still. In the far north, gyrfalcons
are usually safe from human
The common kestrel is a small, The biggest of all falcons, the gyrfalcon disturbance, but they are
chestnut-brown falcon with a black- breeds in subarctic regions, mostly threatened by a warming climate.
tipped tail as well as black bars and in extensive tundra with cliff faces on Historically, local populations
spots. It is one of the few medium-sized which it can nest. Outside the breeding have been damaged by illegal
birds that can hover for extended season, it may rest on sea ice far theft and smuggling of young
periods. This ability allows it to live from land, close to open water where birds for falconry. Few move
and hunt in a variety of it can find prey, such as ducks, gulls, far south in the winter, but
habitats, especially areas and other seabirds. In summer, it they may be encountered
not often frequented by catches birds of almost any size, across Canada and more
other species, such as as well as lemmings and hares. Its rarely in northwestern
the edges of major food includes many more mammals Europe, when solitary
roads. Its diet than any other falcon, but breeding birds appear in open
consists mainly pairs may rely more on the close mountain, moorland,
of small mammals proximity of large seabird colonies, or coastal districts. Races
(including voles or healthy populations of grouse of gyrfalcons vary from
and mice), insects, and ptarmigans. Prey is lead-gray to almost pure,
and amphibians. typically taken close to the white birds with fine dark spots.
Falco eleonorae Falco columbarius and inconspicuous, but males peregrine, but chase down
may perch nearby, calling to prey in fast, twisting pursuits,
BIRDS
Eleonora’s falcon Merlin warn incubating females of
possible danger. Their
rising and falling until the
small bird, such as a pipit
1
Length 10 – 13 in eggs are typical of the or finch, is tired. Males are
(36 – 42 cm) (24 – 33 cm)
falcons, richly colored smaller than females, and on
(350 – 400 g) (165 – 230 g)
with smears and mottles average hunt smaller birds,
Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ
of rusty brown. Merlins allowing pairs to coexist in
Migration Migrant Migration Migratory
are almost exclusively smaller home ranges. Between
Location S. Europe, N. Location North America, bird-eaters. They do such hunts, merlins spend
and E. Africa, Madagascar Status Least concern Eurasia Status Least concern
not have the dramatic much of their time perched
stoops of a on a low eminence such as
a rock, post, or even clump
of earth, where they are easily
This fairly small falcon has the typical The merlin is a small, compact, overlooked. Over their very wide
streamlined falcon shape, but its wings fast-flying falcon of open countryside, range, merlins have evolved
are longer and more swiftlike. It has especially heather moorland with into many subspecies, those
2 color forms—normal and melanistic. scattered trees in summer, and from more northerly regions
The normal plumage is dark above extensive coastal marshland being more migratory and
and cream with flecks below, while or pastureland in winter. On tending to be larger and
the melanistic form is dark all over. moorland, it may nest on the paler. The male is smooth
This bird breeds in autumn, usually ground, or appropriate an old blue-gray and orange
on cliffs of remote islands, feeding tree nest of a crow. Ground- buff, but females are
mainly on small birds. nesters, especially, are quiet earth-brown.
Falco peregrinus on many oceanic islands. Females AERIAL PURSUIT PLUMAGE

can be up to 30 percent larger This falcon has white
Peregrine falcon than males. The bird’s wings have
sharply pointed tips, making them
to cream to rufous
underparts, and black,
gray, or blue upperparts.
Length 131⁄2 – 20 in both fast and highly maneuverable;
(34 – 50 cm) The young are brown
it flies largely by flapping rather with buff edging on
Weight 11⁄4 – 31⁄4 lb
(0.55 – 1.5 kg) than soaring. This falcon usually contour feathers,
Plumage Sexes alike attacks its prey in a steep, powerful and vertical stripes
dive, or stoop, during which it on the breast.
Location Worldwide may reach a speed of 145 mph
(except Antarctica) Status Least concern
(230 kph). Courtship involves aerial
displays accompanied by noisy
calling. The peregrine falcon has The peregrine falcon may chase
been used in falconry for centuries. its prey—especially doves and
The peregrine falcon is one of the In the 1950s and 60s, it was pigeons—in order to exhaust them pointed
world’s fastest birds. It also has the badly affected by DDT pollution, quickly. It usually strikes the prey wings
widest distribution of any day-flying particularly in Europe and the with its talons, and then follows
land bird, being found on every USA, but it is now staging a it to the ground.
continent, except Antarctica, and gradual recovery.
338 PARROTS
Parrots
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PHYLUM Chordata
These conspicuous, brightly colored birds have populated
most of the world’s warmer areas, and are particularly abundant
CLASS Aves
in tropical forests. In addition to true parrots, this group includes
ORDER Psittaciformes
the familiar macaws, parakeets, cockatoos, cockatiels, lorikeets,
FAMILIES 4
and budgerigars, among others. Noisy and social in the wild,
SPECIES 397
parrots have long been popular as pets, prized for their beauty,
intelligence, and impressive learning skills, evident in their
remarkable ability to mimic human sounds. Although they may range some
distance to forage, very few parrots are truly migratory.
upper bill in
Anatomy base of bill
used for
open position upper
hinge
Parrots are easily recognized by cracking food
their large head, short neck, and
strongly hooked bill. They have hard,
distinctively glossy plumage, usually lower
hinge
predominantly green for camouflage
in the forest foliage, with patches of hook
other bright colors. Their feet, used for
pulling food
consisting of 2 toes pointing forward lower bill in
and 2 backward, are used for climbing open position
trees, and the bill is frequently used as PARROTS’ BILL
a third limb for climbing or holding. The A parrot’s hooked bill is remarkably
wings are typically narrow and pointed, flexible; both the upper and lower
enabling parrots to fly with great speed mandibles are hinged against the
and maneuverability. skull for independent movement.
Feeding
BIRDS
Virtually all parrots feed

exclusively on plant
CONSERVATION
material, including seeds,
nuts, fruit, nectar, and Nearly a third of all parrot species
flowers. Feeding is often are under threat in the wild, and
an exercise in coordination a few have actually become
between bill and foot, the SOCIAL GROUPS extinct. One of the greatest
latter grasping a food item Parrots (here, green-winged macaws threats is from the caged-bird
and holding it up for the and scarlet macaws) often form large, trade, which accounts for
NECTAR FEEDERS bill to work over. Although noisy flocks that communicate by making hundreds of thousands of
Lories and lorikeets (here, a rainbow lorikeet) most parrots feed in the various calls, from harsh squawks to captures and deaths every year.
feed on nectar. They have a brushlike tip to trees, many species also piercing shrieks. Most species form Other threats to their numbers
their tongue to help them sweep the liquid readily descend to the long-term pair-bonds. include deforestation.
into their mouth. ground to forage.
Trichoglossus haematodus its brightly colored underwings. Eos reticulata

However, when feeding, its subdued FEEDING IN A GROUP
Coconut lorikeet chatter and cryptic coloration make it
difficult to detect among foliage. This
Blue-streaked
Length 12 in
(30 cm)
species causes damage in orchards lory
and vineyards, especially in Australia.
Weight 5 oz Length 121⁄4 in
(150 g) green upperparts (31 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike purple-blue
Weight 6 oz
streaked head (175 g)
Location New Guinea, S.E.
Asia, S.W. Pacific, Australia Status Least concern Plumage Sexes alike
(including Tasmania) Migration Nonmigrant
Flocks of rainbow lorikeets Location Indonesia
(Tanimbar, Kai, and Status Near threatened
congregate to feed in flowering trees Damar Islands)
and are often found in the company
This brightly colored lorikeet has of other nectar- or fruit-eating birds.
a stocky body and pointed tail. It This bird uses its bill to crush the
is highly variable in appearance, with flesh of fruit to extract the juice and This brightly colored lory is mainly red,
22 subspecies that differ in size or the seeds. The rainbow lorikeet also with violet-blue streaking on its hind neck
coloration, or both. Juveniles have feeds on insects and their larvae. and back, a narrow, orange-red bill, and
dark brown bills, while in adults they gray legs. A noisy, conspicuous bird,
are orange or red. Like most other it is most commonly seen in swift
lorikeets and lories, this lorikeet has BRIGHTLY COLORED
overhead flight, emitting shrill call-notes,
a brush-tipped tongue adapted for This startlingly bright bird varies greatly in but also spends much time resting or
gathering pollen and nectar from color. Most subspecies have green upperparts, feeding in trees. Like other lorikeets,
flowers. In flight, the rainbow lorikeet a purple-blue streaked head, and an orange it has a brush-tipped tongue to gather
screeches continuously while displaying to red breast with dark scalloping. pollen and nectar.
PARROTS 339
yellow crest gray crest

Probosciger aterrimus Eolophus roseicapillus Nymphicus hollandicus of male of female
Palm cockatoo Galah Cockatiel

orange patch
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Length 231⁄2 in (60 cm) Length 14 in Length 121⁄2 in on ear coverts

Weight 2 ⁄4 lb
1 (35 cm) (32 cm)
(1 kg) Weight 12 oz Weight 31⁄4 oz
Plumage Sexes alike (325 g)) (90 g)
Migration Nonmigrant Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ
Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nomadic chirrup,
Location New Guinea, Status Least concern Location Australia Location Australia
but is
N.E. Australia (including Tasmania)
quieter
while feeding
on the ground
The cockatiel is the smallest species or drinking at
The largest of about 18 species of of cockatoo and the only one to have water holes. This
short, pink
cockatoos, the palm cockatoo is also crest a long, pointed tail. The tapering crest species is very popular
distinguished by its entirely black is lowered when the bird is resting, or as a pet and numerous
plumage, huge, hooked bill with which it sometimes while feeding. In flight, the color variants are found
can crack open palm nuts cockatiel emits a distinctive warbled in captive-bred birds.
elongated
crest feathers and other hard-shelled
seeds, and a piercing,
whistlelike call. When gray wings
Nestor notabilis Eclectus roratus
excited or alarmed,
the palm cockatoo
raises its striking
Kea Eclectus parrot
stocky body
crest of backward- Length 19 in Length 14 in
(48 cm) (35 cm)
curving, narrow
feathers, and its (825 g) (500 g)
prominent, bare Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes differ
crimson cheek Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
patches deepen Location New Zealand Location S.E. Asia, New
(South Island) Status Vulnerable Guinea, N.E. Australia, Status Least concern
in color, causing S.W. Pacific islands
it to “blush.”
crimson cheek
BIRDS
patches The male and female eclectus parrots
dark-edged look so different from each other that
feathers early naturalists identified them as
The most widespread and numerous sharp, separate species. Both sexes are large
species of cockatoo, the galah is elongated and stocky, with squarish tails and
a familiar sight throughout Australia. bill robust bills, but while
blue hind
Flocks of these noisy and gregarious the male is brilliant neck of female
birds are found in arid scrubland green with red flanks
as well as in city parks. Farming has well-developed and underwings and
feet for foraging
increased this parrot’s food supply, on ground a yellow bill, the female
leading to a steady rise in population. is red, occasionally
The galah has a relatively small crest, with a blue underside
and its gray back and pink underparts and underwings, and
create an alternating effect as it veers This large, stocky mountain bird is has an entirely
through the air. remarkable among parrots for its black bill.
insatiable curiosity and wide-ranging
diet. A natural opportunist, it will
Cacatua galerita dozen birds to several hundred. At examine anything that appears to brilliant
night, flocks occupy regularly used be edible, and often feeds on carrion, green body
Sulphur-crested roosts, often in trees bordering water
courses. This species is very popular
tearing it up with its unusually long
bill, which resembles that of a bird
of male
cockatoo as a pet, and both adults and chicks are of prey. Adults are largely olive-green,
regularly captured for the live-bird trade, with orange underwings.
Length 20 in a fact that poses a threat to the survival
(50 cm)
of some populations.
Weight 34 oz violet-blue
(950 g) Platycercus elegans cheek patches
Plumage Sexes alike
Location New Guinea,

yellow crest
Crimson rosella As its name
suggests, the
Australia (including Status Least concern
Tasmania)
Length 14 in crimson rosella’s
(36 cm)
plumage is red.
Weight 5 oz
(150 g) It has violet-blue
Plumage Sexes alike cheek patches and
This large, white cockatoo is yellow Migration Nonmigrant outer wing coverts,
on the undersides of its wings Location E. and S.E. and a dark blue tail;
and tail, and has a yellow black bill the back and wings dark
crest of narrow, forward- are mottled red and blue
tail
curving feathers. Noisy white upperparts black. The bird tends
and active in the to become quite tame around
morning and late This is one of 6 species of rosellas, farms or in gardens. It has an
afternoon, it forages all of which have similar streamlined undulating flight, dropping
in flocks that vary short, short legs bodies and long tails, and are restricted down toward the ground, gliding
in size from a few rounded tail to Australia and its outlying islands. upward, and then landing.
340 PARROTS
green
Lathamus discolor upperparts Melopsittacus undulatus
Swift parrot red face Budgerigar

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Length 10 in (25 cm) Length 7 in

Weight 23⁄8 oz (18 cm)
(65 g) yellowish Weight 7⁄8 oz
underparts (25 g)
Plumage Sexes alike
Migration Nonmigrant Plumage Sexes alike
Status Critically Migration Nomadic
Location E. and Location Australia
S.E. Australia endangered Status Least concern
a red face and
underwings. Found in colors, the wild budgerigar is always
a wide variety of wooded green, with a yellow face and blue tail.
habitats, including suburban The budgerigar is one of the most The upperparts of its body are barred
Long, pointed wings and a streamlined parks or gardens, where numerous of all parrots and is the black and yellow, providing excellent
shape contribute to making this small favored food trees are present, best known because of its popularity camouflage while it feeds in vegetation.
parrot a fast flier, hence its name. Its it breeds only in Tasmania and as a pet. Unlike its domesticated Often nomadic, this bird is usually seen
crown is dark blue, contrasting with overwinters in eastern Australia. counterparts, which may be of different in large, noisy flocks.
Deroptyus accipitrinus blue-edged red Psittacus erithacus

neck feathers yellow eyes
Red-fan parrot characteristic.
Gray parrot
Length 14 in While perching, Length 13 in and also
(35 cm) (33 cm)
the red-fan in montane
(225 g) parrot resembles (400 g) rainforest, at
Plumage Sexes alike a bird of prey, Plumage Sexes alike forest edges,
with its hawklike Migration Nonmigrant
on plantations,
Location N. South eyes. Usually Location W. to C. Africa and on
America Status Least concern Status Endangered
seen in pairs farmland or
or small groups in gardens.
(rarely of up It has unusual
to 20 birds), This stocky, short-tailed parrot is an coloration, its gray
This parrot is distinguished by dark this forest- extremely popular cage bird because plumage contrasting strongly
BIRDS
red feathers that extend from the dwelling parrot of its ability to imitate human speech with the bright red or deep
nape to the hind neck. When excited is inconspicuous and perform tricks. Despite being maroon of the tail. In flight,
or alarmed, it raises its neck feathers but is often heard illegally trapped for the pet trade, it members of the flock continually call
to form a spectacular ruff or fan. Its well before it is still common in parts of its range. to each other and also communicate
long, rounded tail is also a distinctive comes into view. It is found mainly in lowland rain forest, visually by displaying their red tails.
Strigops habroptila Pyrilia aurantiocephala Agapornis personatus Amazona aestiva
Kakapo Bald parrot Yellow-collared Turquoise-fronted

Length 25 in
(64 cm)
(22 – 25 cm)
lovebird Amazon
Weight 41⁄2 lb Weight Not known Length 53⁄4 in Length 141⁄2 in
(2 kg) Plumage Sexes alike (14.5 cm) (37 cm)
Plumage Sexes alike Migration Nonmigrant Weight 13⁄4 oz Weight 14 oz
Migration Nonmigrant Status Near threatened (50 g) (400 g)
Location New Zealand Location C. South
(4 offshore islands) Status Critically America Plumage Sexes alike Plumage Sexes alike
endangered Migration Nonmigrant Migration Nonmigrant
Location E. Africa Location C. South
(Tanzania) Status Least concern America Status Least concern
One of the world’s most endangered The bald parrot—so-called because of

parrots, the flightless kakapo has highly the bare, bristly head with bright orange
unusual feeding habits. It is active at skin—occurs in scattered locations in Lovebirds get their name from their A distinctive blue forehead on a yellow
dusk and often walks long distances gallery forest of central Amazonian Brazil. strong pair-bonds, with the male and face differentiates this large and stocky
to feeding areas where it chews plants When specimens of this remarkable female spending much of their time parrot from other members of the
for their juices, leaving balls of fibrous parrot were first collected, they were close together, frequently preening genus Amazona, of which there are
material hanging from the plants. It also thought to be juveniles of the allied each other’s feathers. All 9 species are about 30 species. Although
digs up or crushes rhizomes with its vulturine parrot (Pyrilia vulturina), which small, short-tailed, and solidly built. The conspicuous and noisy in flight,
bill. The males gather at mating grounds has a black, bare head and lives in the yellow-collared lovebird has a dark head, the turquoise-fronted Amazon
(leks), where they dig hollows, and make same region and habitat as the bald with a conspicuous white eye-ring and parrot is unobtrusive and
loud, booming noises to attract females. parrot. They were later demonstrated to bright red bill. It feeds on quiet while feeding or
The adults, chicks, and eggs of the be mature birds of a new species— seeds, fruit, and buds, and, resting in treetops,
kakapo are highly vulnerable to scientifically described in 2002. It is unusually for a parrot, where falling pieces
introduced predators. possible that the bare head of these builds a nest instead of fruit may be the
parrots allows them to feed on sticky of laying its eggs in only indication of
fruit without soiling their feathers—like an unlined hole. its presence.
bare-headed vultures are protected Birds gather in
from gore while feeding on carcasses. white flocks at regular
Both bald and vulturine parrots are eye-ring nighttime roosts,
short
short-tailed with predominantly green wings but mated pairs
plumage; the bare head is only achieved always stay
in adulthood. close together.
PARROTS 341
Psittacula krameri also found in parts of Europe and Aratinga jandaya Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus
North America. The central tail
Rose-ringed parakeet feathers are long and narrow, and the
backward-sweeping wings produce
Jandaya parakeet Hyacinth macaw
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Length 16 in a characteristically Length 12 in Length 31⁄4 ft

(40 cm) (30 cm) (1 m)
streamlined
Weight 4 oz Weight 4 oz Weight 31⁄4 lb
(125 g) flight silhouette. (125 g) (1.5 kg)
Location W. to E. Africa, Location E. South Location C. South
S. and S.E. Asia Status Least concern America Status Least concern America Status Vulnerable
This slim-bodied green bird has a One of 30 species of conures, all found yellow chin patch
rose-pink collar around its hind neck. in eastern South America, this is a small
It has the widest natural distribution of parrot with a narrow, pointed tail. Its The largest and
any parrot, stretching from West Africa head and neck are yellow, gradually probably the most
to Southeast Asia. As a feral bird, it is becoming orange-red on the breast and spectacular of
abdomen, and its back and wings are all parrots, the
largely green. Usually encountered in hyacinth macaw
Myiopsitta monachus green noisy flocks of up to 15, this very active is distinguished
upperparts bird spends much of its time clambering by its rich cobalt-
Monk parakeet among branches of trees or shrubs to
find fruit. When disturbed, it swiftly
blue plumage,
contrasting bright
Length 111⁄2 in
whitish takes flight while screeching loudly. yellow chin patch
(29 cm)
throat and ring around
Weight 4 oz
(125 g) the eye, and long,
Plumage Sexes alike pointed tail. The
green back massive bill is
Migration Nonmigrant and wings
Location C. and S. South used for crushing hard
The colony expands as palm nuts. It feeds
nests are built alongside mainly in the trees, but
or on top of existing ones. comes to the ground
This parakeet has a long, to pick up fallen fruit
BIRDS
long,
The nesting habits of this green green tail, an olive-green and nuts. Its high narrow
parakeet are unique among parrots. abdomen, and a gray-white value as a cage tail
With several other pairs, it roosts in face and throat. In some parts bird has caused a
a communal nest, which forms the of South America, it is a serious major decline in
center for the birds’ daily activities. agricultural pest. its numbers.
white facial red head

Cyanopsitta spixii CONSERVATION Ara chloropterus skin and shoulders
Spix’s macaw Long one of the world’s rarest birds,

Spix’s macaw vanished from the
Red-and-green
Length 22 in
(55 cm)
wild in 2000, when the last free-flying macaw
bird disappeared. Two main factors
Weight Not recorded
contributed to the species’ decline: Length 35 in
Plumage Sexes alike (90 cm)
destruction of river-edge woodland— dark red
Migration Nonmigrant Weight 21⁄4 lb plumage
where it nests in a single species of (1 kg)
Location E. South America Status Critically tree—and the relentless wild-bird
endangered Plumage Sexes alike
trade, which continued until only Migration Nonmigrant
a handful of birds were left. Location N. and C. South dark green
America Status Least concern wing coverts
Fortunately, a population had
The smallest of been built up in captivity, living in
all blue macaws, seminatural conditions in research
Spix’s macaw is a stations and zoos. Raised since
creature of habit, the 1980s, these now number The red-and-green macaw attracts
regularly sitting on nearly 100 birds. Captive breeding, attention by its spectacular, vivid
favored perches together with habitat restoration coloration and strident call. A large bird, common, macaws,
atop tall trees and and controls on illegal collecting, like some other macaws it has a partly especially at earth
daily following the may one day be sufficient to red plumage and a light blue back and banks, where large
same flight paths. reestablish the species in the wild. rump. The long tail is tipped with blue. numbers gather to
This parrot feeds Its wings are blue with dark green consume exposed
on seeds, nuts, upper-wing coverts, which give this mineral sands. In
and fruit while species its name. The juveniles resemble flight, red-and-green
clambering adults, but have shorter tails. This macaw macaws call loudly to
among branches. prefers humid, lowland forest, but in each other. This bird
the southern part of its range, where feeds on seeds, fruit,
the more common scarlet macaw and nuts that are often
BLUE PARROT (Ara macao) is absent, it frequents open larger or harder than
Spix’s macaw has a long,
habitats, including deciduous forest, those eaten by other
pointed tail, and a silvery
blue head, with dark and is often seen perching on the macaws. Adult birds
gray skin surrounding topmost projecting branches of tall are killed for food or for
the eyes. The back and trees. Usually encountered in pairs or feathers, while the chicks
wings are darker blue, small groups, possibly family groups, it are taken from the nest
and the bill is black. sometimes associates with other, more for the live-bird trade.
342 PASSERINES
Passerines
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PHYLUM Chordata Most of the world’s bird species are Perching

CLASS Aves passerines. They are sometimes known Passerines can perch securely on
ORDER Passeriformes as perching birds because they have twigs, reeds, and even grass stems.
Three of their 4 toes point forward
FAMILIES 131 a unique type of foot that enables them and the other backward. The toes
SPECIES 6,430 to grip even the most slender branches. can move independently of each
other, and the front toes can long rear toe
Passerines are also distinguished by the oppose the back one, which is
toes clamp
complex sounds, or songs, made by many species. These are especially strong. All 4 toes are around
level with each other, unlike in many branch
produced using a vocal organ known as the syrinx (which is nonpasserines, which have a raised
also found in other birds). Passerines are considered by many hind toe. When a passerine lands on PERCHING FEET
a perch, its weight causes tendons in Like many passerines, the common
to be the most highly evolved of all birds, and many exhibit
the leg to tighten, clamping the toes waxbill has long, thin toes that are
unusual intelligence. Most live in bushes and trees, but some tightly shut. This grip functions even easily wrapped around a small
are adapted to living on the ground; a few (such as swallows) when the bird is asleep. Despite these stem. The backward-facing toe is
advantages, some passerines perch strong and, in contrast to several
lead an almost entirely aerial existence. Passerines are found much less often than others. Larks, nonpasserine groups, cannot be
in all terrestrial habitats, from arid desert to tropical rain forest. for example, are essentially terrestrial, reversed. Most passerines have
and have relatively flat feet to give moderately curved, sharp claws
Many species are a familiar sight around buildings and in them balance when running. that can grip many surfaces.
gardens, and new ones are being discovered all the time.
Anatomy
The passerines’ specialized perching foot (see Perching) and
well-developed voicebox (or syrinx, see Singing) are among their
defining characteristics. These features apart, the members of
this group are enormously varied. While a great number of them
BIRDS
have subdued coloring, there are also many with spectacularly

vivid and bizarre plumage—for example, the remarkable birds
of paradise and the multicolored tanagers and finches.
Males are often more brightly colored and patterned than
females. Most passerines are small birds, but they range
from the large, bulky crows and ravens, up to 25 in
(65 cm) long, to the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, only
3 in (7 cm) long. Another highly variable feature of
passerines is the shape of the bill, which often
indicates a specific food preference (see below).
GREENFINCH WOOD GREAT GRAY SUNBIRD

WARBLER SHRIKE
BILL SHAPE
The shape of a passerine’s bill offers important clues to its
diet. Species that feed on seeds (such as the greenfinch) often
have a short, conical bill, while those that eat invertebrates
(such as the wood warbler) tend to have a thin bill. Like many
other predatory passerines, the great gray shrike has a
hooked and notched bill for subduing relatively large prey. In
sunbirds, which feed on nectar, the bill is long and thin, often
with a downward curve, to help them reach inside flowers.
trachea
Singing muscle
Passerines owe their singing ability to their complex membrane
syrinx, which is more highly developed than it is in
other birds. Each species has its own distinctive SINGING MALES cartilage
song (or songs), a series of sounds uttered within The male nightingale produces bronchus rings
a defined rhythm and structure. Many passerines some of the most varied of all
have beautiful and complicated songs, among them birdsongs, often delivering them
the larks, wrens, thrushes, nightingales, and lyrebirds. with a characteristic crescendo. SYRINX
In some species, the chicks learn to sing only by It sings both by day and by night, The syrinx is located in the trachea.
listening to adults of the same species; in others, using its daytime songs mainly Membranes in the syrinx vibrate and produce
the songs are innate and do not need to be learned. to mark its territory and deter sound as air passes over them. The bird
It is mainly the males that sing, either to claim and rivals and its nocturnal songs uses muscles, which are attached to rings
keep territory or to attract females. to attract females. of cartilage, to modify the sound.
PASSERINES 343
Reproduction ATTRACTING A MATE

Male bowerbirds (such as Feeding
Birds of paradise perform some of the most the spotted bowerbird, left) Most passerines are small, and therefore
elaborate courtship displays of all birds, the create elaborate “stages” require high-energy foods. This means that
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males attracting females by jumping, hanging on which to perform courtship most species feed either on invertebrates
upside-down, and making extraordinary noises. displays. They select a patch or on seeds, or a combination of the two.
However, most passerines have more subtle of ground, or even build a Some also take nectar, especially sunbirds.
displays. Many are skilled nest-builders, typically special structure (the bower), A few rain forest-dwelling families, including
constructing a cup nest from twigs, leaves, and and decorate it with a wide birds of paradise, manakins, and cotingas,
soft material above ground, but they build many variety of items, such as have an almost exclusive diet of fruit. Among
more elaborate structures, too. The chicks hatch seeds, grass, and moss, the great variety of passerines are some with
naked, blind, and helpless, and rely entirely on or even human artifacts. more unusual feeding habits. Shrikes are
their parents to feed them until they are ready meat-eaters that store their captured prey in
to leave the nest at 10 – 15 days old. a “larder,” impaling the bodies of large insects
HANGING NEST or small vertebrates on thorns or barbed wire
Weavers, including the Baya weaver (right), build before eating. Crossbills feed only on the
a highly elaborate domed nest that hangs seeds of coniferous trees, using their crossed
from a branch, often above water. The mandibles as tweezers to part the scales
nest has an entrance chamber, of a cone in order to remove the seeds.
a nest chamber, and a long
tube hanging below.
Weavers often USING TOOLS
nest colonially. The woodpecker
finch of the Galapagos
Islands is one of the
few animals that uses
tools to catch prey. It
picks up a small stick
or cactus spine in
entrance its bill and uses it
tube
to pry insects from
crevices in the bark
of trees.
BIRDS
UNDERWATER FEEDING
Dippers are among the few passerines to venture into
water. When feeding, they dive into shallow, fast-flowing
streams, propelling themselves downward with their
wings, to catch prey as it swims. They also walk along
the riverbed, picking up grubs in their bill.
Anting
A few passerines, including starlings and
blackbirds in Europe, indulge in an unusual
behavior known as anting, in which a bird
collects ants in its bill and rubs them over its
feathers. Occasionally, the bird will crouch
down and let ants run over its plumage. Birds
select only ants that exude formic acid, so it is
thought that the habit may help cleanse the
feathers of parasites. Also unique to passerines
is ant-following, in which birds follow army-ant
columns through tropical forest. The birds do
not eat the ants themselves, but catch the small
insects fleeing the ants’ path.
COURTSHIP DISPLAY COLLECTING ANTS

Most passerines are monogamous. During the breeding A Eurasian jay lies down
season, a male and female generally form a pair, establish among a swarm of ants,
a territory, and build a nest. Among the exceptions to this allowing the insects to crawl
pattern of behavior are the birds of paradise (such as these through its plumage. The reason
Raggiana birds). Males display to females at a breeding for anting is unknown, but it is
arena. After mating, the female builds a nest thought that acid produced by some
and cares for her eggs and young alone. ants may act as an insect repellent or
insecticide, or as a plumage lubricant.
344 PASSERINES
Order Passeriformes
Family Acanthisittidae Family Pittidae Family Eurylaimidae Broadbills feed mostly on fruit and
insects; one species eats lizards, and
New Zealand wrens Pittas Broadbills
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another catches crabs and even fish.

Most feed in the midlevel of the forest,
Length 31⁄4 – 4 in (8 – 10 cm) Length 6 – 11 in (15 – 28 cm) Length 5 – 11 in (13 – 28 cm) filter-sucking insects from leaves and
Species 4 Species 42 Species 20 branches. Some broadbills feed alone
or in pairs, others gather in foraging
flocks of 20 – 30 when not breeding.
These birds build large, pear-shaped
Found only in New Zealand, this family Stumpy-looking birds with an acute Broadbills are found across the nests with a “porched” entrance in the
includes the rifleman and rock wren. sense of smell, pittas live on the forest humid tropics, from West Africa to the lower half. Woven from rootlets, leaves,
Both sexes of the rifleman and rock wren floor in Asia, Australia, and Africa, and Philippines, in habitats including scrub and twigs, and often decorated with
incubate eggs and feed the young. One feed on insects, spiders, snails, and and forest-edge thickets, mangrove cobwebs and lichens, these are hung
species, the virtually flightless Stephens other invertebrates. They are secretive swamps, inland forest, and mountain from inaccessible branches. Females
Island wren, was wiped out—ostensibly birds and seldom seen, often blending moss-forest. These plump birds have lay clutches of 1 – 8 eggs.
by a lighthouse keeper’s cat—in the late in with the forest floor despite their highly large heads and wide, flattened, hooked
1800s; another, the bush wren, was last colorful plumage. The female lays 2 – 7 bills. Males are usually colored a striking
seen in 1972. Other species are known eggs and both sexes raise the young. green, red, pink, or blue; females are wide bill
from subfossils—all were probably weak duller but can be larger than males. covered by
flyers. Genetic and anatomical evidence feathers
suggest that this family represents an
ancient lineage of birds that is the sister
group to all other passerines. black wing
bars GREEN BROADBILL
TThe Southeast Asian
species Calyptomena
viridis is 8 in (20 cm)
long, has long feathers
around the bill, nearly
concealing it, and 3
black wingbars. Small
groups feed in the lower
branches on ripening fruit
and buds. The green broadbill
BIRDS
is also known to feed on insects

such as flying termites.
RIFLEMAN
short,
Abundant and widespread, Acanthisitta chloris AFRICAN PITTA rounded
occurs on North and South Islands. It is 31⁄4 in Pitta angolensis, one of two African species, tail
(8 cm) long; unusually among passerines, the is a migrant found in thick, evergreen forest.
female is larger. She is also more streaked. This usually silent bird is 8 in (20 cm) long.
Family Furnariidae ovenbirds, or horneros, prefer open usually in clutches of 3 – 5; some species
country, while the cinclodes live along lay up to 9 eggs. These are mostly
Ovenbirds water courses; a few species inhabit
marshes. A number of species, such as
incubated over 15 – 20 days, with the
young leaving the nest in 13 – 18
Length 6 – 10 in (15 – 25 cm) the Patagonian earthcreeper and brown days. Old ovenbird nests
Species 314 cachalote, tend to run rather than fly. are often used by
Ovenbirds are mostly insect-eaters, but other birds.
some also feed on seeds. Their nesting dull plumage whitish
habits vary widely: while the true underparts
A large group with many subfamilies, ovenbirds build substantial, domed ground-
ovenbirds are mostly small brown birds mud-ovens on tree branches, many probing bill
with paler underparts, found in Central species nest in natural holes, animal
RUFOUS HORNERO RUFOUS-FRONTED THORNBIRD
and South America. They live in a wide tunnels, or holes they dig themselves.
Argentina’s national Occurring in widely separated areas
range of habitats, and may be foliage- The white-throated cachalote builds bird, Furnarius rufus, has of semiarid habitat, Phacellodomus rufifrons
gleaners, living in the canopy, or a huge stick nest that lasts for a misleading common name as is 61⁄2 in (16 cm) long. It builds a large,
leaf-scrapers, which flick leaves in the air many years after the birds it is the least rufous of horneros. hanging stick nest, which has several
and skulk in the densest undergrowth. have used them. Almost all Measuring 7 – 8 in (18 – 20 cm) chambers and is often used by other birds.
Many species, such as the true ovenbirds lay white eggs, in length, it clambers about on This South American bird spends much
the ground or on branches. Its of its time in trees, in pairs or groups.
DARK-BELLIED CINCLODES mud-oven nest, which it uses
Found in southwest South America, Cinclodes only once, adorns the top of
patagonicus is always near fresh water or the fence posts and telephone poles, stripe
sea. It moves along rocky streams and lasting for years. behind eyes
rivers, feeding on small aquatic animals.
This bird is 81⁄2 in (21 cm) long, and BUFF-FRONTED FOLIAGE-GLEANER
generally nests in a rock burrow, Philydor rufum, 7 1⁄2 in (19 cm) long,
often in a stream bank. Its is locally common in humid
call is a sharp “tjit.” mountain forests from Costa
Rica to Argentina. It searches
the canopy for insect prey,
rufous tail hanging upside down
athletically.
long tail for
balance rufous
wings
PASSERINES 345
Family Thamnophilidae animals flushed out. Many antbirds have Family Formicariidae Family Conopophagidae
long claws for clinging to vertical saplings
Antbirds Antthrushes Gnateaters
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as they wait for prey. Few habitually

forage on the ground—most snatching
Length 31⁄4 – 14 in (8 – 36 cm) insects from foliage. Although otherwise Length 4 – 8 in (10 – 20 cm) Length 4 – 8 in (10 – 20 cm)
Species 235 secretive in dense vegetation, antbirds Species 12 Species 11
often betray their presence by their
whistling or chattering calls. Most
members of the family are sexually
A high diversity of antbirds—including dimorphic: males are generally gray, Antthrushes are small, strong-footed, These small, short-tailed, rather
ant-shrikes, ant-wrens, and ant-vireos— black, or white; females are brown with short-tailed birds that walk on the forest long-legged birds of South and
live in the American tropics, reaching striking patterns that vary from species floor, in ones or twos or gathering Central America inhabit dark, shady,
peak diversity in Andean and Amazonian to species. A few—such as certain ant- around swarms of army ants. They and humid forest floors, some in
forests. These are largely tree-dwelling shrikes—have crests. Those that have specialize in feeding on ants and are dense thickets, making them difficult
birds that get their names from the been studied seem to mate for life and the most terrestrial of the various to see well. In Brazil, some species
tendency of certain species to follow most build a simple cup nest in a tree “antbirds.” Antthrushes lay white eggs spread into drier places. They are
swarms of army ants, snatching the small fork in which they lay 2, rarely, 3 eggs. in small, leaf-lined tree cavities. They insectivorous, some species feeding
have loud, distinctive, whistling calls. on the ground while others glean
insects from low-level foliage
bright blue, BARE-CROWNED ANTBIRD and branches. The
featherless crown An inhabitant of Central rufous gnateater
America and north Colombia, Conopophaga
stocky body Gymnocichla nudiceps is lineata is typically
found in humid lowland forest. elusive but one
About 16 cm (61⁄2 in) long, it
of the more common
spends most of its time on the
ground and pounds its tail and relatively
downwards when feeding. more easily seen
While singing, the male’s species, typically
tail quivers. dropping to the
ground from
a low perch to
catch an insect.
BIRDS
short legs broad tail BLACK-CROWNED
RUFOUS-BREASTED ANTTHRUSH ANTPITTA
This typical antthrush, Formicarius rufipectus, Pittasoma michleri is larger and more
of the northern Andes and Costa Rica is hard to strikingly colored than most other
find in dark forest, where its characteristic rufous gnateaters. It follows army ants or
breast and undertail patch can be difficult to see. forays in the forest understory.
Family Grallariidae ant-birds (Thamnophilidae), but slate-grey Family Rhinocryptidae

they may be more closely related to crown
Antpittas ovenbirds (see opposite) and tapaculos

(see right). Sexes are alike: both brown
Tapaculos
back
Length 4 – 9 in (10 – 22 cm) cryptically patterned in browns and Length 41⁄4 – 10 in (11 – 25 cm)
Species 53 grays. They spend more time on the Species 59
ground than true ant-birds, where
they move by hopping and feed on
invertebrates. The related antthrushes white
“moustache”
More often heard than seen, these (Formicariidae)—which walk, rather Found principally in southern South
strong-legged, stubby-tailed birds used than hop—were formerly classified America, tapaculos have a distinctive,
to be classified in the same family as with antbirds, too. movable flap of skin covering the nostril.
They are long-legged, mainly ground-
bold white dwelling birds that feed on invertebrates.
“moustache”
Their short, rounded wings and long tails
black allow them to fly only briefly and weakly.
scalelike crown
feathers Secretive and rarely seen, tapaculos
upright
stance MOUSTACHED ANTPITTA are identified by their loud calls. They
Many antpittas—such as the Grallaria alleni from generally build their nest in a hole or
Colombia and Ecuador—are poorly known. It is a crevice at ground level, or in a burrow
skulking bird that lives in dense undergrowth in that they dig
humid montane forests on the slopes of the Andes. themselves, and lay
2 – 4 white eggs.
JOCOTOCO ANTPITTA
long legs Discovered in 1997 in southern Ecuador—and
still known from only 5 locations—Grallaria
ridgelyi is a large, boldly patterned antpitta.
Like other antpitta species, it has strong legs
for hopping about on the ground, where it
is known to feed on insects and their larvae,
VARIEGATED ANTPITTA worms, and millipedes. It has only been found CHUCAO TAPACULO
Grallaria varia, 8 in (20 cm) in length, has the in moss-covered montane bamboo forests Scelorchilus rubecula superficially resembles
long legs and short tail typical of the antpittas. It beside streams, a perpetually wet habitat that a European robin. It has a striped black and
is found in Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, and is under threat because of deforestation. Its white belly, and is 7 1⁄2 in (19 cm) long. It is
Brazil. This bird flicks leaves aside on the forest already low population size is undoubtedly in found in south Chilean temperate forest,
floor to probe for earthworms and insects. decline because of this. including bamboo thickets.
346 PASSERINES
Order Passeriformes continued

from the taiga of Alaska, south through that involve wing-stretching or flicking. EASTERN KINGBIRD
Family Tyrannidae
North America and the West Indies These birds are not colonial Tyrannus tyrannus, 28 in (20 cm) long, breeds
in North America and winters in Central and
Tyrant flycatchers
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to the southern tip of South America, nesters, and their nests vary
South America. It eats insects in summer
and in offshore islands including the considerably: many
and fruit in winter. Renowned for its
Length 2 – 15 in (5 – 38 cm) Galapagos. However, the vast majority build a simple cup vigorous defense of territory, it often
Species 433 occur in Central and South America, in a tree fork, but attacks other birds, even landing
with only 30 species breeding in North some create large, on their backs in flight
America; all the North American species hanging nests suspended to inflict blows.
migrate south in the autumn. Tyrant from a branch; quite a few
This large family is very diverse and flycatchers have drab plumage overall nest in cavities. Female
some experts split it into even more and the sexes look similar. There are tyrant flycatchers in the
species. It contains the world’s smallest exceptions, however, with some species neotropics lay 2 or 3 eggs, but
passerine, the short-tailed pygmy-tyrant, having colorful crown patches. Most the clutches can be larger in
which is just 2 in (5 cm) long with a members of the family are insect-eaters, North America. Females incubate
wingspan of 11⁄2 in (3.5 cm). However, but some catch frogs and lizards, and their eggs for 14 – 20 days and
within this large and varied family, body tropical species regularly eat fruit. Most the nestlings fledge in 14 – 23 days.
long tail
sizes vary widely and include many tyrant flycatchers form monogamous Usually, both sexes build the nest
medium-sized birds. This family is found pairs and many have courtship displays and feed the young.
black and white

stripes on head
gray back GREAT KISKADEE
white eye-ring
Common, widespread, and noisy, Pitangus
sulphuratus has a variety of calls that include LEAST FLYCATCHER
“kis-ka-dee.” It eats insects and fruit but Empidonax minimus breeds
will also feed on fish and tadpoles, in eastern Canada and the USA,
diving for them from a perch. and winters from Mexico to
The great kiskadee occurs Panama. This bird, 5 – 53⁄4 in
from Texas, USA, south to (12.5 – 14.5 cm) long, is the
Argentina. It is 81⁄2 – 91⁄2 in first species of the genus
(21 – 24 cm) in length. Empidonax to migrate north
and the last to fly south. It flies
out from perches to catch
COMMON TODY-FLYCATCHER yellow belly insects and builds a frail-
BIRDS
The most common and widespread tody- looking cup nest in a tree fork.
flycatcher, Todirostrum cinereum, moves quickly
among leaves as it catches insects. It can look
quite comical as it hops and flutters about,
perpetually in motion. It measures 31⁄2 in (9 cm) large wings
in length, and occurs in Central America and
parts of South America.
SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER
In its courtship sky dance, Tyrannus forficatus executes
vertical and zigzag dives and tumbles, its long tail
feathers streaming like ribbons. These aerobatics are
accompanied by rolling cackles that sound like
EASTERN PHOEBE
applause. Found in North and Central America,
Sayornis phoebe, which measures 7 in
this species is 12 – 15 in (30 – 38 cm) long;
(18 cm) in length, gets its name from its
the female has a shorter tail.
hoarse “fee-bee” song. This bird is found
long, white and in the USA, Canada, and Mexico. It hunts
black outer tail over farmland and wooded roadsides,
feathers
sallying after insects and waggling
its tail when it alights. It may hover briefly
over water when chasing flies.
Family Pipridae produce a mechanical noise during black crown red crown
courtship. The male wire-tailed
Manakins manakin uses his long, curved, wirelike
tail feathers to tickle the throat of a
white
throat
blue back
Length 31⁄2 – 6 in (9 – 15 cm) visiting female. Males of some species feathers
Species 52 gather in leks to display to females,

either on the ground or on a branch.
Successful males mate with several
females. The female alone builds the
Small birds with proportionately big nest—a woven cup in a horizontal
heads, short tails, and broad, slightly tree fork—incubates the eggs, and orange
hooked bill, manakins are found mainly feeds the young. She generally lays legs
in the lowlands of Central and South 2 eggs that hatch after 12 – 15 days.
WHITE-BEARDED MANAKIN
America. Males are generally brightly The nestlings feed on insects, but At a lek, the male Manacus manacus, BLUE-BACKED MANAKIN
colored, often black with solid patches adults feed mainly on fruit, plucking using a sapling as the display perch, Chiroxiphia pareola, 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long, is found
of blue, red, yellow, or orange. Females these on the wing. All manakins that performs stylized jumps and produces in South America. Two males often display by
are usually greenish. Males of certain have been studied are sedentary noises with his wing feathers. This jumping over each other on branches; the
species have modified feathers that can and do not migrate. South American bird is 4 in (10 cm) long. winner makes short, circular courtship flights.
PASSERINES 347
Family Cotingidae are fruit-eaters, and some also feed

on insects. Males of some species
Cotingas black bill
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display at a lek to attract females.

Some species build a tiny platform
Length 31⁄2 – 18 in (9 – 45 cm) nest and lay only one egg, which
Species 66 takes 23 – 28 days to hatch.
Cotingas vary widely in appearance. cinnamon-

They include the 2 bright orange rufous plumage
cock-of-the rock species, brilliant
blue cotingas, umbrellabirds with
their umbrella-like crests, and RUFOUS PIHA
the bellbirds with their wattles. Lipaugus unirufus, 9 in
(23 cm) long, inhabits
Most are found in lowland
Central America and
forest, but some occur 3 wattles northwest South America.
in mountain forest on male Males do not display at a
and shrubbery in the lek but may utter loud,
Andes. All cotingas whistling calls within
earshot of each other.
large crest THREE-WATTLED BELLBIRD AMAZONIAN UMBRELLABIRD
conceals bill The male of the species Procnias Found along the Amazon and Orinoco rivers,
tricarunculatus has one of the loudest and in east Andean forest, Cephalopterus
bird calls, a deafening “bock” that rings over ornatus is 16 – 191⁄2 in (41 – 49 cm) long. While
the forest canopy. This Central American bird courting, males expand their crest and their
brilliant red head is 10 – 12 in (25 – 30 cm) long. Its bill opens enlarged wattle as they utter a deep, moaning
and mantle wide enough to swallow large fruit whole. “boom.” Females are smaller.
purplish blue
on throat
BIRDS
ANDEAN COCK-OF-THE-ROCK black markings
During courtship, the males of on wings
this species, Rupicola peruvianus, WHITE-TIPPED PLANTCUTTER
confront each other aggressively Phytotoma rutila, 7 1⁄2 in (19 cm) in length, is
at a lek, the display becoming frantic found in the dry scrub and acacia groves of Bolivia,
when females appear. This bird is Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. This short-
12 in (30 cm) long, and as its name crested bird has a mechanical-sounding call.
suggests, is found in the Andes.
LOVELY COTINGA
black Cotinga amabilis, 8 in (20 cm) long, is found in
wings and high forest canopies of Central America. The male’s
tail on male outer wing feathers make a tinkling noise during
striking blue
plumage courtship. The female may destroy the nest after
her young have flown, to prevent predators
from finding the site, which is often reused.
Family Tityridae a domed nest of dead leaves, mosses,

Yellow face
and roots, with an entrance at the and throat BARRED BECARD
Tityras and becards bottom, usually in the outer branches
of a tree. Tityras are strikingly patterned,
A bird of the middle layer or high canopy
of forests, Pachyramphus versicolor picks
Length (31⁄2 in) 9 cm with adult males largely black and insects and spiders from leaves, often
hovering to take prey or pick berries.
Species 45 white, while becards have a greater
It feeds singly or in pairs, or in mixed
variety of boldly patterned or subtly flocks moving through the forest.
colored plumages, with more
cryptically colored females.
The tityras of Central and South
America are small birds of forest-edge SHARPBILL
habitats, living around clearings and The aptly-named Sharpbill (Oxyruncus cristatus)—
rough, open plantations or in bushy ranging from Costa Rica to Paraguay—lacks
male’s blue-tipped, the bright colors of many birds of this
vegetation. They live in pairs or family scarlet crest blue spots scaly face
family but can flash a small orange
groups, perching quite conspicuously, crest. It was previously classified
and are consequently much easier to very with the tyrant flycatchers,
see than typical deep-forest species. pointed bill but is genetically distinct.
Becards are found in similarly open
habitats, but some species live in the
canopy of denser forest, where they AMAZONIAN ROYAL FLYCATCHER
Onychorynchus coronatus is 61⁄2 in
are difficult to observe. One species,
(16 cm) long and has a spectacular
the rose-throated becard, is found north crest. It is normally folded away and
as far as the southern USA and another sometimes protrudes behind the
lives in Jamaica. Tityras make a nest head, giving the bird a “hammerhead”
of dry leaves in a tree cavity such as a look. The royal flycatcher is found in
woodpecker hole, while becards build Central and South America.
348 PASSERINES
Family Menuridae down a display platform of vines, the Family Climacteridae Family Ptilonorhynchidae
superb lyrebird rakes up numerous low
Lyrebirds Australasian Bowerbirds
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display mounds around his territory. The

male’s powerful song includes impressive
Length 35 – 39 in (90 – 100 cm) mimicry. While calling, he inverts his tail treecreepers Length 81⁄2 – 15 in (21 – 38 cm)
Species 2 over his back, shimmering it and turning Species 27
around slowly. Length 4 – 7 in (10 – 17.5 cm)
Species 7
SUPERB LYREBIRD
Lyrebirds occur in rainforests and scrub Menura novaehollandiae, 34 – 39 in (86 – 100 cm) Male bowerbirds are well known
in east and southeast Australia. Of the long, is found in southeast Australia and has for the elaborate bowers they create
2 species, Albert’s lyrebird is the smaller been introduced in Tasmania. The male of this These birds from Australia and New to attract females—these are complex
and has more chestnut plumage, while species does not acquire his full tail until he Guinea are unrelated to true treecreepers structures decorated with brightly
the superb lyrebird is grayer. Males is 6 – 8 years old. of the Northern Hemisphere (Certhiidae) colored objects. They also decorate
of both species are known for their and, unlike them, do not use their tail their display grounds (leks) with feathers,
extravagant tail, which in the superb as support, as they clamber around flowers, leaves, pebbles, and even
lyrebird can be up to 231⁄2 in (60 cm) tree trunks. However, they have evolved clothes pins or colored bits of plastic
long, and has 2 distinctive lyre-shaped to resemble them because of their and paper. They cohabit with one or
feathers. Male lyrebirds display from otherwise similar habits. They have more females and the latter rear the
midwinter; while Albert’s lyrebird treads mostly brown plumage, thin, curved young. These birds are spread across
bills and strongly clawed feet, and New Guinea and Australia, where
they feed on insects and spiders most inhabit damp forest, although
plucked from tree bark; sometimes some prefer drier areas. Bowerbirds
they forage on the ground. Their nest— are mainly fruit-eaters, but will also
a grassy cup—is usually placed in a tree feed on leaves, flowers, seeds,
cavity. Two or 3 eggs are incubated and invertebrates, feeding at all
by both sexes. levels from ground to canopy.
BIRDS
Family Atrichornithidae
Scrubbirds
Length 61⁄4 – 9 in (16 – 23 cm)
SATIN BOWERBIRD
Species 2 Restricted to northeast and southeast Australia,
Ptilonorhynchus violaceus is 12 in (30 cm)
WHITE-THROATED TREECREEPER long. The glossy, blue-black male—the most
Cormobates leucophaeus, 61⁄2 – 7 in (16 – 17.5 cm) photographed bowerbird—builds an “avenue”
The distribution and population of long, occurs in eastern and southeastern Australia bower of sticks, decorating it with bright blue or
these brown Australian birds have in a wide range of habitats. yellow objects. This bird has a pale yellow bill.
decreased since the mid-1800s.
RUFOUS SCRUBBIRD
Secretive, they spend much of their Found in highland rainforest, in a small area
time on the ground in thick cover, of east Australia, Atrichornis rufescens has a Family Pardalotidae descend to earth banks to build their
in wet forest. They feed on insects, penetrating call but is extremely hard to locate. nests in holes, but sometimes nest in
lizards, and frogs. Both species of
scrub-birds build domed nests.
It is 61⁄2 – 7 in (16.5 – 18 cm) long, and is a weak
flier that scuttles in leaf litter like a mouse.
Pardalotes tree holes; a clutch consists of 2 – 5
white eggs. Pardalotes were previously
Length 31⁄2 – 41⁄2 in (9 – 12 cm) classified with flowerpeckers (p.366),
Species 4 but are now thought to be more closely
Family Orthonychidae of sticks and moss, placed close to the related to Australasian warblers.
ground. Several other babblerlike birds
Logrunners were formerly classified in this family;
Orthonychidae is now thought to be Pardalotes are small, short-tailed birds
Length 61⁄2 – 11 in (17 – 28 cm) one of several small groups of ancient found in Australia. Three species are
Species 3 passerines restricted to Australasia. white-spotted to a variable degree
(pardalote comes from a Greek word,
meaning spotted); the fourth—the
striated—has white head and wing
The 3 secretive species of logrunners stripes. They are insect-eaters and
from forests of New Guinea and eastern their stumpy bills are adapted for taking
Australia are weak-flying birds that live sap-sucking scale insects from leaves;
close to the ground. Here, they forage for like many other birds of the region, they
insects, always preferring to run than fly also drink the sweet honeydew exuded
when threatened. Their tails are spiny by these and related insects—and
STRIATED PARDALOTE
due to the stiff bare feather shafts that are often in fierce competition with Endemic to Australia, Pardalotus striatus is
extend beyond the tips. Logrunners have AUSTRALIAN LOGRUNNER honeyeaters (see opposite) over sources common in eucalyptus forest and other types of
loud, resonant, voices and one Australian Seen in pairs or family parties on the floor of the of this energy-rich food. Pardalotes are woodland. It is about 4 in (10 cm) long. There are
species—the chowchilla—is named after rainforest in southeastern Australia, Orthonyx typically birds of tall eucalyptus forest, at least 5 geographically variable populations,
its call. They build large dome nests out temminckii is 7 – 8 in (18 – 20 cm) long. where they feed in the canopy. They with either black or striped crowns.
PASSERINES 349
plumage, and the sexes among TUI

Family Meliphagidae
scarlet honeyeaters differ—males are Endemic to New Zealand, where it is found
Honeyeaters in native forest and scrub, Prosthemadera
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red and females are brown. Members

novaeseelandiae has glossy black plumage
of this family vary greatly in size. Some
with a purple-green iridescent color and 2
Length 33⁄4 – 121⁄2 in (9.5 – 32 cm) resemble warblers or thrushes, others white throat tufts. An energetic bird with a
Species 187 look like hummingbirds, and the larger rich, melodic song, it feeds on nectar, fruit,
honeyeaters could almost be mistaken and insects. The male—12 in (30 cm)
for magpies. Some of these birds do not long—is larger than the female.
have feathers on their face and develop
Found mainly in Papua New Guinea, wattles. All are found in wooded habitats, LITTLE FRIARBIRD
Australia, Asia, and the Pacific Islands, with only a few descending to the ground Philemon citreogularis
honeyeaters are mostly nectar- and to feed. Outside the breeding season, is found in Australia,
fruit-eating birds with a characteristic these birds often migrate in search Papua New Guinea, and
brush tongue adapted to nectar-feeding. of flowering trees. the Lesser Sundas in
This tongue can be extended into nectar Indonesia. At 101⁄2 in
(27 cm) long, it is
about 10 times per second. They are blue facial skin the smallest of
generally dull-colored birds, and the the friarbirds—
sexes are similar. However, there are olive-green a group of 16
exceptions: the regent honeyeater back and species within the
tail white
is brighter, with its yellow and black breast honeyeater family.
and belly
BLUE-FACED HONEYEATER
Distributed across the northern and
eastern sides of Australia and Papua
New Guinea, Entomyzon
cyanotis is 12 in
(30 cm) long and is NOISY MINER
found in open forest Found only in eastern Australia, including
and farmland. Both sexes are alike and Tasmania, the noisy, gregarious Manorina
have a black head, with a white patch on melanocephala is locally called the soldierbird.
the nape, and distinctive, 2-toned, blue It is 10 in (26 cm) long and both the sexes look
facial skin surrounding a yellow eye. alike. It breeds in colonies from June to December.
BIRDS
Family Acanthizidae Family Maluridae
Australasian Australasian wrens

warblers Length 43⁄4 – 71⁄2 in (12 – 19 cm)
Species 29
Length 31⁄2 – 5 in (9 – 13 cm) dark facial
mask between
Species 65
white stripes
Found in Australia, Papua New Guinea,
and eastern Indonesia, Australasian
This family is centered on New Guinea wrens are brightly colored birds that hold
WHITE BROWED SCRUBWREN
and Australia, but a few species occur A widespread Australian species, Sericornis their tails upright or over their back in SOUTHERN EMU-WREN
westward in the Philippines and frontalis is a dozen or so noisy scrubwrens of the same way as wrens (see p.361). The Notable for its very long tail, formed of 6 delicate
Indonesia or eastward on Pacific dense thickets. The white-browed scrubwren metallic colors of their plumage include feathers, Stipiturus malachurus is 6 – 71⁄2 in
Islands and New Zealand. Many species has a rich and varied voice, and can also mimic. blues, purples, reds, blacks, and whites. (15 – 19 cm) long. It occurs along the coastal
have very localized distribution ranges. Sexes generally differ. Many fairy-wrens strip of southern Australia and in Tasmania.
This fact, however, helps in identification, pairs, in family parties, and sometimes are good singers, some being
because similar species can occur in in mixed-species flocks. Most species good mimics as well. They hunt and is made of grass, spiders’ webs,
geographically distinct areas. Usually do not migrate. The nest made by these for insects and their larvae and a lining of feathers and plant down.
olive, brown, or yellow, the sexes among birds is a dome of plant fibers, often through the underbrush, and Fairy-wrens lay 2 – 4 whitish, speckled
Australian warblers are similar. Many with a “porch.” Females lay 2 – 4 white, are often found in flocks. eggs, which are incubated for 12 – 15
species are insectivores, while some sometimes spotted, eggs. Incubation and Their nest is usually domed, days; the nestlings fledge in 10 – 12 days.
feed on seeds. They are often seen in fledging each take 15 – 20 days.
streaked bright cocked tail

gray throat blue cap
orange-
scarlet back
BROWN THORNBILL BROWN-BREASTED GERYGONE RED-BACKED FAIRY-WREN

Found in eastern and southeastern Australia About 31⁄2 in (9 cm) in size, Gerygone ruficollis At 4 – 5 in (10 – 13 cm) long,
and Tasmania, Acanthiza pusilla is 4 in (10 cm) is found in primary forest in the mountains of SUPERB FAIRY-WREN Malurus melanocephalus is
long, and has narrow streaks on its gray throat. It New Guinea, at heights of 3,650 – 10,900 ft Also known as the blue wren, Malurus the smallest fairy-wren. Found in northern and
forages among the twigs of lower branches and (1,100 – 3,300 m). Its song is a distinctive and cyaneus is found in southeast Australia eastern Australia, it occupies habitats varying
has a variety of calls, among them a scolding note. lengthy series of high-pitched whistles, and its nest and Tasmania. It is 5 – 51⁄2 in (13 – 14 cm) from tall grass to plantations and gardens,
The nest is built low down in the undergrowth. a pendant, globular structure with a side entrance. long, and has a tinny song. and breeds from November to March.
350 PASSERINES
Family Callaeatidae in 1907, was unique in that the Family Vangidae may also feed on treefrogs and small
sexes had different bill shapes: the reptiles. They often form loose feeding
New Zealand wattlebirds Vangas
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male had a straight, pointed bill, while flocks, sometimes with other species.
the female had a thin, downcurved Some species build a cup of twigs in
Length 10 – 15 in (25 – 38 cm) one. The huia became extinct due Length 43⁄4 – 12 in (12 – 30 cm) a tree and lay 3 – 4 eggs; both parents
Species 5 to habitat destruction and being Species 21 raise the young.
hunted for its feathers.
black and
white head
Wattlebirds, confined to New Zealand, Vangas are restricted to Madagascar hooked
bill
are named for the orange or blue (with the blue vanga also found in
wattles at the base of their bill. They the Comoro Islands), but it is possible
are short-winged, weak fliers but are that other African shrikes belong in
adept at clambering and hopping about this family. All are tree-living birds,
branches. The kokako and saddleback some being confined to the evergreen
are the only living species. Surveys in forest in the humid east, while others
white
the 1970s revealed that only tiny extend into wooded areas in the western underparts
colonies of kokako remained in the savanna, and some even occur in
North Island. Conservationists worked semidesert scrub. Many of them are
on plans to ensure its survival, which boldly patterned in black and white, and
involved preservation of podocarp have a heavy bill, often hooked at the tip.
forests and control over the predation Although they usually eat insects, some
SOUTH ISLAND SADDLEBACK
of its eggs and chicks. There are
AA weak flier, Philesturnus carunculatus—which is
now around 30 separate populations 10 in (25 cm) long—runs and hops through trees, HOOK-BILLED VANGA
of kokako, but it is still not out of probing the bark for insects. It nests on remote A solitary bird, Vanga curvirostris is 10 – 111⁄2 in
danger. The other extant wattlebird is islands and is seldom seen. A small population has (25–29 cm) long, and has a heavy, hooked bill.
the saddleback (shown right). The huia, recently been introduced to an island in Auckland It lives in evergreen forest, brush, plantations,
Heterolocha acutirostris, last seen Harbour where visitor numbers are regulated. and mangroves across Madagascar.
Family Malaconotidae previously classified. Some, such as Family Artamidae

helmet-shrikes, travel in noisy
Bushshrikes groups, and all have distinctive Woodswallows
BIRDS
rufous
loud calls that are often delivered wings
and relatives from a prominent perch. Tchagras Length 12 – 20 cm (43⁄4 – 8 in)
are more somberly colored thicket- Species 24
Length 6 – 12 in (15 – 30 cm) dwellers, but have distinctive darker
Species 49 head patterns. Puffbacks are so-called
because of the fact they puff out
loose feathers on their back during Woodswallows occur in parts of Asia,
display: displaying males look like the Pacific Islands, New Guinea, and
Confined to Africa, bush shrikes fluffy balls. Members of the family Australia. Despite the family name, these
are closely allied to the vangas of occur in forest or dry thorny scrub, birds are not closely related to the
Madagascar, and some—such as where they prey on insects; larger swallow family, although their flight
the crested helmet-shrikes—may species can also tackle frogs and silhouette is similar to that of martins.
be genetically closer to vangas. snakes. They lack the true shrike’s habit BLACK-CROWNED TCHAGRA Unusually for passerines, they often soar
Although many are shy, retiring of impaling victims on thorns and Measuring 9 in (22 cm) in length, on the wing. They are 12 – 20 cm
Tchagra senegalus is found in
birds—they are generally more brightly spikes, and tend to be more active in (43 ⁄4 – 8 in) long, and have strong bills and
northwest Africa, south of the Sahara,
colored than birds of the true shrike pursuit of prey. Nests are cup-shaped and in southwest Asia. A bird of open short legs and feet, while the wings are
family—Laniidae—in which they were affairs in bushes or trees. savanna woodland and the edges of quite short and pointed. A characteristic
cultivation, it forages on the ground family trait is the birds’ habit of huddling
for insects and their larvae, rather like together on branches, particularly when
a thrush (see p.361). roosting. These insectivorous birds catch
much of their prey on the wing. They
are gregarious and build their grassy,
cup-like nests on stumps, in holes or in
black throat bushes. All members of the family are
CRIMSON-BREASTED SHRIKE
colonial nesters. Females lay 2 – 4 white
Laniarius atrococcineus is a
common bird of thorny scrub and or cream eggs, with
acacia thickets in the Kalahari red-brown spots.
region of southern Africa. It
is frequently heard making
loud, hollow, whistling calls.
While not shy, it keeps well yellow
hidden in thick foliage, underparts black mask
jerking its tail as it forages
for large insects around loose
bark. It is more easily seen
when taking ants from open
BOKMAKIERIE
spaces on the ground.
Found in southern Africa, Telephorus
zeylonus occurs in the bush, open
savanna, plantations, and gardens. BLACK-FACED WOODSWALLOW
It is 9 in (22 cm) long and, like a thrush, Distributed across Australia, New Guinea, the
spends much of its time on the ground. Lesser Sundas, and Timor, Artamus cinereus –
This bird performs a beautiful courtship measuring 19 cm (7 1⁄2 in) in length – is the
dance in spring. Its name is a transcription commonest bird in the family. Unlike other
of one of its loud, ringing calls. woodswallows, it is not very nomadic.
PASSERINES 351
Family Campephagidae birds, the size of wagtails; the male Family Platysteiridae confused. However, they can
tends to be red and black, whereas the usually be separated on the basis
Cuckooshrikes Wattle-eyes
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female is yellow or orange and black of geographical distribution.

or gray. The remaining cuckooshrikes
Length 51⁄2 – 16 in (14 – 40 cm) resemble cuckoos in flight and are and batises
Species 92 often dull gray, ranging from the size
of sparrows to that of pigeons. The Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 in (8 – 16 cm)
females of the latter group are often Species 33
paler, and many species have bristles
Cuckooshrikes have no connection growing from the base of the bill. The
with either cuckoos or shrikes. This nest is built high in a tree and the
is mainly a tropical family consisting female lays 2 – 5 eggs, usually All of these birds are found in Africa,
of 2 groups of birds ranging from Africa incubating them alone. mostly in forest or forest edges.
across southern and Southeast Asia Wattle-eyes have colorful wattles
to Australia and the islands in the around their eyes. Batises are small,
white
western Pacific; the minivets occur flycatcher-like birds. Males generally underparts
only in Asia. Except for the ground gray have contrasting black and white
back
cuckoo-shrike, found on the treeless plumage—often with a breastband;
Australian plains, these are usually females are brownish below. They are
CHINSPOT BATIS
tree-living birds. Minivets are colorful insectivorous and can catch their prey
Found in Sudan, Kenya, southwest Africa,
on the wing. They build cup-shaped and Mozambique, Batis molitor frequents
orange nests and lay 2 – 5 eggs. Various
rump
open woodland, darting out after insects like
species of wattle-eyes and batises a flycatcher; it also hovers to search leaves.
dull, grayish look very similar and are easily It is 4 in (10 cm) long, and has a gray crown.
coloration
Family Pachycephalidae (Pachycephalus means “thick-head”)

and females are usually drabber than
Whistlers males. Plumage varies from plain to
colorful plumage: males of many
COMMON CICADABIRD Length 43⁄4 – 11 in (12 – 28 cm) have a blackbreast band so making
Found in Australia, Papua Species 57 species identification difficult. They
New Guinea, and eastern GRAY-CHINNED MINIVET feed on insects, which they glean from
BIRDS
Indonesia, Coracina Found from the Himalayas foliage—larger species take small
tenuirostris lives in the through southern China and vertebrate prey, too. They forage in
canopy of rain forest and Southeast Asia to Borneo, The whistlers make up an Indo-Pacific the mid- to upper levels in forests,
other woodland. The female Pericrocotus solaris lives in family of birds, ranging from Indochina and at least one species is a specialist
is browner with barred open forest. It measures 7 1⁄2 in
underparts. The name is to the southwest Pacific. As their name inhabitant of mangrove swamps. Others
(19 cm) in length. The male has
derived from the male’s harsh, a gray throat and an orange suggests, they are known for their occur in drier eucalyptus woodland.
descending, cicada-like buzz, belly, but the female is duller impressively strong calls and songs. Information on breeding is limited, but
which it repeats often. This bird with yellow rather than They reach their maximum diversity in both sexes usually incubate the eggs.
is 9 1⁄2 – 10 in (24 – 26 cm) long. orange underparts. rain forests on mountains of New Recent evidence suggests that some
Guinea and on tropical islands around big-beaked birds from other families—
the region, where they have evolved into such as shrike-tits (below) and
Family Neosittidae These birds rely on their strong toes many local species and subspecies— shrike-thrushes—may be closely related
for climbing, not using their tails for most in the genus Pachycephalus. to whistlers and should perhaps be
Sittellas support. Social birds, they often
preen one another and roost in tight
Whistlers are big-headed birds placed in the family Pachycephalidae.
Length 10 – 14 cm (4 – 5 in) groups side by side on a branch,

AUSTRALIAN GOLDEN WHISTLER
Species 3 the older males taking the outermost
Found in Indonesia, southern and
positions. They eat insects and eastern Australia, Tasmania, and Fiji,
spiders, especially beetle larvae, Pachycephala pectoralis shows wide
taken from bark with the bill and geographical variation: about 73
Found in Australia and New Guinea, then held down with the feet to be subspecies have been described.
sittellas superficially resemble northern broken up and eaten. Nests are It is 61⁄2 – 7 in (16 – 18 cm) long; the
nuthatches, with wedge-shaped heads typically high in eucalyptus trees, gray-brown female lacks the male’s
and bills, short tails, and strong feet. built in a tight fork and well black and white and much of the
They also move around tree camouflaged with strips of bark. yellow coloring. It may be found in
mixed-species flocks.
branches in much the same The incubating female is fed
way, with a series of both by the male and associated
short hops. “helpers” and a group may assist
in raising broods from two nests
at once.
VARIED SITTELLA
Small groups of Daphoenositta CRESTED SHRIKE TIT
chrysoptera forage in gum trees Falcunculus frontatus is found
and acacias, taking insects, in various parts of Australia, in
beetle larvae, and spiders from habitats ranging from rain forests
loose bark and crevices, often to gardens. It uses its strong bill
working downward0 through a to tear off loose bark in its search
tree. Their head patterns vary for insects. About 6 – 7 1⁄2 in
across the range; in flight, a (15 – 19 cm) long, it has a black
bold white rump and orange crest. The female’s throat is olive,
wingbars catch the eye. the male’s is black.
352 PASSERINES
black plumage, although some of the iridescent BLACK-BILLED MAGPIE

Family Corvidae
jays and magpies are highly colored. plumage Similar in appearance to
Crows and jays the common magpie, Pica
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Found in open countryside and

hudsonia is found in central
woodland, in both lowland and upland
and western North America.
Length 8 –26 in (20 –66 cm) areas, crows are not migratory birds, This is a common bird,
although they may move locally 181⁄2 in (47 cm) in length,
Species 130
between seasons. They usually nest as which lives well alongside
Habitat All terrestrial separate pairs but a notable exception humans. Gregarious outside
in this regard is the rook, which nests of the breeding season,
Crows and their relatives are distributed in colonies. A typical crow nest holds over 100 birds may gather at a winter
across almost every part of the world, 2 – 8 eggs and is built of twigs, in trees roost. Its nest is a domed pile of sticks,
except the Arctic and Antarctic. They or bushes, or sometimes in holes. high up in a tree.
are the most highly developed of all distinctive tail,
birds—intelligent, sociable, and very about 10 in
adaptable, with most of them feeding downcurved, (25 cm) long
on a wide range of foods. Many red bill
iridescent
members of this family have mainly green-blue
plumage
EURASIAN JAY
The many subspecies RED-BILLED CHOUGH
of Garrulus glandarius Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax is a gregarious bird,
blue wing have slightly different particularly outside the breeding season. It
feathers head markings; all are 13 in forages for insects, especially ants, and also
(33 cm) long. Distributed eats berries. During courtship, it performs
across Europe and Asia, this bird spectacular aerobatics. The nest
is a fairly common inhabitant of is built either on a cliff ledge or
woodland, but is also found in in a cave. Measuring 6 in
many other habitats, such as (140 cm) in length, this bird
rain forests and taiga. Across red is found in mountain and
much of its range, the Eurasian legs CLARK’S NUTCRACKER
rocky coastal areas in
jay collects and stores acorns Found only in the mountains of
Europe, North Africa,
as winter food. western North America, Nucifraga
and South Asia.
columbiana inhabits juniper and
red bill pine woodland. Agile when
swooping through canyons, it
BIRDS
black cap
gray nape black head does not fly long distances and
is usually found on treetops.
It is 12 in (30 cm) long.
BLUE JAY
thin, black Common in woodland
collar
and parkland across
central and eastern North
America, Cyanocitta cristata
is about 12 in (30 cm)
long. This bird
is found in pairs or
small groups, and
is always noisy, with WESTERN JACKDAW RED-BILLED BLUE MAGPIE
a distinctive “peeah Widespread across Europe, West Asia, and parts of This striking species, 27 in (68 cm) long, has a
peeah” call. It uses North Africa, this is a familiar crow that often flies and feeds tail that itself measures 181⁄2 in (47 cm). Found
mud to build with rooks. A farmland bird in much of its range, Coloeus monedula up to a height of 4,900 ft (1,500 m) in the
its nest. also inhabits gorges and sea cliffs, nesting there as well as in deciduous forests of South and Southeast Asia,
buildings and holes in trees. It roosts in flocks of several thousands Urocissa erythrorhyncha hunts in flocks at lower
outside the breeding season. It is about 131⁄2 in (34 cm) long. levels. Its nest is a rough, flimsy cup in a tree.
stout, black bill CARRION CROW

NORTHERN RAVEN Regarded as the archetypal crow by many people in
At 26 in (65 cm), Corvus corax is the Europe, the all-black Corvus corone lives in many habitats,
largest crow in the Northern including woodland, moorland, farmland, and towns.
Hemisphere, and is found in North About 20 in (50 cm) long, it is also found (but with
and Central America, Europe, gray in its plumage) through West Asia and in
large bill Asia, and North Africa. It lives eastern Asia, including Vietnam and Korea.
in open habitats as well as in It is a solitary nester, usually making
urban areas in some parts its home in a tree, although in
of its range, and up to mountainous areas, cliff
20,900 ft (6,350 m) on ledges are often used.
Mount Everest, often
nesting when snow all-black
is still on the plumage
ground.
wedge-shaped tail
PASSERINES 353
mainly on fruit. Their nests KING BIRD OF PARADISE WILSON’S BIRD OF PARADISE
Family Paradisaeidae
are typically bulky, made of In a spectacular courtship Diphyllodes respublica, 61⁄2 in
display, the male bird expands (16 cm) long, is found in Irian
Birds of paradise
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leaves, ferns, and twigs, and are

his feathers and appears almost Jaya but not Papua New
generally placed in tree forks. Their
spherical, waving his green rackets Guinea. Both sexes have
Length 43⁄4 – 39 in (12 – 100 cm) voices vary from soft, drawn-out above his head. Cicinnurus regius areas of bare blue skin
Species 41 calls to loud, explosive sounds is 61⁄2 in (16 – 17 cm) long, and its on the hind crown, but
like a gun being fired. 2 thin tail feathers add another the male is distinguished
51⁄2 in (14 cm). by red wings and
spiral tail-wires.
Birds of paradise are renowned for
spiral
the spectacularly beautiful and ornate tail-wires
plumage of the males, which is used in
display, although in a few species the
sexes are alike. Birds in this family differ 2 long tail
in size, and have extremely variable scarlet-pink feathers with
rackets GREATER BIRD
tail lengths. Some species have short, plumes emerge OF PARADISE
straight bills, whereas others have from under the wings
Found on the
long, curved ones. Most, however, have Aru Islands and
rounded wings and strong legs and feet, RAGGIANA in southern New
and use loud calls to attract mates. The BIRD OF PARADISE Guinea, Paradisaea
majority of birds of paradise are found Found only in New Guinea, apoda is 161⁄2 – 18 in
in New Guinea, mostly in wet montane Paradisaea raggiana, (42 – 45 cm) long.
14 in (35 cm) long, is During courtship,
forests. It is possible that the scarcity
the best-known bird of 12 – 20 males
of natural mammalian predators on this paradise. Adult males gather in a tree to
island enabled these birds to evolve display communally flank
dance, spreading
their flamboyant displays; males of some feathers
in traditional lek sites, their wings, while
species court females on or close to the where up to 20 birds the dominant male
ground. The members of this family feed will congregate. tail streamer stays at the center.
Family Oriolidae Eurasia. Most have predominantly Family Monarchidae

yellow plumage, often with black either
Orioles on the head or the wings; the females Monarchs
BIRDS
are generally dull and more streaked
Length 8 – 12 in (20 – 30 cm) than the males. All of them feed on Length 43⁄4 – 12 in (12 – 30 cm)
Species 38 insects and fruit, and one species, the Species 101
black-headed oriole, also takes nectar.
The distinctive, fluty songs of orioles
can be heard over considerable
The robust Old World orioles have distances. Most of them Found in Africa, Asia, and Australia,
downcurved bills and long, pointed build a deep cup nest, these are mostly nonmigratory birds
wings. They inhabit woodland slung in a horizontal of rain forest, open woodland, and shrub
throughout Africa, fork on a branch. A savannah. Most monarchs have the
Asia, New Guinea, number of Old World broad bill typical of a true flycatcher
and Australia; orioles are migratory. (Family Muscicapidae) but they are not
one species related to them. They have instead
occurs in evolved from crowlike ancestors They
have evolved this way because of similar
EASTERN BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE foraging habits: catching insects, such
Found in central, eastern, and AFRICAN PARADISE FLYCATCHER
as moths, bees, and dragonflies, by Terpsiphone viridis is 16 in (40 cm) in length,
southern Africa, Oriolus larvatus making sallies into the air. Other
is a noisy and conspicuous with the male’s tail up to 8 in (20 cm) long. The
members of the family have chunkier bills tails of both sexes trail over the side of the small
species (although it often sits
motionless in the canopy), with for tackling fruit, probing rotten wood—or nest cup. This flycatcher is found in forests and
a loud, fluty call. It is 83⁄4 in (22 cm) for exploiting a more opportunistic diet. riverside woodland, in sub-Saharan Africa.
in length, and feeds on seeds, Their songs are typically weak, but some
crops, fruit, and caterpillars. species have a loud, forceful song. longer streamerlike tails and in certain
Sexes are alike or strikingly different: species have variable color morphs.
males of paradise Most monarchs build their cuplike nests
Family Dicruridae
to a height of 10,900 ft (3,300 m). flycatchers have in tree forks or between twigs, but the
These insectivorous birds also feed on magpie-lark is notable for plastering its
Drongos lizards and small birds. They feed like
flycatchers—flying out from a branch
male has
nest with mud. This behavior led it to be
classified with two other Australian
black throat
Length 7 – 28 in (18 – 72 cm) to snatch prey and returning to devour mud-nesters (the apostlebird and
Species 25
it—and are well known for chasing white-winged chough), before studies
birds of prey, which may be several of its DNA revealed
times their own size. its true affinities with monarchs.
Fantails (Rhipiduridae) were formerly
The drongos, which occur in Africa, CRESTED DRONGO classified with monarchs, before
Asia, and Australia, have long, forked Confined to the Comoro Islands being allocated their own family.
tails, and in all but 2 cases, are glossy and Madagascar, Dicrurus
forficatus is the only drongo
black. Their stout bills are arched and
in these countries. It is MAGPIE-LARK
slightly hooked, with a small notch, long
10 in (25 cm) long, and legs Common in Australia near surface water,
and the nostrils are often concealed has a striking crest Grallina cyanoleuca is 111⁄2 in (29 cm) long
by dense feathers. Drongos are mainly which sticks up with a loud, piping, 5-note call. It has
woodland birds, but are also found in from the base adapted to urban spaces and can be seen
open country with scattered trees, up of the bird’s bill. feeding at roadsides.
354 PASSERINES
Family Rhipiduridae Family Laniidae of them create larders, impaling their

prey on thorns or barbed wire, which
Fantails True shrikes
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has given rise to the name “butcher

birds” for these shrikes. They are birds of
Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in (14 – 19 cm) Length 6 – 14 in (15 – 35 cm) open scrub, and some species are very
Species 50 Species 33 territorial, even in their winter quarters.
They frequently perch on top of a bush,
scanning the countryside for prey, and
flicking their tail up and down and from
Named for their habit of fanning their These small- to medium-sized birds are side to side. True shrikes are widespread
long tails, these birds belong to the the most predatory of all passerines. All throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia, with
genus Rhipidura. They range from have a hooked bill with a toothlike point 2 species occurring in North America.
the Himalayas in the west to Australasia in the upper part, and strong legs and Bush shrikes and helmet shrikes used
NEW ZEALAND FANTAIL
and the southwest Pacific Islands in the sharp claws for holding prey. True to be included, but are now classified
Found in New Zealand and satellite islands—
east, and are fiercely territorial. Fantails such as Chatham Island and Lord Howe shrikes feed on insects, but some are in a separate family (Malaconotidae).
snatch flying insects with their small, Island—Rhipidura fuliginosa measures known to augment their diet Northern species migrate south in
but broad, bills and are very agile 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in (14 – 17 cm) long. It builds a with lizards, small birds, autumn. Shrikes nest in trees or bushes,
when on the wing. neat cuplike nest in a tree fork. and rodents. Several and the females lay about 2 – 7 eggs.
SOUTHERN FISCAL
white “V” Widespread in Africa, south of the Sahara
Family Vireonidae to 7⁄8 oz (25 g). Their characteristically on back down to the Cape, in open woodland, parks,
notched bills are larger than those black
and gardens, Lanius collaris raids other birds’
Vireos and relatives of the New World warblers (see p.369),
the eye-stripes bolder, and the green
crown
nests and eats the nestlings. About 9 in (22 cm)
long, it perches on poles and wires, scanning
Length 61⁄2 – 8 in (17 – 20 cm) plumage duller. These birds inhabit the ground for insects, mice, and small birds.
Species 63 broadleaved or mixed forests, and long tail It will attack birds that enter its territory.
species coexist by foraging in separate
areas. Although mainly insectivorous,
they also eat fruit, depending on the Family Picathartidae
black and yellow
The unusual name “vireo” is derived season. They are migratory birds that skin on head
from a Latin word that translates as
“to be green.” Birds in this family, which
breed in the USA and up to northern
Canada, but move south in winter to
Rockfowl
includes greenlets, shrike-vireos, and Central or South America. Some vireos Length 151⁄2 – 20 in (39 – 50 cm)
BIRDS
pepper shrikes, weigh from 11⁄32 oz (9 g) are also found in the Caribbean during Species 2
the breeding season and in winter.
TAWNY-CROWNED GREENLET
Rockfowl are unusual in having bare
Found in the forests of
northern South America, skin on the head. They are found in
Hylophilus ochraceiceps damp, upland rain forest in West Africa
WHITE-NECKED PICATHARTES
is 41⁄2 in (11.5 cm) long up to 6,950 ft (2,100 m). They nest in A social bird, Picathartes gymnocephalus is
and has a rusty- a rock cave in their territory, sticking a found from Guinea and Sierra Leone eastward
orange crown. mud nest to a rock face, at a height to Togo. It is 16 in (40 cm) long, and has a low,
of 61⁄2 – 13 ft (2 – 4 m). Here, the female croaking call. This bird forages on the ground for
RED-EYED VIREO lays 2 blotched, brown and gray eggs. insects, frogs, and snails, moving in springy hops.
About 6 in (15 cm) in length, Vireo olivaceus pale brown
lives in deciduous forest in North America, and underparts
migrates to South America in winter. Family Dulidae Dominican Republic. Common and
conspicuous in these areas, palmchats
This group consists of 3 waxwings.

Palmchat are often aggressive and very noisy,
chattering loudly in chorus. Like
Family Bombycillidae
The 3 waxwings breed across Length 7 in (18 cm) waxwings (see left), with which it
Waxwings northern Europe, northern Asia,
and much of North America,
Species 1 was formerly grouped, the palmchat
is a fruit-eater, often seen in flocks. It
Length 6 – 9 in (15 – 23 cm) wintering in the south. They are never comes to the ground, spending all
Species 3 plump, fawn-brown birds with its time in trees, feeding on berries and
distinctive crests and silky feathers. The single species in this family, flowers with its strong, heavy bill. The
Two species have the waxy tips Dulus dominicus, is found only in Haiti palmchat differs from waxwings in its
to the secondary wing feathers (including the islet of Gonave) and the nesting habits: it is known to weave
distinctive crest that give the family its name. Sociable a large communal nest
boldly
typical of family birds, waxwings nest in loose colonies, streaked around the trunk
building their home from twigs and underparts and lower fronds
black bib grasses in branches. They feed of palm trees.
mainly on berries, flocks turning Woven from
red tips
on feathers up even in areas where they are twigs and
not normally seen and rapidly lined with
stripping berry bushes. soft bark
and grass,
this nest sometimes has compartments
for 2 to as many as 30 pairs of birds,
JAPANESE WAXWING
each pair having a private entrance from
Bombycilla japonica breeds in the taiga forest
the outside. The female lays 2 – 4 white
of eastern Siberia and winters farther south
in Japan and Korea. Unlike the other eggs, which are heavily spotted with
2 waxwings, its secondary feathers lack gray. Outside the breeding season,
the waxy drops at their tip. This bird is dark olive palmchats use the communal
6 1⁄2 in (16 cm) long and is a strong flier. tail nest as a nighttime roost.
PASSERINES 355
Family Petroicidae Family Pycnonotidae or gray plumage, sometimes with

yellow underparts. Some species have
Australasian robins Bulbuls
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a crest and most have bristles around

the base of the bill, which may curve
Length 41⁄4 – 7 in (11 – 18 cm)
scarlet
Length 6 – 10 1⁄2 in (15 – 27 cm) downward toward the tip. Many bulbuls
Species 49 breast Species 152 feed on fruit and berries or buds and
nectar, some eat only insects, whereas
others are omnivorous. The female
NORFOLK ROBIN usually lays 2 eggs per clutch,
One group of these birds has red Found in southeast and southwest Australia, Nearly half the bulbul species occurs in a nest that tends to be open in
breasts that may have reminded settlers and eastern Tasmania, Petroica multicolor in Africa—most making up a group of structure to allow the tropical rain
of the European robin, hence their occurs in eucalyptus, but moves to a more similar greenish-colored “greenbulls” to drain through.
common name. Like the robin, these open habitat in autumn. It is 43⁄4 – 51⁄2 in of the genera Andropadus and
(12 – 14 cm) long, and darts from a stump
small birds have an upright stance, Phyllastrephus—but the majority of
or low branch to seize prey, such as
and occasionally flick their drooping caterpillars, on the ground. the family is found in Asia. These birds
tail. The 2 sexes are often different, the primarily inhabit forests, although some
female being drabber. This tree-living have adapted to more open, man-made
family generally feeds on the ground on after flying insects. The nest, a tiny habitats. The garden species are
insects and their larvae, or sallies forth cup of moss bound by spiders’ webs, more gregarious and noisy than forest
is placed on a branch. The female lays species. Often located and identified
upright 2 – 4 pale blue or green eggs with by their calls, few bulbuls have musical
stance red-brown to violet spots, and is known songs. Small- to medium-sized birds,
to incubate them herself for 12 – 14 days. many species have dull olive, brown,
Many species of Australasian robins are
partial migrants.
BARE-FACED BULBUL
Distinctive among bulbuls—and
BLACK ROBIN unusual among passerines—
Petroica traversi has come back from the brink this bulbul, Pycnonotus
hualon, has bare skin on its AFRICAN RED-EYED BULBUL
of extinction on the Chatham Islands, east of New
face. It was described in Found in Namibia, Botswana, and western
Zealand. Once common on 4 islands, it was
2009 after its South Africa, in forests near rivers and in dry
nearly wiped out by introduced cats. By 1976,
discovery in sparse, bush near water, Pycnonotus nigricans is a noisy
there were only 7 birds left. Their population
shrubby vegetation bird. About 8 in (20 cm) long, it nests from
was boosted by captive-breeding methods.
BIRDS
on rugged limestone November to March, the female laying
hills of Laos. The pink 3 pinkish eggs with dark markings.
bare skin extends far
Family Paridae behind its eyes, RED-WHISKERED BULBUL
which are ringed
Tits, Chickadees with a tinge
TThe red patch behind the eye in both
sexes gives Pycnonotus jocosus its
of blue. common name. Its other trademark
Length 41⁄4 – 9 in (11 – 22 cm)
feature is a black, forward-pointing
coral
Species 64
red bill
crest. A common garden bird,
about 8 in (20 cm) in length,
it occurs from India
red patch
BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE behind eye to Hong Kong.
Many species in this family have The most widespread North American tit, Poecile
adapted to life with humans—they atricapillus is one of 6 species named after their
come readily to bird feeders and often “chick-a-dee-dee-dee” call. This bird is 5 in white throat
use nestboxes for breeding. Found (13 cm) long. In spring, it finds a mate and digs a
nest hole in a dead stump, where the female lays
across North and Central America,
6 – 8 eggs in a cup of grass, moss, and feathers.
Europe, Africa, and Asia, these small,
acrobatic birds can pluck insects from GREAT TIT
foliage, or peck at peanuts inside Parus major, 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, is a dominant
hanging feeders. In autumn and winter, tit at feeding stations in Europe. It flocks with other
a number of species form mixed- tits in winter, searching for insects, and BLACK BULBUL
also eats seeds and fruit. It has a Found in South and Southeast Asia,
foraging flocks and move along
large variety of calls and its song Hypsipetes leucocephalus is 9 in
hedgerows, uttering frequent calls, is a sequence of “tee-tee-tu” (23 cm) long. One subspecies from
as they search for insects. True tits whistles. The female lays China and northern Vietnam has a white head
generally nest in tree holes or 5 – 11 white eggs that and throat. This bird feeds on berries and insects
nestboxes, lining these with moss have reddish spots. in noisy flocks of up to 100. Its call resembles the
before laying a large clutch. The cry of a kitten. white-
eggs are incubated for 13 – 14 days brown tipped tail
and the nestlings fledge in 17 – 20 days. eyes
YELLOW-STREAKED
GREENBUL
Found in isolated locations,
in mountain rain forests in
EURASIAN BLUE TIT central and southeast Africa,
Highly acrobatic, Phyllastrephus flavostriatus
Cyanistes caeruleus forages for insects, mainly
scours vegetation ASHY TIT in trees. Working its way round
for insects and hangs upside-down Found in southwest Africa, Melanieparus cinerascens tree trunks like a woodpecker,
to feed on seed hoppers. It nests in is a bird of dry thorn savanna and Kalahari scrub. it repeatedly flicks one
holes and nestboxes, laying 6 – 12 It often hangs upside-down when feeding. It is a wing at a time, revealing its
reddish-speckled white eggs. It is restless bird, hopping from one branch to the next, yellow underwing. This bird is
41⁄2 in (11.5 cm) long. and can tear acacia pods in search of insects. 6 – 101⁄2 in (15 – 27 cm) long.
356 PASSERINES
Family Aegithalidae Family Remizidae Family Cisticolidae variety of open habitats—including

grasslands and wetlands. Apalis and
Bushtits Penduline tits Cisticolas
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Prinia are longer-tailed, most Apalis are

found in woodland and Prinia in scrub.
Length 41⁄4 – 51⁄2 in (11 – 14 cm) Length 31⁄4 – 51⁄2 in (8 – 14 cm) and allies Their nests are grassy cups, sometimes
Species 13 Species 11 supported by large leaves. This behavior
Length 10 – 15 cm (4 – 6 in) is taken to a remarkable extent in
Species 158 tailorbirds from Southeast Asia. They are
well known for building their nests within
In a separate family from the true tits, These birds, found in North America, a cradle made by sewing the edges of a
this group includes long-tailed tits as Europe, Asia, and Africa, are even leaf together with fibers.
well as the North American bush tit. more acrobatic than true tits (see p.355), This family of birds is dominated by 3
They have short, conical bills and may and can climb along the underside of large genera: the mostly African Cisticola white
TAWNY-FLANKED PRINIA eyebrows
be more closely related to Old World branches. They pick invertebrates and Apalis, and the Afro-Asian Prinia.
Found in Asia and southern and
warblers. They are found in North and off branches and foliage, and also eat These birds lack bright colors, but have eastern Africa, Prinia subflava
Central America, Europe, and Asia. A seeds and fruit. Small birds with fine, distinctive calls and were previously has a monotonous “chip, chip”
Himalayan subspecies of the Eurasian pointed bills, penduline tits forage in classified with Old World warblers— song and a harsh, scolding
long-tailed tit occurs up to 11,200 ft groups and nest colonially. Their nest though they are still considered closely “sbeee” call. A restless,
(3,400 m), but descends lower in is an unusual pouchlike structure, related to them. Cisticolas habitually flick sprightly bird, it is
winter. Groups of long-tailed tits roost with a spoutlike entrance tunnel, and fan their tails and are found in a 43⁄4 in (12 cm)
together, huddled along a branch. woven from grass and roots, and long, and forages
Breeding pairs sometimes have a hung at the end of a in pairs or small
flocks in scrub
“helper,” a bird that does not mate but branch. Females
or vegetation.
helps feed the young. The domed nest incubate 5 – 10 white
is lined with feathers and can take up eggs for 12 days,
heavily
to 20 days to build. Clutch sizes range and the young fly streaked
from 4 to 12. in 16 – 18 days. back
long, black pinkish

and white tail brown feathers EURASIAN
PENDULINE TIT
Remiz long tail
LONG- pendulinus,
BIRDS
TAILED TIT 41⁄4 in (11 cm)

About 51⁄2 in long, uses the ZITTING CISTICOLA
(14 cm) long, down from Found in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia, Cisticola
the tiny Aegithalos bulrushes that juncidis is only 4 in (10 cm) long, but is disproportionately
caudatus is found grow in its marshy active and noisy. It has a bouncy, circular song-flight:
in Europe and Asia, habitat to build it beats its wings rapidly to rise, utters a “tzet” call,
often traveling along its nest. Its song then drops before rising again. Its fan-shaped tail
hedges in large flocks. is unobtrusive. has black and white markings on the underside.
Family Panuridae above water for protection, but Family Bernieridae Family Phylloscopidae
also drier places with dead leaf litter
Bearded reedling in which it can find accumulated Malagasy warblers Leaf warblers and allies
insects and seeds. Reedbeds are
Length 61⁄4 in (16 cm) often far apart, but in “good” years, Length 7 in (15 cm) Length 4 – 7 in (9 – 15 cm)
Species 1 when reedling populations reach Species 11 Species 77
a maximum, birds will “erupt” from
them and disperse over wide areas
in search of new sites; sometimes,
Some birds are opportunistic and they will then appear in less pure Most of these warblers live in the These insectivorous, woodland birds
flexible while others are restricted to stands of fen and marsh vegetation. dwindling forests of eastern Madagascar; include familiar species in Europe and
narrowly defined habitats; this bird The birds can be detected by loud, some have only recently been discovered Asia, and others that breed in remote
is confined to standing beds of tall ringing calls, but may be elusive, and described. They were previously areas of Asia but sometimes appear
reeds in fresh water. It requires areas their progress indicated only by split among other bird families, such as rare waifs in the west. Greenish or
of wet reedbed, nesting in rigid stems rustling stems. as bulbuls, babblers, and Old World olive, paler beneath, they have varied
warblers, but are now grouped together head stripes and wing bars, different
in a somewhat mixed group. They leg colors, or minute structural
are all insect-eaters, and inconspicuous differences, and some are best
white wing birds of dense or low growth. Four or identified by their songs and calls.
patch five species can sometimes be seen
black, feeding together. pale eyebrows
drooping
moustache
on male WILLOW WARBLER
A summer visitor
to northern Europe
and an inhabitant of
long BEARDED REEDLING Africa during winter,
tapered tail Found in Europe and Asia, Panurus Phylloscopus
cinnamon-
biarmicus lacks the unusual bill of trochilus has no
brown the bushtits, with which it was previously particular association
plumage grouped. A bird of reedbeds, the only species in with willows. It can best
this family, which prefer thick vegetation, the LONG-BILLED BERNIERIA be separated from the
bearded tit flies through or above the reeds, eating A bird of moist, lowland forests in Madagascar, very similar chiffchaff,
insects, spiders, and reed seeds. It is 61⁄2 in resembling a small, green bulbul with a long bill, Phylloscopus collybita,
(16.5 cm) long and raises 3 or 4 broods a year. this bird often joins mixed flocks when feeding. by its melancholic song.
PASSERINES 357
Family Acrocephalidae insects. Some have fluttering, undulating Family Locustellidae

or buzzing note, creating insectlike
songflights. Their songs have a distinct or mechanical songs that distinguish
Reed warblers Grassbirds
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rhythmic pattern of various guttural, the species. They prefer low growth,
squeaking or chattering notes, but the including thick bushes and scrub,
and allies marsh warbler is a particularly expert and allies taller grasses, a mix of grasses growing
mimic, incorporating songs and calls up through low bushes, or more pure
Length 5 – 9 in (12 – 21 cm) from birds in its African wintering Length 6 – 8 in (12 – 20 cm) stands of reed. Some are plain and
Species 61 grounds as well as European species in Species 62 brown, looking much like the reed
its song. Nests are built around upright warblers but with rounder wings
stems, tightly woven or slung between and tails, while others are more
“basket handles.” Some species are or less streaked, often difficult to
This group of Old World warblers regularly parasitized by cuckoos. The This Old World group includes birds identify, and they are also extremely
includes species that are restricted to majority are long-distance migrants, that have a distinctive song pattern, inconspicuous, crouching in dense
wet reeds or fen vegetation and others European species typically moving based on a repetitive ticking, trilling, cover, even if approached closely.
that also breed in riverside bushes to Africa in autumn. All are long-distance migrants.
and ditches. These habitats are often
threatened, but also easily recreated,
so some species are common, others COMMON GRASSHOPPER WARBLER
ncreasingly scarce, Locustella naevia is found in
endangered, others recovering with
Europe and western Asia and winters in Africa and
habitat restoration projects. There are long bill fawn India. It is 5 in (12.5 cm) long, and favors meadows,
two main groups: one small and sleek, eyebrows ditches, and marshland edges, creeping among weeds
the other larger, like “twice-size” reed and grass, and climbing up stems. Its song is a
warblers, often associated with taller very long-lasting, insectlike reeling, with only
and sturdier stands of reeds in warmer short pauses.
countries. All have similar lifestyles and
general appearance and several groups
inconspicuous
of species can be difficult to separate. buff coloration Family Sylviidae red eyes
Most are plain brown above and paler
below, with little distinct pattern, but
others are more or less streaked above
Sylviid babblers
and striped on the head. They are Length 11 – 17 cm (5 – 7 in)
adapted to sidling upward on vertical Species 70
stems, tail down, head up, from which
BIRDS
they sing. Occasionally one will fly low
and fast across a gap in a reedbed,
or move into nearby trees to forage for A varied group of Old World bush, heath,
or woodland warblers, are rather robust
CLAMOROUS REEDWARBLER and thick-billed compared with the leaf
A marshland warbler found in northeast Africa warblers. Some have dark caps or DARTFORD WARBLER
and Asia, Acrocephalus stentoreus nests in reeds Found in western Europe and northwest Africa,
hoods, or contrasting whiter throats, or
and other wetland plants, usually over the water. Sylvia undata is one of the nonmigratory warblers
colored rings around the eyes; others in this region. Winter is a critical time for this
About 7 – 8 in (18 – 20 cm) long, it feeds on
butterflies, dragonflies, flies, other insects, and are plainer; many have white tail sides. species, particularly in the UK, which lies at
small frogs. The female lays 3 – 6 dark-speckled Their songs are varied, often unmusical, the northern limit of its range. It is 5 in (13 cm)
white eggs. When singing, the male repeats but some are excellent songsters. Most long, with a long tail, which is often cocked,
phrases 3 or 4 times. are long-distance migrants. and short wings.
Family Alaudidae
song-flight is a vertical ascent, high EURASIAN SKYLARK
into the sky. Many other species have Alauda arvensis, 7 – 71⁄2 in (18 – 19 cm) long,
Larks a climbing or circling song-flight. Larks
feed on invertebrates, plant matter, and
is a streaked, brown lark of farmland and
open spaces known for its continuous song
Length 5 – 8 in (13 – 20 cm) seeds. Many species flock in autumn when in hovering flight. It is common in
North Africa, Europe, and parts of Asia,
Species 97 and winter and only a few species
and has been introduced in Australia and
migrate. The females lay 2 – 6 eggs, New Zealand. Northern populations migrate
which are generally speckled, in nests south in winter.
made on the ground; the young chicks
Larks are found in virtually all parts of the often leave the nest before they can fly. GREATER HOOPOE-LARK
world—North and South America, Africa, Measuring 7 – 8 in (18 – 20 cm) in length,
Europe, Asia, and Australia. The skylark, Alaemon alaudipes inhabits desert and
famous for its far-reaching song during semidesert areas of North Africa (including
flight, is the most well-known member the Sahara) and West Asia.
distinctive yellow and
rufous It often runs away instead black face markings
of this family. Larks are ground-dwelling
wings of flying. Its striking
birds, mostly with streaked brown, black and white
cryptic plumage that provides good wing pattern is
camouflage on the fields and deserts RUFOUS- partly revealed
they inhabit; some species, however, NAPED LARK in flight.
have black and white markings. Males A stocky, short-
and females usually appear similar. tailed lark, Mirafra pale body
africana inhabits HORNED LARK
Some species, such as the skylark
the open and scrubby Also known as the
and crested lark, have a crest of shore lark, Eremophila
grassland of southern Africa.
feathers that they raise in territorial Measuring 6 – 7 in (15 – 18 cm) alpestris inhabits
and courtship displays and when in length, this bird walks with tundra and steppe in
singing. Larks usually have a an upright stance, and has Europe, and prairie, farmland, and desert in
strong and undulating flight, a mournful whistle. North America. It is also found in North Africa
although they tend to flutter over and Asia. About 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in (14 – 17 cm) long,
short distances. The skylark’s it has little “horns” of feathers.
358 PASSERINES
Family Hirundinidae trap for catching insects on the wing.

Their dependence on aerial insects
Swallows and martins
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makes many species migrants—they

breed in temperate areas but fly to the CLIFF SWALLOW
Length 43⁄4 – 9 in (12 – 23 cm) tropics and south temperate areas when Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
the weather gets colder and insect prey breeds from Alaska to Mexico
Species 88 and winters in South America.
disappears. However, many species
About 13 – 15 cm (5 – 6 in)
live in the tropics throughout the year. long, it nests colonially,
Swallows and martins have 3 types of building gourd-shaped mud
Found all around the world, except in nests: natural holes in trees, cliffs, or nests under the eaves of a
the frozen Arctic and Antarctic regions, buildings; tunnels excavated in river building or on a cliff. The
swallows and martins are often dark banks or sand quarries; and mud cups female lays 4 – 6 white eggs.
blue or green above and paler below. attached to cliffs or buildings. Some
Most have a forked tail, and some have species raise 2 or 3 broods, the
long tail streamers. The bill is short clutch size ranging from one to distinctive
but has a wide gape that is an effective 8 eggs. white rump
blue-black forked tail BROWN-THROATED MARTIN

male This martin is resident in Morocco and
widespread south of the Sahara in Africa,
PURPLE MARTIN usually near inland wetlands. Riparia
Progne subis nests in man- COMMON HOUSE MARTIN white
throat paludicola is about 5 in (13 cm) long,
made martin houses and A summer visitor to North Africa, and most have a
in old woodpecker holes in Europe, and northern Asia, white belly but
trees. Colonies can number Delichon urbicum winters in some are
up to 200 pairs. About 7 in Africa (south of the Sahara) entirely brown.
short, broad wings
(18 cm) long, it breeds and Southeast Asia. It builds ideal for gliding It forms very
in North America and winters mud half-cup nests on walls large flocks.
in the Amazon Basin. The male under eaves of buildings,
is blue-black all over, but the where it nests in groups.
female is duller above and This bird is 5 in (12.5 cm)
pale gray below. in length.
BARN SWALLOW
A summer visitor to North
BIRDS
America, North Africa,

Europe, and Asia, Hirundo
rustica winters in Africa
2 long tail south of the Sahara, and in
streamers
southern Asia, Australia, and
South America. It is 7 in (18 cm)
long. A lively singer, its nest is a
mud half-cup, often on a beam in
farm outbuildings. It lays 4 – 6 red-
spotted, white eggs.
bills, also feed in the canopy or bushes, CETTI’S WARBLER

Family Macrosphenidae Family Cettiidae This species spread
while others, such as the Cape grassbird,
northward in Europe a
Crombecs and African have different, more specialized habitat
requirements. The distinctive reddish
Cettia bush warblers few decades before climate
change. The impact was
warblers brown, black, and white rockrunner is Length 5 – 6 in (13 – 14 cm) expected, but it has
most unlike the others in its preference Species 32 proven sensitive
Length 3 – 9 in (8 – 23 cm) for rocks and arid scree slopes. to cold winters.
Species 19
LONG-BILLED CROMBEC
Both sexes and juveniles of this typical A small group of warblers, these
gray-and-orange species of crombec are characterized by rather dark
This is a varied group of insectivorous all look much alike. coloration; rounded wings; and
warblers and allies, some resembling broad, rounded tails. They live
Eurasian counterparts, others unique close to the ground, sometimes
to Africa. Crombecs, for example, going higher in dense
are small, rounded, almost shrubbery from which
tailless bush warblers with they may sing, but
slim, downcurved bills, and usually remaining
are variably greenish or in more or less
more patterned with waterlogged or dense thickets.
gray and orange. Mixed Their loud songs are easy to hear,
groups can occur, often but they are hard birds to see well;
one species feeding higher in the the song may suddenly be repeated
tree canopy than another, foraging from another place entirely, the
methodically through foliage for insects bird having slipped through dense
and seeds. They make rather large, vegetation unobserved. The song
pouchlike nests of grasses slung from helps defend a territory and attract
a low twig. Longbills, with their short more than one female. Males have
tails; stubby bodies; and long, slender little or no role in rearing the young.
PASSERINES 359
Family Timaliidae or more. Scimitar babblers, mostly

found in the Himalayas, have distinctive
Babblers
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curved bills and striking head

patterns and join mixed
Length 10 – 35 cm (4 – 14 in) feeding flocks.
Species 55
long, downward-
Found in Africa, Asia, and Australia, most curving bill
babblers are heavy-bodied birds with a
stout bill. They are highly gregarious and
maintain contact mainly through quiet
calls. Most species are sedentary; only
a few migrate. Many babblers are
insectivores but some also eat fruit and LARGE SCIMITAR BABBLER
many are omnivores. The ground feeders Widespread in evergreen
rummage in leaf litter, while the more forest and bamboo at heights
arboreal species find invertebrates on of up to 7,600 ft (2,300 m),
leaves and bark. Nesting habits vary: a Pomatorhinus hypoleucos is
number of species build domed nests found on the forest floor, often
low down or at ground level; however, digging into the soil with its long NONGGANG BABBLER
bill. It is 11 in (28 cm) long, has a Discovered on limestone highlands straddling the China-Vietnam
song-babblers build an open nest in a
high-pitched, mellow hoot, and is border, and formally described in 2008, the Nonggang babbler
bush or tree. Some species even have found from Pakistan to south
a cooperative breeding system—birds ( Stachyris nonggangensis), like many of its allies, flies only
China and Southeast Asia. short distances and prefers to walk—when it searches for
that are not breeding help the new
invertebrate prey among leaf litter. It forms flocks in winter,
parents with incubating the eggs but associates in pairs when breeding.
and feeding the chicks. Both the
incubation and the nestling periods
take 13 – 16 days. Young birds may
remain with a group of adults for a year
BIRDS
COMMON BABBLER
Family Leiothrichidae wide crests that can be raised in a fan.
Turdoides caudata is a cooperative
While some species are common and breeder—a small flock of birds helps
Laughingthrushes familiar, others in remote areas are little
known but appear to be endangered
one pair incubate their eggs and feed
the young. This bird, 9 in (23 cm) long,
Length 4 – 14 in (10 – 35 cm) through habitat loss. is found from Iraq eastward to
Species 133
Bangladesh, and moves through the
undergrowth in forests and gardens foraging
for insects, seeds, and berries.
Most of these are jungle birds, difficult red bill

orange
to see in dense rainforest but, as breast
their names imply, easier to locate RED-BILLED LEIOTHRIX
by their loud laughing or babbling A very popular caged bird, thanks to its melodious,
warbling song and attractive plumage, Leiothrix lutea is
calls. Others live in more open habitats.
found from the Himalayas to south China and Southeast
They have short wings and a weak Asia. The female’s throat and breast are paler than the
flight, but quite long tails and strong male’s and she lacks his red coloration in the wings.
legs, indicating a terrestrial lifestyle. This bird is 6 in (15 cm) long and forages in
A short, stout bill deals with a varied bamboo and scrub with other babblers.
diet of seeds, fruits, and often
substantial insects, such as large-
bodied moths. They have plain or long tail
well-patterned plumages, including black cap
rich and varied colors, with distinct
patches on the wing. Laughingthrushes blackish bill
have a variety of head markings, rufous crown
including dark caps or masks and and nape
bold eyerings. Some have short, rufous back
RED-TAILED LAUGHINGTHRUSH
rufous
There are about 133 species of laughingthrush, of underparts
which Garrulax milnei is found in south China and
Southeast Asia, in scrub, grass, and second-growth
forest above 3,300 ft (1,000 m). It is 10 in
(25 cm) long and has red wings and a
red upper side to its tail; the
RUFOUS SIBIA
underside is black.
Also called the
black-capped sibia,
reddish Heterophasia capistrata is a Himalayan bird, found
wings
red tail with from northern Pakistan eastward to southern China.
black It is 81⁄2 in (21 cm) long and favors deciduous forest, long tail
underside especially oak woodland, but is also seen in coniferous with bands
forest. It drinks sweet sap oozing from holes in tree
bark, and is also known to feed on insects.
360 PASSERINES
Family Pellorneidae one, essentially pale gray-brown with

pale orange in the wings. Many fulvettas
Fulvettas and ground
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are found in Southeast Asia. Ground puffed-out

babblers include more genera and rufous crown throat feathers
babblers species and are much more diverse,
from warblerlike to jaylike birds,
Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 in (8 – 11 cm) many of them rather like thrushes.
There are groups such as wren- dark brown
Species 70
babblers, spotted thrush-babblers, streaks on breast
PUFF-THROATED
scimitar-babblers, illadopsis, and BABBLER
grassbirds. Some are Asian, others A bird more often heard
This family links babblers and Old World African. They mostly have shortish, than seen, the whistled
warblers, but the fulvettas look rather not particularly specialized bills, and chattering and loud calls of
like tits, with their round heads, large short, strong legs, and have short Pellorneum ruficeps are familiar
jungle sounds. This bird is found
eyes, and stubby bills. Their pale eyes wings. The black-capped babbler
from India to Southeast Asia and lives
give them an unusual expression is a brown bird with pale orange and in brushwood and bamboo, from
among small birds, and plumages gray on the head and a neat black sea-level to 4,350 ft (1,300 m).
are varied, with distinct head stripes or crown; illadopsis species are mostly The puff-throated babbler, 61⁄2 in
cheek patches. The golden-breasted dark warm brown and buff. Birds of (16 cm) in length, is known to
fulvetta is a particularly bright species, this family occupy habitats from open, travel in small flocks.
with patches of metallic gray, black, arid areas to swamps, many in more
white, yellow, and fiery orange, while or less dense wet forest, and are
the Taiwan fulvetta is a typical duller essentially insectivorous.
Family Zosteropidae small, rounded wings. Their most

distinctive feature is a white ring
White-eyes around the eye, which varies in size
and shape across the group and is
Length 4 – 51⁄2 in (10 – 14 cm) the source of their name. Almost
Species 130 the entire family consists of pale
green birds that resemble each other.
They have a similar “peeuu” call, and
BIRDS
the sexes are alike. Highly mobile

White-eyes are generally found around birds, most white-eyes migrate away
forest edges and canopy, from sea from cold weather. However, some
level up to 9,900 ft (3,000 m), in Africa nonmigratory populations are found
and its islands, West Asia, South and on islands in the Indo-Pacific, where
Southeast Asia up to Japan, the Indian they are vulnerable to freak weather JAPANESE WHITE-EYE ORANGE RIVER WHITE-EYE
and Pacific oceans, and Australasia. conditions. These birds form distinct Widespread throughout South and Southeast Asia Common from forests to gardens in Botswana,
They have slightly downward-curving, subspecies, and they show a lack of and introduced to Hawaii, Zosterops japonicus— Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
sharply pointed bills, brush-tipped genetic variation typical of animals that about 41⁄4 in (10.5 cm) long—has a yellow throat and Swaziland, Zosterops pallidus is about
tongues for feeding on nectar, and live in remote places. and chin, and olive-green cap, back, and tail. 41⁄4 in (11 cm) long.
Family Irenidae ASIAN FAIRY-BLUEBIRD Family Certhiidae BROWN CREEPER

Despite the metallic-blue plumage, the male Irena Once thought to be a subspecies of the
Fairy bluebirds puella can be inconspicuous in the canopy—but
his repeated, sharp, double whistle often reveals Treecreepers treecreeper of Europe, Certhia americana
breeds from Alaska to Newfoundland and south
his presence. Females are a duller blue. This to Nicaragua, wintering in the south of its range.
Length 10 – 12 in (25 – 30 cm) Length 4 – 61⁄2 in (10 – 16.5 cm)
bird is 101⁄2 in (27 cm) long, and gathers to feed It is 5 – 51⁄2 in (13 – 14 cm) long and climbs up
Species 2 on fig trees, often with other species. Species 11 trees in a spiral. It flies from the top of a tree
to the base of another, searching for insects.
red eyes
These tree-living birds are found in the Treecreepers are arboreal birds
evergreen or semideciduous forests of of North and Central America,
Asia: the blue-backed fairy bluebird in Europe, Africa, and Asia, with thin,
wetter parts of India, the Himalayas, downcurved bills, brown plumage,
southwest China, and Southeast Asia and pale underparts. They use their
up to Borneo and Palawan in the stiffened tails for balance as they climb
Philippines; and the black-mantled fairy trees in search of insects in the bark,
bluebird in the rest of the Philippines. almost always climbing upward unlike
They are noted for their very long upper nuthatches (see opposite). Their calls
and lower tail coverts, extending almost and song are high-pitched, and their
to the tip of the tail. Moving by day nest, made of twigs, bark, and moss, is
through the canopy in search of fruit, shaped like a loose hammock. They lay
fairy bluebirds may also probe tree 2 – 9 eggs, which are incubated mostly
flowers for nectar. Several individuals by the female over 14 – 15 days. The
may gather in a fig tree in fruit. They young, which are fed by both parents,
have a range of loud calls, including fledge in 14 – 16 days.
a sharp flight call. The blue-backed
fairy bluebird nests in the forks of
stiff tail
small trees, where the female builds feathers for
a platform of twigs and incubates support
her 2 or 3 eggs. The male helps
feed the young.
PASSERINES 361
Family Reguliidae claws and grooved feet for grasping Family Polioptilidae brown. Some have black markings on
needle-leaved twigs and branches the head. Most species spend much of
Kinglets and Gnatcatchers
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as they continually search for minute their time high in trees, where they
insect food to fuel their tiny bodies. forage on insects gleaned from foliage;
goldcrests They get their name from their fiery Length 4 – 5 in (10 – 13 cm) they often accompany other insect-
crown stripe—the feathers of which Species 18 eaters in mixed flocks in order to drive
Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 in (8 – 11 cm) are erected in display. their prey from cover. Their calls and
Species 6 songs are described as thin, but
musical. Gnatcatchers build a delicate
yellow crown Formerly classified with Old World nest of petals and plant down, bound
in female warblers, but now known to be more with spiders’ webs, moss, and lichens,
These small warblerlike birds occur closely related to wrens, the small on a horizontal branch. Both sexes
in the Northern Hemisphere, where gnatcatchers are confined to the incubate the 4 – 5 eggs.
they are adapted for living and feeding Americas and reach their greatest
in coniferous forests: they have long diversity near the equator. They are
active birds with long tails—that blue-gray
are usually cocked and twitching, plumage
wren-fashion. However, gnatcatchers
GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET are more slender-bodied than wrens
The smallest North American kinglet at and are generally colored gray—not
31⁄4 – 41⁄4 in (8 – 11 cm) long, Regulus satrapa
can withstand the harsh northern winter in
the pine woods of New England. It breeds
in spruce trees, in a dainty, globelike nest
of moss and feathers under a branch. white-edged tail
The female lays 8 – 10 tiny whitish eggs.
BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER
Family Sittidae the 2 species of rock nuthatches are A gray bird with a long black and white tail,
an exception—they live on rock faces Polioptila caerulea is 41⁄4 – 5 in (11 – 13 cm)
Nuthatches or buildings. Nuthatches do not use
their short, square-ended tail for
long, and has a thin, nasal call. It is found
from southern Canada to Guatemala and Cuba.
Length 10 – 20 cm (4 – 8 in) balance, as woodpeckers (see p.338)
and treecreepers (see opposite) do.
BIRDS
Species 28
They have long, sturdy toes and claws, Family Troglodytidae Wrens are mostly short-winged, weak
and climb by placing one foot higher fliers; they often have their tail (short in
Birds in this family, found in North and

than the other, balancing on the lower
one. They search the bark for insects
Wrens some species, longer in others) cocked
over their back. Males build nests in
Central America, Europe, North Africa, and invertebrates but also eat seeds Length 31⁄4 – 9 in (8 – 22 cm) cavities or make domes—depending
and Asia, spend their whole life in and nuts, cracking these with their bill. Species 88 upon species. Several nests may be
trees, inching up or down trunks and They nest in holes in trees or rocks, and constructed, some purposefully used
branches with equal facility. However, a few excavate their own holes in rotten for roosting. The female chooses a nest,
wood. Females lay 4 – 10 red-spotted, which she completes by lining before
white eggs. Many nuthatch species have Apart from one species encircling laying 2 – 10 eggs. Chicks are either
blue-gray upperparts, although the 3 the Northern Hemisphere—the Eurasian cared for by both parents, or by the
South Asian species are blue-green. All wren—this is an exclusively American female alone; older offspring may act
black eye-stripe
species, except for some red-breasted family. Until recently, the Eurasian wren as helpers in raising another brood.
nuthatches, are nonmigratory. was considered a subspecies of the
winter wren. Some are forest birds;
others live among cacti in deserts.
Wrens are generally brown with darker short,
barred or spotted markings; some cocked tail
species have white patches, too.
They spend most of their time in dense
undergrowth—often close to the ground,
white eyebrow but have loud, harsh calls.
mark
black
eye-stripe pale rusty
underparts
RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH
EURASIAN NUTHATCH Sitta canadensis, 4 1⁄4 – 4 3⁄4 in (11 – 12 cm) long,
Bright slate-blue and orange, Sitta europaea, is lives in North American coniferous forests as far EURASIAN WREN
41⁄4 – 5 in (11 – 13 cm) long and has a carrying north as Alaska and Newfoundland. In winter, Troglodytes troglodytes is the only wren
“peeu, peeu” song. It plasters its nest hole with it feeds on conifer seeds and, when the harvest CACTUS WREN species that is found outside the Americas.
mud to make the opening smaller. This bird feeds fails, moves south in large numbers. It smears One of the larger wrens, Campylorhynchus It is 31⁄4 in (8 cm) long, and is known for its
on insects, seeds, and nuts, which it wedges in pine resin around the nest hole, possibly to keep brunneicapillus is 8 in (20 cm) long, and is found loud, rattling song. In winter, northern birds
bark and cracks open with its bill. ants out. in North America from Nevada to Mexico. migrate south.
362 PASSERINES
Family Turdidae the mistle thrush, which nests blue head reddish
SONG THRUSH EASTERN BLUEBIRD and back chest
very early in the year, may be
Turdus philomelos is a fluent Found in North America,
Thrushes
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heard singing in the dead of night. singer—often at dusk—and repeats Sialia sialis is viewed as the
Thrushes build cuplike nests of its phrases 3 or 4 times. Native to harbinger of spring, arriving
Length 5 – 12 in (12.5 – 30 cm) grass and moss, usually in the Europe, North Africa, and northwest in northern areas in late
Species 169 fork of a bush or tree. Their Asia, and introduced in Australia February or March. Males often
courtship displays often and New Zealand, it is a bird of arrive first, launching into extravagant
emphasize their distinctive gardens and woodland. About 9 in song-flights from treetops and rising
physical features—for instance, (23 cm) long, it feeds on berries, 100 ft (30 m) or more into the air,
This family, which includes such the robin’s red breast or the insects, and worms, and is noted for singing all the way. Nesting in hollow
its use of an anvil stone to branches or nestboxes, the female
familiar birds as the American robin song thrush’s speckled
crack snail shells.. lays 3 – 7 light blue eggs. This bird
and the Eastern bluebird, is widely breast. During courtship, is 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in (14 – 19 cm) long.
distributed in Europe, Africa, Asia, males of some species, such clear speckles blue tail
Australia, and North America. In as the robin, feed the female. on underparts
bright
fact, thrushes are native to almost However, the female is often orange orange eye-ring
all regions, excluding Antarctica solely responsible for nest-building, bill on male
COMMON BLACKBIRD
and New Zealand. Many, such as incubation, and brooding the nestlings.
Native to Europe, North Africa, and Asia, and introduced in all-black
the song thrush, are fine singers, the Some species of thrushes, such as the plumage
Australia, New Zealand, and South America, Turdus merula
most notable of them all being the redwing and fieldfare of Scandinavia, is 91⁄2 – 10 in (24 – 25 cm) long. The male sings melodiously of male
nightingale. Thrushes may form a are migratory and fly south in winter. from a prominent perch, particularly in the evenings.
solid pair-bond, singing to proclaim Migratory species may form large Blackbirds are noted for their “chak-chak” calls as they
ownership of territory. Species like flocks, but others stick in pairs. go to roost. They feed on berries, fruit, worms, and insects. long tail
Family Sturnidae starling, have long tails, which can be Family Cinclidae roots, under a bridge, or behind a
as much as 14 in (35 cm) in length. Some waterfall. The female incubates the 3 – 6
Starlings starlings have areas of bare skin on the
face, particularly around the eyes, and
Dippers white eggs for about 16 days, and both
parents feed the young. As soon as
Length 61⁄2 – 18 in (16 – 45 cm) the wattled starling has loose folds of Length 6 – 81⁄2 in (15 – 21 cm) they leave the nest, the young are able
Species 123 skin, known as wattles, on its head. Species 5 to feed underwater. All 5 species of
Most of these birds are very much at dippers live near fast-flowing hill or
home on the ground, and several mountain streams, catching mayflies
species live among human habitation. and other insects on the bank and
BIRDS
An ability to imitate the sounds they Most starlings are residents but some These plump, short-tailed birds, found shore, and wading into the water to
hear is a notable feature of this group are partial migrants, perhaps moving to in Europe, Asia, and North and South pick insect larvae, snails, and fish eggs
of birds, which includes the irrepressible find food in winter; the group is by and America, are rather like aquatic versions from rocks and pebbles. Their enlarged
mimics, mynahs. Starlings are found in large omnivorous. Starlings lay 2 – 6 of wrens (see p.361). Their tail is often preen gland—10 times bigger than
Africa, Europe, and Asia, but pale blue-green, often brown- cocked in the same way, and they build that of other passerines—gives them
the common starling has been spotted, eggs. a similar domed nest of moss, usually extra waterproofing.
introduced around the world lined with grass and leaves, with an white throat
yellow wattle
and is now found in 119 nations. behind eye entrance hole at the side. The nest is plumage
These birds have strong legs and bills, hidden in a rock crevice, among tree repels water
and mostly black plumage, often with
an iridescent sheen that is particularly WHITE-THROATED DIPPER
One of the few birds able to “walk” underwater,
noticeable in the African species.
the chubby, pot-bellied Cinclus cinclus is 7 – 8 1⁄2 in
Some, such as the long-tailed glossy (18 – 21 cm) long and has a rasping “strits” call.
Found in Europe, North Africa, and northern Asia,
it flies low over the water, its wings making a
COMMON HILL MYNAH
whirring sound as it flies, and nests in crevices
Distributed across much of southern and Southeast
and on ledges under bridges.
Asia, Gracula religiosa is found in moist forest, where
its diverse range of piercing calls are a distinctive
feature. It is 11 – 12 in (28 – 30 cm) long, and is the glossy black and
typical mynah found in pet shops and aviaries. purple plumage Family Mimidae Almost all species are known for their
singing and, as the name suggests,
Mockingbirds some are very good mimics. Many
sing at night during the breeding
violet throat SPLENDID STARLING
and breast Distributed across much of Africa, in Length 8 – 13 in (20 – 33 cm) season. Generally long-tailed birds,
28 countries, Lamprotornis splendidus is a Species 34 most mockingbirds are white, gray, or
bright, blue-green woodland species. Measuring 101⁄2 in (27 cm), brown; however, 2 species are blue and
iridescent plumage this strikingly colored bird is quite shy, and one is black. They are closely related to
has declined in many places due to large-scale thrushes (see p.361), and build similar
deforestation. Outside of the breeding Found in North, Central, and cup-shaped nests in bushes
season, it is known to form flocks. South America, the West Indies, or trees, where females lay
and the Galapagos Islands, and incubate 2 – 5 eggs.
mockingbirds mostly live on Mockingbirds are known for their
the ground or among vigorous defence of the nest, and
iridescent sheen of brush and thickets. will fearlessly attack intruders.
green, blue, or violet
NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD
EUROPEAN STARLING white Particularly associated with southern
Occurring in 119 countries, Sturnus vulgaris is one patches USA, Mimus polyglottos is the state bird
long on wings
of the world’s most familiar species, having adapted tail of 5 states in the USA. It is 9 – 11 in
to living alongside humans. This bird—which is (23 – 28 cm) long, famous for singing on
81⁄2 in (21 cm) long—feeds and roosts in large moonlit nights and incorporating other
flocks, often perching on building ledges overnight. birds’ voices in its song.
PASSERINES 363
Family Muscicapidae some of these birds sing well, most

white brow
have harsh call notes, and the group
Old World flycatchers
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as a whole is no match for warblers

and thrushes. Most build an open cup orange-red
Length 10 – 21 cm (4 – 81⁄2 in) in the branches of a tree or bush, where on throat
Species 301 females lay 1 – 11 mottled eggs.
Distributed across Europe, Africa, Asia,

and Australia, Old World flycatchers
sally out from a perch to catch flying
insects in their bill, hence their name. black in front RUFOUS-BELLIED NILTAVA
They usually have a broad-based bill, of eyes Niltava sundara occurs from the Himalayas
which is surrounded by bristles that to southwest China and is resident in Myanmar
help them catch their prey. Species above 3,300 ft (1,000 m). About 7 in (18 cm)
that breed in the northern regions long, it hunts for insects in low scrub and forest
undergrowth. The male has a black throat, the
migrate south in autumn when insects
VERDITER FLYCATCHER
female having a white throat patch.
begin to get scarce. The plumage
of these agile fliers varies: some are Eumyias thalassinus, measuring RUFOUS-GORGETTED FLYCATCHER
61⁄2 in (17 cm) long, is found from Found from Kashmir in north India through the
brown, others are brightly colored,
India to south China and south to Himalayas to southwest China, and in parts of
and the sexes frequently have Borneo. It often perches prominently Southeast Asia, Ficedula strophiata occurs in forest
different plumage. The male and delivers a loud, sweet warble.
is often larger. Some species and forest edges above 3,300 ft (1,000 m). This bird
The male is greenish blue, with is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, the female having a smaller and
have a crest, and a few have darker wings and tail; the female is paler gorget, or throat patch. It has 2 calls: a low croak
bright facial wattles. Although duller and grayer than the male. and a high-pitched “pink.”
white star
over eye
COMMON NIGHTINGALE
Luscinia megarhynchos is renowned for its long
and varied song, heard most clearly at night.
The song is delivered from within cover; in
fact, the nightingale is notoriously difficult
to spot. Found in Europe, North Africa,
BIRDS
and Asia, it migrates south in autumn. bright yellow
body
Females lay 4 or 5 olive-brown eggs
in a nest that is built in thick cover,
near the ground. The nightingale
is 61⁄2 in (16.5 cm) long.
WHITE-STARRED ROBIN
Pogonocichla stellata has a yellow body and tail,
a blue-gray head, and white patches or “stars”
NORTHERN WHEATEAR over both eyes. It is 6 in (15 cm) long, and
Oenanthe oenanthe is the wheatear of Europe, Canada, and Greenland, reveals a white spot on the throat when it sings
arriving for the summer from its winter quarters in Africa. Its white its creaking notes. It is found in highland forest
rump and black “T” at the tail tip catch the eye in flight. in eastern Africa, from the Cape to Malawi.
It is 6 in (15 cm) long and eats insects. A bird of rusty-red
open uplands, it nests in crevices, old tail
rabbit burrows, or under rocks; the
female lays 5 or 6 pale blue eggs. BLUETHROAT
Scandinavian There are 2 European subspecies of Luscinia
gray edge to form with red svecica: the Scandinavian form (pictured left)
EUROPEAN ROBIN red breast throat patch with a red throat patch, breeding in willow and
Perky and bold, with a distinctive red breast, Erithacus rubecula is birch forest; and the continental form with a
found in Europe, North Africa, and northwest Asia. Juveniles have white throat patch, which nests on swampy
a brown speckled breast and head. About 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, the lakesides and scrubby ditches. There are other
European robin has a rippling song and a sharp “tic” alarm call. It subspecies such as Luscinia svecica magna
feeds on insects and berries, and when on the ground, usually in Turkey, which has an all-blue throat. All
hops. The female lays 4 – 6 red-spotted, white eggs. rusty-red tail base forms are 5 1⁄2 in (14 cm) long.
Family Passeridae human habitations—some species even Family Ploceidae Most weavers build roofed nests, some
entering cities. Most lack the weaving with long, downward-facing entrance
Old World sparrows skills of the related Ploceidae, but build
bulky untidy nests of twigs or grass.
Weavers, widowbirds tubes. In some, the males are brightly
colored when breeding
and relatives Some species are colonial when Length 5 – 9 in (13 – 20 cm) and have a
breeding, others solitary. Species 109 courtship dance;
Length 41⁄2 – 8 in (11 – 18 cm) females may also
Species 51 choose their mate
HOUSE SPARROW on the quality of
One of the world’s most familiar urban species, This is a large, mainly African, their nests.
Passer domesticus, is 6 in (15 cm) long group of finchlike birds, most
and lives easily with humans. It
Patterned in browns and of which are known as weavers.
originates from Asia, but is SOCIABLE WEAVER
grays—occasionally with yellow now seen in many They have short, conical bills,
Restricted to Namibia,
or black patches—sparrows are countries, although short, rounded wings, and
Botswana, and South Africa,
gregarious seed- and insect- population declines plumage that is usually Philetairus socius nests in large
eating birds of open woodland have been noted. yellow or brown, colonies of up to 300 birds, the
and desert. They often spend sometimes both. nests adjoining each other in
much time feeding on the Some species look a huge mass on trees or poles.
ground and many live alongside confusingly similar. This bird is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long.
364
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BIRDS
VILLAGE WEAVER
A downward-facing entrance tube built below an intricately
woven nest acts as a deterrent to predators, such as larger
birds or snakes. The striking black and yellow male of
Ploceus cuecullatus—and his fluttering display—entices
a female to inspect his handiwork. This African species
breeds in noisy colonies.
PASSERINES 365
Family Viduidae nestlings have the same gape pattern as Family Estrildidae
host nestlings—an arrangement of white
Indigo birds Waxbills, munias,
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spots in the open mouth—to fool the

attending parent. These birds occur in
and allies open woodland habitat—wherever their and allies
host species lives. Males of one group—
Length 43⁄4 – 13 in (12 – 33 cm) called whydahs—develop Length 31⁄2 – 51⁄2 in (9 – 14 cm)
Species 20 extraordinarily long tail Species 141
feathers when breeding.
GOULDIAN FINCH
Restricted to savanna woodland, stony hills,
and dense grass in northern Australia, Erythrura
These African birds are brood parasites These estrildid finches, a subject of much gouldiae is one of the country’s most endangered
of waxbills and munias: females lay their debate with regard to taxonomy, include birds, its populations depleted in recent years by
eggs in nests of finches and the waxbills, grass finches, parrot finches, and infections caused by a mite. It is 51⁄2 in (14 cm)
surrogate parents raise the young. mannikins, and are found in Africa, Asia, long. Most birds are black-headed, but rarer red-
Different species exploit open grassland of Australia, and New or golden-headed ones also exist.
particular species of Guinea. Largely sedentary, these birds
estrildids—and have move only to find food or water; they feed
evolved a remarkable mainly on grass seeds. Many of these
degree of mimicry to avoid birds pair for life. Most build domed grass
detection. Their eggs nests, while some nest in holes. They lay
are white (like those 4 – 8 white eggs, which are incubated for
of estrildids) and their 10 – 21 days. After the breeding season,
purple
sheen they generally become sociable, and
flock together for safety.
LONG-TAILED
PARADISE WHYDAH JAVA SPARROW
The female of this species is Although mainly a bird of towns, large flocks of Java sparrows,
4 3⁄4 in (12 cm), while the male Lonchura oryzivora, congregate on agricultural land and can
(shown above) is 13 in (33 cm) become pests. This species, 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, is endemic
long —in the breeding season, the to Indonesia from Java to Sulawesi, where it is now rare. It has also
magnificent tail of the male adds been introduced in Asia, Australia, and Tanzania.
81⁄2 in (21 cm) to his length. Vidua
paradisaea does not build nests,
BIRDS
but lays its eggs in the nests of
the green-winged pytilia. It is a
gregarious bird, and common DUSKY INDIGOBIRD ZEBRA FINCH
in eastern and central Africa. Vidua funerea mimics the song of the African Taeniopygia guttata is 4 in (10 cm) long,
firefinch and lays its eggs in the firefinch’s nest. orange and has a black, teardroplike line below
extremely long Found from Kenya to South Africa, and in parts cheek its eye. Found across mainland Australia,
tail on male of West Africa, it is 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long. patches it gathers in flocks near water.
Family Nectariniidae plumage. Sunbirds have long bills and territorial birds are not migratory,
for collecting nectar and insects, and although the pygmy long-tailed sunbird
Sunbirds some have a long tail that is almost
half their body length. The 13 species
moves annually from Sudan to Congo,
and at least 2 other sunbirds move
Length 31⁄4 – 9 in (8 – 22 cm) of spiderhunters, although similar to between seasons.
Species 143 sunbirds, have much longer bills and
stouter bodies, and are found only in blue-violet upper
Southeast Asia. Sunbirds and spider- body in male
hunters resemble hummingbirds (see long bill
Found throughout Africa, across Asia, p.329) and feed in a similar fashion
and into Australia, almost all male but with slower wingbeats. Their
sunbirds have highly iridescent nests, made of fine moss and
VARIABLE SUNBIRD
plumage, while females are usually cobwebs, are oval in shape and Widespread across open
a dull green. After the breeding season, are usually suspended from twigs savanna woodland and STREAKED SPIDERHUNTER
the males molt into a dull, female-type and branches. These aggressive gardens of West, East, Arachnothera magna is found in dense forest
and southern Africa, and overgrown clearings from India to China,
Cinnyris venustus is and south to Malaysia. It is about 61⁄2 in (17 cm)
also known as the long, and has a long, downward-curving bill.
long, curved
bill yellow-bellied sunbird.
It is 41⁄4 in (11 cm) long. yellow or
The male is iridescent white belly
SCARLET-CHESTED blue above with a
SUNBIRD blue-violet upper
A dark, sturdy bird breast, while the
with a long, curved bill, female is olive-
Chalcomitra senegalensis brown above with
black tail with
is about 6 in (15 cm) a buff-white breast. trace of blue
long. It is widespread
across open woodland
and gardens in West, East, COLLARED SUNBIRD
and southern Africa. The Found in forests and woodland
male has a brilliant scarlet in sub-Saharan Africa, Hedydipna
upper breast. colleris collaris inhabits coastal
PALESTINE SUNBIRD and riverine woodland. It
A scarce bird, Cinnyris osea (female shown measures 4 in (10 cm) in length. yellow
above), is 4 – 41⁄4 in (10 – 11 cm) long. It is The male has brighter plumage breast
found in West Asia and Central Africa. than the female.
366 PASSERINES
Family Dicaeidae Family Motacillidae camouflage; wagtails have contrastingly

colored plumage that is white, black,
Flowerpeckers Wagtails and pipits
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yellow, or blue-gray. Pipits usually nest

on the ground, while most wagtails nest
Length 23⁄4 – 71⁄2 in (7 – 19 cm) Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in (14 – 19 cm) on ledges. Wagtails are generally found
Species 48 red Species 66 near water; some, such as the gray
blue-black
throat on plumage wagtail, are associated with fast-
male running upland streams, but can also
be found near weirs on lowland rivers.
Flowerpeckers are small, dumpy birds Wagtails and pipits are ground-dwelling Sexes are similar in pipits but there are
MISTLETOEBIRD
of southern Asia, Australia and New birds, wagtails occurring in Europe, more marked differences among
Dicaeum hirundinaceum has coevolved with
Guinea. They have short tails, long wings Asia, and Africa, while pipits are found wagtails. Two to 7 eggs are incubated
the mistletoe plant. It has a short gut so
and small legs. Males are frequently mistletoe seeds pass through quickly. The worldwide. They have long legs and by both sexes or the female alone.
brightly colored, with bold splashes of sticky seeds then adhere to branches and long claws, except for the hind claw,
red or yellow; females are duller, often parasitize new trees. which is the shortest in species that pale
eye-stripe
with streaked plumage. Most species live perch on trees. Most pipits have
in rain forests—but some are frequent streaked brown plumage that helps in
visitors to gardens. They feed on insects streaked brown,
cryptic plumage
and fruit, but get their name from their ORANGE-
tendency of stabbing into the base of BELLIED
flowers to extract nectar—aided by a FLOWERPECKER
forked tongue with tubular tips. Some Found in Asia,
feed almost exclusively on the fruit of Dicaeum
mistletoes. Flowerpeckers may be trigonostigma
closely related to sunbirds—and share is 31⁄2 in (9 cm)
their habit of building a pouchlike nest long and lives in WHITE WAGTAIL NEW ZEALAND PIPIT
evergreen forests The subspecies of the European white wagtail that Found in Africa (south of the Sahara), Asia, and
suspended between twigs. Females lay
and mangroves. The is found in the British Isles, Motacilla alba is 7 in Australia, Anthus novaeseelandiae is also an
1 to 3 eggs, which they incubate alone or male has a gray back, (18 cm) long, and is common near water and on
short occasional autumn visitor to Europe. Its song has
assisted by the male. The insect-eating head, and upper breast, and tail mown turf. When feeding on the ground, it pauses repeated chirping and trilling phrases and it has
pardalotes (p.348) were formerly an orange-yellow belly and rump, with tail wagging, then walks rapidly forward, a loud flight call that goes “prrreep.” This bird
classified with flowerpeckers, but are while the female has a gray tinge picking up insects in its bill. It nests on buildings nests on the ground, laying 4 – 6 spotted eggs.
now thought to be only distantly related. on its breast and a yellow rump. and bridges near water, laying 5 – 6 pale gray eggs. It is about 7 in (18 cm) long.
BIRDS
Family Emberizidae habitat preferences vary greatly. They DARK-EYED JUNCO Family Calcariidae
can be found from bleak Tierra del Fuego A highly variable species divided into 5 main
Buntings and allies at the southern tip of South America to
the northern tip of Greenland where
subspecies, Junco hyemalis is distributed
across North America except the central states.
Longspurs and
Length 10 – 20 cm (4 – 8 in) snow buntings breed, and from the About 16 cm (61⁄4 in) long, it breeds in forest
areas, and winters in many habitats in the
snow buntings
Species 181 seashore to the high, barren plateaux of
USA and Mexico.
the Andes, enduring extremes of climate Length 6 – 7 in (15 – 18 cm)
from very humid to very arid and very hot Species 6
to very cold. Their nests are cup-shaped grey
This large family is found the world over: and often domed, and are generally built back
buntings in Europe, Africa, and Asia, and low in a bush or tree or on the ground.
New World sparrows and seedeaters in The females lay 2 – 7 eggs, which usually Similar to buntings, but perhaps closely
North and South America. They are small have red, brown, or black markings on a related to cardinals and tanagers,
birds, with medium-sized legs but large pale background. Most sparrows and these small, terrestrial seed-eaters
feet that are equipped for scratching the buntings are migrants. They can, inhabit open spaces, from rocky
ground to locate food. Their plumage is occasionally, occur well away from their mountain peaks and tundra to open
extremely varied, although no bird in this expected wintering grounds, but birders prairie grassland in summer, and more
family has particularly brilliant feathers. have to be cautious with such records, temperate coastal marshes, shingle
The tail is fairly long and sometimes because this family is particularly banks, and extensive fields in winter.
forked, and the wings are long and mostly popular with aviculturists, and some Four are restricted to North America,
pointed. Buntings and sparrows have of the birds observed may have escaped while two are also found in Eurasia.
short bills, which are conical and from aviaries.
SONG SPARROW white head
designed for peeling seeds. Most of the Melospiza melodia
species live in open countryside but their is found across most
long tail
of North America,
except the tundra in the
north and some
southern states, and is
common to abundant
rufous in a wide range of
sides nonforest habitats. It
is 61⁄2 in (17 cm) white
long, has a relatively wing
long, rounded tail, a panel
brown crown with a
gray central stripe, and SNOW BUNTING
gray cheeks with brown Widespread across the tundra of Europe
YELLOWHAMMER EASTERN TOWHEE stripes. It also has a into northern Asia up to eastern Siberia, and
Widespread across Europe (although its numbers This species, Pipilo erythrophthalmus, and its grayish breast streaked similarly across North America, Plectrophenax
are declining in western regions), mainland Asia, western counterpart, the spotted towhee, were with black, and a rufous nivalis breeds in the Arctic but migrates to
and cultivated parts of west Asia, Emberiza originally believed to be one North American back and tail. This bird lower latitudes in winter. It breeds from May
citrinella was also introduced in New Zealand in species, the rufous-sided towhee. This bird breeds from April to July. to August. It is 61⁄4 in (17 cm) long, and the
the 1860s. It measures 61⁄4 in (16 cm) in length (female shown) is 71⁄2 in (19 cm) long and is male, with his white head and wing bar, is
and is common in farmland and open country. found in eastern USA. long, rounded tail brighter than the female.
PASSERINES 367
Family Icteridae some of the members of this family the sounds made by the oropendolas
are extremely rare and local. In some are very impressive. Cow birds are
Orioles, blackbirds,
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species, males and females differ in unusual in that they parasitize the
size and plumage. Almost all of these nests of other species to rear their own
and allies birds have conical, unnotched, pointed young. Generally, species in this family
bills, but in the oropendolas, the top are not migratory, although the bobolink
Length 6 – 21 in (15 – 53 cm) ridge is expanded to form a frontal undertakes a major migration
Species 109 shield, or casque. This is a noisy family from North America to
(although not especially musical), and Argentina every year.
pale buff neck

New World blackbirds, or troupials, eyebrows BOBOLINK
range from the highly colorful orioles, Dolichonyx oryzivorous,
blackbirds, and meadowlarks to the 7 in (18 cm) long, is found
somber-plumaged grackles. It is across northern USA and
perhaps surprising that this family southern Canada, and
winters in Argentina.
also includes the oropendolas, which
The males are
in many ways appear to be closer to mainly black, while
crows (see p.352). All these species are the females are
found exclusively in North and South yellowish brown
America and the Caribbean. Many live and streaked.
RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD
close to human settlements, some
Agelaius phoeniceus inhabits marshland in
benefiting from agriculture and, like the
much of North America, and gathers in immense
red-winged blackbird, often becoming flocks in winter. It is 9 in (22 cm) long. The male,
spotted
crop pests. Although highly adaptable, belly glossy black all over, has bright red shoulder
patches that he puffs out when displaying from
his song post.
COMMON GRACKLE
Found abundantly in
farmland, parks, and
urban areas of North
America, except
the western states,
BIRDS
Quiscalus quiscula,
121⁄2 in (32 cm) long, is
EASTERN MEADOWLARK one of the most common
A resident of open fields and plains in south birds in its area. The male
and eastern USA, Sturnella magna is about has a glossy purple head
91⁄2 in (24 cm) in length and has a and neck. Both sexes
distinctive, black V-shaped band have an unusual
on its bright yellow breast. Its twisted tail, which
back is a mottled brown. is obvious
orange in flight.
cheeks
large, white
wing patches
BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD
brown Molothrus ater is about 71⁄2 in (19 cm)
hood long, with the males distinguished
on male by a brown hood. This bird
inhabits coastal and southern
USA, and is a summer
visitor to the central
glossy black states and Canada.
plumage
CRESTED OROPENDOLA BULLOCK’S ORIOLE

Psarocolius decumanus is widely distributed Icterus bullocki, 81⁄2 in (21 cm) long,
across northern and central South America, and inhabits deciduous woodland in southwest
Trinidad and Tobago. About 181⁄2 in (47 cm) long, Canada, western USA, and northern Mexico,
it is conspicuous for its loud, rasping, gurgling but winters in Central America. In the Great
call, ivory bill, blue eyes, and glossy black Plains of the USA, it hybridizes with its
plumage. This bird nests in colonies. eastern relative, the Baltimore oriole.
Family Prunellidae the ground for food—mainly insects (a male with 2 or 3 females) and
in summer and seeds in winter. They polyandry (a female with 2 or 3 males). streaked back
Accentors are predominantly gray and brown,
sometimes with contrasting orange
Females lay 3 – 6 bluish eggs that are
incubated for up to 2 weeks. The
Length 51⁄2 – 7 in (14 – 18 cm) or black and white markings, and young fly in another 2 weeks.
Species 13 their upperparts are often streaked.
The adult males and females and the
juveniles all look similar. Accentors DUNNOCK
Native to Europe, Prunella
have a straight, low flight, usually
modularis measures 51⁄2 in (14 cm) in length, and
Found in Europe, North Africa, and covering short distances. Some species has a whistling call. It is often found under shrubs,
Asia, accentors are known for their have a song-flight, while others sing hunting for insects. When a dominant male mates
inconspicuous behavior, often shuffling from a perch. In addition to simple with several females there is a subordinate male
forward or hopping slowly near bushes pairs, some species of accentors— in attendance; if the subordinate succeeds in dull orange legs
or rocks or other cover as they scour notably the dunnock—exhibit polygyny mating, he helps feed the chicks.
368 PASSERINES
Family Fringillidae COMMON CHAFFINCH EVENING GROSBEAK

Common in Europe, North Africa, West This bulky bird, Hesperiphona
Finches
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Asia, and Pakistan, Fringilla coelebs vespertina, is 8 in (20 cm) long,

is found in open country and woodland. and inhabits coniferous forest
Length 41⁄4 – 71⁄2 in (11 – 19 cm) It measures 6 in (15 cm) in length. across northern North America,
Species 226 moving southward in winter.
It is noisy and gregarious.
Found in the Americas, Africa, gray

Europe, and Asia, finches brown back
wings RED CROSSBILL
have bills that have evolved
EUROPEAN GOLDFINCH A resident of North
for feeding on seeds; some
The dainty Carduelis carduelis, America, Europe, and Asia,
species have particularly strong 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, with its Loxia curvirostra is remarkable
skulls and large jaw muscles to distinctive red face and beige for its bill. The upper and lower pink
crack very hard seeds. When body, is common in the mandibles cross over each other, a breast
feeding, they wedge the seeds countryside of Europe feature that allows the bird to in male
in a special groove at the side of and Asia. extract seeds from ripe pinecones. This
their palate, then crush them by bird (female shown) is 61⁄2 in (17 cm) long.
raising the lower jaw. The husk is
white
peeled off by the tongue and the ATLANTIC CANARY EURASIAN undertail
kernel swallowed. One group—the The wild ancestor of the common cage bird, BULLFINCH coverts
Hawaiian honeycreepers—have Serinus canaria is 5 in (13 cm) long and The attractive
yellow has grayish yellow plumage. It is bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 61⁄4 in (16 cm)
evolved a diversity of bill shapes for
wing bars endemic to the Canary Islands, long, can quickly strip a pear tree of its
different diets: long and slender the Azores, and Madeira, buds, making it an unpopular bird with fruit-
for taking nectar, or woodpecker- off the west coast growers. The male’s pink breast combined
like for probing bark. of Africa. with its gray back and black and white wings
make it easy to identify. This bird is found
olive-green back across Europe, and east into China.
IIWI
AKIAPOLAAU A common and noisy species found in native
Hemignathus munroi is a critically endangered forests above 2,300 ft (700 m) on Hawaii’s
BIRDS
species restricted to the koa forest above 3,300 ft Big Island, Kauai, and Maui, Drepanis coccinea
(1,000 m) on the slopes of volcanoes of the Big is rare on other Hawaiian islands. The adult,
Island of Hawaii. About 5 in (12.5 cm) long, the about 5 in (13 cm) long, is bright vermilion,
yellow male is olive-green above, and yellow below, with with a long, pink, downcurved bill and a
head a yellow head. The female is smaller and duller. yellow ring around the eye.
blue hood
Family Thraupidae canopy, particularly outside the tongues designed for sucking and throat
breeding season. Most birds in this family nectar from flowers. A few blue-black wings
Tanagers and relatives build open, cup-shaped nests, rarely on

the ground. Some feed among low
species follow columns of army
ants, catching insects and spiders
Length 4 – 11 in (10 – 28 cm) bushes, but few are ground-dwelling flushed by the ants. Many remain
Species 375 birds. They feed on fruit and insects. mated throughout the year and therefore
The euphonias, included within this hardly sing at all, but a few species,
family, feed on mistletoe berries, while such as the scarlet tanager, do have black BLUE-NECKED
the honeycreepers have bills and attractive songs. breast TANAGER
Confined to the Western Hemisphere, Resident in Bolivia, Brazil,
mostly to the tropics, this family contains Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
some of the most colorful American birds. SWALLOW TANAGER and Venezuela, Tangara
Relatively few tanagers live in the densest A widespread bird in central and northern cyanicollis is found between 1,000 and 7,900 ft
parts of tropical forests; they mostly South America, Tersina viridis has long, (300 – 2,400 m) in open areas with isolated
wander in mixed flocks among the pointed wings and gets its name because trees. Both sexes are alike, with a blue hood and
it snatches insects in flight—using a short throat, and measure 43⁄4 in (12 cm) in length. The
flattened bill that is slightly hooked at the tip. wings are blue and black, or
The female (shown here) is green; the male green and black, depending
brilliant turquoise blue. Because of its unusual upon the bird’s subspecies.
features, it used to be classified in a separate
family, outside the tanagers.
yellow
bill bluish green
body
MAGPIE TANAGER
Widespread across
South America, Cissopis
leverianus inhabits scrub
in cloud and rain forests
and in cultivated and
suburban areas. It is
11 in (28 cm) long, with GREEN HONEYCREEPER
a blue-black head, mantle, COMMON CACTUS FINCH Widespread and common in most countries of northern
throat, and breast. Its Found on most of the Galapagos Islands, Geospiza South America, Chlorophanes spiza is also found
long, black tail is edged scandens is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long. It specializes in in Trinidad and Tobago. About 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long,
with white, the wings are feeding on seeds of Opuntia cacti, and has a it inhabits forest canopies below 4,900 ft (1,500 m).
black and white, while longer bill and a more pronounced split tongue The male is bright bluish green all over, with a black
the belly is white. than other finches, adapted to this purpose. mask. Both sexes have a yellow bill and red eyes.
PASSERINES 369
Family Cardinalidae upright, pointed DICKCISSEL Family Coerebidae

crest. Male summer Spiza americana breeds from
Cardinals, grosbeaks, Bananaquit
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tanagers are all-red, March to July in central and southern

while scarlet tanagers North America and winters in South
and allies are red with black wings. America. It is 61⁄2 in (16 cm) long,
and has a yellow breast, a
Length 41⁄4 in (11 cm)
The buntings include the gray head with a pale eye- Species 1
Length 5 – 9 in (12.5 – 22 cm) all-blue indigo bunting; stripe, yellowish eyebrow,
Species 69 the brightly blue, white and and grayish back. The
orange lazuli bunting; and the male is distinguished
multicoloured painted bunting. by a black bib. Around 40 subspecies of Coereba
flaveola have been identified. It is a
The defining feature of this group of familiar garden bird and ranges through
woodland and scrub birds is the short, northern and eastern South America
stoutly triangular bill, especially in the and the Caribbean islands. The
heavier-billed grosbeaks, used for bananaquit is common in the northern
manipulating and husking seeds. The red bill purple- part of its range, but relatively scarce
group includes cardinals, grosbeaks, blue hood deeper in the forest. It feeds mainly on
tanagers, seedeaters, saltators, the nectar but also eats fruit. Both sexes
dickcissel, and North American NORTHERN CARDINAL have a black crown and mask, a white
buntings. Most have distinct Found along woodland eye-stripe, and a vivid yellow breast
male and female plumages. edges and in gardens green back and belly. It builds a covered
The male pyrrhuloxia is in southern and eastern domelike nest.
like a brown cardinal, North America and into
with a bold red Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, red breast
and Bermuda, Cardinalis
face and an
cardinalis measures 9 in
(22 cm) in length. The male is bright
crimson with a black throat and red bill,
long, and the female is buff-olive. Both
crimson tail sexes deliver a loud, liquid,
whistling song.
PAINTED BUNTING
BIRDS
brownish tail Limited in its breeding distribution to the extreme
southern states of the USA, Passerina ciris is one of the
most colorful birds in North America. The male has a purple-blue
hood and gaudy plumage; the female is bright green above and
paler yellow-green below. This bunting is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long.
Family Parulidae range of woodland and scrub habitat; black and

many head from North America to white stripes
black hood
New World warblers Central and South America to spend
the winter in tropical latitudes. The
white tail
patches
and cowl
in male
Length 4 – 61⁄2 in (10 – 16 cm) pressure of human habitation and
Species 119 agriculture have shrunk these areas,
leading to a substantial decline
in numbers of breeding birds.
Although they are largely insectivorous, HOODED WARBLER
New World warblers, known in the USA these birds also feed on fruit during Setophaga citrina is an
as wood warblers, include many brightly migration. The songs of different New expert fly catcher that
inhabits damp forest and
colored birds, with frequent splashes World warblers are generally well
wooded swamp, always on, or a few metres black throat
of orange and yellow in their plumage. developed but are similar enough above, the ground. It breeds in eastern in male
New World warblers inhabit a wide to confuse birdwatchers. and central USA, and winters in Central
America and the West Indies. This bird is BLACK-AND-WHITE WARBLER
51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, and both sexes flaunt Breeding in Canada and eastern USA,
white tail patches as they move about. Mniotilta varia winters in the south, as far as
northern South America. It forages along
branches, probing for insects with its long bill.
black face mask Its call is a high-pitched whistle. This bird is
41⁄2 – 51⁄2 in (11.5 – 14 cm) long.
white throat in
eastern race
yellow rump
yellow breast
COMMON YELLOWTHROAT
Distributed across North YELLOW-
America, Geothlypis trichas— RUMPED
which is 5 in (13 cm) long— WARBLER
gray plumage
winters in southern USA and South Setophaga
America, and prefers low coronata is one of the
vegetation in fields and most familiar birds in North
KIRTLAND’S WARBLER swamps. The male has a America, found across Canada
Setophaga kirtlandii breeds only in jack pine woodland in Michigan, black face mask bordered and Alaska, and throughout the
USA, and winters in the Bahamas. Habitat management has improved with gray, and yellow throat, breast, midwest in the breeding season. It is 51⁄2 in
its nesting conditions. It is 6 in (15 cm) long, and both sexes (female and undertail coverts. The female (14 cm) long. There are 2 subspecies, both
pictured) have blue-gray upperparts and white eye-rings. is similar but lacks the face mask. with gray plumage and a yellow rump.
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REPTILES
372 REPTILES
reptiles
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PHYLUM Chordata Reptiles are egg-laying vertebrates that have

CLASS Reptilia a tough skin with a covering of scales. These
ORDERS 4
ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals cannot
FAMILIES89
SPECIES About 10,450
generate internal heat. There are 4 orders
of reptiles: snakes, amphisbaenians, and
lizards (collectively known as squamates); crocodiles,
alligators, and caimans (crocodilians); tortoises
SCALES
and turtles; and tuataras. Most reptiles, The Gila monster belongs
to the largest group of
including those that live mainly in water, reptiles, the lizards. Unlike
lay eggs on land. The young emerge amphibians, from which
they are descended,
fully formed without a larval stage. all reptiles have
scales rather than
smooth, moist skin.
Evolution (230 – 65 million
years ago), reptiles eventually the snakes. Of LIZARD SKELETON
Reptiles first appeared about 340 had diversified into an the 20 or so orders of reptiles known Lizards are a highly diverse group
million years ago, having evolved enormous variety of types, to have existed in the Mesozoic Era, of animals. Most have a long tail
from early amphibians. The first and were the dominant land animals. only 4 survive today. and 4 well-developed legs shoulder
reptiles differed from their amphibian The turtles and tortoises branched off with long digits, as seen girdle
ancestors in 2 significant respects: at a relatively early stage, and by 200
Anatomy in this skeleton of
REPTILES
they developed a hard, scaly outer million years ago, species similar to a monitor lizard.
skin that protected them from abrasion those we would recognize today were The external anatomy of reptiles However, some
and moisture loss; and, more already present. Some time after this, shows immense variation, from the species closely
importantly, they evolved a shelled, reptiles began to diversify explosively. long, slender, limbless forms of snakes resemble snakes,
amniotic egg, in which the embryo Among the orders that appeared at to the short, stout, shell-covered and do not have
developed within a sac of water, this time were the pterosaurs (flying bodies of turtles. However, all reptiles any limbs at all.
protecting it from the environment. reptiles) and the dinosaurs, along are characterized by the presence rib
limb attached
Together, these features allowed with 2 orders that survive today, the of scales (see panel, below), which to spinal
attached
reptiles to move away from the crocodilians and the tuataras. Later, form a barrier that protects them from to side of column
margins of water bodies, to which another evolutionary line led to the abrasion, attacks from predators and body
the amphibians were restricted, and appearance of the squamates— parasites, and dehydration. Scales
to colonize land. By the Mesozoic era the lizards, amphisbaenians, and differ considerably between reptiles,
and in some species, scales of long
TURTLE FOSSIL various shapes and sizes are found digits
pelvic
These are the fossilized on different areas of the body. girdle
remains of a turtle, Pigment below the scales gives the
dating back about 200 animal its coloring and markings,
million years. Turtles and which may be for camouflage or for
tortoises have changed display. In some reptiles, especially
little since that time, and male lizards, groups of scales have
are the oldest group of evolved into dramatic crests, horns, The internal skeleton of a reptile
living reptiles. and other features used for display. is made up of bony elements and
provides a stiff supporting system
that is considerably sturdier than that
SKIN STRUCTURE of an amphibian, making reptiles
A reptile’s skin consists of 2 main layers: the more suited to life on land. Unlike
epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (lower layer). those of mammals and birds, a
The scales, which are present only on the epidermis, are reptile’s limbs support the body from
made of a horny substance, keratin, which is similar in the side, which gives them a
composition to human hair and fingernails. The dermis SNAKE SCALES LIZARD SCALES CROCODILE SCALES sprawling gait when they move.
contains nerves, blood vessels, and cells that support SCALE TYPES Snakes, along with most
and nourish the epidermis. Unlike a fish’s scales, those Reptiles’ scales differ greatly in size, shape, and texture. They may be amphisbaenians and some lizards,
of a reptile cannot be removed individually. All reptiles smooth or rough, and may overlap, like roof tiles, butt up against each are without functional legs.
replace their scales by shedding their outer skin. This other, or have layers of stretchy skin in between. In crocodilians, the Differences in the skull reflect the
allows room for growth, and also replaces skin that is scales on the back are strengthened by bony plates. evolutionary origins of the various
worn out. Whereas snakes reptile groups and are a useful
epidermis horny layer scale
slough their skin in one piece, CROSS SECTION OF SNAKE SKIN feature for classification. Turtles
lizards, crocodilians, turtles The scales of a reptile are made from the and tortoises have no openings
and tortoises, and tuataras thick, horny outer layer of skin. Each scale in their temples, while crocodilians
shed it in chunks or flakes. is joined to its neighbors by flexible, hinged and tuataras have 2 on each side.
After a snake has shed its areas, so that the body can move and bend. The squamates also have 2 per
outer skin, it often appears Pigment cells between the epidermis and the side, but they are sometimes joined
much more brightly colored. dermis pigment cells dermis determine the animal’s coloration. to form a single, large opening. In
many reptiles, bone growth does not
REPTILES 373
ACTIVITY PATTERNS
Maintaining an optimum body AIR
ºC ºF
temperature is the key to a reptile’s TEMPERATURE 45
110
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survival and lifestyle, as this graph

LIZARD’S BODY
depicting a diurnal lizard’s activity TEMPERATURE
patterns shows. At night and in the early 90
30
morning, the animal shelters from the SHELTERING TO
AVOID COLD
cold in its burrow. Later, as the 70
temperature rises, it has to bask in BASKING
15
the sun in order to obtain the energy
required to forage. The lizard must NORMAL 50
VESTIGIAL LIMBS seek shelter around noon to prevent ACTIVITY
In some snake families, such as dwarf boas and overheating, but re-emerges later, as SHELTERING TO 0 32
some boas and pythons, the vestigial back limbs the air cools, to forage once more. AVOID HEAT 6AM 9AM 12 NOON 3PM 6PM 8PM
are still evident, indicating an evolutionary link
between snakes and lizards.
Jacobson’s below their preferred range (in most
end when sexual maturity is reached, organ sensory species, 86 – 104° F/30 – 40° C), they
which means that some long-lived cells will slow down and may act to raise
nostril
adults can grow extremely large. their temperature, perhaps by basking.
This involves flattening or angling their
Senses body toward the sun, or pressing their
underside against a warm rock.
Reptiles’ senses are better developed At very low temperatures,
than those of amphibians, and some their bodily functions operate
have sense organs that are not found at a much reduced rate, although
anywhere else in the animal kingdom. retracted mouth extended normally this occurs only after the
tongue tongue
The eyes are often large and well animal has sought shelter, in a burrow
developed, although many snakes JACOBSON’S ORGAN or under rocks. In temperate regions,
have poor sight, and in some Snakes and most lizards extend and flicker their reptiles may shelter for prolonged
burrowing squamates the eyes are tongue to pick up scent molecules around them. periods, or hibernate, over winter.
reduced or absent. Turtles and On retracting their tongue, they transfer the Similarly, species from hot, arid
tortoises, crocodilians, and most molecules to the Jacobson’s organ, inside climates may shelter for the hottest
REPTILES
lizards have mobile eyelids, while the mouth, where the scents are analysed. part of the year, an activity known as
in snakes and some lizards they estivation. Reptiles that live in tropical
are immovable. Lizards and tuataras to have poor hearing. Some have no regions rarely need to bask.
have a light-sensitive area on top of external ear opening or middle ear
their skull, known as the third eye,
which is thought to control diurnal
structure at all, and transmit sounds
through the skull bones. Taste is not
Reproduction
and seasonal patterns of activity by important to reptiles, but smell is Little is known about the courtship
measuring day length. Reptiles tend highly developed. Some snakes have behavior of reptiles, although
heat-detecting organs in their faces, chemical communication probably GIVING BIRTH
and can detect minute temperature plays a large role. Several reptiles The female viviparous, or common, lizard retains
EYE COVERINGS changes to help them to locate prey. vocalize during the breeding season, her eggs inside her body until they are ready to
Crocodilians, turtles, tortoises, and males of many lizards and some hatch. The 2 – 12 young break out of their eggs
and most lizards have 2 movable other groups indulge in visual as soon as they are outside their mother’s body
eyelids (an upper and a lower) as Temperature displays using bright colors, crests, and can survive without her care.
well as a nictitating membrane. This
membrane consists of a transparent
control and flaps of skin (dewlaps) under
the chin. These displays serve to a female reproduces without the
fold of skin that is drawn over the eye Since reptiles cannot generate heat establish territories as well as to need for fertilization, occurs in
from the side, providing protection internally, they depend on external attract females. In most cases, several species of lizards and one
while also allowing the animal to see. factors to keep their temperature a female is fertilized by a male, species of snake.
In snakes and some lizards, the within critical limits. At temperatures although parthenogenesis, in which Most reptiles lay eggs on land,
lower lid, which is transparent, is although a significant number of
fused with the upper one, forming a EMERGING FROM HIBERNATION lizards and snakes give birth to
fixed, transparent protective covering A group of red-sided garter snakes live young. Reptile eggs may have
over the eye known as the spectacle, emerge from their communal a hard shell, like those of birds, but
or brille. burrow, where they have been most have a leathery shell that allows
in hibernation since the water and oxygen to pass through
onset of cold weather to the developing embryo. Reptiles
in winter. hide their eggs in burrows, decaying
vegetation, or other similar locations.
Incubation periods can last from a
few days to several months, with the
young of some species overwintering
in their nest and emerging nearly one
year later. Live-bearing species retain
the eggs inside their body and in
some cases nourish them through
a form of placenta. Hatchling and
newborn reptiles are very similar to
SHEDDING SPECTACLES their parents, although their colors
A snake (here, a cross-marked sand snake) and markings may differ. Parental
sheds the outer layer of its spectacles, care is rare except in crocodilians,
or brilles, at the same time as it sloughs where it may last for 2 years or
the rest of its skin. more. Some lizards also care for
their young after birth.
374 TORTOISES AND TURTLES
Tortoises and turtles

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PHYLUM Chordata Tortoises and turtles are among the oldest of all living
FINDING THE WATER
CLASS Reptilia reptiles. They first appeared about 200 million years ago Upon hatching from their eggs, young sea turtles, such as
ORDER Testudines but have evolved little in the intervening time, so that the these green sea turtles, have to find their way to water. It
is thought that they either instinctively travel down the
FAMILY 14 living species are remarkably similar to those that lived slope of the beach or sense small differences in light levels
SPECIES 346 side by side with such animals as dinosaurs. Their most over the land compared with the water (the water being
brighter by both day and night). On their way, they must
distinctive feature is the hard shell that encloses the contend with predators such as gulls and crabs.
soft parts of the body, providing protection and camouflage from
predators and the elements. Tortoises and turtles have no teeth
and instead use sharp jaws to cut their food. They live on land
as well as in freshwater and marine habitats (although all
species lay their eggs on land). The terrestrial species
are commonly referred to as tortoises, while those
that live in fresh water are often called terrapins.
The term turtle was traditionally reserved for
marine species, but most zoologists now use
it to refer to all members of the order. Although
they are most common in tropical regions,
tortoises and turtles are also found in temperate
parts of the world. Some marine species undertake
long-distance migrations, either in search of food
or to reach their nest sites.
REPTILES
Anatomy
All tortoises and turtles have a shell, 4 limbs, and a horny, toothless
beak in their jaw. The shell consists of upper and lower parts (known
as the carapace and plastron, respectively), joined between the
front and hind legs on each side by a bridge. All parts of the shell
have 2 layers: an underlying bony layer and an outer epidermal
layer. The outer layer is made of thin, horny plates (scutes), which
contain the pigment that gives each species its distinctive
coloration. Some species lack scutes and have soft, leathery
shells. The shape of the limbs differs between terrestrial
and aquatic species: most terrestrial species have short,
club-shaped legs, while in aquatic species, they are
either webbed or shaped like flippers. Since their ribs
are fused to the shell (see below), tortoises and turtles
cannot move their ribs to draw air into and out of their
lungs. Instead, they use muscles at the tops of their
legs to provide the necessary pumping action. DOMED SHELL
SKELETON
Tortoises and turtles have an unusual skeleton. The ribs and some
of the vertebrae are fused to the inner surface of the carapace, and the
pelvic and shoulder girdles are in an unusual position inside the rib cage.
The skull is heavily built, with no openings behind the eye sockets, as there
are in other reptiles. The length of the neck varies greatly between species STREAMLINED SHELL SIDE- AND STRAIGHT-NECKED TORTOISES AND TURTLES
and determines how the head is withdrawn into the shell (see right). Two major subdivisions of tortoises and turtles are recognized, based on
the way they withdraw their head into their shell. Side-necked turtles bend
inner bony
layer SHELL SHAPES their neck sideways, so that the head rests under the edge of the shell;
outer horny
scutes The shape of a tortoise’s or turtle’s all side-necked turtles are aquatic or semiaquatic, freshwater species.
pelvic shell reflects its way of life. Terrestrial Straight-necked species (which include all terrestrial and some aquatic forms)
girdle rib
species, like the Indian starred tortoise have a shorter neck, which they bend into a vertical S-shape inside the
carapace (above top), have a high, domed shell shell, so that their head appears to go straight back when it is withdrawn.
that is difficult for predators to bite
head under head drawn
or crush. Aquatic species, like the edge of shell inside shell
red-eared slider (above), have a
low, streamlined carapace that helps
them slip easily through water. A few
vertebra species, such as the pancake tortoise,
have a flexible carapace. Others, such
as box turtles, have a hinged plastron
plastron shoulder girdle so that they can close up completely. SIDE- NECKED STRAIGHT- NECKED
TORTOISES AND TURTLES 375
Migration
Some sea turtles migrate long distances from
their feeding grounds to the beaches where
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they lay their eggs. For example, some green

sea turtles feed off the coast of Brazil and nest
on Ascension Island, in the eastern Atlantic,
which involves a return journey of at least 2,800
miles (4,500 km). All the breeding adults arrive at the
nesting beaches within a few weeks of each other.
Exactly how they navigate is still poorly understood,
but they probably use a combination of the earth’s
magnetic field, the directions of ocean currents,
water chemistry, and memory. The greatest SWIMMING
distances are traveled by the leatherback turtle, When swimming, sea turtles (such as this hawksbill turtle)
which ranges from tropical seas almost to use their front limbs for propulsion and their back limbs for
Arctic waters in pursuit of jellyfish, its steering. The speed at which they swim varies between
preferred food. species, from 14⁄5 to about 18 mph (3 to 30 kph).
Reproduction
All tortoises and turtles lay their eggs on land. Tropical
species may lay several clutches throughout the year, whereas
temperate species lay only once or twice during a breeding
season; females can store sperm so that they can continue
to lay fertile eggs long after mating. The size of the clutch
depends on the size of the species: small turtles lay 1 – 4 eggs,
while the largest species can lay over 100. The green sea
turtle is the most prolific species, laying up to 6 or 7 clutches
of more than 100 eggs spread over 2 weeks. Turtles do not care
for their young, although at least one species (the Burmese brown
tortoise) stays at its nest for a few days
after laying to protect the eggs
REPTILES
from predators.
EGGS
The eggs of large turtles
and tortoises are almost
spherical, but those of
small species tend to NESTING
be elongated. The shells Some female tortoises and turtles lay their eggs
may be either hard and under rotting vegetation or in the burrows of other
brittle or flexible. This animals. However, most species (such as this green
leopard tortoise hatchling sea turtle) use their back limbs to dig a special
is breaking out of its shell flask-shaped chamber. Once the eggs have been
using an egg tooth that will laid, the sand or soil is carefully replaced and
be shed shortly afterward. smoothed over to conceal them from predators.
FRESHWATER CARNIVORES
Snapping turtles live in shallow lakes, rivers,
and swamps. This common snapping turtle
(right) will prey on almost anything that comes
within range of its sharp jaws and cavernous
mouth, and is small enough to be swallowed.
Feeding
Turtles and tortoises are too slow-moving to pursue active prey, although a
few aquatic species—mostly those that live in murky, clouded water—hunt
by ambush, remaining motionless in the hope that a fish or crustacean will
inadvertently swim past. Tortoises are primarily herbivorous, grazing or
browsing on leaves and fruit. Many species also eat animals, such as
caterpillars, that appear incidentally in their food, and most will eat VEGETARIANS
carrion given the chance. Freshwater turtles often start life as Tortoises such as this Galapagos tortoise (left) graze
insectivores, finding enough small aquatic larvae and other on grass and other low plants, or browse on bushes
small prey to survive but, as they grow, they switch to a diet and shrubs. They often eat almost continuously
consisting mainly of aquatic vegetation. Some marine turtles when active and are quick to take advantage of
eat only seaweed as adults, while others feed on invertebrates, more nutritious fallen fruit and even animal
including jellyfish, sea urchins, and mollusks. carcasses if they are available.
Carettochelys insculpta Chelodina longicollis Together, the head and neck are often Platemys platycephala
longer than the shell, allowing the turtle
Pig-nosed river Common snake-necked to lunge at passing prey, such as fishes,
tadpoles, and crustaceans. Its long neck
Twist-necked turtle
turtle turtle
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also allows it to “snorkel” while resting Length 51⁄2 – 63⁄4 in

(14 – 17 cm)
on the beds of slow-moving rivers or
Breeding Oviparous
Length 28 – 30 in Length 8 – 10 in streams, or in swamps and lagoons. In
(70 – 75 cm) (20 – 25 cm) Habit Semiaquatic
summer, it may make extensive overland
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous Status Not evaluated
migrations to find water. If disturbed, this
Habit Aquatic Habit Semiaquatic Location N. South
turtle can emit a foul-smelling fluid from
Status Vulnerable Status Not evaluated America
its musk glands. The female lays 6 – 24
Location S. New Guinea, Location E. and S. Australia brittle eggs in a nest dug in grassy or
N. Australia
sandy areas at night or after rains.
If threatened, this turtle withdraws into

With its small head and extremely its shell by twisting its head onto its side.
This unusual Australasian turtle lives long neck, this turtle Also called the flat-headed turtle, this
in fresh water, but has a number of is one of Australia’s little-known species has an extremely
similarities with turtles that live at sea. most distinctive flat shell that may help it hide under
Its limbs are broad and flipperlike, with freshwater reptiles. rocks and debris. The carapace is
relatively few claws, and its gray-green dark or chestnut-brown, or yellow with
or grayish brown carapace is covered brown patches, with 2 ridges along its
by a layer of soft skin. The shell has a Chelus fimbriatus eardrums and sensory skin flaps that length. A poor swimmer, the turtle remains
pitted or sculpted surface. Pig-nosed help to detect moving prey. It also has in shallow pools and puddles, or moves
turtles are active foragers, feeding on
snails, small fishes, and fruit. The piglike
Matamata a snorkellike nose, which allows it to
breathe without rising to the surface.
around on the forest floor. It forages for
aquatic insects, worms, snails, and
snout gives them their name. They use Length 12 – 18 in Female matamatas lay up to 28 eggs tadpoles. Females lay a single egg in a
(30 – 45 cm)
the snout to breathe while submerged. in a single nesting. shallow scrape or directly on the surface,
Breeding Oviparous
Females nest in shallow holes on river and cover it with rotting leaves.
Habit Aquatic
banks, laying up to 22 thin-shelled eggs. dark brown head
Status Not evaluated frills of skin on neck
with yellow top
Location N. South America
REPTILES
Most turtles actively seek out their prey,

but the knobby shelled matamata lies
in wait in shallow, muddy water, using Eretmochelys imbricata
its remarkable camouflage to avoid
being seen. Its eyes—set in a triangular
head—are small, but it has large external
knobby
carapace
Hawksbill turtle
(60 – 80 cm)
Breeding Oviparous
Chelonia mydas small
head Habit Aquatic
Green sea turtle smooth, non-

overlapping,
Location Warmer parts of
Status Critically
endangered
scutes on
Atlantic, tropical
Length 31⁄4 – 4 ft carapace Indo-Pacific
(1 – 1.2 m)
Breeding Oviparous
Habit Aquatic
about 6 – 8 weeks,
Status Endangered
but before they can One of the smallest marine turtles,
Location Tropical, reach the water, many the hawksbill is easily recognized by
subtropical, and temperate
waters worldwide are eaten by crabs, gulls, its carapace, which has a central
and other seabirds. large, white keel and serrated edges. Seen
plastron closely, its scutes are beautifully
LARGE AND STREAMLINED
This large turtle, weighing 145 – 660 lb marked—the reason why this species
This graceful, streamlined swimmer (65 – 300 kg), is a superb swimmer, with a has been so widely hunted. Hawksbills
is one of the world’s most widespread smooth shell and powerful flippers. Adults are limbs modified are long-lived animals, and are less
marine turtles found in tropical and greenish brown to black, sometimes streaked into flippers migratory than other marine turtles.
subtropical waters across the globe. with dark brown, red-brown, and yellow. They use their narrow beaks to forage
Despite its name, it is not invariably for sponges, mollusks, and other animals
green, but it always has distinctive, light on the seabed and among coral reefs.
CONSERVATION
edging to the scales on its head and strong
limbs, and on scutes around the edge The green sea turtle has been the flippers
dark carapace
of its shield-shaped carapace. The main quarry of commercial turtle with light
adults graze on sea grass, mangrove fishing, which has led to its endangered markings
roots, and leaves, but young green status. With the disturbance of many
sea turtles are more carnivorous, also breeding beaches, suitable nesting
eating jellyfish, mollusks, and sponges. sites are also decreasing. Conservation
In order to breed, green sea turtles measures for the green sea turtle
make their way to isolated, sandy include legal protection from hunting
beaches, sometimes traveling across and egg harvesting, patrols of nesting
more than 620 miles (1,000 km) of open beaches, and artificial incubation of
water. After mating in shallow water, the eggs so that hatchlings can be given a
females crawl ashore after dark, laying head start, being released into the wild
100 – 150 eggs in deep pits above the once past their most vulnerable stage.
high-tide mark. The young hatch in
Caretta caretta Lepidochelys olivacea Chelydra serpentina Inhabiting fresh and brackish water,
preferably with plenty of plant life, it
Loggerhead turtle Olive ridley turtle Common snapping often lies buried in mud with only the
eyes and nostrils exposed. It sits and
turtle
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Length 28 – 39 in Length 20 – 30 in waits for prey by day but at night is an

(70 – 100 cm) (50 – 75 cm)
active forager, lunging with its mouth
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous Length 10 – 181⁄2 in open to engulf small mammals, birds,
Habit Aquatic Habit Aquatic (25 – 47 cm)
fishes, invertebrates, and plants. Mating
Status Vulnerable Status Vulnerable Breeding Oviparous
may occur without preliminaries, but
Location Tropical, Location Tropical parts of Habit Aquatic
rituals in which the male and female
subtropical, and temperate Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Status Least concern
waters worldwide oceans face each other with necks extended
Location E. and C. North have also been seen. Females lay one
America, Central America,
N.W. South America clutch of 20 – 30 eggs in a season, in a
flask-shaped nest, often in a muskrat
Compared to most other marine turtles, The smallest sea turtle, the olive ridley lodge; they can retain sperm from one
the loggerhead has a large head and turtle has an unmarked, dark or light breeding season to the next.
powerful jaws, capable of crushing olive carapace. An active forager, it This large, dark turtle is quick-
3 raised keels
crabs, lobsters, and other hard-bodied takes crustaceans, fishes, and squid. tempered, biting ferociously on carapace
prey. In open water, it usually floats near It migrates in large numbers to its when threatened. It has a
the surface, but it stays near the bottom breeding grounds. Once, huge flotillas massive head, a small
in estuaries and bays, surfacing only to of turtles would arrive at sandy plastron, and a rough
breathe. Loggerheads breed only every beaches to nest; human depredation carapace, sometimes
2 years—or sometimes longer—and lay has put an end to this spectacle. covered with algae.
up to 5 clutches of about 100 eggs.
Macrochelys temminckii equipped with a lure that entices fishes

toward its scissor-sharp jaws. At night, FISH LURE
Alligator snapping it is an active forager. Males spend their
entire lives at the bottom of lakes or
turtle rivers, but the females leave the water
in spring to lay clutches of 10 – 50
Length 16 – 32 in spherical eggs, buried in mud or sand.
(40 – 80 cm)
Breeding Oviparous ROUGH AND KEELED
REPTILES
Habit Aquatic The alligator snapping turtle has a rough shell,
Status Vulnerable with 3 jagged keels, and an extra row of scutes
Location S.E. USA on each side.
extra row
rough massive
of scutes
carapace head
Emys orbicularis This formidable animal is the world’s During the day, this turtle lies
largest freshwater turtle, with with its jaws open and lures
European pond a maximum weight reputed
to be over 220 lb (100 kg).
fishes by wiggling a small, pink,
wormlike structure on the floor
turtle Like the matamata (see of its mouth. The hooked
opposite), it hunts upper and lower beaks can
Length 6 – 8 in mainly by sitting and deliver a powerful bite.
(15 – 20 cm),
max 12 in (30 cm) waiting, but it is
Breeding Oviparous
Habit Semiaquatic
Status Near threatened Chrysemys picta basks for long periods, especially Clemmys guttata
Location N. Africa, in the morning, several individuals
Painted turtle Spotted turtle
Europe, W. Asia
piling up on one another to bask on
a favorite log. It is omnivorous and
Length 6 – 10 in forages actively by day, sleeping on Length 4 – 5 in
(15 – 25 cm) (10 – 12.5 cm)
the lake bottom at night. Hunted by
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
spotted shell birds, fishes, and racoons, it defends
Habit Aquatic Habit Semiaquatic
itself by hiding its head inside its shell,
or by burying itself in mud. The painted
Location North America turtle hibernates for variable lengths of Location S.E. Canada,
E. USA
time, depending on its location. Most
females lay 2 – 20 eggs in 3 clutches, in
chambers dug in sandy soil; not all lay
This freshwater turtle is one of the eggs every season.
most widespread in North America, This small turtle has yellow spots on its
found in lakes, ponds, very smooth black carapace, head, neck, and limbs.
This olive, brown, or black turtle is and slow-moving yellow stripes carapace An omnivorous active forager, it is itself
one of just 2 freshwater species that streams and rivers on neck hunted by birds and small mammals. In
is native to Europe. Its carapace is from the eastern summer, the semiaquatic spotted turtle
smooth, and a hinge toward the front seaboard to the far estivates in the muddy beds of lakes
of the plastron allows it to be raised Midwest. There are and rivers or in muskrat burrows; it may
when the turtle withdraws its head, 4 distinct subspecies; hibernate in similar sites in winter.
although adults cannot close the shell all have a flattened,
completely. These turtles spend much smooth carapace, but
of their time basking on stones or logs, some have red margins
but they dive at the first sign of danger. to their shells, a red stripe
They eat frogs, fishes, and other small on the back, or yellow or red
animals, in water or on land. stripes on the neck. This turtle
Glyptemys insculpta Terrapene carolina BOXED IN Trachemys scripta elegans
Wood turtle Carolina box turtle Red-eared slider

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Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in Length 4 – 81⁄2 in Length 8 – 12 in

(14 – 19 cm), (10 – 21 cm) (20 – 30 cm)
max 9 in (23 cm) Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Breeding Oviparous Habit Semiterrestrial Habit Aquatic
Habit Semiaquatic Status Vulnerable Status Near threatened
Status Endangered
Location S.E. Canada, Location E. USA Location S. Central USA
N.E. USA
The front section of the Carolina

Known to have lived for as long as 100 box turtle’s plastron is hinged, so yellow-marked red stripe
Besides being an unusually good years in captivity, in the wild the that when the turtle withdraws its green shell behind eyes
climber, the wood turtle is a natural Carolina box turtle prefers damp head into the shell, the front of the
wanderer, and is often found crossing habitats, such as meadows, floodplains, plastron can be raised, effectively
fields or roads, particularly after rain. The or moist, forested areas. Very active in shutting the animal into a
scutes on its carapace have concentric the mornings, particularly after rain, this protective “box.”
ridges, and their somber colors provide it omnivore forages for slugs, worms,
with effective camouflage. Wood turtles mushrooms, or berries. To escape the TAN TURTLE
are omnivores, eating worms, slugs, heat, it retreats into cover or mud at This individual has a tan shell, but some Carolina
insects, and tadpoles, as well as leaves, midday and in midsummer, and survives box turtles are mainly orange or yellow, and others
berries, and other plant food. They mate the cold winter months by hibernating. may be quite dark, with radiating yellow lines.
in water, and the females lay 7 – 8 eggs a Females can lay fertile eggs for several Identified by a prominent red stripe
domed
year in flask-shaped nests. At one time, years following a single mating. The shell behind its eyes, this freshwater turtle
the adult turtles were caught in large adults have few natural predators, is just one subspecies of the many
numbers for food. but the young turtles fall species that live in lakes, rivers,
pyramid-shaped reddish skin on
prey to mammals and creeks in North America. Like
scutes neck and legs such as raccoons, many of its close relatives, it is fond
and birds of basking in sunshine, sometimes
of prey. forming stacks where basking sites
are in short supply, but it is quick
to dive into the water if disturbed.
REPTILES
As an adult, it lives almost

entirely on plant food, but
its young eat tadpoles and
aquatic invertebrates.
Dermochelys coriacea spines to prevent their

CONSERVATION
slippery prey escaping. They usually
Leatherback turtle feed near the surface, but they can
dive down to 1,300 ft (400 m)—perhaps
Leatherbacks nest on sandy
tropical beaches, providing an
Length 41⁄4 – 6 ft as much as 3,300 ft (1,000 m)—holding opportunity to gauge the total
(1.3 – 1.8 m)
their breath for up to half an hour. population at sea. The results are
Breeding Oviparous
Although normally found in the open alarming: in the past 2 decades,
Habit Aquatic
ocean, leatherbacks gather inshore leatherback numbers have slumped,
Status Vulnerable
during the breeding season, when with far fewer coming ashore to lay.
Location Tropical, males scramble for females arriving Measures to protect leatherbacks
subtropical, and temperate
waters worldwide to lay their eggs. As with other marine include a complete ban on their
turtles, the females have a strong capture; in addition, their eggs are
homing instinct that guides them to a collected and incubated in safe
particular stretch of beach, and they lay conditions, so that their young
Weighing up to 1,770 lb (800 kg), the eggs on dark, moonless nights to avoid can be released into the sea.
leatherback is by far the largest of being seen. The hatchlings’ shells are
the marine turtles, and one of the animal covered with small, pearly scales,
world’s greatest oceanic travelers. which soon disappear.
5 ridges EXCURSION ASHORE
Tagged individuals have been known along leathery Emerging from the sea to lay eggs, a female
to cross the Atlantic. Leatherbacks also carapace leatherback laboriously hauls herself up a
range into cold waters at high latitudes, beach. On average, she may spend less
thanks to a limited ability to generate than 2 hours a year on land.
body heat. Physically, they differ from
other marine turtles not only in size, but
also in having a narrow, leathery shell, large head on short,
and flippers without claws. Leatherbacks thick neck
feed primarily on jellyfish, and their
throats have backward-pointing
Dermatemys mawii Cuora flavomarginata Cyclemys dentata feeding on invertebrates and tadpoles,
as well as plants. Very active both on
Central American Yellow-marginated Asian leaf turtle land and in water, it prefers shallow
streams in either mountains or lowlands.
river turtle box turtle
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Length 6 – 91⁄2 in When danger threatens, it may withdraw

(15 – 24 cm)
into its shell or dive to the bottom of the
Breeding Oviparous
Length 20 – 26 in Length 4 – 43⁄4 in water and hide in the mud. The female
(50 – 65 cm) (10 – 12 cm) Habit Semiaquatic
digs a chamber in which she lays up
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous Status Near threatened
to 5 clutches of 2 – 4 relatively large
Habit Aquatic Habit Semiaquatic Location S.E. Asia eggs each year; unusually, in this turtle,
Status Critically Status Endangered
endangered
the plastron becomes flexible to allow
Location S. Mexico to Location E. Asia (including eggs to be laid. Hatchlings are more
Central America Taiwan and Ryukyu Islands)
aquatic than adults and have spines
The oval carapace of this turtle has or points—which disappear with
a serrated edge near the tail, and is age—around the edge of the carapace,
colored light to dark brown (sometimes perhaps to deter predators.
The webbed feet and streamlined shell yellow mahogany) with faint dark markings.
stripe
of this olive-gray turtle are adaptations The plastron, which is hinged, is more raised keel
for swimming; it is almost helpless on boldly marked with lines radiating from down center
land. Females have olive tops to their the center of each scute. As with
heads (yellowish to reddish brown in most turtles, males are smaller
males), and very short tails. They lay than females and have longer,
6 – 20 eggs in muddy river banks in thicker tails. The Asian leaf
summer and fall, burying them or turtle is an omnivore,
covering them with decaying vegetation.
While adults are herbivorous, the The yellow-marginated box turtle
dark brown
juveniles also eat mollusks, crustaceans, gets its name from a hinged plastron that carapace
and, probably, fishes. This turtle is allows it to be completely boxed in when
hunted by otters and humans. withdrawn into its shell, and yellow stripes light to
oval
carapace that run down its back and from each eye reddish
to the neck. It spends much of its time brown legs
in rice paddies, ponds, and streams,
but also basks and wanders on land.
This turtle feeds on fishes, crustaceans,
REPTILES
worms, and fruit. Nesting in soil or sand,
females may lay several clutches of one reddish
or, occasionally, 2 eggs a year. brown head
Kinosternon flavescens carapace, and may occasionally bite. Pelomedusa subrufa Pelodiscus sinensis
It has especially powerful jaws for
Yellow mud turtle crushing its prey, which includes snails,
worms, insects, and tadpoles. Primarily
African helmeted Chinese soft-shelled
Length 4 ⁄4 – 6 ⁄2 in
3
(12 – 16 cm)
1
diurnal, it spends most of its time in turtle turtle
shallow, slow-moving bodies of water in
Breeding Oviparous
grassland. In midsummer, it shelters from Length 8 – 12½ in Length 6 – 12 in
Habit Mainly aquatic (20 – 32 cm) (15 – 30 cm)
heat in muskrat dens or by burrowing
Status Least concern Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
under leaf litter. It hibernates in the cooler
Location S. Central USA, Habit Semiaquatic Habit Aquatic
parts of its range. smooth,
N. Mexico Status Not evaluated Status Vulnerable
dark border to rounded shell
scutes Location Africa (south of Location E. Asia
Sahara)
In addition to withdrawing into its

shell for defense, the yellow mud With its long snout and tubelike nostrils,
turtle can also release foul-smelling flattened the Chinese soft-shelled turtle can
musk from 2 pairs of glands under its carapace “snorkel” in shallow water. It also has
webbed feet for swimming. When
resting, it lies at the bottom, buried
Sternotherus odoratus active by day, but may also hunt at in sand or mud, lifting its head to
night, and a pair of sensory barbels on breathe or snatch at prey. It forages
Stinkpot the chin may help it to find food—mainly
insects, mollusks, plant material, or
at night, taking crustaceans, mollusks,
insects, fishes, and amphibians. If
Length 31⁄4 – 5 in carrion. It is eaten by bald eagles and threatened, it cannot withdraw
(8 – 13 cm)
red-shouldered hawks, alligators, and The sluggish completely into its shell, but it can give
Breeding Oviparous
fishes such as the largemouth bass. African helmeted a vicious bite.
Habit Mainly aquatic
Females nest under tree stumps or in turtle lives in rain
the walls of muskrat lodges, laying 1 – 5 pools and watering holes in Africa’s pancakelike carapace
Location S. and E. USA eggs at a time. open country. During the rainy season, with no scutes
it wanders from pool to pool foraging for
3 slight keels frogs, tadpoles, mollusks, invertebrates,
on carapace and carrion. It may estivate in dry
As a form of defense, this turtle expels barbels conditions by burying itself in mud.
a foul odor from its musk glands, hence on chin If threatened by crocodiles or other
the name “stinkpot.” It can also bite carnivores, it withdraws into its shell,
viciously. Rarely leaving quiet, helped by a hinged plastron, and may
shallow, muddy-bottomed waters, also discharge a strong-smelling musk
it is often covered in algae. It is and the contents of its cloaca.
UNMISTAKABLE GIANT
Chelonoidis elephantopus saddle-backed shell The impressive size of the Galapagos tortoise
allows greater neck
Galapagos tortoise movement
long neck can stretch up
to shrubs and bushes
is probably due to its adaptation to living in
a difficult environment with an unreliable
food supply—the larger the tortoise,
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Length Up to 4 ft
(1.2 m) the more nourishment it can store.
Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial
Status Vulnerable
Location Galapagos
Islands
SHELL SHAPE
The Galapagos tortoise, the largest living
The shell of the Galapagos tortoise varies and is
tortoise, has a huge carapace, massive
linked to feeding habit. A domed shell is common
limbs, and a long neck. The overall size and for subspecies that graze on grasses, whereas a
shell shape can vary depending on which saddle-backed shell is adapted for browsing shrubs.
of the Galapagos Islands the tortoise
originates from. They spend most of their
CONSERVATION
time grazing in small herds and basking in
pools. During the breeding season, males Since 1965, the Charles Darwin
become territorial and look for mates, while Research Station has been running
females create nests in the ground to lay a breeding and repatriation program
their eggs. Despite some individuals living to boost the dwindling population
well over 100 years, this species remains of Galapagos tortoises. By 2016,
vulnerable. The main threat is depredation the program had released
by introduced species such as black rats 4,000 tortoises.
and cats, as well as competition with cattle
for food. The scientific name Chelonoidis
elephantopus is widely used, but this is
not without controversy. Some authorities
have argued that the Galapagos tortoise
should be viewed as up to 15 separate
REPTILES
species and others claim that C. nigra is

the correct name.
GENERALIZED HERBIVORE
The Galapagos tortoise has strong, toothless
jaws well adapted to feeding on whatever type
of vegetation it can find, including tough cacti.
381
MATING
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The courtship technique of

the male Galapagos tortoise is
uncompromising. Having located
a suitable female, he rams her into
submission, nipping her legs to
further immobilize her. He then
climbs onto her back to mate.
REPTILES
Chelonoidis carbonarius legs are marked with splashes of red Gopherus agassizii Homopus signatus
or yellowish orange, and the shell—in
Red-footed tortoise adult males—is unusually elongated,
with a constric tion in the middle. Like
Desert tortoise Speckled padloper
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Length 16 – 20 in most of its relatives, the red-footed Length 10 – 14 in Length 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 in
(40 – 50 cm) (25 – 36 cm) (6 – 8 cm)
tortoise lives mainly on plant food,
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
such as leaves and fallen fruit, but
Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
it also scavenges animal remains.
Status Not evaluated Status Vulnerable Status Near threatened
Females lay clutches of 2 – 15 nearly
Location Central and spherical eggs several times a year. Location S.W. USA, Location W. South Africa
South America N.W. Mexico
growth rings reddish or yellow
on scutes blotch on scutes
The genus Chelonoidis includes the This tortoise’s thick, shovel-shaped

world’s biggest tortoises, forefeet are specially adapted for digging
as well as many smaller burrows in which to escape the extreme
species, such as this heat of the desert during the day and the
one from South reddish edge cold at night. It shelters individually in
America. Its to forelimb burrows in very hot or drought conditions
but may gather in large, communal dens
dug into gravel banks to escape the cold.
Geochelone elegans a whole is strongly domed. The It lives for at least 50 years, mainly eating
Indian starred tortoise needs plenty cacti and grasses, but also feeds on
Indian starred of water, and it is most active during
the monsoon season. In drier weather,
insects. Males have longer projections
at the front of their plastrons and may
This African species is the smallest
tortoise in the world, with males being
tortoise it stirs only in the morning and late attack each other on sight in the particularly tiny. Their small size makes
afternoon. Each year, the female breeding season. speckled padlopers vulnerable to
Length Up to 11 in lays several clutches of up to 10 heavily carnivorous mammals and birds, but
(28 cm)
eggs in a flask-shaped chamber 4 – 6 in built, domed it also enables them to squeeze under
Breeding Oviparous
(10 – 15 cm) deep. sculptured carapace rocks to escape attack, and to shelter
Habit Semiaquatic plates
from the sun. The flattened shell is
Status Vulnerable scutes rising yellowish brown
lines radiating to brown, orange-red, or salmon-pink,
to rounded
Location S. Asia with fine black markings. Speckled
REPTILES
points edge of scutes

padlopers live in dry habitats, and
forage for small, succulent plants.
With its star-shaped markings and

knobby carapace, this Asian species Kinixys erosa and riverbanks in its forest habitat,
is one of the world’s most distinctive but when on land, it spends much of
tortoises. Each of its scutes
rises to a rounded point,
Serrated hinge-back the time buried beneath roots and logs.
It is an omnivorous species, feeding
and the carapace as tortoise on plants, fruit, and invertebrates, as
well as carrion. In a breeding season,
Length 10 – 121⁄2 in females lay several clutches of up to
(25 – 32 cm)
Stigmochelys pardalis variety of habitats, from sandy, coastal 4 eggs on the ground, covering them
Breeding Oviparous
scrub to grassland and semidesert, with leaves.
Leopard tortoise although it is scarce in very dry deserts.
It may bury itself to hibernate in cool
Habit Semiterrestrial
Status Data deficient hinged carapace
flared
marginal scutes
Length 12 – 28 in parts of its range, and to estivate in Location W. to C. Africa
(30 – 70 cm)
the hotter parts. The leopard tortoise
Breeding Oviparous
is herbivorous, grazing on grasses, fallen
Habit Terrestrial
fruit, fungi, and the leaves of succulents.
In the breeding season, the female digs A hinge toward the back of the
Location E. to southern a flask-shaped pit with her hind feet, carapace enables this tortoise to
Africa
urinating to soften hard soil, and lays shut itself in its shell completely. A
3 – 6 clutches of 5 – 30 eggs at monthly fair swimmer, it seeks out marshes
intervals. Hatchlings may have to wait in
the nest chamber for several weeks for
The carapace of the leopard tortoise rain to soften the ground before they Malacochersus tornieri wedge itself in, for safety, by digging in
is yellowish, with scattered dark can burrow to the surface. The young its foreclaws and rotating the forelimbs,
markings that are bolder, although
fewer, in hatchlings. In some
become prey to monitor lizards, storks,
crows, and small mammals.
Pancake tortoise making extraction difficult. It forages,
mainly in the mornings, for grasses,
individuals, it can grow to Length 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in leaves, and fruit, but never moves far
growth rings (14 – 17 cm)
28 in (70 cm) long. This from the rocky outcrop in which it
on scutes Breeding Oviparous
tortoise lives in a spends the night. In summer, this
Habit Terrestrial
tortoise crawls under a flat stone and
scattered dark Status Vulnerable
markings estivates to avoid the heat. Females
domed carapace Location E. Africa lay several clutches of a single egg
with vertical throughout the breeding season.
sides
elongated, yellow
The carapace of this tortoise is not only to tan carapace
extremely flat but also very flexible, due
to openings in the underlying bones.
This allows the tortoise to squeeze into
narrow crevices in order to escape
predatory mammals or birds; it can also
TUATARAS 383
Testudo hermanni also eats slugs, snails, and animal Testudo graeca Chersina angulata
remains. It lives in places with dense
Hermann’s tortoise plant cover, forcing its way through
the vegetation on its short but
Spur-thighed tortoise Angulate tortoise
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Length 6 – 8 in powerful legs. It is not active during Length 8 – 10 in Length 6 – 8 in

(15 – 20 cm) (20 – 25 cm) (15 – 20 cm)
the hottest part of the day in summer,
and in the extreme south, it becomes
Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
dormant. Where winters are cold, it
Status Near threatened Status Vulnerable Status Not evaluated
also hibernates for several months
Location S.E. Europe, each year. As with most tortoises, this Location S. Europe, S.W. Location Southern Africa
Mediterranean islands and W. Asia, N.W. Africa,
species hisses and grunts, particularly Mediterranean islands
during the breeding season. Having
mated, females dig flask-shaped
nesting chambers, where they lay up to Also known as the bowsprit tortoise, this
Easily confused with the spur-thighed 12 eggs. Like the spur-thighed tortoise, species has a high, domed carapace.
tortoise (see right), this tortoise is the this species was once collected in It eats grasses and succulents—
smallest of 3 species that live in southern large numbers for the pet trade, but hibernating during the winter—and, in
Europe. It has a domed and slightly is now fully protected. spite of its armor, provides food for
lumpy carapace, colored yellow, olive, or monitor lizards, carnivorous mammals,
brown, with a scattering of irregular dark and even birds of prey. Unusually, the
rounded,
markings. As with most tortoises, the domed males are slightly larger than the females,
males are slightly smaller than the carapace and fight with rivals at the onset of the
females, and have longer tails and breeding season. Females lay one, or
concave undersides. Hermann’s rarely, 2 eggs.
tortoise is largely a vegetarian, Conspicuous spurs on the hindlegs
feeding on fruit, flowers, give this tortoise its name, and help black
and leaves, although it distinguish it from Hermann’s tortoise triangles
(see left), which overlaps its range.
Its shell is similar to the Hermann’s
but smoother. It lives in grassy
scaly places and sand dunes, and
forelimbs
feeds on leaves, fruit, and occasionally
irregular dark carrion and mammal dung. The females
markings lay clutches of up to 12 eggs.
REPTILES
Sphenodon punctatus
Tuataras Tuatara
PHYLUM Chordata
The tuatara is the only representative of a group BASKING
(50 – 60 cm)
of reptiles that flourished over 200 million years ago. Breeding Oviparous
Although usually nocturnal, tuataras may
CLASS Reptilia Habit Burrowing
Found on 2 groups of small islands off the coast of occasionally be seen basking on rocks on
Rhynchocephalia Status Least concern
ORDER
New Zealand, they look similar to lizards. Tuataras sunny days. Due to a low metabolic rate,
1 (Sphenodontidae) they draw breath infrequently, and when Location New Zealand
FAMILIES
live in burrows and are largely nocturnal. Compared (coastal islands)
at rest may take only one breath an hour.
SPECIES 1 to other reptiles, they are remarkably tolerant
of cold, remaining active in temperatures as
low as 50° F (10° C). They grow slowly, breed
infrequently, and live to a great age (possibly With its spiny crest and loose, scaly skin,
the tuatara looks deceptively similar to
over 100 years).
some iguanas (see pp.414 – 6). It was once
widespread in New Zealand, but now
survives almost entirely on small, offshore
Anatomy islands, where it is protected from
Tuataras have a large head, a long tail, and introduced mammals. Adult tuataras
well-developed limbs. They have a different feed after dark, with spiders, insects, and
skull structure than lizards (see below), and worms making up the bulk of their diet.
unlike lizards they have no eardrums, They grow very slowly, and females do not
middle ear, or external male sexual breed until they are at least 20 years old.
organ. A “third eye” is situated on the The eggs spend a year developing inside
top of the head, but there is no the female’s body, and after being laid,
evidence that this is functional. they take at least a year to hatch. Recent
bony arch genetic analysis indicated that there
Feeding were two distinct species of tuataras:
Tuataras are almost entirely S. punctatus and S. guntheri. They are now,
insectivorous and feed on the large however, considered to be insufficiently
numbers of scavenging beetles different to justify full species status, and
and crickets that are attracted BURROWING so S. guntheri has been reclassified as a
openings in
back of head to colonies of seabirds. They Tuataras either dig their subspecies of S. punctatus.
SKULL SHAPE also eat other invertebrates, own burrows or inhabit the reduced crest
There are 2 openings towards the small lizards, and, nest holes excavated by on female
back of the tuatara’s skull; most lizards occasionally, the eggs breeding seabirds, such as
have only one such opening. The teeth are and chicks of birds small petrels. They usually
not separate structures but serrations along whose nest holes hunt for food just outside the
the edges of both the upper and lower jaws. they share. entrance of the burrow.
384 SNAKES
Snakes
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PHYLUM Chordata Snakes are formidable and highly evolved

CLASS Reptilia
predators. Although they have no limbs,
ORDER Squamata
no eyelids, and no external ears, these
SUBORDER Serpentes
versatile animals move with ease and
find their prey using sophisticated senses.
FAMILIES 27
All snakes eat other animals, ranging from
SPECIES About 4,500
ants to antelopes, some of which they subdue
by constriction or by delivering a venomous
CLASSIFICATION NOTE bite from specialized fangs. Although snakes
Snakes are closely related to cannot chew their food, the bones in their skull
lizards and amphisbaenians.
There is much debate over the are lightly constructed and loosely connected,
relationships between different
types of snakes, and there
so that the jaws can be opened wide and the
is no universally accepted prey swallowed whole. Snakes have established
system of classification. Most
controversy concerns the themselves on all the world’s major landmasses
number of families. While
most authorities recognize 19,
(except Antarctica) as well as on many oceanic
others consider some of these islands. Only about one in 10 are venomous
to be subfamilies and arrive at
a smaller number, combining and of these only a small proportion represent
boas and pythons in a single
family, for example.
a threat to humans. ribs along
body
Anatomy
The shape of a snake’s body usually reflects where it lives: skull
climbing species tend to be long and thin; burrowers are
often short and stout with short tails and blunt snouts; and
REPTILES
sea snakes have flattened, paddle-shaped tails. Unlike other vertebrae

reptiles, snakes have a single row of scales on their underside,
the ventral scales, which are usually wide, and smaller scales SKELETON
on the upper surfaces. Some species have large, regular plates on A snake has up to 400
the head, while others have small, fragmented vertebrae that articulate
scales. Each eye is covered with on each other to give a
a transparent scale, the brille or highly flexible skeleton.
spectacle, which is replaced when Each vertebra has 2
PRIMITIVE the snake sheds its skin. All scales winglike processes to keep the
SNAKE can be smooth, ridged (keeled), or spine from twisting. Ribs are
short,
heavy jaw granular. The internal organs are attached to the vertebrae in the
modified to fit the elongated body. no ribs body but are absent in the tail. Some
Paired organs are staggered within the in tail species have hind limb girdles, and primitive
body cavity, and only one lung may be snakes have vestigial hind limbs in the form of
functional, with the other reduced in size. small spurs, but no snakes have front-limb girdles.
Sea snakes have an enlarged lung, part
fang heat pit between
REAR- FANGED of which forms a buoyancy chamber. SENSES eye and nostril
SNAKE at rear,
below eye Snakes have poor eyesight and hearing,
SKULLS AND TEETH and rely instead on other senses. A well-
Primitive snakes have a heavy skull with few developed sense of smell is supplemented
teeth. Most other snakes have a lighter skull with by the Jacobson’s organ (see p.373), and
loosely connected jawbones that can move apart. active snakes flick their tongue constantly
Teeth are fixed to the upper or lower jaw, or to the to sample their surroundings. Pit vipers
tongue extends
FRONT- roof of the mouth. Venom-injecting fangs may be at and some boas and pythons can detect through slot in
FANGED fixed hollow the front or rear of the mouth. In some front-fanged small changes in air temperature using closed upper jaw
SNAKE fang
snakes, they are hinged to the upper jaw. organs on their face known as heat pits. HEAT PITS FORKED TONGUE
SWALLOWING A LIZARD
1 2 3 4
STEALTHY APPROACH THE ATTACK HOLDING ON SHIFTING GRIP
A vine snake slides slowly and carefully along In one swift movement, the snake arches over the Although the gecko falls from its perch, the snake’s Once the gecko is dead, the snake begins to
a branch toward an unsuspecting gecko. gecko and, using its rear fangs, injects its venom. tail is wrapped around a branch and it holds on. maneuver it into position for swallowing.
SNAKES 385
Movement LINEAR PROGRESSION

Heavy snakes and snakes that
LATERAL UNDULATION
Using each point of its body in turn
CONCERTINA MOVEMENT
When moving through their tunnels,
Snakes have evolved several ways of moving are moving slowly or stalking to push against irregularities in the burrowing snakes expand one end
around (see right) to compensate for not having prey sometimes progress in surface, the snake wiggles from side of the body to jam it against
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legs. The method used involves different uses a straight line, hooking the to side. This method is also used for the tunnel walls while
of their ribs and the muscles attached to them, trailing edges of the ventral swimming and sometimes climbing. the other end is
but also depends on the snake’s weight, the scales over surface thrust forward.
speed at which it needs to move, and the type irregularities. This occurs in
of surface. Most snakes can use different types a wavelike sequence, as the
of locomotion as the need arises. As well as snake pulls itself forward.
the methods shown here, some vipers use a
technique called sidewinding when crossing
loose sand (see p.406).
Hunting and feeding

Some snakes are specialized feeders, while others eat a wide range of prey,
including other snakes. Small animals or ones that cannot fight back are
simply grasped and then swallowed; animals that are larger or better able
to defend themselves must be subdued with venom or by constriction before
being eaten. A large meal
may take a long time to
digest, starting in the
mouth with powerful
salivary juices. Venom itself is
a cocktail of modified digestive
juices that usually acts quickly
on the nervous system or blood
tissue of the prey.
SWALLOWING
REPTILES
Flexible jaws and highly elastic skin allow
snakes, like this common egg-eater, to eat
prey that is larger than their own head. A
large meal can take several hours to swallow.
CONSTRICTION
A constrictor kills its prey by suffocation. Each
time its victim breathes out, this rock python
tightens its coils until breathing stops.
Reproduction
Most snakes lay eggs, but a significant
number give birth to live young. Species
from temperate regions usually mate
in spring, soon after emerging from
hibernation, and produce eggs or young
CLIMBING in summer. Tropical species may breed in
To enable them to move easily through their habitat, response to rainfall and sometimes have
tree snakes have a thinner, more lightweight body than a long breeding season, laying several
ground-dwelling or burrowing snakes. They have long tails clutches of eggs each year. Males and EGGS AND LIVE YOUNG
that can be used to grasp branches, and strong vertebrae females find each other using chemical Young snakes, like this monocled cobra,
that help them to cross wide gaps. The pit viper shown scent trails, and courtship is rarely break out of their shell using a sharp,
here (Schultze’s pit viper) is a nocturnal hunter that uses elaborate. Snakes show little parental temporary egg tooth. The snake is often
its large eyes and its heat pits to locate prey. care, although pythons and a few other coiled tightly inside its shell, and may
species coil around their incubating eggs. be up to 7 times longer than the egg.
5 6 7 8
SWALLOWING HEAD FIRST EXTENDING THE JAWS MUSCULAR ACTION DIGESTION
The gecko is swallowed head first because The snake opens its highly flexible jaws and uses When most of the prey is in the throat, wavelike muscle Having completely swallowed its prey, the snake
the limbs fold more easily in this direction. its rear fangs to pull the gecko into its mouth. contractions force it into the stomach. searches for a quiet place to digest its food.
386 SNAKES
Boas, pythons, and relatives

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PHYLUM Chordata Boas and pythons are powerful (pelvic) girdle and, in most species,
CONSERVATION
the remains of back limbs in the form
CLASS Reptilia
constricting snakes. They include the
of small claws or spurs. All species Several species of boas and
ORDER Squamata
world’s largest snakes, among them have 2 functioning lungs. Several pythons, especially the largest
SUBORDER Serpentes
the anaconda (a boa) and the reticulated, species of boas and pythons have ones, have been adversely affected
African, and Indian pythons. Boas and heat-sensitive pits in the scales by human activities; these large
SUPERFAMILY Henophidia bordering their mouths, which predators require extensive areas
pythons do not reproduce in the same they use to locate prey in the dark. of undisturbed land over which to
FAMILIES 12
way. They also have different distributions: Some of the relatives of the hunt. In addition, many are relatively
SPECIES 218
pythons are found in Africa, Asia, and boas and pythons are smaller but conspicuous and sluggish and
otherwise outwardly similar. These therefore easy targets for hunters,
Australasia, while boas occur mainly in include wood snakes and Round who kill them for their flesh, their
the Americas with a smaller number of species in Africa, Island boas. A few species are skins, or simply out of prejudice.
Asia, and on some Pacific islands. The relatives of boas brightly colored and others, such However, some species perform
as sunbeam snakes, have scales a useful service to humans by
and pythons, most of which are also constrictors, include
that are highly iridescent. File (or controlling the populations of
the iridescent sunbeam snakes and the aquatic file snakes. wart) snakes are specialized for an rodents that are attracted to
aquatic way of life and are effectively towns and villages.
helpless on land. Their scales are
Anatomy granular and rough to the touch,
The snakes in this group are often an adaptation for gripping and head. It swallows this end first,
regarded as being relatively primitive. constricting the fishes on which gradually releasing the rest of the
Their skulls are heavier and their jaws they feed. body from its coils. Constriction is
more rigid than those of the more most effective for killing birds and
advanced snakes (the colubrids, Constriction mammals because, being warm-
elapids, and vipers). They Although boas, pythons, and their blooded, they have to breathe
have also retained several relatives are not the only snakes that relatively frequently.
anatomical features from kill by constriction (some colubrids
the limbed animals also use this method), most of the Reproduction
from which they constrictors are in this group. When One of the most significant
REPTILES
are descended. the snake has selected its prey, it differences between boas and
These include throws one or more coils around the pythons lies in the way they
a back-limb animal’s body. Each time the victim reproduce. Boas (with the possible
breathes out, the snake tightens its exception of one species) bear live
grip. The victim eventually dies by young—as do wood snakes, pipe
suffocation, either because it cannot snakes, file snakes, and shield-tailed
draw breath or because its heart snakes. Pythons, sunbeam snakes,
cannot pump blood, rather than and Round Island boas lay eggs.
by being crushed. Once the Pythons are among the small number
prey is dead, the snake of snakes that show parental care.
loosens its hold and The female coils around the clutch
searches for the of eggs—which can number up to
100 in large species—throughout
the 2 – 3 month period of incubation,
to protect them from predators. One
or 2 species of python are unique
among snakes in that they can
regulate the temperature of their
eggs by producing metabolic heat.
FEEDING
A substantial meal can sustain a snake for several
weeks or even months. Large constrictors, such as
this green anaconda, are capable of killing a variety of
animals, including wading birds, deer, young jaguars,
and even caimans (as shown here). Despite their
great size and weight, anacondas move easily in
water and usually ambush their prey in the shallows.
BOAS, PYTHONS, AND RELATIVES 387
Anilius scytale Xenopeltis unicolor Casarea dussumieri
South American Sunbeam snake Round Island boa

pipe snake
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Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft Length 31⁄4 – 5 ft

(1 – 1.3 m) (1 – 1.5 m)
Length 28 – 35 in Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
(70 – 90 cm) Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Breeding Viviparous Status Least concern Status Endangered
Habit Burrowing Location S.E. Asia Location Round Island,
Status Not evaluated in Indian Ocean
Location N. South America
mimics that of venomous coral snakes
cylindrical wedge-
from the same region, whose defensive shaped
body
behavior the South American pipe head Poorly known and seldom seen, the
The sole member of the family Aniliidae, snake also imitates. It hunts in burrows, Round Island boa is one of the world’s
this little-known snake leads a secretive, and its diet is thought to consist of most rare snakes, with perhaps only
underground life, its cylindrical body small vertebrates, including about 1,000 left in the wild. It feeds on
shape adapted to its burrowing habit. snakes. It may be preyed upon lizards, and its narrow head and slender
The striking red and black coloration by other snakes. body allow it to squeeze between rocks,
shiny
scales so that it can creep up on its prey. Unlike
true boas, which bear live young, this
Cylindrophis ruffus occasionally takes to water and uniform,
species lays eggs, in crevices where leaf
may be found in rice paddies dark gray litter has accumulated. A breeding
Red-tailed and swamps. It actively forages
for smaller snakes and eels. Hunted
color program is currently underway to save
this snake, but its closest relative,
pipe snake by larger snakes, birds, and mammals, Named after its highly polished, Bolyeria multicarinata—also from Round
its defense is to raise its tail and expose iridescent scales, this snake has Island—has not been seen since 1975,
Length 28 – 39 in the red underside, possibly to mimic the typical body adaptations of and is probably extinct.
(70 – 100 cm)
venomous species such as the krait, a burrowing species. It comes above dark gray above
Breeding Viviparous
or to deflect attack away from its head. ground only at night, and eats frogs, small, keeled
Habit Burrowing
red underside of tail smooth, shiny
lizards, snakes, and small mammals. scales
scales Females lay 6 – 9 eggs in undergound
Location S.E. Asia nests in soil or leaf litter. The young
REPTILES
have a distinct white collar that
disappears after 2 – 3 molts.
The underside of this slender

snake’s tail is red, hence its name. Acrantophis dumerili prefers to stay hidden in leaf litter on the
The upper body is black, often with floor of dry forest, its coloration allowing
a red mark behind the head. Living
mainly underground, this pipe snake
Dumeril’s boa it to blend in almost imperceptibly. This
boa ambushes and constricts its prey,
Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft which includes mammals and birds—
(1.5 – 2 m)
although it lacks the heat-
Breeding Viviparous
Pseudotyphlops philippinus Loxocemus bicolor sensitive facial pits that some
Habit Terrestrial
boas use to detect
Large shield-tailed Mexican burrowing Location S. and W.
warm-blooded prey. The
young, typically about 6
snake snake Madagascar
or 7, are relatively
large at birth.
Length 18 – 20 in Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft
(45 – 50 cm) (1 – 1.3 m)
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Oviparous
Dumeril’s boa is intricately patterned
Habit Burrowing Habit Burrowing
in shades of brown, with distinctive,
Status Not evaluated Status Least concern intricate
glossy black markings around the brown
Location Sri Lanka, Location S. Mexico to mouth. A fairly inactive snake, it markings
below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) Central America
Calabaria reinhardtii hunts small mammals in their tunnels

and nests, and rarely comes above
This short, stout, mainly brown snake,
with yellow edges to its scales, has a
This constrictor has the narrow head
and cylindrical, muscular body of a
Calabar ground boa ground. Formerly classified as a python,
it is now considered to be the only
tail that ends with a single shield or burrowing species. Its body is gray, Length 3 – 31⁄2 ft egg-laying species of boa.
(0.9 – 1.1 m)
caudal plate and looks as though it with irregular patches of white scales
Breeding Oviparous patches of white tail raised to
has been chopped off at an oblique that develop with age. This snake eats scales under tail imitate head
Habit Burrowing
angle. The shield, covered with tiny rodents, lizards, and reptile eggs, and is
Status Not evaluated
spines that are more concentrated hunted by birds and mammals. Females
around the edge, is believed to plug lay 3 – 6 large, thick-shelled Location W. and C. Africa
the burrow down which the snake eggs in chambers dug in
moves, keeping it safe from predators. soil or leaf litter.
Rarely coming to the surface, the snake
has the cylindrical body, pointed head, This boa has a blunt head and a
and smooth scales of a burrowing tail that are hard to tell apart. When
small,
species, and feeds on the earthworms shiny scales threatened, it coils into a ball and
it finds underground. As with other raises its tail as a “false head” to
members of the family Uropeltidae, muscular protect its real head. The scales are
body
little is known about this species’ social, black or brown, scattered with red or
defensive, or reproductive behavior. orange. The Calabar ground boa
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REPTILES 388
HUNTING BY STEALTH
The common boa will sit and wait, watching
Boa constrictor COMMON BOA SUBSPECIES
its prey from a suitable vantage point. Timing its
strike to perfection, it lunges forward and seizes Common boa The many subspecies of the common boa vary considerably in size and color.
Dwarf island races, such as the Hog Island boa, may be only 31⁄4 ft (1 m) long,
its victim in its jaws before wrapping itself around
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it. The snake then asphyxiates its prey by tightly

Length 31⁄2 – 13 ft while mainland boas are typically 93⁄4 ft (3 m)—although in exceptional cases
(1 – 4 m)
squeezing it—a process that can be so quick some reach 13 ft (4 m). The color ranges from mainly black (Argentinian boa)
Breeding Viviparous
that small animals may be killed in seconds. or olive-green (Central American boa) to the much lighter, pinkish or silver-gray
Habit Terrestrial/
Arboreal specimens (Hog Island boa), often with a markedly contrasting tail. All, however,
have distinctive saddle markings.
Location Central America, ARGENTINIAN BOA
South America, some (JUVENILE)
Caribbean islands
COMMON BOA FROM
CENTRAL AMERICA
A large snake, with a narrow head and a

pointed snout, the common boa varies in
color (see right) but has dark, saddle
markings along the back, sometimes
becoming dark red toward the tail. There
may be as many as 10 subspecies (see HOG ISLAND BOA
right). The common boa is very
adaptable, and uses a huge range of
CONCEALING COLORS
habitats, from tropical forest to dry characteristic saddle
The colors and patterns seen in the common markings
savanna. It may also be found in urban
boa serve a valuable purpose—helping to
areas. It climbs well but may equally hunt break up the snake’s dark stripe
on the ground, especially in some of the outline and enabling it behind each eye
drier habitats in which it occurs (here, to disappear into its
it may estivate in order to survive the surroundings.
worst heat of the summer months). It is
also an able swimmer and often takes to sluggish in behavior, it
the water voluntarily. Secretive, and fairly may be active by day or
by night, depending on the
climate. It preys on a wide
variety of mammals and birds—
REPTILES
suffocating them with its muscular
coils before swallowing them whole.
GIVING BIRTH
Depending on the subspecies (here, a red-tail
boa), common boas may produce 6 – 50 young
in a litter, each 14 – 231⁄2 in (35 – 60 cm) long.
The newborn snakes fend for themselves
immediately after breaking through the soft
membrane that surrounds them at birth.
390 SNAKES
Candoia carinata Charina bottae mammal or bird of prey approaches, Lichanura trivirgata
the snake coils into a ball and raises its
Pacific ground boa Rubber boa tail as a “false head,” with which it may
pretend to strike in order to deflect attack
Rosy boa
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Length 28 – 39 in Length 14 – 32 in from its real head. However, the rubber Length 231⁄2 – 43 in
(70 – 100 cm) (35 – 80 cm) (60 – 110 cm)
boa is neither venomous nor aggressive.
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous
It has the typical body features of a
Habit Terrestrial/ Habit Burrowing Habit Burrowing
Arboreal burrowing species, and lives a secretive
life below ground or under debris,
Location S.E. Asia, Location S.W. Canada, hunting for birds, reptiles, and small Location S.W. USA,
New Guinea, Solomon W. USA N.W. Mexico
Islands mammals in burrows and tree holes.
When winter comes, it hibernates for
long periods. While mating, the male
stimulates the female with his pelvic
flat The common name of this boa derives spurs and coils his tail around hers. This snake usually has a pattern of 3
head
from its rubbery feel. The head and Females give birth to 2 – 8 young wide, black, brown, reddish brown, or
tail are both blunt, and may be at a time; these measure about orange stripes down its cream, buff, or
hard to tell apart, as with 6 in (15 cm) in length, and gray body; coloration and size vary
the Calabar ground are pinkish or tan. between its several subspecies.
boa (see p.387). Its A burrowing snake, it mostly
defensive technique remains hidden beneath rocks and
is also similar: when in crevices, foraging there for birds,
a threatening reptiles, and small mammals. In the
colder parts of its range, it hibernates in
blunt winter. While mating, the male stimulates
Also known as the Pacific boa, this tail the female with his pelvic spurs as he
variable snake has 2 distinct crawls along her back;
subspecies. Shown above is subspecies 3 – 5, exceptionally up to
paulsoni, which is thick and short-tailed, 12, young are born.
ranges in color from red or grayish small, smooth
brown to off-white, and is completely scales
heavy body
terrestrial. Subspecies carinata is more
slender with a longer tail, is brown or smooth, shiny
gray with an off-white patch above the scales
REPTILES
cloaca, and is known to climb. Both blunt

subspecies feed on lizards, frogs, and head
small mammals. stout body
Corallus caninus Corallus hortulanus tree boa may come down to the ground
at night. Coloration varies from brown or
Emerald tree boa Amazon tree boa grayish with bars or blotches along the
back, to plain orange, yellow, or olive.
Length 5 – 6 ⁄2 ft
1
Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft
(1.5 – 2 m) (1.5 – 2 m)
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous
Habit Arboreal Habit Arboreal
Location N. South Location N. and C. South
America America
deep,
wide
JUVENILE COLORATION head
The emerald tree boa gives birth to 3 – 15 young
each season. They are brick-red, orange, bright
red, or yellow, changing to green after about a year. A flattened body gives this slender,
almost entirely arboreal snake rigidity
Like many members of the boa when reaching out across branches; it
family—particularly the green tree often hangs down to snatch lizards and
python (see p.392)—this striking birds from lower branches. The Amazon
South American snake is fully adapted
for life off the ground. Its intense green
color blends in with the foliage of the Epicrates cenchria the flanks have light-centered spots. This
rain forests it inhabits, concealing it snake rests by day, actively foraging for
from predatory birds, while its strong,
prehensile tail anchors it firmly to a
Rainbow boa birds, lizards, and small mammals at
night. Only the southern subspecies
branch, allowing the boa to lunge Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft hibernate. The size and number of young
(1 – 2 m)
out or down to reach a bird or passing varies greatly between subspecies.
Breeding Viviparous
mammal. Its eyes have vertical pupils,
Habit Partly arboreal
which help it to sense movement, and
it has deep pits in the scales around
its mouth, for detecting heat given Location Central and
South America
off by its prey. While mating, the male
crawls over the female, and their tails
white become entwined.
markings READY TO STRIKE
along back All subspecies of this boa have smooth,
The emerald boa typically drapes itself around a branch in a
series of concentric coils, waiting, with its head hanging down, shiny, often highly iridescent scales, with
ready to strike. This boa feeds on small mammals and birds, colors varying from dark brown to dark
and has long teeth that help it to grasp its prey firmly. orange. The back has black circles, while
Eunectes murinus shallow water, and favors areas with nostrils toward top small eyes with
Aspidites melanocephalus
thick waterside vegetation, where it can of head vertical pupils
Green anaconda move around unseen. Green anacondas

hunt mainly after dark. They lie in wait
Black-headed python
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Length 20 – 33 ft for mammals such as capybaras and Length 5 – 81⁄4 ft

(6 – 10 m) (1.5 – 2.5 m)
deer, and can even kill fully grown
caimans; there are also records of
Habit Semiaquatic Habit Terrestrial
them attacking people, sometimes
Status Not evaluated Status Not evaluated
with fatal results. Males are smaller
Location N. South than females, but have large pelvic Location N. Australia
America, Trinidad
spurs, which they use during courtship.
Females produce litters of 4 – 80
young, which take about 6 years to
reach maturity. Anacondas may have The black-headed python is
With a maximum weight approaching a lifespan of 25 years or more. slender-bodied and has a jet-black
550 lb (250 kg), the green anaconda is head and neck, with irregular brown
the world’s heaviest snake. It spends and cream bars across its body.
relatively
most of its life partially submerged in small head Not an aggressive snake, it
retreats into a burrow or crevice
if a predator threatens—usually a
ADAPTED TO WATER mammal or bird of prey. Its diet
consists of small mammals, birds,
and reptiles, including venomous
snakes. Females lay up to 18 eggs
at a time, under logs or roots, and
in chambers underground. Like most
pythons, they coil around the eggs
smooth scales to protect them and regulate their
temperature until they hatch.
GIANT
CONSTRICTOR small,
The green light-centered
anaconda’s markings
powerful body is on flanks
The green anaconda’s eyes and
REPTILES
strong enough to oval black
nostrils are positioned toward the
asphyxiate animals markings on
top of its head, enabling the snake up to the size of olive-green
to see and breathe while partially a horse. It often back
submerged in water. ambushes its victims
as they arrive to drink.
Antaresia childreni PARENTAL CARE Morelia spilota DIAMOND PYTHON

Children’s python Carpet python
Length 30 in (75 cm), Length 61⁄2 ft (2 m),
max 39 in (100 cm) max 13 ft (4 m)
Habit Terrestrial Habit Mostly terrestrial
Status Not evaluated Status Least concern
Location N. Australia Location S. New Guinea,
Australia
The diamond python, Morelia spilota

Named after the Victorian zoologist Seen here coiled protectively spilota, is the most distinctive
J.G. Children, this small Australian around her eggs to regulate their The carpet python is one of Australia’s subspecies, with an intricate pattern
python spends much of its time hidden temperature until they hatch, the most widespread snakes, found in an of diamond-shaped blotches from
away in caves and rock crevices. It female Children’s python lays a unusually wide range of habitats. head to tail.
specializes in eating lizards, but also clutch of 8 – 10 eggs each year, or It is also one of the most variable,
ambushes birds and small mammals, every other year, in a hollow tree with several subspecies, each with
including bats. If attacked, it defends or an underground chamber. a different common name. One JUNGLE CARPET PYTHON
itself by striking and biting but, like all feature shared by all subspecies The jungle carpet python,
pythons, it is nonvenomous. Male is a bold pattern of irregular Morelia spilota cheynei, lives in
SMALL SNAKE Queensland’s rain forests, and
Children’s pythons have longer and Very small for a python, markings—which can be
thicker tails than the females. Juveniles brown, gray, reddish brown, spends most of its time in trees.
this snake is brown or
have darker markings than adults. reddish brown, with or black—laid over variously
darker but often colored backgrounds. intricate
faint blotches. Carpet pythons are active markings
faint dark blotches
both by night and by day,
hunting lizards, birds, and small
mammals. Like other pythons,
they are nonvenomous, but they
can inflict a painful bite. Female
carpet pythons lay clutches of large,
about 50 soft-shelled eggs in heat-sensitive pits
decaying vegetation or hollow
tree trunks, coiling protectively
around them until they hatch.
392 SNAKES
Morelia viridis Python molurus pits along the jaws. Once adult, this Python regius
snake has no predators, but it will
Green tree python Burmese python hiss, strike, or bite if threatened; its
bite, however, is neither venomous
Royal python
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Length 6 – 73⁄4 ft Length 16 – 23 ft nor dangerous to humans. A powerful Length 21⁄2 – 4 ft

(1.8 – 2.4 m) (5 – 7 m) (0.8 – 1.2 m)
constrictor, the Burmese python feeds
on mammals and birds, ambushing
Habit Arboreal Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
and constricting prey as large as
Status Least concern Status Vulnerable Status Least concern
a deer. It may estivate in the drier
Location New Guinea Location S. and S.E. Asia parts of its range. Females, which Location W. to C. Africa
and surrounding islands,
extreme N. Australia are larger than males, usually lay
18 – 55 eggs at a time, in tree hollows
or scrapes in the ground, and regulate
Also known as the Indian python, their temperature until they hatch. By
bright green this very large snake is afforded trembling its muscles, the Burmese
color excellent camouflage by the pattern python can generate enough heat to
of interlocking, dark brown blotches raise its own body temperature while
on its buff or gray skin. The it incubates its eggs. Population
coloration varies from area to numbers have been seriously affected
area, but the “arrowhead” marking as a result of habitat destruction, and
on the top of the head is constant. the Burmese python is now a legally
As with all pythons, there are heat protected species.
This bright green python cryptic
has the same adaptations for coloring
an arboreal lifestyle—slender shape, The royal python is short and stocky,
prehensile tail, and green coloration— with intricate, dark brown markings
as the emerald tree boa (see p.390). over a tan or yellowish background, and
It also rests and hunts in the same way, conspicuous heat pits around its mouth.
coiled around a branch with its head It defends itself against predators such
arrowhead
hanging down ready to strike at prey. mark as mammals and birds by curling up
All the scales around the mouth have into a ball and hiding its head in
prominent heat pits. Females lay 6 – 30 the center. In the dry season, this
eggs in a tree hole or among epiphytic snake may estivate underground.
plants. The young—which are bright Females lay and incubate a clutch
REPTILES
yellow or occasionally red—are of 3 – 8 eggs among rocks and

hunted by birds of prey. in underground chambers.
Python reticulatus This python is the world’s longest land than in water, seldom straying Tropidophis morenoi
snake and may weigh up to 440 lb far from its den. The reticulated
Reticulated python (200 kg). It has a yellow or tan
body with black markings, and
python eats birds, mammals and,
very rarely, humans. The female lays
Zebra dwarf boa
Length 20 – 33 ft prominent heat pits along the jaws. It and broods 30 – 50 eggs in hollow Length 12 in
(6 – 10 m) (30 cm)
can swim well but spends more time on trees and underground chambers.
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Viviparous
This python may live up to 30 years.
Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
It is widely hunted
for its skin and
Location S.E. Asia larger individuals Location Caribbean
are becoming
increasingly rare.
So-called because of its banded

interlocking pattern—formed by fused brown
black marks
spots on a buff-colored background—
this species belongs to a group of
tropical American dwarf boas (also
called wood snakes), most of which
smooth scales live on the ground. A large number
of species have striking color patterns.
They have evolved into a great many
species within the Caribbean region
Tropidophis melanurus mainly on the ground, occasionally and reach their highest diversity on
climbing into bushes or onto rocks, the island of Cuba. Other species
Cuban wood snake it defends itself by rolling into a ball
or releasing a foul-smelling slime from
undoubtedly await discovery. Many—
like the Zebra dwarf boa—may
Length 32 – 39 in its cloaca. It feeds on frogs, lizards, be at risk of extinction because
(80 – 100 cm)
smaller snakes, and rodents. Females of their very restricted island
Breeding Viviparous
give birth to around 8 distributions. Dwarf
Habit Terrestrial
young at a time. boas stay hidden in
low vegetation or even
Location Caribbean underground during
UNUSUAL the day and emerge
COLORATION
thick body under the cover of
The lighter orange
night to feed on small
coloration is much
This stocky snake is commonly gray, more rare than the vertebrates—including
brown, or buff, with darker markings darker morph. This other snakes. They give
and a black-tipped tail; it may also be snake is the largest birth to live young in
orange, with a yellow-tipped tail. Living in genus Tropidophis. typical boa fashion.
COLUBRIDS 393
Colubrids
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Chordata Sometimes referred to as typical snakes, because the 2 halves of the lower jaw
PHYLUM
are not connected to one another. BURROWING ASPS
CLASS Reptilia
colubrids form by far the largest family of
With a small number of exceptions, The burrowing asps are a group
ORDER Squamata
snakes, accounting for almost two-thirds colubrids have large, platelike scales of snakes that have been placed
SUBORDER Serpentes
of all species. Some authorities have covering their head; this differentiates in various families, including the
argued that this group is really composed them from boas, pythons, and most Colubridae, sometimes regarded
SUPERFAMILY Colubroidea vipers. The arrangement of the head as forming a separate group, the
of several distinct families. Colubrids occur scales is usually consistent within a Atractaspidae, which consists of
FAMILY Colubridae
in all parts of the world except Antarctica. species and can therefore be a useful about 62 species. All except one
SPECIES About 4,000
Measured in both numbers of species and feature for identification. species are found in Africa. These
tunneling snakes feed mainly on
individuals, they are the most numerous Venom amphisbaenians. Some have unique
snakes on all continents except Australia. Colubrids live in Some colubrids, notably ratsnakes, fangs that hinge sideways so that
habitats ranging from freshwater lakes, coastal marshes, kill prey by constriction. Although the snake can expose them without
and estuarine swamps to rain forest and arid desert. Such most colubrids lack venom, about opening its mouth, injecting its
a third of all species have a type of venom with a sideways strike
variation in mode of life and habitat means that they have a venom-producing apparatus known of the head.
wide range of sizes, shapes, and colorations. All the world’s as Duvernoy’s gland, which delivers
rear-fanged venomous snakes are colubrids. venom to the base of enlarged fangs
toward the back of the mouth. Most in any case, weak. A few species,
venomous colubrids have a single pair however, notably the boomslang and
of fangs, although others have 2 or 3 twig snakes, are dangerous and have
Anatomy known as the coronoid bone. pairs. The fangs create a wound, into caused human fatalities.
Colubrids have several anatomical These 3 characteristics separate which the venom runs by capillary
features in common. All species are colubrids from the more primitive action. Unlike some front-fanged Reproduction
without a functioning left lung and a blind snakes, thread snakes, and snakes, colubrids have solid fangs, Colubrids lay eggs or give birth to
back-limb (pelvic) girdle. They also boas and pythons. Colubrids also although the venom may travel along a live young. In those species that lay
lack a small bone in the lower jaw differ from these groups in having a groove that runs the length of the fang. eggs, clutch size varies from one to
more flexible skull, with jaws Most rear-fanged snakes are of little 100 eggs. They are laid in holes or
that can be spread apart danger to humans because their fangs tunnels or under rotting leaves. The
REPTILES
to accommodate large are too far back to be brought into play young may be similar to the parents
items of food. This unless they chew for a sustained but some species have distinctive
is possible period and because their venom is, juvenile coloration and markings.
HUNTING
Compared with many front-fanged snakes, the venomous
colubrids have relatively weak venom and inefficient fangs
with which to deliver it. Possibly because of this, some
colubrids, such as the ratsnake, kill their prey by constriction,
causing suffocation. This Everglades ratsnake has caught a
barking treefrog. Once the victim is dead, the ratsnake will
maneuver its body until the frog’s head is in position for
it to be swallowed.
394 SNAKES
Dendrelaphis kopsteini species, described in the year 2007, is Boiga dendrophila the mangrove snake draws back its
also known for the bright, brick-red color flattened head in readiness to strike,
Kopstein’s bronzeback of its neck, which flares when it expands
its neck. It was previously confused with
Mangrove snake and flares its yellow lip scales.
A stealthy nocturnal hunter, this snake
snake
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allied species and is known to occur in Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄4 ft preys on lizards, frogs, birds, and
(2 – 2.5 m)
rain forests throughout Thailand, the small mammals. During the day, it
Breeding Oviparous
Length 5 ft Malay peninsula, Singapore, and rests in the crook of a tree, or remains
(1.5 m) Habit Arboreal
Sumatra. Like many other bronzebacks, coiled among foliage. Females lay
Breeding Oviparous Status Not evaluated
it mainly preys on tree-dwelling lizards, 4 – 15 eggs in leaf litter, rotting
Habit Terrestrial/ Location S.E. Asia
Arboreal
such as geckos, and perhaps frogs. stumps, or tree holes.
Location S.E. Asia
ridge down
back
The mangrove snake is mainly glossy
black, with vibrant yellow markings
Bronzebacks are arboreal, day-active on its lips and flanks—these vivid colors
snakes, named for the bright iridescent may act as a warning to predators. Its
sheen of their upper body scales. body is slightly flattened from side to
Thought to be most closely related to side, and a distinct ridge runs down
the Southeast Asian flying snakes, this the center of its back. If threatened,
Bogertophis subocularis distributions overlap, these 2 forms Chrysopelea ornata until the venom takes effect. Although it
interbreed. Large, prominent eyes has a powerful bite, this rear-fanged
Trans-Pecos ratsnake indicate that this species is entirely
nocturnal. This secretive snake
Golden flying snake snake is not particularly harmful to
humans. Females lay 6 – 14 eggs in soil,
Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft shelters in cracks and under slabs Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft leaf litter, or rotting wood. The young
(1 – 1.3 m) (1 – 1.3 m)
during the day to escape from are 6 – 8 in (15 – 20 cm) long
excessively high temperatures, when they hatch.
Habit Terrestrial Habit Arboreal
and hibernates in winter.
Status Least concern Status Not evaluated
When threatened by
Location S. USA, predatory birds Location S. and S.E. Asia
N.E. Mexico
and mammals,
it emits a
REPTILES
twin foul-smelling
stripes start musk and may Also known as the golden tree
North America is home to a number at neck bite. The female snake, the golden flying snake
of ratsnake species, all of them lays 4 – 8 eggs, can glide among high trees in
slender-bodied predators that hunt which she buries in tropical forests, parks, and
after dark. The Trans-Pecos ratsnake rotting vegetation, gardens, by spreading its ribs
is typical in having variable patterning: or under rocks. to form a concave underside.
one form has large, H-shaped markings, When threatened—usually by
H-shaped
while another—the “blond” form—has markings farther birds of prey or carnivorous
paler, circular blotches. Where their down back mammals—it may launch itself
from a high perch in order
to escape; if cornered, it will
Dasypeltis scabra bite. It has a slender body, with
A DIET OF EGGS
green, black-tipped scales, and a
Common egg- narrow head with large eyes. The
male has a longer, thicker tail than
slender body
eating snake the female. The golden flying snake
grips prey tightly
frequently rests in trees, among foliage,

Length 28 – 39 in but always remains alert for possible
(70 – 100 cm)
prey. An active hunter, it grasps and powerful,
Breeding Oviparous venomous bite
holds its victims—generally small
Habit Terrestrial immobilizes prey
mammals, birds, lizards, and frogs—
Location Africa and W. Asia
Hierophis viridiflavus hunting lizards, rodents, and smaller

The very flexible skull, mouth, and snakes. When attacked, it is quick
Many snakes eat soft-shelled reptile

throat enable this snake to eat
eggs. When an egg reaches the
European whipsnake to escape into holes and crevices,
and may bite viciously. Several individuals
eggs, but this nocturnal African snake throat, projections of the snake’s Length 5 ft (1.5 m), may share a den, resulting in a dense
rarely 61⁄2 ft (2 m)
specializes in eating the hard-shelled backbone saw through the shell, population. Females lay 6 – 14 eggs
Breeding Oviparous
eggs of birds. It feeds heavily during which is regurgitated. in soil, leaf litter, or rotting wood.
Habit Terrestrial
the bird breeding season—swallowing
its food whole—and then fasts for the greenish yellow
slender, gray broad black
rest of the year. This species and its Location S. Europe body
or reddish crossbars
close relatives are the only snakes brown body toward head
that do not have teeth.
Also called the western whipsnake,

this slender, large-eyed snake is
MIMICKING THE VIPER
rounded usually greenish yellow, but may be
This snake mimics the saw-scaled
viper (see p.403) by forming a snout totally black. The young are more
horseshoe-shaped coil and rubbing brightly colored than the adults.
the strongly keeled scales on its flanks dark, angular A fast-moving and agile hunter,
together, making a rasping sound. markings it relies largely on sight while
COLUBRIDS 395
Dipsas indica Dispholidus typus Drymarchon couperi
Snail-eating snake Boomslang Eastern indigo snake

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Length 231⁄2 – 32 in Length 31⁄4 – 51⁄2 ft Length 7 – 91⁄2 ft

(60 – 80 cm) (1 – 1.7 m) (2.1 – 2.9 m)
Habit Arboreal Habit Arboreal Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated Status Not evaluated Status Least concern
Location N. South Location Africa (south of Location S.E. USA
America Sahara)
wide ventral
scales
The eastern indigo snake is a glossy,
A specialized feeder, this snake has Deriving its name from the Dutch word black species found in the southeastern
jaws that are adapted for extracting for tree (“boom”), this is one of Africa’s United States. It feeds on most
snails from their shells—it forces its most venomous arboreal snakes. A animal groups—fishes, amphibians,
lower jaw into the shell, hooks its teeth highly agile climber, it uses its binocular lizards, other snakes, birds and
into the flesh, and pulls it out. It hunts at vision to judge distances as it slips from their eggs, and small mammals.
night, resting in tree hollows during the one branch to another, and when it An opportunistic feeder, it can
day. The snail-eating snake has a prepares to strike. Boomslangs feed on lunge very quickly at its prey,
slender body, with a distinctive ridge lizards, especially chameleons, and also very slender and sometimes presses it against
body
running along its back, and a rounded on birds. Their fangs are at the back the side of a burrow or a solid
head with a blunt snout and large eyes. of their mouths, and they inject their object. Females lay 4 – 12 eggs
Males tend to be smaller and have venom by chewing their prey. Adult in tree stumps, vegetation,
proportionately longer tails. boomslangs are highly variable in color: or burrows.
they may be green, brown, or almost
black, with or without contrasting
markings. Males are more colorful
than females. When threatened, usually
by birds of prey and carnivorous
glossy
mammals, they inflate their necks to body
appear larger, and will bite readily.
Females lay clutches of up to
REPTILES
14 eggs in tree hollows greenish black
and dead vegetation. coloration
Pantherophis guttatus snake is extremely variable, with many Pantherophis spiloides Zamenis longissimus
region variants, some of which used to
Corn snake be regarded as separate subspecies.
In addition, captive-bred corn snakes
Gray ratsnake Aesculapian snake
Length 31⁄4 – 6 ft include forms that do not occur in the Length 4 – 6 ft Length 31⁄4 – 71⁄4 ft
(1 – 1.8 m) (1.2 – 1.8 m) (1 – 2.2 m)
wild, such as the amelanistic one below,
which lacks the black pigment, melanin.
Habit Mainly terrestrial Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Mutants such as this can be selectively
bred and crossed, giving rise to an
Location C. and S.E. USA almost infinite number of color and Location S. Canada, Location S. Europe to
C. and E. USA W. Asia
pattern morphs. Corn snakes are
primarily nocturnal. They may be found
on the ground, but often climb into trees
The corn snake is one of the most and the roof timbers of houses and barns
eye-catching of North America’s in search of food. To aid in climbing, their The gray ratsnake has more subdued
ratsnakes, a group that includes the flanks meet their undersides at a sharp colors than many related species,
gray ratsnake (see right ) and the angle, which they use to grip bark and which may be yellow or orange. Gray
Trans-Pecos ratsnake (see opposite). other rough surfaces. They feed mainly ratsnakes favor rocky hillsides with
Unlike most of its relatives, the corn on small rodents, and are useful in open woodland, often near water,
keeping numbers of pests under control. and are excellent swimmers. They
Females lay 6–12 eggs (occasionally up feed on rodents and birds, which
to 25) in a single clutch, placing them in they kill by constriction. Females
leaf litter or other damp material. lay 5 – 20 eggs, occasionally up
to 40, sometimes in communal
sites. A ridge along the flanks helps
the snake to wedge itself into the bark The name of this snake derives from
when climbing trees. Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine.
slender, muscular It is thought to be the snake that,
body coiled around a staff, forms his motif,
long head the caduceus, still used as a symbol
with rounded of the medical profession today. The
snout Aesculapian snake is olive or brown,
occasionally dark gray, with a lighter
patch on each side behind the
head. The scales are smooth or
slightly keeled, giving it a shiny
appearance. An agile swimmer and
climber, this secretive snake inhabits
pale orange body
with deep red narrow strongly keeled scrubland, forest edges, and fields, and
blotches head ventral scales hibernates during the cooler months.
396 SNAKES
Zamenis situla Erpeton tentaculatum Gonyosoma oxycephalum birds, bats, and small mammals at
night, its bright green color providing
Leopard snake Tentacled snake Red-tailed racer excellent camouflage in the trees. When
threatened, usually by birds of prey or
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Length 28 – 39 in Length 28 – 39 in Length 51⁄4 – 73⁄4 ft mammals, it inflates its throat vertically
(70 – 100 cm) (70 – 100 cm) (1.6 – 2.4 m)
and adopts an S-shaped posture, in
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Viviparous Breeding Oviparous
readiness to strike. Mating occurs
Habit Terrestrial Habit Aquatic Habit Arboreal
in tree branches.
Location S. and E. Europe, Location Central S.E. Asia Location S.E. Asia coffin-
W. Asia shaped head
The tail of this long, slender

The leopard snake is cream or gray, snake may be brown, orange,
with black-edged reddish blotches, or gray, but despite its name it
or 2 wide, longitudinal reddish stripes, is never red. An active hunter,
edged with black, along its upper side. the red-tailed racer forages for
It feeds mainly on rodents, which it
catches among vegetation or in their
burrows, then kills by constriction. Heterodon nasicus not considered dangerous to humans.
keeled scales
If threatened, it may flatten its form ridge There are 3 species of hognosed
head and bite. During mating, the
male holds onto the female by biting
Western hognosed snakes in North America, all of which
search through the soil or sand for
her head or neck and coiling around her. snake their prey and use their distinctive,
Females lay up to 8 eggs and remain upturned snouts for digging and
with them for several days. Length 16 – 32 in rooting out burrowing toads and
(40 – 80 cm)
other amphibians. If threatened, all
black-edged Breeding Oviparous
This unusual snake belongs to a hognosed snakes hiss loudly, inflate
reddish Habit Terrestrial
blotches subfamily of colubrids—numbering their bodies, and may make mock
about 38 species in all—that live in strikes; if this fails, they
water. It is easily distinguished from Location C. USA to Mexico often play dead.
smooth its relatives by the unique pair of soft,
scales fleshy tentacles on its snout, which
REPTILES
probably have a sensory function.

Tentacled snakes are sluggish and With its blotched patterning and
nocturnal, and hunt by lying in weed- thick body, this North American snake
choked water, waiting for prey to looks more like a viper (see p.402)
swim by. Females give birth to 5 – 13 than a member of the colubrid family. dark blotches
live young underwater. Although its venom is toxic, it is on cream body
Lampropeltis californiae and in the evening, and hibernates during

the coldest months. Mating takes place A BEWILDERING DIVERSITY
Californian kingsnake in spring, with the male crawling along
the female’s back and biting her neck
Kingsnakes occur in a wide
variety of colors and patterns.
Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft to hold her still. The female lays 5–12 They were all previously
(1 – 2 m)
eggs—although it is known to have laid considered to be part of the
Breeding Oviparous
up to 25 eggs—in underground chambers, same species, but are now
Habit Terrestrial
rotting stumps, or leaf litter. The young divided into five separate species.
hatch after about 70 days and measure To complicate matters further,
Location S.W. USA and about 12 – 14 in (30 – 35 cm) in length. the markings of some
N.W. Mexico
of them, such as the Californian
VARIED PATTERNS kingsnake, are highly variable.
The Californian kingsnake is usually black or BLACK AS NIGHT
dark brown with white or cream bands, although Mexican black kingsnake is simply a very dark form
The Californian kingsnake is a boldly some populations include striped individuals of the Californian kingsnake in which the markings
marked species. Populations from (see panel, right). become obscured as they grow. Hatchlings and
smooth, juveniles (and some adults) often show traces of
desert regions are jet black and pure glossy scales pale bands.
white, whereas coastal forms tend
yellow spots LAMPROPELTIS
toward brown and cream. In some parts, on black SPLENDIDA
the snakes can be striped instead of body
This desert species from
banded. The Californian kingsnake Arizona is only active
is a powerful constrictor that actively for a short period of the
hunts for prey, frequently entering year, when it is neither
rodent burrows. It also feeds too cold nor too hot.
on birds, lizards, frogs,
and other snakes,
including rattlesnakes, LAMPROPELTIS
to whose bite it is CALIFORNIAE
immune. Although The striped form of the
Californian kingsnake
mainly terrestrial, this
occurs in some parts
snake may climb into of the subspecies’ range
low vegetation in search alongside the banded
of nestling birds. If form (left). Both forms
threatened it may strike and can hatch from the
bite vigorously, but captives soon same clutch of eggs.
become tame. It is active mainly at night cream bands
COLUBRIDS 397
Lampropeltis triangulum STARTLING DEFENSE Lamprophis fuliginosus
Milksnake The milksnake is not venomous.

It does, however, mimic the
Brown house snake
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Length 11⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft coloration, markings, and Length 3 – 5 ft

(0.4 – 2 m) (0.9 – 1.5 m)
even behavior of venomous
coral snakes and is easily
confused with them in parts
of its range. If uncovered from
Location North America, its hiding place, it may thrash Location Africa (mainly
Central America, N. South south of Sahara)
America around in an attempt to
startle its prey with its
bright colors.
The milksnake is one of the world’s most The brown house snake is a powerful
widely distributed terrestrial snakes, constrictor that actively forages at night
slender body
and also one of the most variable. for its prey—mainly rodents, but also
About 24 subspecies have been birds and lizards. It may be tan, brown,
identified, with 8 in the United States orange, or black, with a cream stripe
alone. Most are brightly colored, with small on either side of its head. The male
red, black, and yellow bands; in some head is smaller than the female but
subspecies, the patterning is very has a proportionately longer
similar to that of coral snakes (see tail. Females may lay 2 or more
p.400)—a feature that probably evolved clutches of 6 – 16 eggs per
as a form of defensive mimicry. breeding season. This snake may
Milksnakes are secretive, mainly bite if provoked by predators,
nocturnal, and smooth scales usually birds of prey or mammals,
feed on but it is not venomous.
invertebrates,
amphibians, and small rodents,
as well as other snakes. Although
nonvenomous, they defend
themselves by biting, and by
BODY MARKINGS
discharging a foul-smelling fluid from
REPTILES
The milksnake is usually
the cloaca. Females build nests in red, black, and white, the
burrows, under rocks, in tree stumps, markings arranged as
or in rotting vegetation, and lay up rings around the body or slender, smooth-
to 17 eggs. as saddles over the back. scaled body
Langaha madagascariensis Natrix natrix PLAYING DEAD Nerodia fasciata
Madagascan Grass snake The grass snake ejects a foul-smelling

fluid if handled, and sometimes
Southern water snake
leaf-nosed snake Length 4 – 61⁄2 ft
(1.2 – 2 m)
reacts to extreme danger by playing Length 11⁄2 – 5 ft
(0.5 – 1.5 m)
dead. To make the performance
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Viviparous
Length 28 – 35 in as convincing as possible, it turns
(70 – 90 cm) Habit Semiaquatic Habit Aquatic
partly upside down, with its mouth
Breeding Oviparous Status Least concern Status Least concern
open and tongue exposed.
Habit Arboreal Location Europe to Location C. and S.E. USA
Status Least concern C. Asia, N.W. Africa body flipped
onto back,
Location Madagascar feigning death
Also known as the banded water

The grass snake is a semiaquatic snake, this species has a thickset body
predator, spending much of its with keeled scales and highly variable
time in damp places or in still water. gaping coloration, sometimes with dark bands
mouth
A good swimmer, it can sometimes or blotches. Its eyes are situated toward
be spotted rippling its way across the top of its head, helping it to see while
the surface of ponds, in search of partially submerged. This snake hunts
frogs and fishes. It is one of the most for frogs and fishes during the day or
widespread snakes in Europe. Adults night, depending on the temperature.
are olive-brown, greenish, or gray, summers are cool, females often If attacked, it may smear its captor
usually with a contrasting yellow or lay their eggs in compost heaps, the with the foul-smelling contents of its anal
This snake is instantly recognizable white collar just behind the head. Female warmth of decaying vegetation helping gland. Many males may successfully
because of its extraordinary snout. grass snakes are larger than males, and incubation. The grass snake has a mate with the same female. The female
The male has a long, pointed projection have longer, thicker tails. After mating, lifespan of approximately 15 years gives birth to 2 – 57 live young.
on the snout tip; in the female, the they sometimes lay their eggs at shared in captivity.
appendage is more elaborate and nest sites, where the total egg count can yellow
leaf-shaped. Males are light brown reach 200 or more. In places where collar
with a yellow underside, while females
are gray-brown with small, dark
EGG-LAYING
markings. Both sexes have a long,
Eggs are laid in decaying
slender, vinelike body, which provides vegetation, manure or compost
excellent camouflage in the vines and heaps, or other warm locations.
branches of their forest habitat. Active Hatchlings measure 51⁄2 – 81⁄2 in
during the day and at night, they (14 – 21 cm) long. Males reach dark bands
ambush lizards and frogs. maturity in 3 years, females in 4. across body
398 SNAKES
Spilotes pullatus side, allows the snake to remain rigid Pituophis melanoleucus Rhinocheilus lecontei
while it bridges gaps between
Tiger ratsnake branches. Active mainly at night, the
tiger ratsnake stalks lizards, frogs, and
Pine snake Long-nosed snake
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Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft small mammals, then suddenly strikes Length 31⁄4 – 81⁄4 ft Length 20 – 39 in
(1.5 – 2 m) (1 – 2.5 m) (50 – 100 cm)
out, catching its prey by surprise. When
threatened, this snake flattens the front
Habit Arboreal Habit Burrowing Habit Burrowing
part of its body and forms an S-shaped
Status Not evaluated Status Least concern Status Least concern
coil; it may also deliver a strong bite.
Location Central America, Location S.E. USA Location S. USA,
N. and C. South America long, slender, N. Mexico
triangular body
This thickset, powerful constrictor has

black bars
The tiger ratsnake may be strongly keeled scales and a slightly pointed with red in
yellow with black bands or spots, distinct ridge pointed snout that is adapted for snout between
black with yellow bars, or black along back burrowing. Its coloration is variable,
with yellow-centered scales. ranging from uniformly black or white
Its triangular, deep body, to cream or yellowish, with irregular
which is flattened from side to blotches of dark brown or black down
the back and flanks. An active forager,
it seeks out small mammals, especially
Opheodrys aestivus it typically remains motionless, or moves burrowing species. The female lays
slowly through vegetation hunting for 3 – 27 eggs in burrows that she often
Rough green snake insects, it is capable of fast movement.
The female lays 3 – 13
digs herself, using a loop in the front
part of her body to remove sand or
Length 21⁄2 – 51⁄4 ft elongated eggs. soil. There are several species of pine The long-nosed snake lives under
(0.8 – 1.6 m)
snakes, one of which (the Louisiana rocks and logs, and in rodent holes,
Breeding Oviparous
pine snake) is endangered. and uses its pointed snout for burrowing.
Habit Terrestrial
It has a markedly underslung jaw—
Status Least concern pointed another adaptation that suits it to
Location S.E. USA snout
a semisubterranean way of life.
Mainly nocturnal, it feeds on small
mammals and birds, as well as lizards
REPTILES
and small snakes and their eggs. When

Often found among low-growing threatened, the long-nosed snake hides
long,
vegetation, especially near water, thin body its head in its coils, vibrates
this snake is bright green with its tail, and discharges a
a white or yellowish green green coloration foul-smelling liquid from its
underside. The scales are aids camouflage anal gland. Females lay one
keeled, hence the rough strong clutch, or sometimes 2, of
texture of its skin. Although body up to 9 eggs.
Telescopus semiannulatus Thamnophis proximus Thamnophis sirtalis MATING PATTERNS

African tiger snake Western ribbon Common garter
Length 31⁄4 – 4 ft
(1 – 1.2 m)
snake snake
Breeding Oviparous Length 20 – 39 in Length 26 – 51 in
Habit Terrestrial (50 – 100 cm) (65 – 130 cm)
Status Not evaluated Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous
Location Southern Africa Habit Semiaquatic Habit Semiaquatic
Location C. USA to Central Location North America
America
Mating systems vary according
to latitude. In the north of the
range, males scramble to compete
The common garter snake invariably lives for females, which they often
Like its close relative the common close to water, but it has the distinction outnumber greatly, as they emerge
garter snake (see right), this North of breeding farther north than any other from hibernation dens. Toward the
American snake is fast-moving and snake in the Americas. On the fringes south, competition is less frenetic.
agile, as well as being a good swimmer. of the Arctic, it hibernates en masse,
It feeds mainly on frogs, toads, tadpoles, creating an extraordinary spectacle
and small fishes, often pursuing its prey when large numbers of snakes emerge
underwater. Western ribbon snakes in spring. Common garter snakes
give birth to up to 24 live young a feed mainly on earthworms, fishes,
A nocturnal hunter, the African tiger year, and can reach high densities in and amphibians, and are themselves
snake has large eyes that help it suitable habitats. attacked by mammals and birds of prey.
see better in the dark. Its slender,
slender body
smooth-scaled body is yellowish brown, with keeled scales PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
orange, or pinkish brown, with black red stripes
The 11 subspecies of common garter along back
blotches that extend across the snakes vary greatly in coloration. Shown
back as far as the flanks. This slow light stripes here is the vividly striped subspecies T.s.
mover lives mostly on the ground, along body infernalis, the San Francisco
but also climbs into shrubs, dead garter snake. heavily
trees, and thatched roofs. keeled scales
ELAPIDS 399
Elapids
Although elapids account for less than Venom
VetBooks.ir
PHYLUM Chordata venom canal. The elapids include

CLASS Reptilia
one in 10 of the world’s snakes, all of them The venom of elapids varies in its some of the world’s most dangerous
are venomous—many dangerously potency and the organs and body snakes, such as the taipan. Others,
ORDER Squamata
so. They include cobras, coral systems that it affects. Most elapids, however, are inoffensive and too small
SUBORDER Serpentes including cobras, release venom that to endanger humans.
snakes, mambas, kraits, and
acts on the nervous system, paralyzing
SUPERFAMILY Caenophidia
sea snakes, and are found mainly muscles used in respiration. In some Reproduction
FAMILY Elapidae in the tropics and in the Southern elapids, the venom runs down Most elapids lay eggs but a few are
SPECIES 361 Hemisphere. There are ground grooves in the fangs, while bearers of live young. Sea snakes,
dwelling and semiburrowing species of in others, the fangs for instance, give birth in the water,
contain an internal whereas sea kraits come ashore to
elapids, as well as some that live and hunt in trees. Some are
lay eggs. A number of Asiatic cobras
fast-moving, diurnal hunters, while others are more secretive, build nests out of dead leaves and
hunting under the cover of darkness. Sea snakes and sea kraits other forest debris. Females guard the
are wholly marine. Elapids are related to colubrids (see pp.393–8) eggs fiercely, protecting them from
and look superficially similar, but they differ from most of them potential predators.
in having fangs located towards the front of the upper jaw. This
allows them to inject venom in a sudden and deadly strike.
SPITTING COBRA
Some cobras (including the
Anatomy markings that warn would-be Mozambique spitting cobra shown
Elapids typically have a slender, predators to leave them alone. Some here), can spray their victims with
roughly cylindrical body, with smooth, cobras intimidate their enemies by venom by forcing it out at high speed
shiny scales. Sea snakes—sometimes raising the front part of their bodies through apertures in the fangs. Once
classified in a family of their own—are off the ground, and expanding their sprayed into the victim’s eyes, it
noticeably different, with a flattened ribs to form a hood. causes great pain and temporary, or
tail for swimming. Most terrestrial sometimes even permanent, blindness.
elapids have camouflage colors and
markings, but coral snakes have bold
REPTILES
Acanthophis praelongus from light gray to gray-brown or Austrelaps superbus
almost black, with paler rings or bands. LIVING LURE
Northern death Northern death adders feed mainly on
small mammals, lizards, and birds, and
Australian
adder they use their thin, wormlike tails to lure copperhead
animals within striking range. They give
Length 12 – 39 in birth to live young, producing litters of Length 41⁄4 – 51⁄2 ft
(30 – 100 cm) (1.3 – 1.7 m)
up to 8 each time they breed. A very
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous
similar species, the southern death
adder (Acanthophis antarcticus), is
widespread in eastern and southern
Location New Guinea, Australia, and is sometimes found Location S.E. Australia,
N. Australia N. Tasmania
close to urban areas. Like its northern The tip of the northern death
counterpart, it has a bite that is adder’s tail is very slender, and
potentially fatal to humans. is considerably paler than the rest
of the body. When hunting, the
Despite its name, wedge-shaped white rings snake lies still, and wriggles the tail This inhabitant of marshes and swamps
head around body
this snake is not tip to lure prey close enough to is active both during the day and at
a true adder (see strike. Rapid-acting venom kills night, and feeds mainly on frogs. It is
pp.402 – 3), but the victim, which the snake can gray or reddish brown to black above,
an unusually then swallow at leisure. and cream or yellow on the flanks.
stout-bodied elapid. Although it hibernates in winter, it can
It is one of Australia’s most tolerate low temperatures and is active
venomous snakes, hunting longer than other reptiles.
by a sit-and-wait
strategy, and striking at
ADDER LOOK-ALIKE
the least provocation.
A thick body, wedge-shaped
It is normally active at
head, and narrow neck are all
night; during the day, it features normally seen in true
relies on its camouflage adders and vipers, rather than in
markings to avoid being elapids. The northern death adder
seen. Adults vary in color thick body also has raised “horns” over its eyes.
400 SNAKES
Dendroaspis angusticeps Dendroaspis polylepis FIGHTING FOR A MATE

East African green Black mamba During the breeding season, male black
mambas fight by raising and intertwining
mamba
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Length 81⁄4 – 11 ft the front half of their bodies, with each

(2.5 – 3.5 m)
snake trying to force its opponent to the
Breeding Oviparous
Length 5 – 81⁄4 ft ground. However, the fight is ritualized
(1.5 – 2.5 m) Habit Terrestrial
and does not involve any serious harm.
Breeding Oviparous Status Least concern
Following this test of strength, the
Habit Arboreal Location E. and southern winner mates with any females
Status Not evaluated Africa
in his territory.
Location E. and S.E. Africa
In addition to being one of the most

The bright green color, slender shape, poisonous snakes, the black mamba
and long tail of the East African green is probably the fastest, making it one
mamba are all features that are ideally of the world’s most dangerous predators.
suited to an animal living in trees. Alert In short bursts, it can reach 121⁄2 mph
and fast moving, this snake chases (20 kph), which is fast enough to overtake
its prey through the canopy and, if someone moving at a brisk run. The
disturbed, it usually moves swiftly black mamba is not actually black, but
to higher branches or passes from gray or brown, with a streamlined body
the branches of one tree to another; covered with large, smooth scales.
if cornered, it will turn and strike. Highly territorial, it makes its home den in
Although highly venomous, a rock crevice or a hollow tree. It is active
this mamba rarely comes during the day, and feeds on birds and
into conflict with humans. small mammals. Females lay 12 – 17 eggs
in chambers underground. The venom of
smooth the black mamba is very fast-acting, and
scales
bites are often fatal if not treated quickly.
narrow
head
OCCASIONAL CLIMBER
REPTILES
This primarily ground-living snake, mostly found

in open woodland, may also occasionally climb.
Despite its size, it is highly agile, effortlessly
sliding through thorn bushes and trees.
Laticauda colubrina paddle-shaped tails and live and feed Naja naja their potent neurotoxic venom. The
at sea. It is found in coastal waters, principal predators of Indian cobras,
Yellow-lipped mangrove swamps, and coral reefs,
where it hunts fishes—particularly eels.
Indian cobra other than humans, are carnivorous
mammals—notably mongooses—
sea krait Like all sea snakes, it is highly poisonous, Length 4 – 51⁄2 ft
(1.2 – 1.7 m)
and birds of prey.
but poses no threat to humans since it
Breeding Oviparous expanded
Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft does not bite. Most sea snakes spend
(1 – 2 m) Habit Terrestrial hood
their entire lives at sea, and give birth
Breeding Oviparous Status Not evaluated
to live young, but the yellow-lipped sea
Habit Aquatic Location S. Asia
krait and its relatives come ashore to
lay their eggs under leaf litter.
Location S. and S.E. Asia
broad black
bands
Renowned for its use in snake
charming, this animal is one of the
The bluish gray, yellow-lipped sea most dangerous snakes in India.
krait is one of about 40 species It is responsible for a relatively small
of snakes that have flattened, but nonetheless significant proportion
of snake-bite mortalities, which total
50,000 per year in India alone. This
Micrurus lemniscatus Each species has a characteristic is partly due to its preference for rice broad
pattern of contrasting bands, warning paddies and roadside banks, which ventral
South American predators that they are poisonous.

However, because coral snakes have
are often close to villages and so bring
it into contact with humans. Indian
scales
coral snake a semiburrowing lifestyle, generally cobras are very variable in color,
emerging only at night, their colors are ranging from brown to black, but
Length 231⁄2 – 35 in often concealed. Coral snakes feed on most individuals have distinctive, pale
(60 – 90 cm)
small lizards and snakes. They have “spectacle” markings on the back of the
Breeding Oviparous
highly toxic venom, but hood. As with other cobras, the hood is
Habit Semiburrowing
human fatalities are rare. spread out when the snake feels
threatened, but is folded away at
Location N. and C. South other times. Although Indian
America
cobras are sometimes seen
basking in the sun, they are
sequenced
color bands most active at night, and are
good climbers and swimmers.
smooth
This brilliantly colored reptile is one of scales They feed on small mammals,
about 40 species of coral snakes that birds, lizards, and other snakes,
occur in warm parts of the Americas. small head killing them within seconds with
ELAPIDS 401
Naja pallida Naja haje other snakes, small mammals, toads, Calliophis bivirgata
and birds, including domestic poultry,
Red spitting cobra Egyptian cobra killing prey with its fast-acting venom;
it also feeds on eggs. Individuals are
Blue coral snake
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Length 28 – 47 in Length 31⁄4 – 73⁄4 ft territorial and frequently fight one Length 4 – 41⁄2 ft
(70 – 120 cm) (1 – 2.4 m), (1.2 – 1.4 m)
max 81⁄4 ft (2.5 m) another. Females lay 8 – 20 eggs, often in
Breeding Oviparous termite mounds, and the eggs hatch after
Habit Terrestrial an incubation period of about 60 days.
Status Not evaluated Status Least concern
Location N. and E. Africa Location N., W., and large eyes Location S.E. Asia
E. Africa
mouth open
This African snake is one of several wide to large
intimidate head
cobras that have evolved a unique way Usually brown or grayish, sometimes
of defending themselves. If threatened, with black bands, the Egyptian cobra
they can squirt venom out of small may grow up to 81⁄4 ft (2.5 m) long. An
apertures in their fangs, spraying a cloud inhabitant of desert, grassland, and
of droplets 61⁄2 ft (2 m) at their enemy. urban areas, it is also found in fields near
Sprayed venom does not kill, but it can oases and wadis, and tends to avoid
cause permanent blindness. The red dense forest and the most arid deserts.
spitting cobra varies in color from red to This cobra is primarily nocturnal, but hood spreads
in defense
gray, and is active at night and early in can sometimes be seen basking in the Bright orange markings on the underside,
the morning. Females lay up to 15 eggs sun early in the morning. Quick to rear head, and tail of the blue coral snake act
in a burrow or in rotting vegetation. and spread its broad, rounded hood as a warning device to keep potential
to intimidate an opponent, this highly predators at bay. A highly venomous
narrow venomous cobra will hiss and advance front-fanged species, its poison glands
hood on its aggressor if the latter is extend along almost one-third of its entire
black band
across throat undeterred, and may body length. It is also known as the
eventually strike, thickset body “100-pace snake,” referring to the
delivering a distance a human is thought capable
bite that is fatal of traveling before succumbing to
for humans if an the venom. However, it is generally
antivenom is not inoffensive, only killing other
REPTILES
administered snakes for food. Only a few cases
promptly. It of human fatalities have ever
actively pursues been recorded.
Notechis scutatus Ophiophagus hannah although it rarely attempts to bite. In fact, Oxyuranus scutellatus
few cases of king cobra bites on humans
Australian tiger King cobra have been recorded, because this
retiring snake shuns human contact,
Coastal taipan
snake Length 9 ⁄4 – 16 ft
(3 – 5 m)
3
living mainly in deep forest. Slender Length 61⁄2 – 12 ft
(2 – 3.6 m)
and smooth-scaled, the king cobra is
Length 31⁄4 – 7 ft a good swimmer and is often found
(1 – 2.1 m) Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
near water. Adults are plain brown,
Breeding Viviparous Status Vulnerable Status Not evaluated
while juveniles are darker and marked
Habit Terrestrial Location S. and S.E. Asia Location S. New Guinea,
with pale chevrons down their backs.
Status Least concern N. Australia
Unusually for a snake, this species
Location S.E. Australia is at least temporarily monogamous,
pairs apparently remaining together
The king cobra, or hamadryad, is the during the breeding season. Females
longest venomous snake and a lay 21 – 40 eggs, mostly in piles of dead Although nondescript in appearance, the
specialized hunter of other snakes. It vegetation, which are guarded by both plain tan or dark brown coastal taipan
sometimes reaches a length of parents until they hatch. The king cobra is Australia’s most venomous snake.
more than 16 ft (5 m), which may live for more than It is shy and seldom seen, but when
allows it to overpower and kill 20 years in captivity. encountered, is capable of striking
other snakes of a considerable with deadly speed. It feeds mainly
size. When threatened, it raises on mammals, but also on birds and
narrow
the front third of its body so that it hood lizards, sometimes entering burrows
large stands 5 ft (1.5 m) tall, erects a narrow to trap its prey underground. Females
scales
hood, and may strike downward, lay 3 – 20 eggs each time they breed.
This extremely venomous species is Taipan bites can be fatal to humans,
responsible for many potentially fatal long body but an effective antivenom means that
snake bites in Australia. It may be gray, fatalities are now relatively rare.
brown, dark brown, or olive-brown,
often with narrow, light yellow bands.
Although active mainly during the day,
the Australian tiger snake may also be
active early in the morning and in the
evening, and on warm nights; it remains
hidden in spells of cold weather. Its
prey consists mainly of frogs, which it smooth
chases then subdues with its venom. In scales
defense, it flattens its neck and rears its
body slightly off the ground. Females keeled
give birth to about 30 live young. scales
402 SNAKES
Vipers
Vipers are the most highly evolved of all Anatomy
VetBooks.ir
PHYLUM Chordata their heat-sensitive pits, they can

snakes. They have long, hinged fangs, and Most vipers are short and stocky not only detect the presence of prey
CLASS Reptilia
some (the pit vipers) also have a pair of with wide, triangular heads and but also gauge its distance and the
ORDER Squamata
heat-sensitive pits between their eyes and rough, keeled scales. The head has direction in which it lies. Rattlesnakes,
SUBORDER Serpentes long fangs, which are folded against which are a type of pit viper, have a
nostrils. Vipers are found in a wide range of
SUPERFAMILY Caenophidia
the roof of the mouth when not in use, unique warning device in the form of
climates, and compared to other snakes are and large venom glands. Vipers are a rattle at the end of the tail.
FAMILY Viperidae better equipped to deal with cold conditions. generally sluggish snakes and rely on
SPECIES 337 Many live at high elevations or camouflage to go undetected: they Venom
in desert areas with cold are often colored to blend in Most vipers ambush their prey,
with the surface on which they some using the brightly colored
winters. Some are even found north of the
live and may have intricate tip of their tail as a lure. They lunge
Arctic Circle. Vipers live on the ground or geometric markings to open-mouthed and stab the victim
in trees. Some species use rodent break up their outline. using their long fangs, penetrating fur
burrows as temporary shelters. Heat detection is more and feathers, to reach the vital organs.
advanced in pit vipers The venom varies from species to
than in any other species, but often contains proteins
STRIKING POSITION snakes. Using that break down blood cells and
When preparing to strike, the desert cause internal hemorrhaging. The
horned viper (shown here) opens its venom being relatively slow acting,
mouth and moves its fangs down from vipers deliver large amounts of it,
their usual position flat against the unlike cobras. For the prey, death
roof of the mouth. The jaws are may not be instantaneous.
opened wide so that the
fangs point forward Reproduction
towards the prey. Although some vipers lay eggs, most
give birth to live young. Females retain
the developing eggs in their body and
bask during the day to accelerate the
embryos’ development. Many
REPTILES
species breed only every 2,

or even 3 years, using the
nonbreeding years to feed
and recover their body weight.
Atheris mabuensis Bitis arietans DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOR Bitis caudalis
Mount Mabu Puff adder Horned adder

forest viper Length 31⁄4 ft (1 m),
max 61⁄4 ft (1.9 m)
Length 12 – 20 in
(30 – 50 cm)
Length 15 in Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous
(38 cm) max Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Breeding Viviparous Status Not evaluated Status Not evaluated
Habit Terrestrial Location Africa (south Location Southern Africa
Status Not evaluated of Sahara and Morocco),
Saudi Arabia
Location E. Africa Highly venomous, the puff adder
is ferocious when disturbed, and
defends itself by inflating its body The horned adder is gray, brown,
The puff adder is a thick-bodied snake and making a long, low hissing reddish, or orange, with a single horn
This is the mostly southerly—and with a wide, flattened head and a sound. If further provoked, it may over each eye. Its flattened body and
smallest—of Atheris African forest rounded snout. The male is smaller strike, delivering a fatal bite. rough scales help it shuffle down into
vipers; it was described as a new and often more brightly colored than loose sand in order to escape the heat
species in 2009 and is known only the female. Sluggish and slow moving, and to hide. When crossing loose sand,
from the midaltitude rain forest of Mount larger individuals crawl in a straight line, like a caterpillar. The puff adder hunts it may move in a sideways looping
Mabu and Mount Namuli in northern in the evening and at night for small motion, known as sidewinding. It hunts
Mozambique. Its highly restricted dark-edged, mammals and, occasionally, birds and mainly in the evening—prey may be
white chevrons
distribution makes it at risk from habitat reptiles. It ambushes prey attracted to its twitching tail.
destruction. Adults resemble the and strikes quickly,
juveniles of larger allied species and, injecting large amounts
unlike most members of its genus, of venom. Males combat and
are ground dwelling. It may be a follow the trails of females in the spring.
specialized hunter—taking small frogs This adder’s litter size may reach 154
and geckos among leaf litter. in exceptional cases, the largest of any
snake, but is more typically 20–40.
The puff adder is highly dangerous to
BODY MARKINGS humans, and is responsible for most
The puff adder
of the lethal snake bites in Africa.
has a yellowish
brown or gray body
with white chevrons broad head
dark
along its back. Some markings
individuals may also
have yellow markings. wide head
VIPERS 403
Bitis gabonica excellent camouflage, making it Cerastes cerastes protected from the heat. Active at night,
extremely difficult to detect. A sluggish, it lies in ambush for rodents, lizards,
Gaboon viper usually placid snake, it generally lies
motionless on the forest floor, moving
Desert horned viper and birds, sometimes partially buried,
then launches a rapid strike. When
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Length 4 ft (1.2 m), only when prey—namely rodents and Length 12 – 231⁄2 in threatened, it forms a coil, rubbing
max 61⁄2 ft (2 m) (30 – 60 cm)
larger mammals, birds, and frogs— together the scales on its flanks to
comes within striking range. Large, create a rasping sound.
heavy-bodied individuals normally crawl dusty color provides camouflage
in a straight line, like a caterpillar. When
Location W. and C. Africa disturbed, this viper gives a loud, low Location N. Africa
hiss and may bite, but only as a last
resort; the bite is often fatal to humans
if not treated at once. Males combat
The immense, thickset body, massive, during the breeding season, and Also known as the Sahara horned
triangular head with small eyes, and females give birth to 16 – 60 young viper, this short, squat snake usually
patterning of interlocking, geometric every 2 – 3 years. has a thornlike horn over each eye.
shapes along the back, make the geometric The strongly keeled scales on its body
gaboon viper instantly patterning help the snake shuffle down into the
recognizable. When seen sand, where it remains hidden and
away from its natural
habitat, it appears to be
colorful and conspicuous, Daboia russelli dark-edged brown blotches down its
with its distinct markings in back. A sit-and-wait predator, it relies
pale purple, tan, cream, and
brown. However, in
Russell’s viper on its camouflage to escape detection
by unwary prey, then strikes. In defense,
the wild, its coloration Length 31⁄4 ft (1 m), it forms a tight coil, hisses, and strikes
max 5 ft (1.5 m)
and patterning provide hard, often lifting its body off the ground
Breeding Viviparous
in the process.
Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated stout body
Location S. and S.E. Asia with distinctive
venom glands markings
behind eyes
REPTILES
Echis pyramidum rubbed together. When threatened, Although this is a sluggish animal that
saw-scaled vipers use this sound as usually remains coiled and well hidden
Northeast African a warning signal, in much the same way
as rattlesnakes (see p.404) use their tails.
during the day, Russell’s viper is one of
the most dangerous snakes to humans
saw-scaled viper Like its relatives, the northeast African in southern Asia. It is distinguished by
saw-scaled viper hunts small mammals, its light brown body with 3 rows of oval,
Length 12 – 231⁄2 in amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates
(30 – 60 cm)
at night. Females
Breeding Oviparous
lay clutches of Vipera berus mate, with males engaging in protracted
Habit Terrestrial
6 – 20 eggs. combat for the chance to pair up with
Location N. and N.E. Africa

Common adder females. Females breed only about once
every 2 or 3 years, producing litters of up
Length 26 – 35 in to 20 young that may have been fathered
(65 – 90 cm)
by several different males. Adders are
Breeding Viviparous
only mildly venomous. In humans, their
Habit Semiterrestrial
Despite its small size, this quick-moving bite can cause swelling and pain, but
snake is highly dangerous, with venom is rarely fatal.
potent enough to kill humans. It belongs Location Europe, C. to
E. Asi

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VetBooks.

DORLING KINDERSLEY, LONDON

DORLING KINDERSLEY, DELHI

STUDIO CACTUS SCHERMULY DESIGN COMPANY

FOR THIS EDITION

DORLING KINDERSLEY, LONDON

DORLING KINDERSLEY, DELHI

First American edition, 2001

DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk

Printed and bound in China

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF DAVID BURNIE & DON E. WILSON

MAMMALS BIRDS REPTILES AMPHIBIANS

CONTRIBUTORS AND CONSULTANTS

COLUGOS ................................................................. 132

ABOUT THIS BOOK .................................................. 10

KINGDOM 84 Prosimians ............................................................ 136

INTRODUCTION 12 Monkeys ................................................................ 140

HABITATS 36 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS ........................................ 92

CETACEANS ............................................................. 244 FALCONS AND CARACARAS ............................ 336

REPTILES ................................................................... 372 JAWLESS FISHES .................................................. 472

TORTOISES AND TURTLES ................................ 374 CARTILAGINOUS FISHES ................................... 473

TUATARAS ................................................................. 383 Sharks .................................................................... 474

Colubrids ............................................................... 393 Fleshy-finned fishes .................................................. 488

ABOUT THIS BOOK THE ANIMAL 88 MAMMALS

Introduction to animals and their lives; a section on the

This section of Animal is divided

Evolution structure (see panel, left), the YOUNG MAMMALS

invertebrates. Each chapter begins

of animal groups and species. At the end of the book, a

with an introduction to the animal

detailed glossary defines all zoological and technical terms

group. Lower-ranked groups such

as orders and families are then Anatomy

by both Latin name and common name, including alternative

introduced, followed by profiles of

common names. the species classified within them.

The invertebrates are organized

slightly differently (see opposite),

while passerine birds are profiled at

family level, with only representative

Animal begins with an overview evolution, behavior, and

of all aspects of animal life. This conservation. In addition, there

woodland offshore waters

Tropical forest and rain forest Seas and oceans

Mountains, highlands, scree slopes Coral reefs and waters immediately

Desert and semidesert

Polar regions, including tundra and

Open habitats, including

fields, scrub Urban areas, including buildings,

parks, and gardens

Wetlands and all still bodies of

water, including lakes, ponds, Parasitic; living on or inside another

SEX (Fishes only)

Whether the species has separate males and

extremely high risk of extinction in the wild

SOCIAL UNIT (Mammals only) in the immediate future.

Whether a species lives mainly alone

ENDANGERED (IUCN) Facing a very high risk

(Individual), in a Group, in a Pair, or varies

of extinction in the wild in the near future.

between these units (Variable).

VULNERABLE (IUCN) Facing a high risk of

VULTURE is wide-ranging record 19,800 ft (6,000 m) just