Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

Elasticity

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

Deformation of a solid

When a force acts on a body it can change its shape - the amount of deformation will depend on
a number of things:
(a) the size of the specimen
(b) the size of the force
(c) the material of which the specimen is made
Now there are many important cases where the deformation is important such as bridge design,
buildings, flying buttresses in a cathedral, a belly flop on water and the use of oil in the
hydraulics of a car brakes, even the tension in your belt to hold up your skirt or trousers!

There are two extreme cases of the deformation produced when a force is applied to an object:
(a) Elastic - when the force is removed the object returns to its original size
(b) Plastic - when the force is removed the object stays deformed with no change in size or
shape

Most practical cases lie somewhere in between these two

Many materials behave as you would expect - they stretch steadily as the force on them increases
but some behave oddly - the silly putty - a small force - it creeps, a larger force and it bounces
and a very large force and it shatters. How elastic do your socks and tights have to be and what
about your skin itself! Rubber is elastic at room temperature but if it is cooled to the temperature
of liquid nitrogen it shatters when hit with a hammer.

Basic examples and uses of elasticity

Rubber bands, Clothes, Balls, Aircraft wings flexing, Bridges, Skin, Steel girders, Bats such as
cricket, Glass, Lift cables, Bouncy castle, Trainers, Fishing line.

Ductile and brittle materials

A ductile material is one such as copper which may be drawn out into a wire.
A brittle material is one like cast iron which will stretch and then break.

The variation of stress and strain

If a ductile material such as copper is stretched until it
breaks and its stress and strain measured and plotted, a
graph like that in Figure 1 may be obtained.

There are a number of important points about such a

graph:
(a) OP is a straight line - in this region Hooke's law
(discussed below) is obeyed.

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

(b) P is the limit of proportionality – up to P strain is proportional to stress.

(c) E is the elastic limit - up to E, if the load is removed the material will return to its original
length (although the stress may not be proportional to the strain up to this point).
(d) Y is the yield point - between E and Y the material becomes plastic, that is, if the load is
removed the material will contract but all the extension is not recoverable. The material follows
the dotted line YS on the graph during contraction and the remaining extension is known as a
permanent set.
(e) Z - after this point none of the extension is recoverable.
(f) B - this is the breaking stress beyond which the material will break.

A material like copper is known as ductile - that is, it will flow, and can be drawn out into a wire
without fracture.

Materials such as glass that can be extended but do

not show plastic deformation and will easily fracture
are known as brittle materials.

A stress-strain curve for a ductile material is shown in

Figure 1 and that for a brittle material is shown in
Figure 2.

The repeated bending, heating and beating known as

work hardening increases the strength of metals and
is used in the manufacture of swords.

If the steel is heated and then rapidly cooled it will become more brittle but by heating a sample
of steel and then slow cooling it the effect can be reversed.

The stress-strain relationship for some common materials should now be investigated such as the
properties of climbing ropes. These should be strong, stretch if subjected to a sudden force but
not stretch too much!

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

Stress and strain

Every stress produces a strain!
Stress
The previous comment is true for elastic properties as well. A stress is a measure of the cause of
the deformation produced by a force:
Stress = Force per unit area the units for stress are Nm-2 or Pa.
Breaking stress
The maximum stress that a material can stand Compressive Tensile
before it breaks is called the breaking stress. breaking stress breaking
There are two types of breaking stress (MPa) stress (MPa)

(a) compressive breaking stress - the

maximum squashing stress before fracture
(b) tensile breaking stress - the maximum
stretching stress before fracture

Some examples of both of these are given in

the following table
Material
Steel 552 400-800

Rubber 2.1

Granite 145 4.8

Concrete 21 2.1

Oak 59 117

Porcelain 552 55

Bone (compact) 170 120

Nylon 70

Glass 3.5-150

Carbon fibre 1000

Cast iron 30-140

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

Strain
Strain is a measure of the deformation produced by the stress.

Strain = change in size/original size

Strain has no units as it is simply a ratio of two similar quantities

Measurement of the Young modulus

The Young modulus may be measured for a material in the form of a wire using the apparatus
shown in Figure 1.

Two identical wires are hung from a beam; a scale is fixed to one wire and a mass hung on the
end to remove kinks in it. This wire is used as a reference standard. The other wire has a small
load placed on it to straighten it and a vernier scale which links with the scale on the reference
wire.

The original length (L) of the test wire is measured and its diameter is found for various points
along its length and an average diameter calculated. Hence its mean radius r can be found.

Loads are then placed gently on the wire and the extension of the wire found for each one. They
should not be dropped, as this would subject the wire to a sudden shock. After each reading the
load should be removed to check that the wire returns to its original length, showing that its
elastic limit has not been exceeded.

A graph is plotted of stress against strain and from this the value of the Young modulus may be
found (this is the gradient of the line i.e. F/A divided by e/L).

The wires should be long and thin to give as large an extension as possible for a given load while
retaining its elastic properties.
Two wires are used to eliminate errors due to changes of temperature and sagging of the beam.

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

Variation of extension with force applied –

Hooke's Law
The most simple form of variation of the extension of an object when a force is applied is known
as Hooke's Law, proposed by Robert Hooke, the founder of the Royal Society, in 1676. He
showed that:

Hooke’s Law
Force (F) = constant (k) x extension (e)
F = ke
This shows that the
extension is directly proportional
to the applied force – doubling the
force will double the extension. If
a graph of force is plotted against
extension a straight line will be
obtained (Figure 1).

Note: Hooke’s law is only valid if

the elastic limit of the material is
not exceeded.

This is the kind of graph that you

would get if you loaded a helical spring or a copper wire as long as you
kept the loads fairly small. Where F = ke a molecule displaced from its
original position (by squashing or stretching the material) will try and
return to its original position. If released it will oscillate about that
position with simple harmonic motion.

The constant k is known as the elastic constant for the material and is
defined as F/e. The units for k are Nm- 1.

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels
Questions:
1. (a) (i) Define the Young Modulus.
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(ii) State the SI units of the Young Modulus.
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(b) A uniform steel wire is 150 cm long and has mass of 9.6g. It extends by 0.73mm when
stretched by a force of 80N. Taking the density of steel to be 7800 kgm.-3
, calculate the:
(i) value of the Young Modulus for the wire.
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Total 7 marks
2. (a) Define:
(i) Tensile stress
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(ii) Tensile strain.
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(b) A wire of length 2 metres and uniform diameter 0.2mm is hung vertically from a fixed
support. It extends by 6.0mm when a 2kg object is attached to its lower end.
Take g = 9.8ms-2
and use the definitions in (a) to calculate the:
(i) tensile stress in the wire.
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(ii) tensile strain in the wire
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(c) Calculate the Young Modulus of the wire.
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Total 9 marks

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Physics Topic 3 (Deformation) O-Levels

3. (a) A metallurgist wishes to measure the Young Modulus for steel. He uses a long thin wire
suspended vertically, which he will load at the bottom end. Explain why:
(i) the wire is long and thin.
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(ii) he also suspends a similar wire next to the first.
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(b) Sketch a graph showing the expected relation between the load applied and
the extension of the wire.

[2]
(c) Explain how you would use the graph to determine:
(i) the Young Modulus for the wire.
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(ii) The work done in stretching the wire.
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Total 10 marks

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