Environmental Management

Destroying
Organic Wastes:
Thermal Oxidizer Basics
This article describes the types of
Yehuda Goldshmid oxidizers, outlines the parameters
J. Goldshmid Environmental
Engineering and Design Co. Ltd.
that affect oxidizer choice, and
provides guidance on specifying a
thermal oxidizer system.

T
hermal oxidation is a very effective technique for lyst. The four major types of thermal oxidizers are:
the destruction of liquid and gaseous wastes con- direct-flame thermal oxidizer, or afterburner; recupera-
taining organic compounds. Thermal oxidation is tive thermal oxidizer; regenerative thermal oxidizer; and
the process of oxidizing combustible materials by raising catalytic thermal oxidizer.
their temperature above the auto-ignition temperature in
the presence of oxygen, and maintaining that temperature Direct-flame thermal oxidizer
for sufficient time to complete the oxidation into harmless The direct-flame thermal oxidizer (Figure 1) does not
CO2 and H2O. When additional elements are present, such incorporate a heat exchanger to preheat the incoming gas
as chlorine, bromine and nitrogen, the final oxidation stream with the outgoing stream. Rather, heat recovery is
products include HCl, HBr, NOX, and so on. The oxida- generally accomplished in a waste heat boiler that uses the
tion reaction is chemically very similar to combustion, hot gas to generate steam. A typical direct-flame thermal
except that the concentration of pollutants is too low to oxidizer has three main components: burner, mixing zone
support a flame front.
The heart of the thermal oxidizer is a nozzle-stabilized To Scrubber and
Feed Water
flame maintained by a combination of waste gas containing Acid Recovery
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), auxiliary fuel and sup- Steam
plemental air. The flame maintains the temperature in the Steam
Collecting
combustion chamber above the auto-ignition temperature — Drum
Exhaust Gas
i.e., the temperature above which a flammable mixture is Stream I Exhaust Gas
Combustion Stream II
capable of extracting enough energy from the environment Combustion Air
to self-ignite (1). If the amount of heat released in the forma- Chamber
tion of the end products is greater than the amount required
to initiate the reaction, the reaction will sustain itself without
Steam Boiler Control
further energy input.
Panel
The destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) achieved
Hot Air
in thermal oxidation is very high. To achieve high efficien- Liquid Stream
Compressed Air Natural Gas
cies, intensive mixing and high turbulence are required, Colling Medium Multi-Fuel Burner Exhaust Gas
along with the temperature and residence time. Stream III
Oxidizers are classified based on the type of heat
exchanger used and the presence or absence of a cata- ■ Figure 1. Direct-flame thermal oxidizer. Courtesy of Dürr
Environmental GmbH.

40 www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 CEP

and oxidation (or combustion) chamber. In the mixing
zone, the heat from the burner is distributed throughout the
process gas. The size and design of the combustion cham-
ber provide retention time and turbulence to complete the
oxidation reactions.
This design is used when the concentration of organics in
the incoming stream exceeds the lower explosive limit (LEL)
at room temperature (or at a higher temperature, since LEL
decreases as the temperature increases).
A direct-flame thermal oxidizer is not limited by the
concentration of contaminants in the waste gas. It can han-
dle variable heat loads and the accompanying temperature
increases, provided the refractory material can withstand
the high temperatures. A special burner allows liquid
wastes to be burned, either alone or together with fuel, and
provides good mixing and contact between the incoming
waste and the flame.
Air is required to burn the fuel or the liquid waste, but
the heavily contaminated air stream cannot be used for this
purpose because it presents a fire or explosion hazard. If a
contaminated air stream will be used as the source of com-
bustion air, that stream must contain no more than 2–3 g/m3
of hydrocarbons.
The major disadvantage of the direct-flame thermal
oxidizer is the need for supplemental fuel, unlike other
types, which at high enough waste concentrations will
maintain the required temperature without the addition
of fuel.
Regenerative thermal oxidizer
Regenerative thermal oxidizers (RTOs) are typically used
to treat large volumes of air with low contaminant concentra-
tions. Typically, an RTO (Figure 2) employs a ceramic media
to collect and store energy. The ceramic media is contained
in several (typically three, although two to five can be used)
vessels that are open to the oxidation chamber at the top, and
are connected by pipes and dampers to the waste gas inlet
and the clean gas outlet. One ceramic bed absorbs heat from
the hot, clean gas leaving the combustion chamber, while
another bed releases its stored heat to preheat the incoming
waste gas. At the same time, the third vessel is purged with
air to remove any residual contaminants. Once every 2–4
min, the dampers are adjusted to switch operation from one
bed to another.
The use of a third ceramic-packed vessel increases the
destruction efficiency, but increases the cost of the unit. An
RTO with three heat-recovery vessels typically recovers
93–97% of the energy used in the oxidation process at tem-
peratures of 850–1,050°C and achieves >99.5% destruction
efficiency. The thermal efficiency increases as bed height
increases and decreases as cycle time increases.
Purified
Burners
Exhaust
Air
Scavenging Regenerative
Air Heat
Exchanger
Solvent-Laden
Exhaust Air
■ Figure 2. Regenerative thermal oxidizer (RTO). Courtesy of Dürr
Environmental GmbH.
RTOs commonly use one of two kinds of ceramic packing:
• silica-alumina ceramic monolithic blocks, in the shape
of honeycomb bricks having small (approximately 3 × 3 mm
or less) open channels, which are laid one on top of the other
• saddles or other typse of random packing.
As an approximation, structured packing costs roughly
six times more than random packing. Also, random packing
is easier to install, less fragile and less susceptible to thermal
shock. However, the structured packing is characterized by
higher bulk densities and higher surface area, resulting in a
lower pressure drop, and better heat-transfer characteristics
than random-packed media.
The trend in RTO installations is to use structured pack-
ing because of its economic advantages. The lower operating
costs associated with structured packing more than offset the
capital cost advantage of random packing for larger units.
In many cases, the oxidation energy of the waste gas
exceeds the energy required to maintain the oxidation tem-
perature, and the associated temperature increase will
damage the ceramic packing. The temperature rise can be
avoided with a hot bypass around the ceramic packing that
connects the oxidation chamber directly to the outlet vent.
The same result can be achieved with a cold bypass, where
part of the cold waste gas enters the oxidation chamber
directly; however, this requires instrumentation to measure
total organic carbon (TOC) content upstream of the RTO
and to control the flow-splitting dampers.
Because of the fire hazard, the concentration of organ-
ics in the waste gas is kept below 25% LEL in order to
avoid a fire in the ceramic bed. Brief concentration
increases up to 40% LEL are acceptable, but no higher.
RTOs are used for stable low-concentration, high-
flowrate applications, usually lower than 10 g/m3 and up
to 800,000 m3/h.
CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 41
Environmental Management
Hot Bypass
Damper
Solvent- Secondary Reaction
Laden Air Chamber
Primary Combustion
Clean Chamber
Exhaust Air
Tubular Heat
Exchanger
Burner
■ Figure 3. Recuperative thermal oxidizer. Courtesy of Dürr
Environmental GmbH.
Recuperative thermal oxidizer
A recuperative thermal oxidizer typically incorporates a
metal shell-and-tube heat exchanger as part of the thermal
oxidizer body (Figure 3). The energy recovered by the
exchanger preheats the incoming air. Extra care must be
taken to prevent excessive temperatures at the hot inlet of the
heat exchanger in order to prevent thermal damage.
A recuperative thermal oxidizer recovers roughly 40–80%
of the energy released by the oxidation process. Its effective-
ness is a function of the following factors: process exhaust
temperature; system operating temperature; temperature
stratification within the thermal oxidizer, which relates to
flow turndown; type and concentration of VOC contami-
nants; and the process operating cycle.
The recuperative thermal oxidizer is less susceptible to
blockage than the RTO and can accommodate gas streams
with slightly higher particulate concentrations.
The concentration of organics in the gas entering
the recuperative thermal oxidizer is limited to 0.25
LEL for the same reasons as in the RTO.
Catalytic thermal oxidizer
In a catalytic oxidizer (Figure 4), a catalyst lowers Heated
the oxidation temperature. Waste gas is typically heat- Air
ed by auxiliary burners to 320–430°C before entering
the catalyst bed. The maximum design temperature of
the catalyst exhaust is 540–675°C.
Catalysts are usually made of precious metals or
base metals. They are susceptible to poisons and
masking agents, which hamper efficiency, and they
cannot withstand particulates, which impede flow.
Catalytic thermal oxidizers are well-suited for
processes that generate high VOC concentrations and
frequently cycle on and off, provided no poisons are ■ Figure 4. Catalytic thermal oxidizer. Courtesy of Dürr Environmental GmbH.
42 www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 CEP
present. Potential poisons include sulfur, silica, phosphorous,
arsenic and heavy metals; the list of poisons for a specific
catalyst should be obtained from the catalyst manufacturer.
Even though catalytic oxidizers may be less expensive to
purchase, they are more expensive to operate because most
of them lack heat recovery, and the catalyst needs to be
changed every few years.
Comparing the designs
Figure 5 shows schematically the principal fields of appli-
cation for thermal oxidizers. In summary:
When hydrocarbons are to be oxidized, the flow is
steady and greater than about 5,000 m3/h, the temperature
is low, and no acids are formed in the oxidizer, then an
RTO or a recuperative thermal oxidizer are the best choic-
es, even if the air flow must be doubled or tripled to avoid
exceeding 0.25 LEL. When halogens are present, the cost
of the oxidizer usually increases because of the need to
use corrosion-resistant metals.
A recuperative thermal oxidizer is not capable of self-sus-
taining operation, because of lack of control over the operat-
ing temperature. An increase to above the normal operating
temperature could damage the heat exchanger and require a
long shutdown for repairs.
Under the same conditions, except with a very unsta-
ble flow (and assuming that there are no catalyst poisons
in the waste gases), a catalytic thermal oxidizer is the
best choice.
A direct-flame thermal oxidizer should be used when any
(or all) of the following conditions exist: the flowrate is low,
the waste concentration is high, the waste contains halo-
genated hydrocarbons, and the thermal oxidizer will burn
waste liquid together with the waste gas.
Purified
Exhaust Air/Air
Air Heat Exchanger Integrated Heat
Exchanger
Cool Air
Catalyst
Solvent-Laden
Exhaust Air
Burner
Gas
Exhaust
Air Fan
Burner Instrument
Fittings
Inspection
Sightglass
 Organic Load of Waste Gas, g/m 3
100
Direct Flame
10 Thermal Oxidizer
Thermal (RTO)
1 Catalytic
Oxidation
Oxidation
0.1
100 1,000 10,000
Flowrate of Waste Gas, m 3/h
■ Figure 5. Applicability ranges of various types of thermal oxidiz-
ers. Courtesy of Bayer Technology Services.
Characteristics of the waste gas source
An important first step in the selection of a thermal oxi-
dizer is the classification of the waste gas sources into one of
three major categories:
• contaminated air stream
• contaminated inert gas stream
• rich gas stream.
Such classification can be used, for instance, to determine
early in the project whether it is better to divide the contami-
nated air into several streams, each in a separate pipe, rather
than mix them and convey them in one large pipe.
Contaminated air streams contain low levels of com-
bustible materials, usually well below the LEL (less than
25% LEL), and a minimum of 18% (by volume) oxygen so
that there is no danger of fire or explosion. Twenty-five per-
cent of LEL is approximately 10 g/m3. Auto-ignition starts at
about 1.5–4 g/m3, which means that, in many cases, there is
no need to add supplemental fuel.
If rich gas streams, which require a direct-flame ther-
mal oxidizer, are also present, the waste gas stream should
be split in two:
• a low-concentration contaminated air stream with an
organics content less than 2–3 g/m3, which can serve as
combustion air to burn the supplemental fuel or liquid waste
• higher-concentration streams that can be combined
with the waste gas stream.
If, however, the overall waste concentration and the
flowrate meet the requirements of an RTO, then there is no
advantage to splitting the flow.
When liquid fuel or dual fuels are used, a nozzle-mix
burner is required. The low-waste-concentration air can be
passed through the burner and used as combustion air. The
rich gas stream enters the combustion chamber downstream
of the burner and must be properly mixed with the burner’s
products of combustion. Turbulence is needed to oxidize
the contaminants to the degree required. To obtain the nec-
essary turbulence, the rich stream is introduced through
several jets, with sufficient velocity to penetrate the hot
burner products well downstream of the flame root.
When the contaminated air stream contains a low concen-
Explosive
tration of particulates, aerosols and/or corrosive gases, then it
is introduced downstream of the burner and mixed with the
burner gases. Again, turbulence is the key to maximizing the
Non-Explosive destruction of contaminants.
Contaminated inert-gas streams have low oxygen con-
centrations and originate mainly from nitrogen-blanketed
100,000
reactors or vessels. These are usually classified as not explo-
sive because of the low oxygen concentration. The stream is
introduced into the combustion chamber downstream of the
burner flame root. Enough air should be introduced for com-
plete oxidation of the pollutants, plus at least an extra 3%
oxygen to meet combustion-chamber outlet concentration
requirements. Here, too, high turbulence is required to assure
mixing on a very fine scale.
Rich gas streams are designated as explosive and are
burned in a direct-flame thermal oxidizer. The waste gas is not
used as fuel in the burner, but is introduced through several jet
nozzles well downstream of the flame root. It is important to
preserve enough oxygen so that the products of combustion
leaving the combustion chamber contain at least 3% oxygen.
Factors affecting oxidizer selection
In choosing a thermal oxidizer, the following assump-
tions are made:
• All thermal oxidizers meet the combustion require-
ments and the applicable emission standards (see box, p. 44).
• The streams leading to the thermal oxidizer were opti-
mized economically to meet the requirements of the specific
thermal oxidizer chosen.
• The inlet streams meet the safety criteria set by the
European Directive 94/9/EC (2), or equivalents.
• Particulates are removed from the air stream by filtra-
tion and aerosols by an efficient entrainment separator.
Assuming that these conditions are met by all thermal
oxidizers under consideration, then the factors involved in
selecting the appropriate thermal oxidizer are:
1. Number, concentration (loading) and type of VOC
sources, stability, presence of catalyst poisons, flowrate and
temperature of the waste gas stream. When the waste gas
flowrate is high, the waste concentration low (< 0.25 LEL)
and the flow steady, either a regenerative (RTO) or a recu-
perative thermal oxidizer is the proper choice. In most cases,
an RTO is preferred because of its higher thermal efficiency.
However, large variations in flowrate could cause tempera-
ture and residence time changes that would reduce the effi-
ciency and damage the ceramic packing.
For highly variable flowrates, a catalytic thermal oxi-
dizer is the best choice, provided the waste gas meets all
CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 43
Environmental Management
the other requirements of a catalytic thermal oxidizer.
On the other hand, in the case of low flowrates, heat
recovery becomes less critical. A direct-flame or a recupera-
tive thermal oxidizer would be the proper choice.
2. Uptime of each source of VOC. Source uptime affects
the variability in flowrate and contaminant concentration.
Regenerative and recuperative thermal oxidizers are most sus-
ceptible to large and frequent changes in these parameters.
A change in contaminant concentration requires a simulta-
neous change in dilution air to keep the concentration below
0.25 LEL. Dilution air flow is adjusted by an online TOC ana-
lyzer/controller, which activates the outside-air control damper.
Because contaminants are also sources of energy,
excess organics entering the burner will raise the tempera-
ture, which could damage the RTO’s ceramic packing.
Meeting Emission Standards
Efficiency at controlling emissions depends on two parame-
ters: capture and destruction. Regulations demand both high
removal efficiency and high availability (uptime).
High VOC capture efficiency should not be achieved through
a high flowrate, which requires a larger, and thus more expen-
sive, oxidizer. It is always more effective to close holes and
cracks in the system than to increase the flowrate. Where a
high flowrate is required for dilution, it is better to achieve the
dilution through a controlled damper open to the outside air.
VOC destruction. Achieving high VOC destruction efficien-
cy requires the three Ts: Time, Temperature and Turbulence.
Regulations dictate the time and temperature required to
achieve >98% destruction efficiency. Turbulence is very
important to bring the small quantities of residual VOC in con-
tact with oxygen and thus complete the oxidation process.
Hydrogen chloride and chlorine. HCl and Cl2, as well as
the other halogens, can be removed by a caustic scrubber
combined with sodium bisulfite, which will absorb and react
with the halogens and halogenated compounds in the oxidizer
outlet stream. If the HCl is to be recovered, the scrubbing is
done with water and a small quantity of bisulfite. When the
required product concentration is low — around 1% HCl — a
water scrubber could meet the emission standard. If a higher
concentration is required (say 10% HCl solution), two scrub-
bers in series are required, the first a water scrubber and the
second a much smaller caustic scrubber.
Particulates. Particulates can enter the oxidizer with the
waste gas or form during the combustion process. They can
block the heat exchangers; they can also leave the oxidizer
with the clean gas and exceed the emission standard. Organic
particles will evaporate and burn out in a direct-flame thermal
oxidizer, but could clog the ceramic heat absorbers in an RTO
44 www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 CEP
Thus, large and frequent variations in contaminant con-
centration require large and frequent changes in the amount
of dilution air and the amount of fuel burned in the oxidizer.
A direct-flame thermal oxidizer does not contain heat-
storing ceramic and can withstand temperature changes. The
same is true for a catalytic thermal oxidizer, since its operat-
ing temperature is low and there is usually no heat recovery.
3. Destruction and removal efficiency required by the reg-
ulatory agency. Many countries set specific temperature and
residence time requirements for thermal oxidizers, such as:
• for hydrocarbons, a temperature above 750°C and
sufficient residence time for complete combustion; the
European Commission directive 94/9/EC (2) requires a
temperature of 850°C and a 2-second residence time
• for hydrocarbons containing 1% or more of halo-
or the pipes in a recuperative thermal oxidizer. An RTO can be
programmed to burn out the organic particles, thus cleaning
the ceramic heat exchanger.
However, if the particles are inorganic and do not burn,
then periodically the thermal oxidizer should be shut down,
cooled and cleaned. This involves an interruption in the nor-
mal operation of the unit and venting of the organic contami-
nants to the air. A better approach is to filter the waste gas
entering the thermal oxidizer, even though this entails addi-
tional pressure drop and additional cost.
Nitrogen oxides. NOx emission standards can be met using
SCR or SNCR. See Refs. 6 and 7 for more information.
Dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs). An emission level of 0.1 ng/m3
cannot be guaranteed when oxidizing halogenated hydrocar-
bons unless additional fluegas-cleaning equipment is used (3).
Both adsorption on polypropylene packing in a packed scrubber
and catalytic oxidation can achieve this level of control.
The catalyst for PCDD/F removal has a honeycomb shape, is
similar to the catalyst used in SCR, and has an approximate life of
5 yr and sometimes longer. The achievable destruction efficiency
depends on the volume of the catalyst installed. Typically, the cat-
alyst for PCDD/F destruction is combined with the SCR deNOX
catalyst in one unit. The minimum operating temperature of the
catalytic system is determined by the residual SOX concentration,
because at a temperature below the dewpoint, sulfuric acid will
react with the ammonia injected to reduce the NOX and will form
(NH4)2SO4 particles, which can plug the catalyst. A bypass and
start-up control system is necessary for most applications.
At the normal operating temperature of about 320°C for SCR,
a reduction efficiency greater than 99% has been achieved for
PCDD/Fs. Catalytic oxidation reactors, without simultaneous NOX
removal, operate at much lower temperatures of 100–200°C.
genated organic (expressed as chlorine), a temperature of
1,100°C and a residence time of 2 seconds.
In addition to specifying temperature and residence time,
the standards usually specify either the DRE or the maxi-
mum concentration of pollutants in the exhaust stream.
Some countries allow different temperatures and resi-
dence times, provided the plant demonstrates through a trial
burn that it meets the emission limits.
4. Whether liquid wastes will be burned in the oxidizer.
Burning liquid waste improves the economics of a thermal
oxidizer because the liquid waste replaces supplemental
fuel, and the costs for disposal of the liquid wastes are
eliminated. The system is usually adequate for burning the
liquid wastes, since it is already equipped with an air-pol-
lution-control train.
Most plants that burn liquid wastes use direct-flame
oxidizers, since they permit a high rate of waste liquid
burning without being affected by the flowrate and compo-
sition of the waste gases.
Waste liquids could also be burned in an RTO or recu-
perative thermal oxidizer. This must be done under strict
operating conditions so that the temperature in the com-
bustion chamber does not rise and damage the heat
exchanger and/or the ceramic packing.
In some countries, burning of liquid waste changes the
legal status of the system to a hazardous-waste incinerator.
This change has many ramifications (which are beyond the
scope of this article).
5. Demand for steam or other heat elsewhere in the pro-
duction processes. Heat recovery from a direct-flame ther-
mal oxidizer is via a waste heat boiler. Since the boiler can-
not dictate the operation of the thermal oxidizer, the plant
must have another source of steam to meet its steam
demand. This allows the waste heat boiler to use all the heat
produced by the oxidizer.
6. Facility layout, including utilities and waste gas
sources and their connections. Regenerative and recuperative
thermal oxidizers require contaminant concentrations lower
than 0.25 LEL, which in most cases requires large flowrates
and large pipes. However, they do not produce steam.
Direct-flame thermal oxidizers do not need dilution air, and
as a result do not need large pipes. But they do usually require
three pipes rather than one to convey the contaminated gas
streams, and they must be tied in to the main steam supply.
7. The presence of halogenated hydrocarbons, nitrogen-,
sulfur-, and/or phosphorus-containing compounds in the
inlet waste gas stream. Hydrocarbons containing halogens,
nitrogen and/or sulfur oxidize to HX, NOX and SOX, which
must be removed before the clean exhaust is discharged. The
oxidation products usually contain the halogens themselves
in addition to the HX, and the acids are corrosive. Halogens
also present additional difficulties — they can serve as pre-
cursors to dioxins and furans (denoted PCDD/Fs, for poly-
chlorinated dibenzo-dioxin and -furan).
A typical emission standard for PCDD/Fs is 0.1 ng/dscm
(dry std. m3), as measured in International Toxic Equivalency
(I-TEQ) units. This can easily be exceeded if the proper con-
trols are not implemented.
Even though all the PCDD/Fs present in the waste gas are
oxidized in the thermal oxidizer, PCDD/Fs can reform dur-
ing the cooling process (3). To avoid this, the formation of
flyash should be minimized, and proper and complete oxida-
tion ensured. In addition, the gas should be cooled quickly as
it passes through the 200–500°C temperature range, where
PCDD/Fs formation is greatest. Most thermal oxidizers dis-
charge clean gas from the waste heat boiler at about 400°C
and then cool it quickly to about 70°C in a quencher.
Any PCDD/Fs that do form despite these preventive
measures must be removed. This is typically done in a cat-
alytic reactor (usually in combination with NOx removal in a
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system).
HCl is formed as a result of the oxidation of chlorinated
hydrocarbons. Where flyash containing metals is present,
part of the HCl will decompose to form Cl2. (The same is
true for other halogens as well.) These gases should be
removed from the clean gas leaving the thermal oxidizer,
which is usually done by scrubbing (4).
The refractory material covering the walls of the combus-
tion chamber can withstand high-temperature corrosion, and
the metal envelope is kept at a temperature higher than
200°C to prevent condensation and corrosion. Low-tempera-
ture corrosion can be prevented by discharging the gas from
the waste heat boiler at a relatively high temperature and
cooling the gas quickly in a quencher, where much of the
HCl is absorbed by the water.
Most refractories cannot withstand HF. Thus, fluorinated
hydrocarbons should not be introduced unless the system has
been designed with refractive materials that can tolerate the HF.
Nitrogen oxides are formed through the oxidation of
nitrogen in the air and in the fuel, waste gas or waste liquid
(5). Usually, fuel NOX is the largest contributor to the NOX
production in the thermal oxidizer (assuming there are nitro-
gen-containing molecules in the fuel).
Several technologies are available to meet NOX emis-
sion standards. Some rely on the prevention of NOX forma-
tion by supplying less than the stoichiometric quantity of
oxygen and by the injection of the waste gas containing
oxygen into the oxidation chamber. Other technologies —
SCR, selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR), and hybrid
SCR/SNCR — reduce NOX to N2. The reducing methods
react NOX and ammonia (or urea) in the presence of oxy-
gen, and require intimate mixing of ammonia and the waste
CEP www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 45
Environmental Management
gas. Refs 6 and 7 cover NOx emission control in detail.
The choice of NOX reduction technology depends on the
thermal oxidizer temperature and the presence of particulate
matter and catalyst poisons. If the clean gas contains catalyst
poison or particulates, an SCR unit cannot be used, and
SNCR would be preferred.
Explosivity and other safety considerations
A thermal oxidizer is an end-of-pipe pollution control
device, and as such it requires a piping network to collect and
convey the waste gas from the production and storage areas to
it. The concentration of waste gas relative to its LEL is an
important safety parameter, since there is always an open fire
in the thermal oxidizer. The combustion chamber, which hous-
es the flame, and the other hot components are at the most risk.
The blower is the heart of a thermal oxidizer — when the
blower malfunctions, the entire system does not operate.
Installing the blower upstream of a thermal oxidizer has the
advantage of operating at room temperature and in a less-cor-
rosive atmosphere. However, the disadvantages of doing so are
that the conveyance of explosive gases requires special blow-
ers and special protection measures, and the oxidizer is under
pressure, as is the equipment downstream of the blower.
On the other hand, a blower downstream of the scrubber
may operate in a corrosive atmosphere, but not an explosive
one. Its temperature is usually below 100°C, and it maintains
the whole installation (from the plant to the exhaust scrubber)
under vacuum, which prevents the leakage of explosive gas.
It is important to minimize any flow of explosive gas,
because a large flowrate requires large-diameter steel piping,
large flame arresters and large blowers, the costs of which
increase rapidly with size.
Most vents, particularly those from batch processes, will
from time to time discharge high-concentration waste. The
material of construction for the piping that conveys this gas
is dictated by corrosion considerations, although the
demands for the flame arresters are less strict. Here, too, one
should do everything possible to reduce the flow, provided it
does not result in an explosive mixture.
Facilities can be grouped into three classifications based
on the likelihood of an explosive environment being present,
which will determine the degree of protection required:
• an area where explosive air/vapor mixtures are contin-
uously present, or present for long periods; these require
three flame arresters in series upstream of the thermal oxi-
dizer as safety devices and piping that can withstand 10 bar
• an area where explosive air/vapor mixtures occur
occasionally during normal operation; here two flame
arresters in series are required
• an area where an explosive air/vapor mixture is unlike-
ly to occur during normal operation, and if one does occur, it
46 www.cepmagazine.org May 2005 CEP
is present only for short periods; only one flame arrester and
piping that can withstand a pressure of 2 bar is required.
These categories correspond with the designations of
Zone 0, Zone 1 and Zone 2, respectively, in the European
Community Directive 94/9/EC (2).
The system design should provide both primary and sec-
ondary explosion protection. Primary protection includes all
that is required to prevent the formation of an explosive
atmosphere, and secondary protection minimizes the effects
of an explosion should one occur.
To enable the diluted waste gas stream to be used as com-
bustion air, it should not exceed 2–3 g/m3 of organic matter,
even if achieving this requires dilution with outside air.
If a stream, for example from a reactor, contains 2% (or
more) oxygen, it is not explosive regardless of the concentra-
tion of organics. However, if it is combined with the main
low-concentration waste gas, the result could be high organic
and high oxygen concentrations, putting the combined
stream in the explosive category. It is better to keep the high-
O2 stream as it is and convey the low-O2 stream to the ther-
mal oxidizer separately so that it remains non-explosive.
Determining which streams should be treated in the ther-
mal oxidizer and how they should be combined into streams
of different explosive classifications is the most important task
preceding the specification of the oxidizer. Keep in mind that
whatever is submitted to the equipment vendor will serve as
the basis for the design. If the thermal oxidizer does not meet
the emission standards as a result of inaccurate specifications,
the one who prepared the specification is the responsible party.
The burner
The burner should be able to burn liquid fuel as well as
liquid waste, using the low-concentration air (2–3 g/m3) as
combustion air if possible.
It is always advantageous to install the burner on top of a
vertical combustion chamber and let it spray the liquid fuel
downward from the top. In this way, waste liquid will not
accumulate at the wall, which can happen in a horizontal
combustion chamber.
The burner and the waste gas injection should produce
the turbulence required for adequate contact between the
oxygen and the organic waste.
The combustion chamber is lined with refractory. The cost
ratio between top-of-the-line and inexpensive refractory is about
3:1. The better refractory contains more alumina. If the waste
gases contain fluorine, even in small quantities, the more expen-
sive refractory should be used. In all other cases, the choice is
up to the design engineer. Keep in mind that replacing refracto-
ry takes time, which is downtime for the oxidizer, and the extent
of downtime permitted should be discussed and agreed upon
with the authorities in advance of ordering the equipment.
Time and temperature
The temperature and residence time should be set based
on the applicable regulatory requirements. It is advantageous
to have the hot gas exit the combustion chamber at 950°C,
because then it can directly enter the SNCR deNOX chamber
at the proper temperature.
The regulatory authorities may agree to lower tempera-
tures and shorter residence times if they are presented with
experimental evidence that the thermal oxidizer meets the
emission standards. This information is usually available
from the vendor.
Waste heat boiler
The major decision regarding the waste heat boiler is
whether to choose a water-tube boiler or a fire-tube boiler.
Water-tube boilers are more expensive, but have the
Literature Cited
1. Crowl, D. A., and J. F. Louvar, “Chemical Process Safety:
Fundamentals with Applications,” Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ (1990).
2. “On the Approximation of the Laws of the Member States
Concerning Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for
Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres,” Directive
94/9/EC of the European Parliament and the Council (Mar.
1994).
3. Hartenstein, H. U., “Dioxin and Furan Reduction
Technologies for Combustion and Industrial Thermal Process
Facilities,” Ch. 15 in “The Handbook of Environmental
Chemistry, Vol. 3, Part O, Persistent Organic Pollutants,”
Fiedler, H., ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, NY (2003).
4. Theodore, L., et al., “Hazardous Waste Incineration
Calculations,” Wiley, Hoboken, NJ (1991).
5. KEU GmbH, “Contaminant Treatment — Special Thermal
Processes to Cut NOX Emissions,” KEU Technology Report,
available at www.keu.de.
6. Bradford, M., et al., “Controlling NOX Emissions, Part 1,”
Chem. Eng. Progress, 98 (3), pp. 42–46 (Mar. 2002).
7. Bradford, M., et al., “Controlling NOX Emissions, Part 2,”
Chem. Eng. Progress, 98 (4), pp. 38–42 (Apr. 2002).
YEHUDA GOLDSHMID is the owner and general manager of J. Goldshmid
Environmental Engineering and Design Co. Ltd. (P.O. Box 58195, Tel Aviv
61580, Israel; Phone: 972-3-6481250; E-mail: goldsmid@inter.net.il).
The company provides engineering services in the design of air
pollution control systems and equipment, conducts environmental
evaluation, and prepares environmental impact statements and
assessments. He has written 35 scientific articles and is the coauthor
and editor of four books. He received a bachelor’s degree in chemical
engineering from the Technion — Israel Institute of Technology and a
PhD in chemical engineering from Case Institute of Technology
(Cleveland, OH). He is a registered professional engineer in Ohio and a
member of AIChE.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the help of Agan Chemical
Manufacturers Ltd, and its manager, Mr. A. Kleiner, who made this article
possible and of Mr. M. Dertinger of Dürr Environmental GmbH for his
valuable comments.
advantage that the soot accumulates outside the tubes,
which makes it much easier to clean (on a day-to-day
basis using soot blowers, as well as on a longer-term
basis). In both fire-tube and water-tube boilers, the accu-
mulation of soot reduces the heat-transfer coefficient and
results in an increase in the temperature of the flue-gas
leaving the boiler. Thus, the schedule for cleaning the
waste heat boiler is determined by the temperature of the
gas leaving the boiler.
The choice of a waste heat boiler should also be dis-
cussed with the regulators. A fire-tube boiler requires per-
mission for longer shutdown periods whenever tube clean-
ing is required. In addition, the presence of dioxins/furans
is more likely.
The type of boiler can affect the shape of the thermal oxi-
dizer unit. If a water-tube boiler is chosen, a U-shape system
is more advantageous. In most cases, a fire-tube boiler will
form an L-shaped unit.
To prevent corrosion, it is advantageous to operate the
steam boiler at 12 atm and about 190°C, or higher pressure
and temperature. The fluegas leaves the boiler at 250–300°C
and enters the quencher. The fluegas could leave the boiler at
a higher temperature and pass through an economizer, heat-
ing the combustion air before it enters the quencher.
However, it is dangerous to heat a gas with organic concen-
tration of 0.5 LEL or higher because the LEL decreases as
the temperature increases. In the quencher, the temperature
of the gas is reduced to about 70°C.
The water in the quencher absorbs much of the acid gases.
Most vendors will build the quencher partly of metal and
partly of plastic. In the event of a power failure, the pump
stops circulating the cooling water, but the fluegas continues
flowing due to natural draft, and the hot gas could melt or
damage the plastic. To prevent the quencher from heating, an
emergency water supply tank that supplies water by gravity
and/or air pressure is usually installed. The capacity of this
tank should be sufficient to supply water for 20–30 min.
From the quencher, the fluegas enters the scrubber. The
scrubber could be a water scrubber if the acid produced in
the scrubber could be recycled for use elsewhere. Otherwise,
it is a caustic scrubber from which the effluent flows into the
plant sewer. In either case, the gas leaving the scrubber
should meet emission standards.
If it does not meet the standards because of high NOX or
dioxin/furan, then a heater and an SCR unit are required. It
is recommended to use 25% ammonia solution to reduce the
NOX, since urea can produce HCN.
Once the fluegas meets the emission standards, it is sent
to the chimney. The chimney should have a platform for
continuous emission monitoring if required and for conduct-
ing periodic stack sampling. CEP
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