PETROLEUM

SCIENCE &
ENGINEERING
ELSEVIER Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering I4 (1996) 22 l-230

Drilling fluids: State of the art

Ryen Caenn a, George V. Chillingar b
‘I Westport Technology Center, IITRI, 6700 Pomwrt Dr. Houstm, TX 77024, USA
” Cid t%ginerring Department, Unirrrsity of’SouthernCulifornia. Los Angeles, CA 90089-1211, (IsA

Received 1 March 1995; accepted 2 June 1995

Abstract

This is a review article on the state-of-the-art in drilling fluid technology, including the recent advances in fluids for
extended-reach and horizontal drilling. After a general review of mud technology, the currently used polymer additives are
described, followed by a discussion of the new oil-based mud replacements, including the synthetic-based fluids and
water-based muds formulated to have some oil-based mud characteristics.

1. Introduction are (Chilingarian and Vorabutr, 1983; Darley and

Gray, 1988): (1) Carry cuttings from the hole and
The 1990s have seen the resurgence of interest in permit their separation at the surface. (2) Cool and
new products and systems for drilling fluids. Much clean the bit. (3) Reduce friction between the drillpipe
of the resurgence has been due to the push from and wellbore or casing. (4) Maintain the stability of
environmental regulations directed at restricting toxic the wellbore. (5) Prevent the inflow of fluids from
and non-biodegradeable materials. Another major the wellbore. (6) Form a thin, low-permeable filter
driving force is the tremendous number of cake. (7) Be non-damaging to the producing forma-
extended-reach and horizontal wells being drilled. tion. (8) Be non-hazardous to the environment and
The mud technology needed to drill high-angle holes personnel.
is more demanding than that for drilling straight At any one time in the process of drilling a well.
holes. The purpose of this article is three-fold: (1) to one or more of these functions take precedence over
update petroleum scientists and engineers on the the others. For example, in the case of extended-re-
latest development in drilling fluid technology, (2) to ach and horizontal drilling, hole cleaning and main-
give some basic details on muds to help understand taining wellbore integrity are generally considered
why these developments came about and to (3) the most important, but in the sensitive sands, a
summarize the latest advances in horizontal drilling requirement for being non-damaging may take prece-
fluid technology. dence. Recent research and development have con-
Most drilling fluid textbooks and manuals list centrated on additives and systems for hole cleaning,
from 10 to 20 functions that a drilling fluid performs lubricity, wellbore stability, and environmental com-
while drilling a well. In general, the major functions pliance.

0920-4 105/96/$15.00 0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0920.4 105(95)0005 l-8
2. Mud types
Traditionally, muds have been classified into three
categories according to the base fluid used in their
preparation. These are: air, water and oil. Most of
the world’s drilling operations use water-based muds.
About 5-10% of the wells drilled use oil muds and a
much smaller percentage use air. Most air-drilled
wells are relatively shallow in hard, competent for-
mations. Water-based muds are formulated with fresh
water with or without added salts. There are a great
number of salt-type muds formulated by adding a
specific salt to fresh water, and by using natural or
commercial brines, or sea water. Most wells still are
based on fresh water with salt muds being used for
special purposes, such as achieving shale stability or
drilling through massive salt zones.
A new generation of muds is evolving which are
formulated with base fluids that are synthetic. The
chemical types in use for these muds include esters,
ethers, polyalphaolefins, glycols, glycerines and glu-
cosides. These are intended to make muds having the
advantages of oil muds but with the handling and
disposal characteristics of water muds. A great deal
of R&D is currently being conducted on these flu-
ids, particularly as to their relative biodegradability
and bioaccumulation characteristics.
The new products and systems described herein
were developed in response to horizontal drilling,
shale stability, replacing oil muds and optimizing
drill rates with PDC bits, as well as environmental
acceptance. The individual products described are, in
general, available to all mud companies through
distributors. The new mud systems, however, are
proprietary and may be available only through a
specific mud company.
Table I
Drilling fluid properties
Weight Viscosity
Specific weight Funnel viscosity
Density Plastic viscosity
Specific gravity Yield point
Gel strengths
n&K
3. Properties
Drilling fluid tests are performed to determine
mud characteristics based on four general classifica-
tions: weight, viscosity, fluid loss and reactivity.
Table 1 shows the specific tests done by drilling
fluid technologists to determine basic mud proper-
ties. At any given time during the drilling progress,
one or more of these tests will take precedence over
the others. For example, in a shallow, horizontal
well, viscosity for hole cleaning and lubricity is of
primary importance.
4. Additives
Research is continuously being done to improve
the performance of drilling fluids. Individual addi-
tives are developed to affect one or more of the
properties that are measured according to the API
standard test procedures. Much of the work on new
products involve developing new and/or improved
polymers.
4.1. Polymers
There are numerous mud additives that are called
“polymers”. A strict definition of a polymer is an
organic chemical having a molecular weight above
200, with greater than eight repeating units. They
vary greatly in function and basic properties, i.e.,
stability, charge, etc. In general, polymers can be
classified as natural, modified-natural and synthetic.
The following describes the current polymer types in
use in drilling fluids. The use of natural organic,
hydrophilic colloids in drilling fluids was proposed
Fluid loss Reactivity
API Filtrate Chemical content
Leak off Solids Content
HPHT filtrate Lubricity
Dynamic filtrate PH
 R. Curnn, G.V. Chillingar/ Journul of Petroleum Science ond Enginrvrincg 14 ~1996/ 221-2-W 233

by Tchillingarian in 1950 (see Tchillingarian and high-shear rate viscosity (API Yield Point and Fun-
Beeson, 1950). These included the following gums: nel Viscosity; API, 1994).
Shiraz. Ghatti and Tragacanth. Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) is also a linear
polysaccharide polymer based on a cellulose back-
bone. It is nonionic and its functions depend upon its
4.1. I. Nuturul polymers
molecular weight. It is usually supplied as a high-
(u, Sturch-Manufactured from either corn or
molecular-weight product: > 250,000 MW. It is not
potatoes. it is usually supplied as a pregelatinized
normally used in drilling fluids, but it is a viscosifier
(water-soluble) powder and sometimes treated with a
for brine waters in clear completion fluids, gravel
preservative. Starch is either non-ionic or slightly
packs, and fracturing fluids.
anionic. It is used as a fluid loss control agent for all
(6) Curboqmeth_vl sturch (CMS) is LIpol~saccha-
types of mud systems and is particularly useful in
ride manufactured from corn or potatoes reacted to
salt water systems. It requires a bactericide to pre-
have carboxymethyl side chains. It is used as a fluid
vent rapid degradation.
loss reducer for all types of water-based muds. It is
(hl Biopolvmers-Polysaccharides manufactured
more efficient and has a higher temperature stability
from bacterial fermentation. They have extremely
than regular starch.
complex structures with high molecular weights (> 1
to 2 million). Biopolymers are slightly anionic. Ex-
amples include xanthan gum, such as Kelzan XC,
4.1.3. Synthetic polymers
Zanvis, Xanvis, XC Polymer, Flodril S and Flopro;
fai Polyacr$ate-Polyacrylates are synthetic ma-
wellan gum, such as Biozan; scleroglucan gum, such
terials manufactured from petroleum feedstocks.
as Shellflo-S. The primary use for biopolymers is as
They are not as complex structurally as the natural
a rheology control agent. They develop high, low-
polymers and usually have a straight-chain carbon
shear-rate viscosities useful for suspension and carry-
backbone with different side chains, depending on
ing capacity.
the end product desired. They are usually anionic.
cc) Guar gum-A polysaccharide manufactured
Examples of generic and trade names include: poly-
from the endosperm of the seed of the guar plant. It
acrylates, vinyl polymers, copolymers, vinyl acetate,
has a complex structure with a high molecular weight
maleic anhydride, Cypan, WL- 100, Polydril, Poly-
(Chilingar and Croushorn, 1964). Examples include
thin and Benex. Their uses are: low molecular weight
the regular guar gum, a natural material containing
(< lOOO)-thinners and deflocculants; medium
impurities, and hydroxypropylguar, a guar gum mod-
molecular weight (up to 100,000 MWl--fluid loss
ified for purity and consistency. Its use is as a
control, flocculants and shale stabilizers; high molec-
viscosifier for completion fluids and fracturing flu-
ular weight ( > 100,000 MW)-bentonite extenders
ids. It reacts with clays making it difficult to control
and flocculants.
in drilling fluids.
(b) Po!,act$amide-Polyacrylamides are nor-
mally copolymers of various ratios of acrylic acid
4.1.2. Modified rzaturul polymers and acrylamide. They are usually designated by the
(ai Cellulosics: Curboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is generic name of partially-hydrolyzed polyacrylamide
a linear polysaccharide polymer based on a cellulose (PHPA). Usually supplied in the anionic form for
backbone. It is anionic with carboxylic acid groups. drilling fluids, they can be anionic, nonionic or
Its functions depend on the degree of substitution cationic when used as a dewatering tlocculant or in
CDS-number of CM side chains) and molecular other oilfield applications. Their primary uses are as
weight (MW). Examples include: high-MW/high- flocculants and shale stabilizers.
DS. polyanionic celluloses (Drispac, Aquapac); high- (cl Cationic Polymers-Cationic polymers are
MW, high viscosity CMC; low-MW, low-viscosity copolymers combining positively-charged chemical
CMC; and unrefined technical grade CMC, which groups with other polymers, such as polyacrylates or
can contain up to 40% salt contamination. Their uses polyacrylamides. They are used as tlocculants and to
include fluid loss control and, for the higher MWs, formulate shale stabilizing mud systems.
224 R. Caenn, G.V. Chillingar/Joumal qf Petroleum Science and Engineering 14 (19%) 221-230
5. Oil muds
Oil muds are selected for their superior tempera-
ture stability, lubricity and hole stabilizing attributes.
Although oil muds have unique properties that are
difficult to match with those of water muds, their use
also causes some difficulties, such as:
High costs-The base fluids used to formulate oil
muds are usually substantially more costly than wa-
ter.
Special handling-Normally, oil muds are pre-
pared in a liquid mud plant to ensure proper formula-
tion and conditioning prior to pumping downhole.
Also, totally enclosed mud handling systems on the
rig are essential to the proper operation of oil muds.
Catch pans and waste collectors are required on the
rig to ensure that no mud is lost or spilled on the
ground or into water bodies causing contamination.
Environmental concerns-Probably the most im-
portant aspect driving the search for oil mud replace-
ments is the environmental concerns associated with
oil muds, especially diesel muds. It has been found
that diesel is toxic to various organisms. This led to
the development of mineral oil muds and then, in the
early 1980s (Baroid, 1994), to modified vegetable oil
muds. The latter oils, however, are much more ex-
pensive than either diesel or mineral oil.
The writers describe the current state-of-the-art of
water mud technology that may equal or improve on
the unique properties of oil muds for drilling high-
angle holes. It covers the properties of: (1) shale
stability, (2) lubricity, (3) bit balling and (4) hole
cleaning and suspension.
5.1. Shale stabi&
It is generally accepted that a salinity-controlled
oil mud is superior to water muds for shale stability.
Many formations, however, can be drilled with water
muds designed for shale stability. Additives used to
modify water muds for shale stability are: (1)
cations-potassium (K’), calcium (Ca”) and ammo-
nium (NH:); (2) inorganic mixed-metal systems-
mixed-metal hydroxide (MMH) and mixed-metal sil-
icate (MMs); (3) cationic polymers; (4) coating
polymers-partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide
(PHPA), polyvinylalcohol (PVA) and (5) refined
polyhydroxy compounds-polyglycerides, polyglycols
and glucosides.
Many times cations and polymers are used to-
gether to optimize shale stability. Also, most poly-
mers used in drilling fluids will coat shales to some
extent, but the PHPA (Clark et al., 1976) and PVA
(Wingrave, 1991) are generally accepted overall to
be the best polymers. The polyols inhibit clays and
shale swelling (Chenevert, 1991). The mechanism of
clay inhibition by polyols is currently under study,
but relates to the miscible/immiscible state of the
polyol which can change the transient pore pressures
on the surface of the in-situ shale (Downs et al.,
1993; Mody and Hale, 1993).
The major advantage of using an oil mud over a
water mud for shale stability is its ability to set up an
osmotic potential between the mud and shale to
eliminate water uptake into the shale. Water muds
can slow down shale hydration, but never stop it.
The new synthetic base fluids are intended to replace
either diesel or mineral oil in oil-based muds.
5.2. Synthetic base jluids
There are a variety of distinct chemical materials
available to replace the regular oils used in making
oil muds. The particular type of fluid chosen depends
upon many factors, not the least of which is cost.
The toxicity of diesel oil is due to its high aromatic
content. All of the diesel replacements either elimi-
nate or minimize the aromatic content, thereby mak-
ing the material non-toxic or less toxic. As long as
the material is within the guidelines set by the local
regulatory toxicity tests, it can be used in a drilling
fluid.
Biodegradation and bioaccumulation depend more
on the chemistry of the molecule of the base fluid. In
general, those materials containing oxygen within
their structure degrade easier. Degradation, however.
is highly dependent upon the specific conditions
impacting the fluid. Even though laboratory tests do
not necessarily reflect the conditions found at the
bottom of the ocean, they are the only way of
evaluating these materials and determining their rela-
tive toxicities. There are four chemical types that are
being used to replace diesel or mineral oils in muds:
esters, polyalphaolefins, ethers, and detergent alky-
 R. Curnn. G. V. Chillingar/Journal qfPetroleumScienceand Et~ginrerin,q 14 (19961 221-230 225

lates. Two partially water-soluble materials, methyl- sumer product used to formulate oil-muds are the
glucoside and polyalcohols, are also under develop- food-grade paraffins, which are also derived from
ment for oil replacements. petroleum feedstocks. Inasmuch as they contain no
Esters: Baroid’s Petrofree was the first commer- benzene and are acceptable for food processing, they
cially available synthetic substitute for oil muds were considered for use in oil-muds. The use of
(Carlson, 1994). It is not derived from hydrocarbons, these two materials was experimental and they are
but is made by processing vegetable oils, specifically probably not viable products in the drilling fluid
palm oil. It makes a mud similar to a mineral oil industry.
mud, but with slightly higher base viscosity and with Water-soluble or partially water-soluble: ( 1) Glu-
a lower temperature stability. Esters have the added cosides are sugar compounds obtained from certain
advantage of being readily biodegradable under grains. Whereas the previously mentioned synthetics
anaerobic conditions (Peresich et al., 1991). are straight-chain carbon-based compounds with 2 or
PAO: Polyalphaolefin is a hydrocarbon derivative 3 hydroxyl groups, glucosides are ring shaped with
that has higher temperature stability than the esters multiple hydroxyl groups on the ring. The glucoside
(Parks, 1994). It is, however, slightly more toxic and currently available for mud use has four hydroxyl
does not biodegrade as readily. groups that likely assist in shale stability (Simpson et
Ethers: The currently used ether-base fluid is also al., 1994). (2) Polyols, which are used more as
manufactured from petroleum feedstocks as a di- additives in water-based muds (see next section), can
ether, or more properly a di-acetyl compound. It is also be used as an oil replacement (Bland, 1994;
non-toxic and has a higher temperature stability than Reid et al., 1995). Examples of polyols include
the ester (Anchor, 1994). polyglycerine (dial) and various polyglycols (either
Detergent alkylates; ,fbod-grade parajjk: Also diols or triols).
called linear alkyl benzene (LAB), detergent alky- Any of the above described chemicals can be
lates are readily available synthetic materials manu- manufactured to varying carbon lengths and with
factured from hydrocarbons. They are the prime differing amounts and types of side chains and hy-
feedstock for manufacturing household laundry de- droxyl, oxygen, ester. or ether components. All of
tergents. Unfortunately, they still contain some these synthetics, however, are very expensive in
amount of benzene in their makeup. Another con- comparison to diesel and mineral oils. They are

WBM OBM SBM Polyols Additives

Mud Type

Fig. I. Comparison of typical lubricity coefficients for different types of drilling fluids (after Toups, 1995)
226 R. Caenn, G. V. Chillingar / Journal of’ Petroleum Science and Engineering
being used only in the environmentally sensitive
offshore drilling. Although they are much less toxic
than hydrocarbon oils, they are not completely non-
toxic (Growcock and Andrews, 1994).
6. Lubricity
Various additives have been used to lower the
friction factor in water-based muds for drillpipe in
contact with either the wellbore or casing. The addi-
tives in use in water muds for lubricity include
modified vegetable oils and refined polyols.
These additives can normally be used in any
water-based mud, including muds formulated with
the shale stabilizers mentioned above. For compara-
tive purposes, Fig. 1 shows the lubricity coefficients
of water-based muds (WBM), oil-based and syn-
thetic-based muds (OBM, SBM), polyol muds, and
WBMs with lubricity additives (Toups, 1995).
6.1. Polyols
Polyols constitute a class of materials with di- and
tri-hydroxyls that are good lubricants. They are vari-
ously called glycerines, polyglycerines, polyols and
glycols. These products are either immiscible or
partially miscible with water and will change its
wetting characteristics. A mud with a sufficient
amount of polyol behaves more like an oil mud in its
wetting characteristics. This greatly improves the
lubricity (Fig. l), shale stability and formation return
permeabilities of the mud (Deem et al., I99 1; Chen-
evert, 1991). They, however, can also change the
wettability of reservoir rocks, giving rise to “water-
blocks” (for example, see Chilingarian and Vor-
abutr, 1983). These materials are also being used
successfully to eliminate problems that occur when
gas hydrates are encountered during drilling (Hale
and Dewan, 1989).
Polyglycerides are triols, usually esters of 1,2,3
propane trio1 (glycerol). Glycols are diols, such as
polypropyleneglycol (PPG) a polymerized propylene
(3-carbon-chain) glycol. Both the glycerines and the
glycols are available in a wide-range of carbon chain
lengths and molecular weights. Most of the drilling
fluid products are processed refinery bottoms materi-
als and may vary from batch to batch.
14 ( 19961 22 l-230
7. Bit balling
The oil-wetting nature of oil muds gives rise to a
film of oil on metal parts in the mud. This film
minimizes the formation of bonds (Chesser and Per-
ricone, 1973) between formation shale and the down-
hole assembly that can cause what is commonly
called bit balling.
A water-based mud can be formulated to mini-
mize or eliminate bit balling by coating the metal
parts with a hydrophobic coating (Enright et al.,
1991). Polyol additives have been shown to give this
protection to downhole assemblies. Effective concen-
trations have been reported to be from 5 to 30%
polyol by volume. The wide range of effectiveness
probably depends upon the purity and the molecular
weight range of the polyol. It may also depend on
the type of polyol, glyceride or glycol.
8. Hole cleaning
The major difference encountered in high-angle
holes as compared to straight holes, is in suspension
and carrying capacity of cuttings. The distance a
particle can travel before reaching a resting place is
much shorter in horizontal and high-angle holes, a
few inches compared to 1OS or 100s of feet. In
horizontal wellbores this may lead to a cuttings bed
buildup that may impede drilling and completion
operations. In the build portion of the hole, cuttings
can fall to the side wall of the wellbore causing
torque while drilling and during difficult trips. Also,
the cuttings may buildup on the side until a critical
mass is reached, and then cascade down the hole. In
extreme cases, this can cause stuck pipe.
It is generally accepted that once a hole angle
increases above about 60” it is best cleaned with
turbulent flow. Oil-based muds, in general, are easier
to change into turbulence than water-based muds.
Many times, however, hole or rig circumstances
make it nearly impossible to place the mud into
turbulent flow. In that case, the mud must be viscosi-
fied to improve carrying capacity. The ability to
rapidly increase the low-shear rate viscosity and gel
strengths to high levels is easier in water-based muds
than in oil-based muds (see Clements and Jelsma,
1989; Harvey, 1990; Hemphill, 1990).
 R. Cuenn. G. V. Chillingar/ Journal ofPetroleum Science and Engineerin,q 14 (1996) 221-230 ‘27

Fig. 2 shows viscosity vs. shear rate plots for a
mixed-metal water-based mud. The low-shear rate
viscosities of this water-based mud are much higher
than for oil-based muds.
9. Viscosifiers
Additives used in water-based muds to increase
the low-shear-rate viscosities, and gel strengths, are:
bentonite. xanthan gum, PHPA, and the mixed metal
inorganics.
Bentonite: Bentonite is used in most muds for
viscosity and fluid loss control. It gives excellent
carrying capacity and suspension of cuttings if
enough bentonite is present in the mud. The diffi-
culty with using bentonite is that eventually the
solids build up in the mud making the viscosity
difficult to control. In addition, many so-called “be-
ntonite clays” contain variable proportions of poly-
mers. making viscosity prediction uncertain.
Xunthm Gum: Xanthan gum is a rheology modi-
fier that increases the low-shear-rate viscosity of a
mud. It has been found that for adequate carrying
capacity and suspension of cuttings in horizontal
holes a critical concentration of the polymer must be
present (Kelco Technical Bulletin, 1988). This criti-
cal concentration is dependent on the temperature,
the presence of other solids, and salinity. The critical
concentration is usually in the I .25 to 13 lb/bbl
range (Powell et al., 199 1).
Mixed Metul Inorganics: Mixed Metal Hydroxide
(MMH) and Mixed Metal Silicate (MMS) are highly
cationic-charged crystalline materials that electrostat-
ically associate with bentonite forming a unique gel
structure. This gel structure allows the fluid to, in
effect, move as a solid mass when pumped carrying
all solids along with it (Powell et al., 1991). It may
have perfect transport and suspension characteristics.
although further research is needed to prove this.
Typical use dosages vary from 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl. in
combination with 8 to 12 lb/bbl of untreated ben-
tonite (see Polnaszec and Fraser, 1991 I.
10. Temperature stability
There are currently no water-based mud which is
as stable at temperatures above 400°F as are oil-based
muds. A major difficulty in formulating high-temper-
ature water-based muds is that bentonite is affected

V-G Meter- RPM

3 6 12 25 50 100 200 300 600
Dial IVIscosity IViscosltyl

1001 170 42 3 125

*c I I c! I

3 / 51 1 32 / 100 1 3200 1

I I I I I

IO T , I I I I
-c-Pits---d- -*+----Annulus w Solids
RemovalEquipment = Bit--w
1 10 100 1000 10M IOOM
ShearRate-set-'

Fig. 2. Viscosity vs. shear rate for mixed-metal mud system (MMH-based drilling fluid), which is extremely shear thinning (courtesy of the
Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, 48674).
228 R. Caenn, G.V. Chillingar/Joumul <?fPetroleum Science and Engineering 14 11996) 221-230

by elevated temperatures, first gelling excessively and the mud’s lubricity. Inasmuch as this well was
and then becoming inert at extreme temperatures. drilled through formations containing large amounts
Several synthetic polymers have been developed of mud-making shales and clays, small amounts of a
to stabilize water-based mud properties at high tem- soluble humic acid product were used to control gel
peratures. Plank (1992) described the following co- strengths.
and ter-polymers as having good high-temperature (B) Salt/Polymer Muds. In areas with wellbore
stability: (1) Dejbcculants: maleicanhydride- stability problems, polymers are usually supple-
styrenesulfonate copolymer and maleicanhydride- mented with a salt that supplies a cation to help
sulfonated vinyl toluene copolymer. (2) Fluid Loss stabilize the formation. The following are some
Controllers: AMPS-n-methyl-n-vinylacetamide- salt/polymer muds that have been used: (11
acrylamide terpolymer, AMPS-n,n-dimethylacryla- PHPA/K+: The most common polymer mud used as
mide copolymer, and AMPS-n-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone an oil-based mud replacement is the PHPA/K+ mud
copolymer. system. It has the advantages of imparting shale
stability and having good carrying capacity. Its dis-
advantages are that it is affected by solids contami-
11. Water-based mud alternatives to oil-based nation and does not have good temperature stability.
muds Any of the regular lubricity additives can be added
to this mud. While using heavily-weighted muds
The following are mud systems currently in use as through thick mud-making shales, small amounts of
possible replacements for oil-based muds in high-an- a humic acid are sometimes used. (2) Xanthan
gle holes. They can be classified as polymer muds, Gum/K+: Inasmuch as xanthan gum is not as effi-
salt/polymer muds or cationic muds. cient as PHPA in coating shales, it is used in wells
(A) Polymer Muds. Several fresh-water, polymer that do not have severe shale problems. It does
mud systems have been used in horizontal drilling. impart excellent low-shear-rate viscosity to the mud
They are cost-effective as long as unstable shales are for good suspension of cuttings and carrying capac-
not encountered and one can clean the hole effec- ity. Xanthan gum has a limited temperature stability
tively with sweeps or a sufficiently high annular and as in the case of the PHPA system, lubricating
velocity. The following fresh-water, polymer muds agents can be added. (31 Sized Salt: Several horizon-
have been used for horizontal drilling: (1) PAC: tal wells have been drilled using a lluid originally
Polyanionic cellulose muds, such as Drispac, are developed as a completion fluid (Mondshine, 1989;
used in some high-angle holes. PACs coat shales to Dobson and Mondshine, 1990). It contains sized
some extent, and thus improve their stability. They sodium chloride particles for bridging and a polymer
can impart good annular viscosity to assist in hole blend for excellent cuttings suspension and carrying
cleaning. (2) Polyacrylates: A polyacrylate mud was capacity. It is a saturated salt system and cannot be
used successfully on one of the first horizontal wells formulated for low mud weights. Inasmuch as the
in California (Profco Drilling Fluids, 1989). It was salt is easily dissolved in water and breakers are
supplemented with high-viscosity sweeps ’ for hole added to destroy the polymer, it is a relatively non-
cleaning. (3) PHPA /Humate: A PHPA mud was damaging fluid.
used in a shallow, extended-reach well in the Gulf (C) Cationic Muds. There is no generally ac-
Coast (Kimball et al., 1991). A high concentration of cepted definition for the term “cationic drilling
PHPA was used (approximately 2.0 lb/bbll which fluid”. Consultation with a number of drilling fluids
coated shales, improving cuttings carrying capacity experts brought forth a wide range of characteristics
for a “cationic mud”. The following is the defini-
tion used by the writers:
A Cationic Drilling Fluid is a drilling,fluid with CI
predominantly cationic chemical nature, that cannot
’ A sweep is a small volume of specially formulated mud.
usually 25 to 74 barrels, pumped through the drillpipe and annulus accept anionic mud additives without drastic changes
to assist in hole cleaning, lubricity, seepage control, etc. in its basic properties.
 K. Cnenn, G. V. Chillingar/ Journal
The following systems are formulated so that the
predominant nature of the mud is cationic. Cationics
can be extremely inhibitive to shale or clay hydra-
tion. The most common difficulty with these sys-
tems, however, is the fluid loss control.
(a) Mixed-met&: The mixed-metal fluid systems
have a unique gel structure unlike any other mud
system now in use. The body of the fluid moves as a
solid mass carrying the cuttings out of the hole in
near-perfect transport (Burba et al., 1988; Fraser,
1990). They also have excellent shale stability and
formation protection characteristics (Fraser, 1990;
Deem et al., 1991; Sparling and Williamson, 1991).
They develop viscosity through an electrostatic asso-
ciation with bentonite or attapulgite (Crabb et al.,
1989) and require a fluid loss control additive. In
conjunction with PPG, the MMH fluid has excellent
lubricity (Deem et al., 1991).
(b) Cutionic Polymer Muds: Several mud systems
are in the development stage that may prove to be
equivalent to oil-based muds in many respects. These
muds are built around all cationic materials, such as
an amine epichlorohydrin, and usually contain K+
ions for optimum shale stability (Beihoffer et al.,
1992). They can also be formulated with PPG for
improved lubricity. The temperature stability of these
muds is not as high as that of oil-based muds.
12. Summary
Many types of water-based muds have been used
in horizontal and extended-reach drilling. The ability
to use a water mud and the type to use is dependent
on the operating parameters of the well to be drilled.
The following are, in general, the factors to consider
in choosing a water-based mud for horizontal drilling:
(1) Lubricity is usually not a problem with water-
based muds, because there are additives to lower the
friction factor.
(2) Shale stability, elimination of bit balling, and
hole cleaning are easily attained using the water
muds.
(3) At temperatures above 400”F, water muds are
not as stable as oil muds.
@‘Petroleum Science and Engineering 14 f 19961221-230 229
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