Tenth Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium:' Recent developments in consolidation of

natural clays
SERGELEROUEIL
Universite' Laval, Qukbec, Que., Canada GIK 7P4
Received Februa~y13, 1987
Accepted October 15, 1987
A global analysis of the consolidation of natural clays is realized considering the consolidation process to be a combination
of the effects of compressibility and of permeability. The compressibility or stress-stzin curve followed is strongly
influenced, both in the laboratory and in situ, by the strain rate. The self-boring permeameter appears to be an excellent tool for
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permeability measurement; however, in homogeneous clays direct measurement in the laboratory also gives representive
results. The coefficients of consolidation determined graphically strongly underestimate the in situ coefficient. The consolida-
tion must thus be analysed by considering compressibility and permeability parameters measured separately.
Key words: consolidation, clay, compressibility, permeability.

Une analyse globale de la consolidation des argiles naturelles est effectuCe en considkrant que le processus de consolidation
est constituC d'une combinaison des effets de compressibilitC et de permtabilitC. La compressibilitt ou la courbe effort-
dCformation suivie est fortement influencte par la vitesse de dCformation, tant en laboratoire que sur le terrain. Le permkamktre
auto-foreur semble &re u11 excellent outil pour mesurer la permkabilitC; cependant, la mesure directe en laboratoire donne
Cgalement des rCsultats reprksentatifs dans les argiles homogknes. Les mCthodes graphiques sous-estiment fortement le
coefficient de consolidation in situ. La consolidation doit donc &treanalyste en partant des paramktres de compressibilitCet de
permCabilitC mesures en place.
Mots cle's : consolidation, argile, compressibilitC, permCabilitC.
[Traduit par la revue]
Can. Geotech. J. 25, 85-107 (1988)
For personal use only.

Foreward
The topic of the Colloquium is the consolidation of clays.
The subject is limited to the consolidation of natural clays
without consideration of dredged or other materials consoli-
dating under their own weight. Moreover, very little attention
is given to numerical models and, in particular, models related
to two- and three-dimensional consolidation. For these topics,
the reader is referred to general reports presented recently by
Schiffman et al. (1984), Murray (1978), and Balasubramanian
and Brenner (1981).
Because of the large extent of soft clay deposits in populated
areas of Canada and the importance of associated problems,
research on consolidation has been very active in the country
for at least 30 years. The researchers involved are numerous
but I think it is worth mentioning the contribution made by
Mr. Carl B. Crawford. He was one of the first to evidence the
importance of strain rate effects on clay behaviour and the fact
that oedometer test results depend on the testing technique
used; in numerous papers, he compared laboratory test results
with in situ behaviour to try to establish which of the labora-
tory tests is the most representative. The work presented here
follows the path laid out by Crawford and the author would
like to dedicate this Colloquium to him.
Introduction
Consolidation has been a major concern to builders for a very
long time. KCrisel(1985) reported that 6000 years ago, Sumer-
ians built ziggourats-embankments to support temple,Q-on
'Editor's footnote: the Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium is pre-
sented annually by a young engineer to the annual meeting of the
Canadian Geotechnical Society. The subject of the lecture, as chosen
by the Associate Committee on Geotechnical Research of the National
Research Council of Canada, is one of national interest and im~or-
tance.
Printed in Canada / Imprim6 au Canada
the soft soils of the Euphrate valley; one of these temples, the
White temple of Eridou, has now its foundations 12 m below
the street. Since that time, a great number of other structures
have settled and suffered damage. In the last century, with the
industrialization of the planet and the growth of road and rail-
way networks, it has become necessary to occupy lands and
marshes that were before avoided, thus increasing the number
of structures built on soft soils.
Another consequence of industrialization is the rapid growth
of cities and the increasing need for water. This water is often
taken from the subsoil, resulting in settlements of large areas
of land, such as in Mexico City, Tokyo, Nagoya, Bangkok,
Stockholm, Shanghai, and Venice. Some of these cities are
only slightly above sea level and could sink unless the consoli-
dation process is stopped. Already, lowlands of great value for
agriculture have become submerged; Yamamoto (1977) esti-
mated that in Japan, owing to this phenomenon, 1200 km2 has
come below the sea level.
Thus, consolidation is an important problem and has always
been with us. However, our comprehension of the processes
involved has improved very slowly. Even if the Sumerians
may have understood some aspects of consolidation and pore
pressure dissipation (KCrisel 1985), the most important bench-
mark of our understanding of consolidation was set by Ter-
zaghi in 1923. In the last 60 years considerable work and
progress have been achieved to improve our understanding of
clay behaviour. It must be recognized, however, that in 1986
soil engineers are still using the theory of Terzaghi (1923) and
wondering. whether there is a combination of ~ r i m a r vand sec-
ondary compression during primary consolidation.
The experimental work performed in the laboratory
and in situ needs to be anal~sedwith the aim of bringing out
the rheological behaviour of natural clays. The data from
embankment foundations with vertical drains is, however, dis-
regarded in this paper, the analysis being complicated by pore
 86 VOL. 25, 1988
CAN. GEOTECH. .I.

pressures that vary with the distance to the drain and by a con-
solidation process that depends on the type of drain used and
its installation (Magnan 1983).
Before examining the data related to soil consolidation, it is
of interest to recall that the basic and most general equation for
one-dimensional consolidation can be written (Berry and
Poskitt 1972) as

[I]
aev - 1 + eo a
at yw az
(+
I
k
e
au)
a~
where ev = vertical strain, z = depth related to initial thick-
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ness, t = time, eo = initial void ratio, e = present void ratio,

k = permeability, yw = unit weight of water, and u' = excess J
pore-water pressure. .-c
The only assumptions required to establish [I] are that E
?ii
Darcv's law be valid and the soil be saturated. It is worth
noting that, from [I], at a given time, the strain rate iv= aglat
FIG. 1. Stress-strain curves and the consolidation process.
depends essentially on the pore pressure distribution and the
and very little<through (1 f eo) and (1 + e)) on
the compressibility of the soil. For example, if two different recognized that time could be an important factor, a
soils, one strongly overconsolidated (soil A) and one soft and decrease of void ratio under constant effective stress was
sensitive (soil B) (Fig. I), have, at a given time t, the same observed, The approaches developed by Koppejan (1948) and
excess pore pressure distribution, the same permeability, and Bjermm (1967), with rheological equations of the type
the same effective stress (a; at point I, Fig. l), they will
undergo about the same strain increase Atv = i,At during the [41 R(o;,e,t) = 0 or R1(u;,ev,t) = 0
time increment At. are directly derived from such observations. A major difficulty
For personal use only.

Owing to different shapes of the stress -strain curves, soil A
will move from point I to point VA with a corresponding
increase of the effective stress and a decrease of the excess
pore pressure; on the contrary, going from point I to point VB,
the soil B undergoes a decrease in cr; and thus an increase in u'
(as shown by Crooks et al. (1984), this latter behaviour is not
exceptional). At time t + At, the new effective stress 0; at
points VAor VBwill give the new excess pore pressure and thus
the new strain rate. The consolidation process is thus the com-
bination of two phenomena: the permeability, which controls
the rate of settlement at any time, and the compressibility,
which controls the evolution of the consolidation process.
In the simple case where the applied total stress, the perme-
ability k , and the deformation modulus M = du;/dev are con-
stant, the equation controlling the consolidation takes the
well-known form
with
[3] c kM
=-='-Sf
with models of this type is to define an origin of time; this is
particularly true when the applied load varies with time.
Bjermm's model implies that in multiple-stage loading oed-
ometer tests, the longer the application of the load, the smaller
is the preconsolidation pressure. This was observed in partic-
ular by Crawford (1964) and by Tavenas and Leroueil(1977).
In the last two decades, numerous constant rate of strain (CRS)
oedometer tests have been performed on natural clays at
various strain rates (on eastern Canada clays: Crawford 1965;
Vaid et al. 1979; Leroueil et al. 1983a; Silvestri et al. 1985;
on Swedish clay: Sallfors 1975; on Belfast clay: Graham et al.
1983). All the tests show that the strain rate influences the
compression curve of clays: at a given strain, the higher the
strain rate, the higher the effective stress. Constant rate of
loading tests (Jarrett 1967; Burghignoli 1979), stage loading
tests (Larsson 1981), and controlled gradient tests (Shields
1974; Leroueil et al. 1983a) confirm the important effect of
strain rate.
To take these effects into account, two families of rheolog-
ical models have been developed:

Yw (Taylor and Merchant 1940; Gibson and Lo 1961; Wu et al.

The coefficient of consolidation cv is a function of the com-
pressibility parameter M and the permeability parameter k.
To understand the consolidation process of natural clays, it
seems logical to analyse separately the compressibility and the
permeability; this will be made in the first two sections of the
Colloquium. In the last two sections, the overall consolidation
will be examined and practical conclusions will be suggested.
Compressibility
Compressibility in laboratory
In Terzaghi's theory of consolidation, the effective stress -
strain response of the soil is unique, linear, and time indepen-
dent. However, as early as 1936 (Buisman), it has been
1966; Poskitt and Birdsall 1971; Sekiguchi and Toriihara
1976), and
(~uklje1957, 1969; Barden 1965; Poorooshasb and Siva-
patham 1969; Poorooshasb et al. 1981; Oka 1981; Kabbaj
et al. 1985).
Leroueil et al. (1985b) camed out different types of oedom-
eter tests (CRS, controlled gradient, stage loading, long-term
creep) on several Champlain sea clays to determine which one
of equations [5] and [6] is the most representative of soil
behaviour. In the CRS tests, the effective stress was always
increasing ($4 > 0) while in long-term creep tests, the rate of
 LEROUEIL
Effective stress T;, kPo
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For personal use only.
FIG. 2. Typical stress - strain - strain rate relation for natural clays
change in effective stress was 0 (6; = O), and it was thus pos-
sible to evaluate the influence of 6; on the rheological behav-
iour of clays. From the results, it appears that this factor does
not have a significant influence, so that, at least for laboratory
conditions, an effective stress - strain - strain rate model
([6]) seems to be most representative of the rheological behav-
iour of natural clays. This means that whatever the test, at a
given strain, there is a unique relation between the effective
stress and the strain rate. This behaviour can be described by
curves of equal strain rate in a c,-o: diagram as shown in
Fig. 2; SuMje (1957) used the e-a: diagram and called the
e = cStcurves isotaches.
Similar strain rate effects have been observed on numerous
soft clays. Figure 3 shows the normalized preconsolidation
pressure - logarithm of strain rate relationship for eastern
Canada clays; Sallfors (1975), Larsson (198 l), Graham et al.
(1983), and Silvestri et al. (1985) have found very similar
results. As shown by Mesri and Choi (1979), the fact that the
variation of a; per logarithm cycle of time or strain rate is
about the same for a variety of clays is consistent with observa-
tions made by Mesri and Godlewski (1977) and Mesri and
Choi (1984) that the ratio C,,/CC (Cue = AelA log t and Cc =
AelA log a:) is approximately constant and equal to 0.04 for
inorganic clays.
The preconsolidation pressure, as determined in oedometer
tests, is thus strain rate dependent and this seems to be valid
not only for sensitive clays but for all clays. In fact, as indi-
cated by L. Suklje (personal communication, 1984), the geo-
logical preconsolidation pressure is unique and constant; on
the contrary, the yield stress separating small and large strains,
which does not necessarily represent the geological maximum
effective stress and which varies with strain rate, must be con-
sidered as a rheological parameter. This yield stress should
have a particular appellation but engineers usually refer to it as
"preconsolidation pressure" and this term will also be used in
this paper.
During secondary compression, when u' is almost equal to
zero, the classical secondary compression approach with the
use of C,, and the strain rate approach are equivalent, i, and
C,, being related by
If, as indicated by Mesri and Godlewski (1977), CaelCc =
0.04 in conventional oedometer tests, then at 24 h, the strain
rate is
For eastern Canada clays for which Cc/(l + eo) is typically
between 0.3 and 0.7, the conventional oedometer curve corre-
sponds to a strain rate of about s-I, as observed by
Leroueil et al. (1983b). For less sensitive clays having smaller
Cc/(l + eo) ratios, the strain rate at 24 h would be slightly
smaller.
According to Mesri and Feng (1986), the strain rate corre-
sponding to the end-of-primary (EOP) (i.e., when the excess
pore pressure becomes approximately equal to zero) compres-
sion curve would be
 CAN. GEOTECH. 1. VOL. 25, 1988

1.3
.,
; +Go' '

1.2

-,-
1.1
0
U)
'0

YG 1.0 0
Y

-
0
.,O 0.9 u

\
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.,,
.a
/

0.8
0-
0.7 ---.------c
0.6
10-a 10- lo-6 lo-5
2",s-'
Normalized preconsolidation pressure - strain rate relationship for Champlain sea clays (from Leroueil et al.

cr;/ui0
0.8 1.0 1.5 2 . 0 2.5
0
For personal use only.

Increment 4 Incr. 5
2 k '

4
$"
>
\U 6
.-
C

e
G
8

10 -

I I 1
12 20
(Berre and lversen 1972) ( Samson et 01. 1981 )
(a) Drammen c/uy (b1 Jo/ieffe c/ay
FIG.4. Multiple-stage loading (MSL) tests.

In contrast to the strain rate at 24 h (assuming that the speci-
men is in the secondary compression range), the strain rate at
the end of primary is highly variable, depending on the charac-
teristics of the clay specimen, particularly its permeability.
Practical implications of strain rate effects
As shown be Leroueil et al. (1985b), the consolidation
behaviour of clay can be entirely described by a relatively
simple effective stress - strain - strain rate relationship
(Fig. 2). This has important implications on the response of
the soil during testing.
Stage loading tests
In stage loading tests, such as the conventional 24-h oedom-
eter test, it is possible to characterize two different phases: pri-
mary and secondary. Various definitions have been given for
these two phases (Bjermm 1967; Leonards 1977; Crawford
1985). The author agrees with Crawford, who says that
"during the so-called primary phase, the permeability of the
soil is the predominant factor controlling the rate of volume
change and during the secondary phase, it is the resistance of
the structure that determines the rate." Of course, during the
secondary compression phase, settlement occurs and thus
water flows out of the specimen. Consequently, from Darcy's
law, there must -be a gradient and some excess pore pressures,
- - -
but these are very small under usual laboratory conditions.
Furthermore, as indicated by Leroueil et al. (1985b), the soil
 LERI

Effective stress ci , kPa Effective stress 6,

kPo
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FIG.6. Observed stress-strain relations in various sublayers of a

sample of clay from Berthierville (from Leroueil et al. 1986, after
Mesri and Feng 1986).
For personal use only.

FIG.5. Schematic state path followed during a multiple-stage load-

ing oedometer test.

has only one rheological behaviour independently of the fact

thzt the clay could be in the primary or secondary phase. In
fact, most of the models (for example, Poorooshasb et al.
1981; Oka 1981) do not separate primary and secondary com-
pressions.
During secondary consolidation, i.e., at an essentially con-
stant effective stress, the strain rate decreases with time
(Fig. 2) as the void ratio (or strain) decreases with time in the
C,, concept.
The behaviour during primary consolidation is more difficult
to analyse, as the effective stress is continuously changing. An
idea of the effective stress-strain curve followed can be
obtained by measuring the pore pressure at the base of the spe-
cimen and deducting an average effective stress at various
times and strains. This has been canied out by Berre and Qii from conventional tests, kPa
Iversen (1972), Rizkallah et al. (1977), and Samson et al.
(1981). Figure 4 shows typical results. The stress -strain FIG.7. Correlation between the preconsolidation pressures obtained
curves followed are very different from the conventional com- from CRS and conventional 24-h oedometer tests (from Leroueil
pression curve obtained by simply joining the points corre- et al. 19836).
sponding to the end of the loading periods. In fact, at each
step, at the beginning of the loading period, the pore pressure sures and deformations at various depths in the specimen.
and the strain rate are high, and from the 04 - E , - t , model Berre and Iversen (1972) and Mesri and Feng (1986) have
shown in Fig. 2, the clay goes to high stresses (point D in solved the problem by putting subspecimens in series. Figure 6
Fig. 5); with time, the excess pore pressure and the strain rate presents results obtained by Mesri and Feng (1986) in an iso-
decrease, and the stress-strain state moves down along lines tropic consolidation test where four 12.7 cm high triaxial spe-
of lower strain rates. As previously mentioned, after 24 h the cimens were used; the step under consideration was entirely in
strain rate is approximately equal to lop7 s-I (point F in the normally consolidated range. The stress-strain curves fol-
Fig. 5). The complete stress-strain curve followed is a suc- lowed by the four subspecimens are very different and this can
cession of steps and not the smooth conventional compression be explained as follows: at the beginning of the loading period,
curve (Fig. 4). the strain rate is higher near the drainage boundary than near
To know what happens within the specimen during these the impervious boundary and consequently, in agreement with
successive steps, it becomes necessary to measure pore pres- the a: - E , - t , model, the clay near the drainage boundary (ele-
 90 CAN. GEOTECH. J . VOL. 25, 1988
HVPOTHESIS A: E O P
A N D 0 ( T H I N SAMPLE)
.. .
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8 ( T H I C K SAMPLE I100 31 THIN)
ON S A M R E T H I C K N E S S
(b) S T R A I N V S . T I M E C o n OCR=1 SAMPLES H A V I N G EQUAL
INITIAL CONDITIONS A N 0 AfTV
For personal use only.
log TIME-
FIG.8. Illustration of hypotheses A and B in terms of (a) strain vs.
stress and (b) strain vs. time (from Jamiolkowski et al. 1985).
ment 1 in the figure) mobilizes higher effective stresses than
the clay element 4 near the impervious boundary.
Continuous oedometer tests
In a constant rate of strain test the stress-strain curve
depends on the strain rate used. As the strain rates generally
used in practice are chosen between and 5 x s-I,
the stress -strain curve obtained in a CRS test is different from
the one obtained in a conventional 24-h oedometer test, which
was seen to correspond to strain rates of about lo-' s-I ([8]).
Data compiled by Leroueil et al. (19836) for eastern Canada
clays show that the preconsolidation pressure obtained in CRS
tests (6, = 4 x lop6 s-') is on average 28% higher than that
obtained in conventional tests (Fig. 7). Holtz et al. (1986)
have found similar results on the very stiff Montalto di Castro
clay. It thus follows that to obtain a "conventional curve"
from a CRS test camed out at a strain rate of 4 x s-I, the
effective stresses have to be divided by 1.28. To take into
account these strain rate effects, Larsson and Sallfors (1985)
suggest a graphical correction for CRS tests that also gives cor-
rected curves similar to 24-h curves.
In controlled gradient tests (CGT), the experience on eastern
Canada clays shows that the strain rate decreases when the
strain increases in the normally consolidated range (Samson
et al. 1981). It follows that the CGT oedometer curve in the
normally consolidated range is steeper (C, higher) than the
curves obtained in CRS tests (Kabbaj et al. 1985) or in conven-
tional tests (Shields 1974).
# Settlement gauge
Piezometer
FIG.9. Determination of in situ stress-strain curves from settle-
ment and pore pressure observations.
In general terms, this means that each testing technique leads
to different results, depending on the strain rate history fol-
lowed in that test. As all our experience has been established
on the basis of the conventional test, it is absolutely necessaw
to calibrate the results of the new tests (CRS, CGT, or others)
with those of the conventional test before using them for
design.
Compressibility in situ
Hypothesis A and hypothesis B
The most important practical question for the soil engineer is
to know what is the relevant compression curve for in situ con-
ditions. As indicated by Ladd et al. (1977) and more recently
by Jamiolkowski et al. (1985), there are two extreme possibil-
ities (Fig. 8). "Hypothesis A assumes that creep occurs only
after the end of primary consolidation . . . " and consequently
that the stress-strain curve followed in situ is the same as the
one obtained in the laboratory at the end of primary (EOP
curve). "Hypothesis B assumes that some sort of 'structural
viscosity' is responsible for creep, that this phenomenon
occurs during pore pressure dissipation, and therefore that the
strain at the end of primary consolidation increases" with
sample thickness.
Numerous investigators have tried to demonstrate with lab-
oratory tests which one of the hypothesis, A or B, is the most
representative of clay behaviour. A review of the literature
made by Mesri and Choi (19856) indicated that the answer is
not clear-some results supporting hypothesis A, others sup-
porting hypothesis B, and others (Aboshi 1973) giving results
in between. In the same paper, Mesri and Choi present end-of-
primary compression curves obtained in isotropic consolida-
tion tests on specimens with heights varying between 2.5 and
50 cm, and conclude that the EOP curve is unique. While their
results seem conclusive, Leroueil et al. (1985~)commented
that the C,, values are much smaller in isotropic conditions
than in one-dimensional conditions and that the void ratio dif-
ference between hypotheses A and B at the end of primary
could be difficult to quantify. In the author's opinion, the rela-
 LEROUEIL
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For personal use only.
FIG. 10. Comparison of in siru stress-strain curves and laboratory end-of-primary compression curves (after Kabbaj et al. 1986).
tive validity of hypotheses A and B has not yet been definitely
established experimentally in the laboratory.
An approach frequently used to evaluate the representativ-
ness of laboratory compression curves consists in comparing
computed and measured surface settlements of embankment
foundations. However, as indicated by Leroueil and Tavenas
(1981) and Magnan et al. (1983), in such a problem there are
too many parameters varying with depth and time to be able to
reliably evaluate one particular parameter.
A much better approach has been proposed by Pelletier et al.
(1979). As schematized in Fig. 9, it consists in using deep
settlement and pore pressure records to determine the stress -
strain curves followed in situ. Homogeneous sublayers, well
defined between two deep settlement gauges, are considered;
the settlements measured at the two settlement gauges give the
strain and strain rate, and the measured pore pressures give the
effective stress, allowing a complete description of the in situ
stress -strain curve.
Is the laboratory end-ofprimary curve representative of
in situ compressibility?
Kabbaj et al. (1988) have compared in situ stress-strain
curves obtained as indicated above and in Fig. 9, on four dif-
ferent sites with the stress-strain curves obtained at the end-
of-primary consolidation in laboratory multiple-stage loading
oedometer tests (Fig. 10). For this comparison and in general
in this study, the strain E, =AHIHo has been considered rather
than the void ratio because it erases the small initial void ratio
differences unavoidably existing in natural soil deposits. On
the Berthierville site, the diameter of the embankment is nine
times the thickness of the clay layer; in Saint-Alban (embank-
ment D), the maximum lateral displacement is about 2% of the
surface settlement; on the Vasby site, Chang (1981) compared
measured settlements with settlements computed on the basis
of water content changes, and found good agreement. It can
thus be considered that the compression was essentially one
dimensional in these three cases. A these three sites, samples
were taken with the 200 mm diameter Laval sampler (La
Rochelle et al. 1981) and are thus considered to be of an exel-
lent quality. From Fig. 10, it can first be observed that in Saint-
Alban and Berthierville, the effective stress decreases slightly,
as the stress - strain curve has just passed the preconsolidation
pressure. This condition corresponds to an increase of the pore
pressure under constant applied load. Such a behaviour could
 92 CAN. GEOTECII. J. VOL. 25, 1988
Expected excess
pore pressure
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pore pressure
FIG. 11. Compared stress states both in situ and in the laboratory.
be viewed as unexpected. However, Crooks et al. (1984) have
reported similar observations under 11 embankments out of 30
cases studied. Most of the investigators explain this behaviour
by breakdown of the clay structure or by pore pressures
induced by creep higher than the rate of decrease allowed by
Darcy's law. ~ h e s phenomena
e are generally considered to be
associated with very sensitive materials. However, among the
For personal use only.
11 cases reported by Crooks et al. (1984), some are located in
Great Britain, Northern Ireland, Thailand, and Trinidad,
places where the clays are not very sensitive.
Also evidenced in Fig. 10 is the major difference between
the EOP laboratory and in situ curves; at a given effective
stress, the in situ strain is much higher than the strain expected
from laboratory tests. Moreover, as indicated by the arrows,
the strain on the EOP laboratory curve under the final stress is
in all cases smaller than the existing strain under the embank-
ments, where the primary consolidation is still not completed.
This is particularly true for the Vasby case where the present
effective stress increase is only 50% of the final stress increase.
There is certainly some uncertainty in the determination of the
effective stresses in situ, but never to explain the typical differ-
ence of 24 kPa between the laboratory and in situ curves
observed in Fig. 10. The laboratory end-of-primary curves are
therefore not representative of the in situ behaviour and hypo-
thesis A is not valid.
To the author's knowledge, there is no other comparison of
in situ and laboratory stress-strain curves in the literature.
However, there are some cases of embankments in which
measured and computed behaviour in terms of settlements and
pore pressures have been compared and analysed: Avonmouth
(Lewis et al. 1976); Aiko (Shoji and Matsumoto 1976);
Penang (Adachi and Todo 1979); Saint-Alban-D (Leroueil and
Tavenas 1981); MIT-195 (SouliC and Silvestri 1984); Cubzac-
les-Ponts, test fill B (Magnan et al. 1983; SouliC and Silvestri
1984); Vasby (Mesri and Choi 198%); New York Port (Aron-
witz 1986).
In all these cases, it was possible to find a relatively good
agreement between observed and computed settlements (most
of the time by modifying the value of the permeability coeffi-
cients), but the measured excess pore pressures were higher
than the computed ones in all cases except Aiko test embank-
ment. Investigators generally consider that these high excess
pore pressures are due to a breakdown of the soil structure
2", 5-1
CRS M S L ~ ~n sit"
0 CREEP @% MSLZ4 e. = 10%
FIG.12. Effective stress - strain rate relations observed in the lab-
oratory and in situ at a vertical strain of 10% (after Leroueil et al.
19886).
when the effective stress exceeds the preconsolidation pressure
or due to creep phenomena; in such cases, pore pressures will
continue to decrease and settlements to increase, so that the
good agreement between observed and computed settlements
reported by the authors could no longer be valid for long
periods of observation. Another possible explanation for high
pore pressures would be a rise of the water table in the
embankment due to the expelled water from the clay founda-
tion and (or) to rainfall; such a water table rise has been
observed several times in embankments of sand or till.
Whatever the explanation for these high pore pressures, it
remains that at the settlement or strain considered, it implies
that the effective stress is smaller than expected. As shown in
Fig. 11 the predicted pore pressure is given by the distance FL
between the final effective stress and the considered stress-
strain curve (in these cases, laboratory end-of-primary or 24-h
curves). If the pore pressure (FS in Fig. 11) is, as generally
observed, higher than the calculated one, it is because the soil
is following in situ a stress-strain curve such as S'S" below
the laboratory one. This is also confirmed by Larsson (1986):
after studying the cases of Vasby, Ska-Edeby, and Drammen,
he concluded that "creep deformations occur within the pro-
cess of pore pressure dissipation and afterwards, and the com-
pressibility is thus time dependent"; then, refemng to "several
field observations of settlements made during recent years in
connection with road constructions in Sweden," he writes,
"no final settlements have been measured but the general
observation is that the settlements that have occurred during
the times for observation have been faster and larger than what
was predicted from calculations where creep effects were dis-
regarded." Ail these data confirm that creep effects, with dis-
 LEROU EIL
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I 0 CREEP
•
IS8 MSL,
MSL,,
in situ
FIG. 13. Preconsolidation pressure - strain rate relations observed
in the laboratory and in situ (after Leroueil et al. 19886).
placement of the stress-strain curve followed, exist in situ
during primary consolidation, and that the laboratory EOP
stress-strain curve is not representative of the in situ clay
For personal use only.
behaviour.
Is the laboratory 4 -c, - i, model relevant in situ?
The a{ - c, - i, model described in a previous section is, in
fact, a particular case of type-B theories and it is possible to
evaluate its validity by comparing the effective stress - strain
rate relation at a given strain deduced from laboratory oedom-
eter tests with the effective stress - strain rate in situ state at
the same strain. This has been done at the sites of Berthierville,
Saint-Alban, and Vasby where numerous, some very long
term, oedometer tests have been carried out (Kabbaj 1985;
Leroueil et al. 19886).
Figure 12 shows a:-& relations obtained at a large strain of
10%. It can be seen that the agreement between laboratory and
in situ behaviours is excellent, which indicates that the
a{ - E, - i, model established in laboratory conditions is also
valid in situ. This clearly proves that there is an accumulation
of creep deformztions during primary consolidation. However,
before recommending the use of numerical program based on a
a{-E,-i, model to compute settlements, it is necessary to
verify the practical validity of such a model at other strains,
and in particular at the strain corresponding to the preconsoli-
dation pressure.
Comparing the preconsolidation pressure states in the labor-
atory and in situ for the site of Gloucester, Leroueil et al.
(1983~)indicated that the in situ a;-i, state "appeared to lie
within the extrapolated boundaries defined in laboratory
tests"; however, there was one and one-half log-cycle separat-
ing laboratory and field data, so that no definite answer could
be given at that time. Figure 13 shows the a;-i, relations for
the Saint-Alban and Berthierville clays. In contrast to the
previous figure, it clearly appears in this case that the in situ
preconsolidation pressure is higher than the laboratory precon-
solidation pressure measured at the same strain rate. It thus
seems that the a{ - E , - 6, relationship deduced from oedometer
tests is not representative of the in situ behaviour at a;.
Observations of the deformations (or deformation moduli
FIG. 14. Effective stress paths, laboratory and in situ.
M = da:/dc,) in the overconsolidated range also show differ-
ences between laboratory and in situ behaviours: the moduli
observed in situ at Berthierville, Saint-Alban, and Gloucester
(Fig. 10) are higher than the ones measured in the laboratory.
Similar behaviours have been observed by other researchers:
Crawford and Bum (1962) measured settlements of a mat foun-
dation in Toronto, equal to only 1/10 of the estimated value
from recompression in oedometer tests; at Kars Bridge, Folkes
and Crooks (1985) observed an almost rigid behaviour of the
clay in the overconsolidated range and thus a modulus much
higher than the one obtained in the laboratory by Eden and
Poorooshasb (1968).
Several explanations can be given to explain such discrep-
ancies between laboratory and in situ behaviours at small
strains: the first one could be that the a{-c,-i, concept is not
general; the second could be that the clay specimens, as they
are in the oedometer cell, are disturbed; the third one could be
associated with stress path effects. These possible explanations
will now be examined.
Stress paths followed during oedometer tests have been
investigated by Sallfors (1975), Lefebvre and Philibert (1979),
Silvestri (1981), and Mesri and Castro (1987); they show small
lateral effective stress increases in the overconsolidated range
and a;/a; ratios approximately equal to (1 - sin 4 ' ) in the
normally consolidated range (Fig. 14). The stress paths fol-
lowed in situ under embankments have been studied by
Leroueil et al. (1978), Folkes and Crooks (1985), and Leroueil
and Tavenas (1986); they are variable depending on the con-
solidation properties of the clay in the overconsolidated range,
the thickness of the compressible foundation, the rate of con-
struction, and the geometry of the embankment. However, in
all cases, the in situ stress p~.thsare different from the ones
existing in oedometer tests (Fig. 14) and could explain a differ-
ence in behaviour.
As indicated by the high in situ moduli in the overconsoli-
dated range, another possible factor is disturbance. In the cases
of Berthierville and Saint-Alban, the samples were taken with
the Lava1 sampler of 200 mm diameter. This sampler has been
shown to give samples of quality equivalent to blocks (La
Rochelle et al. 1981); however, some disturbance is always
possible, although not otherwise evidenced. Disturbance could
also come from the trimming and the mounting of the speci-
men in the oedometer ring. Burland and Symes (1982) have
shown that the overall deformation measured in the triaxial cell
overestimates the deformation in the central part of the speci-
men; this could also be true for oedometer tests.
So, when examining the representativeness of the a{ - E, - i,
model, it appears that at large strains, when the stress paths are
about the same ix situ and in the laboratory and the soils in situ
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988
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1.2cOCRc2.5
2.5< OCR A
For personal use only.

ub ,kPa
FIG. 15. Correlation between in situ and laboratory conventional 24-h preconsolidation pressures.

and in the laboratory are destructured in the same manner, the

a{ - E, - iv model applies. On the other hand, at small strains,
where the stress paths are different in the laboratory and in situ
and where the clay behaviour in the laboratory is the most
affected by possible disturbances, the a{ - E, - iv model estab-
lished in laboratory is not representative of the in situ behav-
iour. In practical terms, that means that numerical
consolidation programs based on a a{ - 6, -4 model cannot be
used at the present time to compute settlements and settlement
rates.
Search for a representative stress -strain curve
It has been previously seen that the end-of-primary consoli-
dation laboratory a: -E, curve and the a$- E, - 6, model estab-
lished from laboratory tests are not representative of the overall
in situ behaviour. Thus, it becomes necessary to define a repre-
sentative stress -strain curve in a semiemperical manner.
Sallfors (1975), Leroueil et al. (1978), Morin et al. (1983),
and Crooks et al. (1984) have used different techniques to esti-
mate the preconsolidation pressure mobilized under embank-
ments: determination of stress-strain curves as shown in
Fig. 9; analysis of of pore pressures during and after construc-
tion; comparison of water content profiles-before construction FIG.16. Comparison between in situ and conventional 24-h labora-
and during the process of consolidation; observation of settle- tory stress-strain curves for eastern Canada clays.
ments of embankments of different heights. Their results are
summarized in Fig. 15 where in situ preconsolidation pressures
are compared with preconsolidation pressures measured in OCR's, it overestimates that pressure. Morin et al. (1983) pro-
conventional 24-h oedometer tests. For overconsolidation posed a small correction to the laboratory values:
ratios (OCR) between 1.2 and 2.5, both values are approxi-
mately equal. At lower OCR's, the conventional test underesti- [lo] 0; in situ = a10;cconv
mates the in situ preconsolidation pressure, whereas at high whereal = 1.1 for OCR < 1.2; al = 1.0 for 1.2 < OCR <
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 01/17/13
FIG. 17. Estimation of the end-of-primary in situ strain in excess of that determined from conventional 24-h laboratory test (from Leroueil
et al. 1988b).
2.5; and a l = 0.9 for 2.5 < OCR < 4.5.
For personal use only.
Larsson and Sdlfors (1985) have compared a; values
obtained in CRS tests and corrected for strain rate effkcts with
in situ preconsolidation pressures, and have also found good
agreement. It thus appears that in situ a; is approximately
equal to the conventional 24-h preconsolidation pressure, this
value being obtained directly from standard stage loading tests
or from CRS tests with a correction for strain rate effects. This
correction could be done with a multiplying factor, as sug-
gested by Leroueil et al. (1983b), or with a graphical method,
as suggested by Larsson and Sallfors (1985).
From all these data (Figs. 12 and 15), it becomes possible to
compare the in situ compressibility curve with the compression
curve obtained in conventional (24-h) oedometer tests or corre-
sponding to a strain rate of s-l. The conclusions can
be summarized as follows (Fig. 16): in the overconsolidated
range, the modulus M is higher in situ by a factor that will vary
with the sampling technique used, the trimming technique, and
probably with the soil; as discussed earlier, the preconsolida-
tion pressure is about the same; in the normally consolidated
range, the in situ strain is larger than the laboratory strain.
Leroueil et al. (1988b) have estimated the strain AE, (Fig. 16)
that can be expected at the end-of-primary consolidation in situ,
in excess of the strain estimated on the basis of the conven-
tional (24-h) oedometer test. Their assumptions can be sum-
marized as follows:
-the end of primary is reached when the excess pore pressure
in the middle of the clay layer is 8% of the initial excess pore
pressure uo; this value is deducted from the Terzaghi theory in
which it corresponds to a degree of consolidation equal to 95 %;
-during the last phases of primary consolidation, the pore
pressure isochrone is parabolic, which implies, together with
the previous assumption, that the strain rate at the end of pri-
mary is iEoP = (0.16ku,!,)l(yWfP) (H is the drainage length);
-at large strains and for strain rates smaller than s-l, the
strain rate dependence of the effective stress at a given strain
can be described by a linear log a{ - log i, relation: A log
i, = m A log a:. Experimental data give m = 32.
The proposed equation for AE, is
+
A g is given in Fig. 17 as a function of Cc/(l eo) and of the
approximate strain rate at the end of primary iEOP.Equation
[ll.] was applied by Leroueil et al. (19886) to the cases of
Berthierville, Saint-Alban-D, and Vasby and A q values found
are respectively 2.8, 4, and 8 % , implying additional settle-
ments respectively in the order of 9, 20, and 110 cm. These
values are realistic when it is considered that at Berthierville
and Saint-Alban, the strains computed on the basis of the con-
ventional oedometer test, respectively 10 and 13.5%, have
been exceeded when the pore pressure in the middle of the clay
layer was still 25 and 35% of the excess pore pressure at the
end of construction. At Vasby, total settlements have not been
calculated; however, in the clay layer between 4.3 and 7.3 m
(Fig. lo), the strain estimated from conventional oedometer
tests (about 15%) has been exceeded when the excess pore
pressure was more than 50% of the applied load. It is worth
noting, however, that in clays of very low sensitivity having
+
Cc/(l eo) values of about 0.25, A q would be much smaller
and hardly in excess of 3 % .
The calculated strains and A q (Figs. 16 and 17), which
depend on the reference conventional oedometer curve, could,
however, vary with the sampling technique used. As indicated
by Bozozuk (1971), La Rochelle and Lefebvre (1971), Lacasse
et al. (1985), and Holtz et al. (1986) (Fig. 18), the stress-
strain curve can be strongly affected by sampling disturbance
and the comparison of in situ versus laboratory behaviours is
modified accordingly. An example of this problem is well
illustrated in the case of Vasby. Mesri and Choi (1985a), con-
sidering EOP oedometer test results obtained on samples taken
in 1967, came to a relatively good agreement between com-
puted and measured settlements. On the other hand, Leroueil
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, I988

log (TI
,kPa
lo2 lo3
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-- (Holtz et ol. 1986)

Gloucester cloy Montolto di Cosfro cloy

FIG. 18. Sampling disturbance effect on the compression curves of natural clays.

and Kabbaj (1987), using test results obtained on samples

taken with the Laval 200 mm diameter sampler, found in situ
strains much higher than the ones obtained in the laboratory
under the same effective stress (Fig. 10). The reason for such a
discrepancy between the Mesri and Choi (1985~)and Leroueil
and Kabbaj (1987) results is clearly shown in Fig. 19, where
For personal use only.

typical oedometer curves are shown. The specimens taken with

the Laval sampler have a well-defined knee at the preconsoli-
dation pressure; on the contrary, the other curve is much more
rounded, indicating a high degree of disturbance and present-
ing larger strain under a given effective stress. It is thought that
in the study by Mesri and Choi (1985~)strain rate effects have
been balanced by disturbance effects.

Permeability
Validity of Darcy's law
While Darcy's law is very simple and presented in all text
books, its validity is still debated. Some authors (Hansbo
1960; Law and Lee 1981) suggest nonlinear gradient -velocity
relationships, whereas others (Miller and Low 1963) suggest
the existence of a threshold gradient below which no flow
occurs. When reviewing and analysing published data, Olsen
(1985) concluded that there is a linear relation between the
flow and the hydraulic gradient. However, owing to chemical
osmosis and electrical osmosis gradients that could be superim- 10'
Vertical effective stress 0-;,kPa
posed on the hydraulic gradient, the relation between the flow
and the hydraulic gradient can present an intercept. FIG. 19. Typical compression curves for the Vasby clay (after
Leroueil and Kabbaj 1987).
It is thought that in most natural intact clays, chemical or
electrical gradients are small and that Darcy's law could be
considered valid. Indeed, Tavenas et al. (1983b) confirm this formed with a Mariotte bottle (Olson and Daniel 1981) or with
validity in the laboratory for gradients smaller than 0.07, and mercury pots.
Leroueil et al. (1983~)observed at Gloucester some settle- Permeability tests along the vertical and horizontal directions
ments-thus flow of water-under average gradients of 0.1. on intact specimens at their natural void ratio have shown that
the anisotropy is very small in massive marine clays (rk =
Laboratory permeability tests kholkvo = 1.1) (Larsson 1981; Tavenas et al. 1983~).For
Constant-head and falling-head permeability tests can be strongly overconsolidated clays, stratified materials, or varved
performed in the laboratory in triaxial or oedometer cells; for clays, rk is larger. Chan and Kenney (1973) found values
eastern Canada clays, both tests lead to the same k values, but between 3 and 5 for a varved clay from New Liskeard; Table 1
for soils having higher swelling index C, the change in effec- gives possible ranges of rk values (from Jamiolkowski et al.
tive stress during the falling-head test could introduce volume 1985).
changes, which could alter the test results. In general, it is thus The laboratory tests are the only ones that can give the varia-
preferable to use constant-head tests, which can easily be per- tion of the permeability with compression. They show a
 TABLE1. Range of possible field values of the ratio k,lk, for soft clays
(from Jamiolkowski et al. 1985)
Nature of clay kdk~
No macrofabric, or only slightly developed macrofabric,
essentially homogeneous deposits 1-
From fairly well to well-developed macrofabric, e.g.,
sedimentary clays with discontinuous lenses and layers
of more permeable material 2-
Varved clays and other deposits containing embedded and
more or less continuous permeable layers 3-15
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decrease of the permeability according to relationships that can
be approximated, for all practical purposes, by a linear e -
log k curve for strains smaller than 20 % . The slope Ck = AelA
log k of these curves is approximately equal to 0.5eo (Tavenas
et al. 1 9 8 3 ~ ) .
Finally, the coefficients of permeability obtained in the lab-
oratory have to be corrected for temperature effects before
being used in designs. The reduction factor to be applied,
when temperatures in the laboratory and in situ are respectively
20 and 7 " C , is typically equal to 1.5.
In situ permeability tests
Testing techniques
Permeability measurements are sometimes made in cavities
formed in a borehole between two impervious bentonite plugs.
For personal use only.
This method is, however, uncertain, since plugs are often not
reliable, the geometry of the cavity not well known, and the
soil around the cavity is often affected by the boring process
and possible stress release. Most often, in situ permeability
tests are performed in piezometer probes pushed into position.
However, this technique presents the following shortcomings
(Tavenas et al. 1 9 8 3 ~ ) .
-during the installation, any layering of the natural soil is dis-
torted and more or less erased;
-the clay around the probe is remoulded by the installation
and then reconsolidates with time to a void ratio smaller than
the natural one;
-the porous element of most of the piezometers is subjected to
clogging.
All these phenomena lead to a reduction of the measured coef-
ficient of permeability.
To overcome these problems, Baguelin et al. (1974) and
Mieussens and Ducasse (1977) have proposed a self-boring
permeameter to practically eliminate the disturbance of the soil
and its reconsolidation. However, this apparatus was equipped
with a fine-grained porous element subject to clogging. Roc-
test Ltd. has since developed another self-boring permeameter
in which the porous element consists in a series of -9 mm
holes that eliminates clogging. During the placement of
the probe, the holes are closed with an inflated membrane
(Tavenas et al. 1983c, 19866).
As in the laboratory, two types of permeability tests can be
performed in situ: variable-head tests with a graduated burette
and constant-head tests with a Mariotte bottle. Variable-head
tests are commonly interpreted by the Hvorslev (1951)
approach:
in which A is the section of the tube, H I and H2 the hydraulic
heads at times tl and t2, and F a shape factor, given in Fig. 20.
1.5
4
I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
P/d
FIG. 20. Shape factor for cylindrical probe (from Tavenas et al.
19860).
Constant-head tests can be interpreted with the following
equation:
in which q , is the measured stabilized flow.
Willunson (1968) and Mieussens and Ducasse (1977) sug-
gested that for isotropic materials and for porous elements
having a length-to-diameter ratio equal or greater than 2 , the
flow could be considered as a pure radial flow with an error of
less than 3 % . However, Randolph and Booker (1982) indi-
cated that this statement is not valid, as confirmed numerically
and experimentally by Tavenas et al. ( 1 9 8 6 ~ ) In . fact, as
shown by these authors, who have performed constant- and
falling-head tests in piezometers and self-boring permeameters
with length-to-diameter ratios varying between 1 and 14.4,
both [12] and [13] lead to the same in situ k value, indepen-
dently of the probe geometry, when the "recommended rela-
tion" shown in Fig. 20 is used to choose the shape factor F.
Comparison of test results
To quantify the relative effects of remoulding and clogging
associated with the use of piezometer probes, Tavenas et al.
(1986b) have compared test results obtained in a pushed-in-
place piezometer, in a nonclogging self-boring permeameter,
and in the same permeameter equipped with a closed conical tip
and pushed into position. In this last technique, there was some
remoulding but no clogging. The results (Fig. 21) show that
the remoulding affects the measured permeability by factors
varying between 1 . I at Saint-Polycarpe, where the clay deposit
is very homogeneous, and 9.1 at Saint-Alban, where the
deposit is more stratified. Overall, clogging and remoulding
were found to reduce the coefficient of permeability by a factor
of 2 - 17, which proves that the tests in piezometers underesti-
mate the in situ permeability.
Figures 22 and 23, give the permeability profiles for the
Louiseville and Saint-Alban sites, which are respectively
exceptionally homogeneous and moderately stratified; in situ
permeabilities have been determined with [12]and [13]and the
shape factor proposed by Tavenas et al. ( 1 9 8 6 ~(Fig.
) 20). The
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988

I U
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ' " 2 3 4 5 6
F-------- Saint- Polycorpe

I I
Louiseville
Plezorneter
I I
Berthierville

II - - . I I I I I I
0
I I
Saint-Alban

I Effectof ?loggin{'< r e m o l d i n g 4
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FIG.21. Results of permeability tests with different probes illustrating the effects of remoulding and clogging (after Tavenas et al. 1986b).

K.m/s
For personal use only.

FIG. 22. Permeability profile at Louiseville (after Tavenas et al. 1986b, modified with method proposed by Tavenas et al. 1986a).

following remarks can be made:
-the permeability coefficients obtained in constant-head tests
and variable-head tests have the same value on both sites and at
all depths, thus confirming the validity of the Tavenas et al.
( 1 9 8 6 ~approach;
) ameter being influenced by the horizontal permeability, it can
-the permeability obtained with pushed-in piezometers is
smaller than the one measured with the self-boring permeam-
eter; as previously mentioned, the effect of clogging and
remoulding is much more important in stratified deposits than
in homogeneous deposits;
-on the Louiseville site, as on the three other homogeneous
sites studied by Tavenas et al. (1986b), the permeability coef-
ficient measured in the self-boring permeameter is very similar
to the one measured directly in the laboratory on intact clay at
its natural void ratio. The ratio k,,,,lklab was found to vary
between 0.6 and 1.7 with an average value of 1.2. This ratio is
approximately equal to the ratio of the horizontal and vertical
permeabilities measured in the laboratory (Tavenas et al.
1 9 8 3 ~ )The
. permeability measured in the self-boring perme-
be concluded that the permeability measured in the laboratory
is representative of the in situ permeability of homogeneous
clays;
-on the Saint-Alban site (Fig. 23), as on the two other strati-
fied sites studied by Tavenas et al. (1986b),the laboratory per-
meability underestimates the in situ permeability.
Hence, for general soil conditions, the self-boring permeam-
eter seems to be the best test to evaluate the in situ permeabil-
ity. However, it must be mentioned that the permeability
measured with this apparatus is, in fact, a function of the hori-
 LEROUEIL
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FIG.23. Permeability profile at Saint-Alban (after Tavenas et al. I 9866, modified with method proposed by Tavenas et al. 1986~).
For personal use only.
zontal and vertical in situ permeabilities. At the present time, it
is not possible to separate the two values but, by using self-
boring permeameters of various geometries and developing
appropriate theories of interpretation, both horizontal and ver-
tical permeabilities could certainly be defined. Research on
this subject is presently in progress at UniversitC Laval.
Direct determination of in situ permeability
In the section on compressibility, it has been seen that a well-
instrumented test embankment can be a most effective means
to determine one of the basic soil parameters, i.e., the stress-
strain curve (Figs. 9 and 10); such a test can also be used to
determine the real value of the permeability at various points in
the foundation, and at various times and strains.
During the consolidation of a clay layer, at a given time ti,
the excess pore pressure (u') distribution could be as given in
Fig. 24a; at two times ti-, and ti+,, the settlement distribution
could be as shown in Fig. 24b. From Darcy's law, there is no
water flow through depth ZN, as au'laz = 0 at that level. On
the other hand, at a depth such as ZA,there is a vertical flow
rate, which is
If the consolidation is one dimensional and if the soil is satu-
rated, the flow rate at point A is equal to the settlement rate
between point N and point A. With the use of Fig. 24b, the
flow rate is calculated, and the permeability coefficient can be
computed by using the following equation:
This approach has been successfully tried by Leroueil et al.
(1988~);Fig. 25 shows the results obtained at Berthierville, in
the central part of the clay layer where the soil is very homo-
geneous. The diameter of the embankment being nine times
the thickness of the clay layer, the conditions are excellent to
validate the approach and to verify the representativeness of
the permeability coefficients measured with various tech-
niques. Also shown in Fig. 25 is the range of the directly meas-
ured permeability coefficient - strain relations obtained from
laboratory tests on four different specimens and also the in situ
permeability measured in pushed-in piezometers and with the
self-boring permeameter, at a vertical strain of zero. The fol-
lowing comments can be made:
-the results deduced from [15] are slightly dispersed; how-
ever, on the average, the permeability decreases with the strain
(or void ratio) along a line parallel to the k - E , curve obtained
in the laboratory;
-the "real" in situ permeability is slightly higher than the
permeability measured in the laboratory; the average ratio is
about 1.6;
-the permeability measured in pushed-in-place piezometers
underestimates the "real" in situ permeability;
-the permeability measured with the self-boring permeameter
is very close to the "real" in situ permeability and can cer-
tainly be considered as representative;
-all the results would have been different in more heterogen-
eous deposits, the permeability being, as described by Rowe
(1972), strongly influenced by the stratification and the fabric
of the soils. It is thought, however, that the self-boring perme-
ameter is an excellent tool to measure permeability in all
clayey deposits.
Consolidation
During the consolidation process of a saturated clay, com-
pressibility and permeability are intimately linked. In the very
simple case of Terzaghi's theory in which a linear stress-
strain relation and a constant permeability are assumed, the
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988
Settlement S
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FIG. 24. Schematic excess pore pressure and settlement distribu-
tions for the determination of in situ permeability.
consolidation is controlled by the coefficient of consolidation
c, ([3]); the settlement - logarithm of time curve obtained
after an instantaneous loading has its typical S-shape and the
degree of consolidation expressed in terms of settlement is
equal to the degree of consolidation expressed in terms of pore
pressure.
When the compressibility curve is bilinear in an e - log a:
diagram, the coefficient of consolidation, as defined by [3],
varies with time and also with the position of the soil element
within the specimen. The coefficient c, is high in the overcon-
solidated range and much lower in the normally consolidated
For personal use only.
range. As shown by Mesri and Rokhsar (1974) and by Tavenas
et al. (1979) (Fig. 26), the degree of consolidation expressed
in terms of pore pressure presents, in these conditions, a step
corresponding to the passage of the preconsolidation pressure.
The degree of settlement shows a typical S-shape close to the
Terzaghi curve associated with the final value of the coeffi-
cient of consolidation.
From what has been said in the previous sections, the soil
behaviour is even more complex, since the stress -strain curve
followed by an element depends on its strain rate history and
thus on numerous factors such as the permeability, the position
of the element in the compressible layer, and the thickness of
the layer (Fig. 2 , 4 , 5, and 6). In such conditions, the value of
c, could become extremely variable with the position of the
element and with time, even if the considered step loading is
entirely in the normally consolidated range. This parameter is,
however, very often used in practice to estimate overall rates
of settlement. It is the author's opinion that in these conditions
it must be considered as a curve-fitting parameter rather than a
fundamental parameter.
Consolidation in the laboratory
Depending on the load increment ratio, loading duration,
and position of the final stress relative to the preconsolidation
pressure, the Ah or E,, - log t curve obtained in an oedometer
test can have a typical S-shape or have a continuously increas-
ing slope (Leonards and Girault 1961; Bjermm 1967). These
various transitions between the primary and secondary phases
are consistent with time or strain rate effects, as explained by
Mesri and Godlewski (1977) on the basis of the C,,/C, concept
and by Kabbaj et al. (1985) on the basis of a a{ - E,, - b model.
For most of the clays in the normally consolidated range and
in conventional oedometer tests, the Ah - log t curve exhibits
a S-shape and it is possible to define a coefficient of consoli-
dation with the Casagrande log method (c, ,). When this
value is compared with the c,fi value obtained with the
Permeability k ,m/s
(from Leroueil et 01. 19860 )
FIG. 25. Comparison between permeabilities deduced from pore
pressure and settlement observations and permeabilities measured in
the laboratory and in situ for Berthierville clay (Leroueil et al.
1988~).
Taylor square root method, it is generally smaller (Lambe and
Whitman 1969; Pelletier et al. 1979; Olson 1985). From data
reported in the literature and from the author's experience, the
ratio varies between 0.2 and 1. Sridharan and Sreepada Rao
(1981) have proposed the "rectangular hyperbola fitting
method" to determine c,. From their data, it appears that the
values they obtain can also be different from the ones obtained
by the Casagrande and Taylor methods. This is not surprising,
since all these methods are based on Terzaghi's theory, assum-
ing a constant c,, which is not the case in reality (Figs. 4-6).
The values of c, are sometimes computed using [3] with a
directly measured coefficient of permeability and a modulus
obtained from an oedometer curve. These c, values have been
found larger than the ones obtained graphically (Leroueil et al.
1 9 8 5 ~Olson
; 1985). This difference can be explained, at least
partly, by the stress -strain curve actually followed during
consolidation. As shown on Figs. 4 and 5, the stress-strain
curve actually followed is such as ODEF (Fig. 5) and most of
the strain accumulates along DE where the modulus M is much
smaller than the average modulus between points 0 and F.
When this last modulus is used in [3], it leads to c, values that
are not representative of behaviour in the laboratory.
It is generally accepted that the time required to reach a cer-
tain degree of consolidation is proportional to the square of the
drainage length:
Several investigators have camed out oedometer tests on soil
 LEROUEIL

Time, s
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FIG.26. Results of CONMULT program for a stress increment spanning the preconsolidation pressure, and comparison with Terzaghi theory
(from Tavenas et al. 1979).

specimens of various heights or drainage lengths. Figure 27 to5 -

shows the ratio of the times required to reach 50% of primary
consolidation versus the square of the drainage lengths ratio for
the published cases. It can be seen that the time ratios are Intact Norwegian clay ( Berre 1969)
For personal use only.

systematically smaller than (Hlh)2. In other words, the coeffi-

cient of consolidation computed on the basis of test results
obtained on thick specimens is higher than the one deduced 0 Cubzoc- les-Ponts clay (Felix et al. 1981

from a test on thin specimens.

Kabbaj (1985) has simulated a loading on two specimens
having heights of 49.5 and 9.5 mm with a numerical program
taking into account strain rate effects (Kabbaj et al. 1985). He
obtained a consolidation time ratio of 17 instead of the theoret- -
c
,
ical value of 27, which indicates that the results shown in 2
+

Fig. 27 can probably be explained by strain rate effects. How-

ever, as the strain rate effects increase with strain rate (Fig. 3),
their influence on the consolidation time is probably more
important when comparing small specimens, for example, 1
and 5 cm high, than thicker specimens, for example, 10 and
50 cm high.
Consolidation in situ
When the thickness of the compressible layer is not large
compared with the embankment width and the lateral displace-
ments are small, an average coefficient of consolidation can be
computed on the basis of the surface settlement.
A first method consists in applying the graphical Casagrande ( H / h )2

or Taylor method to field conditions. A more attractive method
has been developed by Asaoka (Asaoka 1978; Magnan and
Deroy 1980). As indicated in Fig. 28, the method consists in
-drawing the settlement of the compressible layer versus the
time on a linear scale (Fig. 28a);
-choosing a time increment At to define the settlements si at
+
times to iAt (i = 0 , 1, 2, . . . );
-plotting si versus siPl (Fig. 28b);
-drawing the line A through the points (si, s ~ - ~ ) .
The final settlement is theoretically obtained when si = si-
at point F in Fig. 28b; the coefficient of consolidation can be
obtained from the slope of the line A:
FIG. 27. Results of consolidation tests on specimens of different
thicknesses.
where H is the maximum drainage length.
A major advantage of the Asaoka method is that it allows an
estimation of the final settlement and of the coefficient of con-
solidation during the consolidation process.
Average in situ c, values have been back-calculated on
numerous sites and compared with c, values obtained in the
laboratory. Table 2 shows such results and ratios between
in situ and laboratory coefficients of consolidation. It can be
seen that these ratios are highly variable, with values ranging
between 3 and 200. If the extremely high values obtained at
Melbourne and Penang are neglected, the average is 20. The c,
 102 CAN. GEOTECH. 1. VOL. 25, 1988
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(o 1 Settlement curve, fbl Asooko construction

FIG. 28. Analysis of settlements with Asaoka method.

TABLE2. Comparison between the coefficients of consolidation determined in the laboratory and
deduced from embankment settlement analysis

Cv in siru
For personal use only.

Cv lab Cv in siru
Site (m2/s) (m2/s) Cv lab Reference
Ska-Edeby IV Holtz and Broms (1972)
Oxford (1) Lewis et al. (1975)
Donnington Lewis et al. (1975)
Oxford (2) Lewis et al. (1975)
Avonmouth Lewis et al. (1975)
Tickton Lewis et al. (1975)
Over Causeway Lewis et al. (1975)
Melbourne Walker and Morgan (1977)
Penang Adachi and Todo (1979)
Cubzac B Magnan et al. (1983)
Cubzac C Leroueil et al. (198%)
A-64 Leroueil et al. (1985~)
Saint-Alban Leroueil et al. (1985~)
R-7 Leroueil et al. (1985~)
Matagami Leroueil et al. (1985~)
Berthierville Kabbaj (1985)
*c, estimated with Asoka method.

values obtained graphically in the laboratory are not truly rep-
resentative of the in situ behaviour.
There is a general agreement to the effect that the small
laboratory specimens are not representative of the clay mass,
which is possibly heterogeneous and often contains thin layers
of more pervious materials (Rowe 1972). This was particularly
true at Melbourne where Walker and Morgan identified silt and
sand seams. Simons (1975) recommends to calculate cv values
on the basis of permeability tests carried out in the laboratory
on large specimens, or in situ. Other causes of error may be the
neglect of the two- or three-dimensional aspects of the problem
(a review of the main theories related to this has been made by
Murray (1978)) and of the anisotropy of the clay.
Another possible factor is the scale effect previously
described (Fig. 27): if the cv parameter obtained in a small spe-
cimen is not representative of the c, value obtained on a thicker
specimen in laboratory conditions, it could hardly be repre-
sentative of field conditions.
Folkes and Crooks (1985) have suggested a different method
for the determination of the coefficient of consolidation based
on pore pressure observations. They consider a pore pressure
distribution at a given date as an initial distribution (Fig. 29); a
second profile at a later date is then compared with isochrones
generated by finite difference techniques, and an average c,
value is estimated.
Unfortunately, the data analysed by Folkes and Crooks do
not allow the use of the Asaoka method and both methods
cannot be directly compared. It is worth noting, however, that
in general they will give different results, since one is based on
pore pressure observations and the other is based on settlement
observations. In cases approaching Terzaghi hypotheses, with
a regular increase of the strain with effective stress (soil A in
Fig. I), both results should be similar; in soils presenting con-
stant or increasing pore pressures after the end of construction,

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FIG.29. Estimation of in situ c, value (from Folkes and Crooks
For personal use only.
1985).
like soil B (Figs. 1 and lo), the Folkes and Crooks' method
would give zero or a negative cv value, while Asaoka's
method, which is in fact a curve fitting of the settlement curve,
would give a positive value.
Conclusions and practical implications
The consolidation process is a combination of Darcy's law,
which controls the rate at which the water is expelled out of the
soil, and compressibility, which controls the evolution of
excess pore pressures and thus the duration of the consolida-
tion. The Colloquium has thus been divided into three main
parts: compressibility, permeability, and consolidation.
Several rheological models have been proposed in the past,
but it seems that the u{ -E, - 6, model is the most representa-
tive of the behaviour of natural clays in the laboratory. The
strain rate is thus an important factor, which controls the
stress-strain curve followed by the clay, depending on the
strain rate history and thus on the characteristics of the clay and
testing technique. The understanding of these phenomena is
essential to correctly analyse oedometer test results; for
example, strain rate effects have the following implications:
-the stress- strain curve followed by a clay specimen during a
stage loading test is very different from the one obtained by
simply joining the end points, as is usually done;
-the stress-strain curves followed during consolidation by
subspecimens within the clay specimen are different, depend-
ing on their position relative to the drainage boundary;
-the preconsolidation pressure and the entire compression
curve depends on the testing technique used. This implies that
before adopting a new testing technique, it is necessary to cali-
brate it with the conventional oedometer test, on which long
experience has been gained.
In situ stress-strain curves have been established for clay
sublayers well defined between deep settlement gauges. The
comparison with laboratory behaviour shows that
-the in situ stress-strain curves are very different from the
ones obtained in the laboratory at the end of primary consolida-
tion, which proves that hypothesis A is not correct;
-at large strains, there is a good agreement between in situ
behaviour and the a{ - E, - i, relationship established in the
laboratory. A method is proposed to calculate consolidation
strain in excess of the one predicted by the conventional 24-h
oedometer test;
-at small strains (overconsolidated range and preconsolida-
tion pressure), the in situ behaviour is different from the one
deduced from the u{-eV -6, model. Reasons for such a dis-
crepancy are not clear. However, an empirical a; Sill, - uiCcOnv
relation has been established.
One problem remains when the final load does not exceed
the estimated preconsolidation pressure. Could creep deforma-
tions be important in such a case and could the preconsolida-
tion pressure decrease with time? Laboratory test results
indicate that the answer is "yes," since 0; values lower than
the ones obtained in conventional oedometer tests have been
observed in long-term tests. But the representativeness of the
laboratory behaviour at small strains has already been ques-
tioned and such results cannot be considered as proof of the
time or strain rate dependence of the in situ preconsolidation
pressure. The only available detailed field data concerning this
point seem to be the long-term settlements of buildings in
Drammen (Norway) reported by Bjermm (1967) and rean-
alysed by Foss (1969) and Larsson (1986). They indicate that
noticeable creep deformations start at effective stresses equal
to about 80% of the estimated preconsolidation pressure. On
the other hand, when Morin et al. (1983) compared in situ pre-
consolidation pressure under embankments and conventional
laboratory preconsolidation pressure, they came to the same
conclusion when a; was determined from field records taken
up to 16 years after construction and when it was established
from pore pressure generation during construction; this could
indicate that the decrease of a; with time is small or not exis-
tent in eastern Canada clays. In fact, there are too few data
concerning this problem to draw a definite conclusion.
The comparison of laboratory and in situ permeability test
results clearly show that
-due to remoulding and clogging phenomena the coefficient
of permeability measured in pushed piezometers always under-
estimates the real permeability;
-the permeability measured in the laboratory seems to be
representative of the in situ permeability in homogeneous
deposits; otherwise, it could strongly underestimate it;
-the best tool to measure in situ permeability of natural clays
seems to be the self-boring permeameter.
It is shown that the coefficients of consolidation determined
in oedometer tests are much smaller than the ones actually
mobilized in situ. The average value of the ratio is in excess
of 20.
From what has been said previously, the following are the
main practical implications:
-The coefficients of consolidation determined graphically
from oedometer tests are not representative and cv values must
be evaluated by separately determining permeability and com-
pressibility components.
-Since in the large majority of sites the compressible layer
cannot be reliably characterized by only one set of parameters
and since most soil engineers now have computers, the use of a
 104 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988
multilayer consolidation program, like C O N M U L T (Magnan
et al. 1979), is strongly suggested.
-The permeability parameters can b e determined as suggested
above from direct measurement in the laboratory o r tests using
the self-boring permeameter, depending o n the homogeneity of
the deposit. T h e variation of the permeability coefficient with
compression can b e estimated by using a Ck value equal to
0.5eo.
-As for the compressibility parameters, it is necessary to con-
sider that creep deformations occur during primary consolida-
tion, especially in the normally consolidated range. T h e
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consolidation programs developed by Magnan et al. (1979),
Adachi et al. (1982), and Larsson (1986) take into account
creep deformations and can b e considered; another possibility
would b e to modify the stress-strain curve obtained in 24-h
oedometer tests to take into account time o r rate effects, as
suggested in Figs. 16 and 17, and use a consolidation program
without any additional consideration for creep. More research
is needed in this field.
Acknowledgements
T h e author feels it is a great honour to have been invited as
lecturer for the Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium and would
like to express his sincere appreciation to the Associate Com-
mittee o n ~ e o t e c h n i c a ~
l e s e a r c h which
, is responsible for this
event.
For personal use only.
T h e author is greatly indebted to his colleague Dr. F.
Tavenas, with whom h e has realized a large part of the research
presented in this paper. H e also would like to thank Dr. M.
Kabbaj, who has contributed to the development of the
thoughts included, and Drs. M . Bozozuk and P. L a Rochelle,
who have acted as advisors during the preparation of this Col-
loquium. Most of the research carried out at Universitk Lava1
was supported by grants from the Fonds pour la formation d e
chercheurs et l'aide B la recherche and by t h e Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
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