Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Objectives
Sponsorship or Commercial Support
1. Explain the role of the child life specialist.
No sponsorship or commercial support was received for this article.
2. Discuss the role of the perioperative nurse in decreasing
preoperative parental and child anxiety.
3. Describe strategies for providing developmentally appro- Disclaimer
priate care to infants, children, and adolescents. AORN recognizes these activities as CE for RNs. This recognition
4. Describe strategies for providing care to children with does not imply that AORN or the American Nurses Credentialing
developmental delays. Center approves or endorses products mentioned in the activity.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aorn.2016.05.004
ª AORN, Inc, 2016
ABSTRACT
The experience of surgery can be extremely stressful for children and their family members. Many
children’s hospitals offer a formal surgical preparation program to patients and their families, usually
led by a child life specialist. However, smaller hospitals or ambulatory surgery centers may not be
able to use this approach to preparing children for surgery. In this scenario, the perioperative nurse
is in the ideal position to provide developmentally appropriate surgical preparation and education
at the bedside. Knowledge of normal child development and age-appropriate diversional activities
are necessary to implement an effective surgical preparation program. This age-appropriate prep-
aration can help facilitate a positive medical experience that can reduce anxiety and affect the
child’s and his or her family’s view of future medical encounters. AORN J 104 (July 2016) 12-19.
ª AORN, Inc, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aorn.2016.05.004
Key words: pediatric, preoperative, age-appropriate preparation, child life, coping.
meet the child life specialist for age-appropriate preparation alterations in their care to provide adequate preparation while
anywhere from 24 hours to several days before a planned performing preoperative assessments and tasks. However,
surgical event. Although younger children may benefit from some planning is required to institute effective diversional and
preparation closer to the date of surgery to avoid building educational interventions that can improve the surgical expe-
anxiety, adolescents may benefit from preparation at least 7 to rience for children and their family members. Gathering
10 days in advance.4 appropriate medical equipment such as an IV catheter with
extension tubing, blood pressure cuff, stethoscope, anesthesia
A small hospital or ambulatory surgery center may not employ mask, or electrocardiogram (ECG) leads that are clearly labeled
a child life specialist, and children may arrive with little to no for teaching purposes can serve as excellent show and tell items
formal preparation for a surgical or anesthetic event. The for what children may see or experience during their visit
surgical and anesthesia team explains the surgical process and (Figure 1). Books, bubbles, handheld games or tablets, and
anesthesia sequence to children and family members in this light-up or musical toys can also be kept in a box on the
situation. However, the perioperative nurse remains a consis- unit and used as diversional activities for children of
tent and trusted presence throughout the preoperative period different developmental ages. These materials must be
and should understand how to help children and their family thoroughly cleaned according to the facility’s infection
members cope with preoperative anxiety. When preoperative control policy between uses. Suggested interventions that the
preparation by a child life specialist cannot be provided, perioperative nurse can implement to support children and
perioperative nurses are in the best position to assist children their family members throughout their surgical experience
and family members in coping with the surgical environment are described by age group in the following sections.
and its routines. Depending on the information that has been
provided by the surgeon at a clinic visit and the independent
research family members or patients may have performed on Preparing Infants and Toddlers
their own, children can arrive with varying levels of under- Preparing the parents of neonates (birth to 27 days old), in-
standing and misconceptions about surgery. An in-depth fants (28 days to one year old), and toddlers (one year to two
knowledge of development can guide nurses and other pro- years old)7 for what to expect before a procedure and how they
viders to deliver age-appropriate care that can enhance chil- can help care for their children may lead to lower stress levels
dren’s ability to cope effectively with a stressful situation and for both the parents and the children.8 Validating a parent’s
create an atmosphere that promotes positive coping for future fears and concerns and providing supportive listening can be
medical experiences. A summary of the developmental norms helpful in reducing parent stress, thus reducing patient
and implications to consider for the preparation of children stress. If the situation seems appropriate, using humor can
and adolescents undergoing a surgical or anesthetic event is sometimes be a starting point to build rapport with parents.
provided in Table 1.
If there is communication with caregivers before the day of
surgery, the nurse should remind parents to bring comfort
When preparing the child for surgery, the role of the parent or items (eg, a blanket that smells like home, pacifier, favorite
caregiver cannot be overstated. Nurses must be aware that stuffed animal, familiar bottle and nipple for use in recovery)
preoperative preparation relies on developing a collaborative that can aid in coping and help address issues related to a
relationship with the caregiver. The presence and involvement change in environment and routine.1 Because separation from
of a parent or caregiver can help normalize the hospital envi- caregivers is the primary source of stress for this age group,
ronment for the child, provide support, and reduce stress.6 parents should be encouraged to remain with their children
Nurses can use their knowledge of development to teach whenever feasible.4 Parents should be at their children’s
parents or caregivers coping strategies to use with the child bedside in the postanesthesia care unit (PACU) as quickly as
during the preoperative and postoperative periods. This medically possible to decrease separation anxiety. 4 Informing
article provides developmentally appropriate interventions parents of the anesthesia and surgical sequence, postoperative
nurses can use to improve the surgical experience for dressings, and monitoring equipment may help decrease
children and their family members. some of their anxiety, thus creating a calmer environment
for their children.
DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE
SURGICAL PREPARATION Infants and toddlers likely do not benefit from a direct
By taking into consideration the child’s developmental level explanation of a surgical procedure. Infants rely on their
and the associated parental concerns, nurses can make parents to meet their needs and may be soothed preoperatively
with gentle rocking, pacifiers, and warm blankets. Infants and assessments can be helpful in gaining trust and cooperation.
toddlers interact with their environment through their senses For example, stating “I need to check your blood pressure;
and therefore may benefit from music or toys for distraction.1 this is the cuff,” and allowing the toddler to hold and play
Toddlers may also benefit from hands-on manipulation of with the cuff before placing it on the arm or leg may be
appropriate medical equipment (eg, blood pressure cuff, beneficial. Hearing the words and modeling can help gain
anesthesia mask).1,9 Using simple words and allowing the cooperation during an examination: “I need to listen to your
toddler to hold and explore equipment used during heart; how about I listen to Mom’s heart first?” Infants and
should be able to answer most, if not all, of the interview challenging for those with developmental delays or a sensory
questions related to allergies, NPO status, and pain scores. It processing disorder (eg, autism spectrum disorder). As with any
can be easy for a parent to take over the conversation, which disorder, the patient’s impairments may fall at different points
may cause the adolescent patient to withdraw. on a spectrum. A child or teen could have minimal impairment
in only one or two domains of development, such as social
Peer relationships are of supreme importance to adolescents. interactions and language, or have significant deficits across
Allowing the adolescent access to their phone to text friends multiple domains that greatly affect their cognitive under-
can help them feel connected to their peer group. Setting standing.12 For this reason, the nurse should not make
ground rules from the beginning, reminding the adolescent assumptions about the patient’s abilities based on the
that he or she may keep the phone in the preoperative or diagnosis listed in the chart. Another factor to consider,
postoperative area but must still attend to the discussion and especially in children with autism spectrum disorder, is that
answer questions when asked by the health care team, is many are concrete thinkers and may not understand abstract
essential. Playing a favorite game or phone application can thoughts or common idioms such as “frog in your throat.” A
help distract adolescents and normalize the situation, which child may literally picture themself swallowing a frog.
can lower anxiety and help reduce the need for preoperative Sensory integration is also an important consideration.
anxiolytic medication.11 Sometimes, the noise level or brightness of the lights may be
a negative trigger. Emotional regulation can be extremely
The adolescent should have had a role in the surgical
challenging for this group of patients.13
decision-making process and have an understanding of the
need and indications for surgery. Even so, teens can still A hospitalization or surgical procedure may provoke chal-
benefit from more detailed explanations and visual aids. lenging behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder.
Many adolescents are interested in science and the human These behaviors can include aggression, tantrums, hitting,
body. Using anatomy books or diagrams can be useful in kicking, biting, and scratching.13 The challenge is delivering
helping the teen become more comfortable and provides an care in an effective, safe manner. Family-centered care
opportunity to ask questions. Common concerns for this principles, such as acknowledging parents and caregivers as
age group may include an altered body image, peer rejec- the experts about their children and involving them in the
tion, disability, loss of control, and fear of death.1 When development of an optimal care plan, are crucial when
addressing these concerns, the nurse should not dismiss planning interventions for any child, but they are especially
the teen’s worries because a question may be difficult to important when caring for children with special needs or
answer. This does not allow the adolescent to feel as if developmental delays. It is advisable to try to speak privately
his or her concerns are heard and validated. When with a parent first to determine the most effective approach
answering questions, an honest approach can be helpful in for the child. Parents know their child’s likes and dislikes,
building rapport. trigger words and behaviors, and communication preferences
and interventions that have helped redirect challenging
Because of heightened concerns about body image, adolescents
behaviors in the past and can lead to more compliance from
are often extremely worried about the resulting cosmetic effects
the patient. Some questions to consider when talking with
of an operation.4 They may seem more concerned about what
parents include the following:
their scar will look like than the actual surgical and anesthesia
process. Validating these concerns without judgment or
minimizing them can lead to more effective cooperation and ● What is the child’s level of understanding regarding the
conversation. Adolescents also value their privacy, and the procedure?
nurse should be especially mindful of this.1 For example, if ● What interventions have worked well during past medical
the adolescent needs to use the restroom, offer an additional encounters?
gown to wear around the back to help him or her feel more ● How does the child communicate (verbally or nonverbally)?
covered. Inform teens about who will need to examine them Does he or she use any communication devices (eg, picture
and why. cards)?
● Is the child sensitive to touch or noise?
● Are there any items of fixation or self-stimulating behaviors
Children With Developmental Delays that the child uses?
Medical experiences can be stressful for many children who fall ● What strategies work best for transitions such as moving
within developmental norms, but can be much more rooms or separation from a caregiver?12
alarms are still audible for the nurse.13 The best strategy to
Resources for Pediatric Surgical Patients and Their keep in mind is individualized care. Every child is different,
Family Members and strategies that worked for one patient with a
Bhatia S. The Surgery Book: For Kids. Bloomington, IN: developmental challenge may not work for the next.
AuthorHouse; 2010.
9. Ahmed MI, Farrell MA, Parrish K, Karla A. Preoperative anxiety in 13. Johnson NL, Rodriguez D. Children with autism spectrum disorder
children: risk factors and non-pharmacological management. at a pediatric hospital: a systemic review of the literature. Pediatr
Middle East J Anaesthesiol. 2011;21(2):153-164. Nurs. 2013;39(3):131-141.
10. Lieberman AF, Van Horn P. Psychotherapy With Infants and Young
Children: Repairing the Effects of Stress and Trauma on Early
Attachment. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2008.
11. Lee JH, Jung HK, Lee GG, Kim HY, Park SG, Woo SC. Effect of behavioral Judy J. Panella, BS, CCLS, is a child life specialist at
intervention using smartphone application for preoperative anxiety in Duke Children’s Hospital and Health Center, Durham, NC.
pediatric patients. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2013;65(6):508-518. Ms Panella has no declared affiliation that could be
12. Scarpinato N, Bradley J, Kurbjun K, Bateman X, Holtzer B, Ely B. perceived as posing a potential conflict of interest in
Caring for the child with an autism spectrum disorder in the acute the publication of this article.
care setting. J Spec Pediatr Nurs. 2010;15(3):244-254.
Continuing Education:
Preoperative Care of Children:
Strategies from a Child Life
Perspective 1.7 www.aornjournal.org/content/cme
PURPOSE/GOAL
To provide the learner with knowledge specific to developmentally appropriate preoperative care
of children.
OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the role of the child life specialist.
2. Discuss the role of the perioperative nurse in decreasing preoperative parental and child anxiety.
3. Describe strategies for providing developmentally appropriate care to infants, children, and adolescents.
4. Describe strategies for providing care to children with developmental delays.
The Examination and Learner Evaluation are printed here for your convenience. To receive
continuing education credit, you must complete the online Examination and Learner Evaluation
at http://www.aornjournal.org/content/cme.
Continuing Education:
Preoperative Care of Children:
Strategies From a Child Life
Perspective 1.7 www.aornjournal.org/content/cme
8.
Will you be able to use the information from this article
in your work setting?
1. Yes 2. No
8A. How will you change your practice? (Select all that apply)
1. I will provide education to my team regarding why
OBJECTIVES
change is needed.
To what extent were the following objectives of this
2. I will work with management to change/implement
continuing education program achieved?
a policy and procedure.
1. Explain the role of the child life specialist.
3. I will plan an informational meeting with physi-
Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High
cians to seek their input and acceptance of the need
2. Discuss the role of the perioperative nurse in decreasing for change.
preoperative parental and child anxiety. 4. I will implement change and evaluate the effect of
Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High the change at regular intervals until the change is
incorporated as best practice.
3. Describe strategies for providing developmentally 5. Other:
appropriate care to infants, children, and adolescents.
Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High 8B. If you will not change your practice as a result of
reading this article, why? (Select all that apply)
4. Describe strategies for providing care to children with 1. The content of the article is not relevant to my
developmental delays. practice.
Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High 2. I do not have enough time to teach others about the
purpose of the needed change.
CONTENT 3. I do not have management support to make a
5. To what extent did this article increase your knowledge change.
of the subject matter? 4. Other:
Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High
9. Our accrediting body requires that we verify the time
6. To what extent were your individual objectives met? you needed to complete the 1.7 continuing education
Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High contact hour (102-minute) program: