Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

www.elsevier.com/locate/!nel

An e"cient shape optimization method based on FEM and

B-spline curves and shaping a torque converter clutch disk
S. Hyun, C. Kim∗ , J.H. Son, S.H. Shin, Y.S. Kim
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 1370 Sankyuk-Dong, Book-Gu,
Daegu 702-701, South Korea

Received 3 July 2003; accepted 18 January 2004

Abstract

An e"cient shape optimization scheme has been developed for designing axis symmetric structures. The
sequential linear programming and Simplex method are coupled with !nite element analysis. Selected sets
of master nodes on design boundaries are employed as design variables and assigned to move towards their
normal directions. By interpolating the repositioned master nodes, B-spline curves are constructed so that the
remaining nodes on the design boundaries e"ciently settle on the B-spline curves. A mesh smoothing scheme
is also applied to interior nodes to maintain the !nite elements in good quality. Applying these techniques a
numerical implementation is presented to obtain the optimum design of an automobile torque converter clutch
disk subjected to a hydraulic pressure and centrifugal force loads. The results give the optimum shape of the
disk showing weight saving up to 13% after the shape optimization.
? 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Finite element method; Shape optimization; B-spline curve; Adaptive remeshing; Torque converter lock-up
clutch disk

1. Introduction

A number of studies on the shape optimization of structures have been carried out. For a broad
class of shape optimization problems, no additional weight reduction can be achieved without chang-
ing the shape and location of the boundary of design domains. To this end B-spline curves and
surfaces are widely used to represent the continuous boundary surfaces of design domains during
the shape optimization process.

∗
Corresponding author. Fax.: +82-53-950-6586.
E-mail address: kimchul@knu.ac.kr (C. Kim).

0168-874X/$ - see front matter ? 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.!nel.2004.01.005
1804 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

The !rst shape optimization, using the !nite element method with iso-parametric elements, is pro-
posed by Zienkiewicz and Campbell [1]. They used the sequential linear programming and Simplex
method for !nding the optimal shape of an arch dam. During the shape optimization process, the
structural shape is changed by repositioning the boundary nodes. By the 1980s, most researchers used
all the nodes along the boundary surface as design variables. Such a scheme, however, sometimes
produces discontinuous or unstable boundary surfaces and is often apt to produce distorted mesh
causing less reliable solutions. To cope with this problem, Fleury and Baribant [2], instead of the
surface nodes, adopted the control points of B-spline curves as design variables which can construct
smooth design boundary surface. Bennett and Botkin [3] suggested an automatic mesh generation
method coupled with an adaptive mesh re!nement scheme during a shape optimization process.
An important issue in automobile design is to reduce the weight of an automobile in order to
improve the e"ciency of power transfer and fuel consumption (km/l). Recently, most passenger
cars were adopting the front-engine and front-driving system that creates additional di"culty in
balancing the fore-and-after weights. One of the heaviest parts in an automobile is the engine and
power transmission which occupy 20–25% of its total weight. The torque converter lock-up clutch
disk, a part of the automatic transmission, transfers engine power to a driving shaft by hydraulic
pressure. It rotates at various speeds and is subjected to frequent pressure loads. Thus, there are high
demands for designing the lock-up clutch disk !tting all the working conditions and maximizing its
cost eIectiveness.
The objective of this study is to propose an eIective shape optimization scheme to determine
appropriate boundary surfaces of an automobile torque converter lock-up clutch disk. B-spline curves
[4,5], representing the design boundary, are employed in the optimization process and nodes on the
design boundary are allowed to move by a proposed method. Besides, the mesh smoothing technique
is applied to improve overall mesh quality. A cantilever and a !llet case are implemented to verify
the performance of the proposed optimization scheme.

2. Shape optimization algorithm

The shape optimization problem is to !nd the design variables X while minimizing the objective
function W (X) under the constraint functions gi (X), and can be stated mathematically as
Find X ∈ Rn ; (1)

to minimize W (X) (2)

subject to gi (X) ¿ 0; (3)

XL 6 X 6 XH ; (4)
where XL and XH are allowable lower and upper limits of the design variables which are introduced
to deal with various requirements.
Many e"cient schemes are suggested achieving optimum solutions for non-linear optimization
problems [6]. In the present study, the sequential linear programming and Simplex method [7]
are used for shape optimization. This method involves linearizing the non-linear objective function
 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815 1805

W (X) and the non-linear constraint functions gi (X) at a design point, XP . Only the linear terms
from Taylor’s expansion are taken and the higher-order terms are ignored. The linearized objective
function and constraints are as follows:
minimize W = c + bT X (5)

subject to AX ¿ d; (6)

X ¿ 0; (7)
where
c = W (XP ) − ∇T W (XP )XP ; (8)


T 9(XP ) 9W (XP )
b = ··· ; (9)
9X1 9Xn
 
9g1 (XP ) 9g1 (XP )
 9X1 ···
 9Xn  
 . . 
A=  .. .. ;
 (10)
 
 9g (XP ) 9gm (XP ) 
m
···
9X1 9Xn
 
T P P P

 ∇ g 1 (X )X − g 1 (X ) 


 

d= .
.. ; (11)

 


 T 

∇ gm (XP )XP − gm (XP )


9 9
∇T = ··· : (12)
9X1 9Xn
The partial derivatives that appear in the equations above are obtained by the semi-analytical sensi-
tivity analysis [8]. In the shape optimizations of structures, the objective function W (X) represents
volume, the design variables X coordinates of boundary nodes and the constraint functions gi (X)
the maximum allowable stresses, respectively.
The minimization by simplex method requires design variables to be updated repeatedly until
a proper convergence is reached. The determination of convergence is made by a volume change
caused by continuous shape optimization. The ratio of a volume change  is expressed in two
adjacent volume as
   
 MV   Vi − Vi−1 
=   =  ; (13)
Vi   Vi 

where Vi is volume at iteration i and Vi−1 is volume at iteration i − 1. When the ratio  becomes
less than 0.001, the optimization process is considered to be converged.
1806 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

3. Shape optimization scheme

The shape optimization scheme consists of constructing B-spline curves to represent design bound-
aries and mesh smoothing techniques to improve interior mesh shapes.

3.1. B-spline curve

A B-spline curve is represented in terms of a blending function as

 n
P(u) = Ni; k (u)Pi (tk −1 6 u 6 tn+1 ); (14)
i=0

where Nik (u) is the blending function given as

(u − ti )Ni; k −1 (u) (ti+k − u)Ni+1; k −1 (u)
Ni; k (u) = − (15)
ti+k −1 − ti ti+k − ti+1
and

1; ti 6 u 6 ti+1 ;
Ni; 1 (u) = (16)
0 otherwise:
In the above equation, Pi is a set of control points, ti is knot values and k is the order of the
B-spline curve. The knot values for a non-periodic B-spline curve that passes two end points are
given by


 0; 0 6 i ¡ k;

ti = i − k + 1; k 6 i 6 n; (17)


 n − k + 2; n ¡ i 6 n + k:

Eq. (14) expressed in the matrix form becomes

D = NB; (18)

B = N−1 D; (19)
where D is the matrix of data points, N is the matrix of a blending function and B is the matrix of
control points. By substituting the obtained control points from Eq. (19) into Eq. (18), an arbitrary
B-spline curve passing through the data points can be de!ned. Fig. 1 demonstrates the constructing
procedure of a B-spline curve using six given data points [4]. The requirement for any B-spline
curve is given as
p 6 n + 1; (20)
where p is the order of the B-spline curve and n is the number of the data points. In the present
work the !fth order of B-spline curves are employed for each span consisting of six data points.
In the process of shape optimization, taking the coordinates of entire nodes as design variables
makes the computation exceedingly long and di"cult in keeping a design boundary smooth [6].
In the present work, a group of carefully chosen nodes along a design boundary is assigned to
 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815 1807

Fig. 1. The construction of a B-spline curve from nodal data points.

Fig. 2. Procedure to construct a new design boundary: (a) master and mid-nodes on a design boundary; (b) moving
directions at master nodes; (c) movements of the master nodes and forming a B-spline curve; and (d) determination of
moving vectors at the mid-nodes.

master nodes. The master nodes are considered as design variables and are directly repositioned
during a shape optimization process. Then the other remaining nodes along the design boundary are
interpolated by applying B-spline curves. This implementation is done as follows: (1) All nodes
on a design boundary are alternatively grouped into master nodes and mid-nodes. End nodes are
always assigned to master nodes (see Fig. 2(a)). (2) The new coordinates of the master nodes
are determined in a shape optimization process. They are constrained to move along their normal
directions on the design boundary (see Fig. 2(b)). (3) A B-spline curve is constructed from the
master nodes (see Fig. 2(c)). (4) The mid-nodes between two master nodes are then moved onto
the newly constructed B-spline curve where the distance from the two neighboring master nodes is
equal (see Fig. 2(d)). As a result, all nodes along the boundary can be repositioned so that smooth
and continuous design boundary curves are secured.

3.2. Mesh optimization

In a shape optimization process, the shape of a structure is changed due to the movement of the
nodal points on a design boundary. Thus, it is necessary to prevent meshes from excessive distor-
tion so that !nite element analysis provides continuously accurate solutions during an optimization
process. A mesh smoothing technique is applied to improve mesh quality. Fig. 3 illustrates the
typical interior meshes where eight neighboring nodes (x; y)i are related at a center node (x; y)0 .
1808 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

Fig. 3. Typical element patch. (x; y)1 , (x; y)2 , (x; y)3 and (x; y)4 are nodes directly connected to the center node (x; y)0
while (x; y)5 , (x; y)6 , (x; y)7 and (x; y)8 are neighboring nodes to center node (x; y)0 . A and B in Eq. (23) are the areas
of the two neighbor elements sharing the two nodes (x; y)0 and (x; y)1 along the common edge. In case of node (x; y)1 A
is the area of element I and B is the area of element IV and so on.

To reposition a center node (x; y)0 a new position (x; y)new can be determined by manipulating
the coordinates of its neighboring nodes and the areas of its neighboring elements. This is expressed
as [9]

(x; y)new = (1 − ) (x; y)new; L + (x; y)new; A ; (21)

where  is an arbitrary value between 0 and 1 to be determined. All nodes which belong to interior
mesh are repositioned repeatedly until all movements are less than a speci!ed convergent level. The
terms (x; y)new; L and (x; y)new; A in Eq. (21) are expressed as

1
n
(x; y)new; L = (x; y)i ; (22)
n i=1

1A−B
n
(x; y)new; A = ((y0 − yi ); (xi − x0 )); (23)
n i=1 A + B

where (x; y)i are the directly connected nodal points to the center node (x; y)0 and A and B are
the areas of the two neighbor elements which share the two nodes (x; y)0 and (x; y)i on a common
edge.
To achieve optimized meshes, one needs to measure the quality of meshes before and after applying
mesh smoothing so that possible mesh improvement is easily predicted. If the quality of the meshes
can be expressed as a quantitative value, mesh quality may be well recognized and thus, when to
apply mesh smoothing is simply identi!ed. In the present work a mesh distortion metric D [10] is
used.
The mesh distortion metric D is computed as
 2 2
2  2
1 
2
D= Cij − Ckk ; (24)
i=1 j=1
2
k=1
 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815 1809

where
1 
2
Cij = Jki Jkj (25)
det|J |
k=1

and Jij is the component of a Jacobian matrix.

If the shape of a quadrilateral element is a square, which is the ideal shape, the distortion metric
D gives 0. As an element is distorted thus its shape gets away from the square one, the distortion
metric gives a non-zero value. The more distorted, the larger D value yields. For more detailed
information on the mesh smoothing and the distortion metric technique, [9,10] should be consulted.

4. Applications and numerical results

4.1. Cantilever

A cantilever whose dimension is 300 mm × 30 mm is chosen. Boundary conditions and a point

load F are applied as presented in Fig. 4(a). Shape optimization is performed allowing both the
upper and lower boundaries to move. Thirty-two master nodes, considered as design variables, are
used. The plane stress condition is assumed. The maximum von Mises stress is restricted to 1:8 MPa
with minimizing the beam volume. As Fig. 4(b) displays, !nal volume is reduced to 6396 mm3 from
initial volume of 9000 mm3 , that is down approximately 28.9%. Fig. 5 shows the history of von

Fig. 4. The shape optimization of a cantilever under a tip load: (a) before optimization; and (b) after optimization
(F = 0:1 N, E = 1 × 104 MPa, v = 0:3).

Fig. 5. The history of volume and von Mises stress.

1810 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

Fig. 6. The history of maximum distortion metric D.

Fig. 7. The shape optimization of a !llet under a pressure load: (a) dimensions; (b) initial shape and loading; and (c)
!nal optimum shape (P = 5 MPa, E = 1 × 104 MPa, v = 0:3).

Mises stresses at a point A and volume changes during the shape optimization process. Convergence
is reached after 20 iterations. The history of the maximum distortion metric D during the optimization
process is displayed in Fig. 6. Evidently mesh smoothing plays little roll in this case.

4.2. Fillet

An initial shape of a !llet with a distributed loading and boundary conditions are shown in
Fig. 7(a)–(b). The plane stress condition is assumed and the maximum allowable von Mises stress
is set to 4:5 MPa. With minimizing its volume the boundary between points A and B is allowed to
move (Fig. 7(b)). Six master nodes are assigned as master nodes. After shape optimization, volume
 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815 1811

Fig. 8. The history of volume and von Mises stress.

Fig. 9. The history of maximum distortion metric D.

is reduced from initial 15,525 to 14; 168 mm3 , that is, down 8.7%. Convergence is made in 20
iterations. An obtained optimum shape is illustrated in Fig. 7(c) and volume changes and von Mises
stresses at point C during optimization process are shown in Fig. 8. The results presented in this
paper are very similar to the study done by Rajan and Belegundu [11]. The improvement of mesh
quality by mesh smoothing is seen in Fig. 9.

4.3. Torque converter lock-up clutch disk

As visualized in Fig. 10(a), the automobile torque converter piston is a rotating disk which
transmits engine power in an automatic transmission. Fig. 10(b) illustrates its dimensions, loads
and boundary conditions for !nite element analysis; radial displacement is !xed for the region in
contact with the rotating axis (between A and B) and axial displacement is !xed for the region in
contact with its front cover (between C and D). These two contacting regions and a Qat region due
to an outer casing structure (between D and E) are excluded from design boundaries. For shape
1812 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

Fig. 10. Automobile torque converter piston: (a) lock-up clutch piston; and (b) load and boundary conditions
(P = 0:784 MPa, E = 209 GPa, v = 0:3,  = 7850 kg=m, ! = 2000 rpm).

Fig. 11. The !nite element meshes before and after shape optimization: (a) initial mesh shape; (b) optimum shape for a
pressure load; and (c) optimum shape for pressure and centrifugal loads.

optimization, two design boundaries are set. The boundary between B and C and between F and G
are allowed to move. von Mises stress levels on the two design boundaries are constrained to remain
at speci!ed ranges. The geometric constraint which restricts the minimum thickness of the disk to
0:6 mm is imposed to avoid an extremely thin shape. Two diIerent cases of loads are implemented.
First, only uniform pressure is applied on the bottom of the disk (between point F and G). Second,
a centrifugal force is considered as well as the pressure load.
The centrifugal force is applied with a rotating speed of 2000 rpm and density of 7850 kg=m3 .
When a centrifugal force is added, higher stresses are developed in the disk over the case of a
 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815 1813

Fig. 12. The three-dimensional shapes of the torque converter pistons based on the cases in Fig. 11.

Fig. 13. von Mises stress distributions along the speci!ed surfaces: (a) von Mises stress distributions between B and
C under pressure load; (b) von Mises stress distributions between F and G under pressure load; (c) von Mises stress
distributions between B and C under pressure and centrifugal force loads; and (d) von Mises stress distributions between
F and G under pressure and centrifugal force loads.

pressure load only. Thus, it is not suitable to apply the same stress constraints on both cases. The
allowable stress range under a pressure load is set from 40 to 65 MPa while the coupled load case
is set from 50 to 80 MPa. For the !nite element mesh, in Fig. 11, ninety-one master nodes along
the design boundaries are selected as the master nodes.
Optimal shapes are obtained after 16 iterations for the pressure load case and after 17 iterations
for the coupled loads case. Figs. 11 and 12 illustrate initial and !nal cross-sectional shapes and
three-dimensional views, respectively. Fig. 13 shows von Mises stress distributions with and without
1814 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815

Fig. 14. The history of maximum distortion metric D: (a) pressure load case; and (b) pressure and centrifugal force load
case.

Fig. 15. The history of volume changes.

applying shape optimization. As a result of shape optimization, the maximum von Mises stress
is reduced from 73.02 to 62:32 MPa and the maximum axial displacement decreases to 0.1134
from 0:1242 mm for pressure load case. Under coupled loads, the maximum von Mises stress is
reduced from 127.24 to 80:05 MPa and the maximum axial displacement decreases to 0.2359 from
0:2413 mm.
As seen in Fig. 14, the mesh smoothing technique maintains better mesh quality and provides
more reliable solutions. The history of volumes in Fig. 15 shows that the !nal volume reaches
268; 867:7 mm3 for the pressure load case and 256; 257:7 mm3 for the coupled loads case from
initial volume of 295; 577:3 mm3 , that is down 9.03% and 13.3%, respectively.

5. Concluding remarks

Although B-spline curves provide much Qexibility forming a design boundary, it alone may not be
su"cient to construct a design boundary on complex structures. An organized strategy for building
a desired design boundary is seemingly of importance; its prime parts include employing proper
 S. Hyun et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (2004) 1803 – 1815 1815

interpolating curves, selecting design variables, specifying the moving directions of the design vari-
ables and preventing mesh distortion. The numerical results indicate that the shape optimization of
structures even with complicate shapes can be eIectively achieved by properly combining and utiliz-
ing these ingredients. In the present work, a shape optimization scheme, using B-spline curves and
mesh smoothing techniques, has been developed. The described approach presents an opportunity to
improve the optimizing performances.
The implemented application of an automobile torque converter lock-up clutch disk exempli!es
that the reconstructed boundary is fairly smooth and 13% of weight saving has been made by the
present optimization procedure. The obtained results probably provide useful designing considerations
for building a more streamlined automobile torque converter system. Furthermore, this scheme can
contribute to the investigation and development of a shape optimization process for more complex
structures.

Acknowledgements

This work is partially supported by the Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST) and the Korea
Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) through the Center for Automotive Parts Technology
(CAPT) at Keimyung University. This work is also part of a project supported by BK21 at Kyung-
pook National University in Korea. Their !nancial support is gratefully acknowledged.

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