ANATOMY Negative Feedback

-study of the human structure and function of the body  Regulate most systems of the body, to maintain homeostasis.
-importance  Negative – any deviation from the set point is made smaller or
 Stimulus resisted.
 Disease  3 components : a receptor, a control center and an effector.
 Performs duties  E.g. maintenance of normal blood pressure.
 Treatments
Positive Feedback
MAJOR GOALS OF PHYSIOLOGY  Not homeostatic, rare in healthy individuals.
 The scientific discipline that deals with the the processes or functions of  Positive – when a deviation from a normal value occurs, the
the living things. response of the system is to make the deviation even greater.
 Understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli.  E.g. inadequate delivery of blood to cardiac muscle, birth.
 Understand how the body maintains condition within a narrow range of Terminology & The Body Plan
values in the presence of a continually changing environment.  Body / Anatomic Positions
 Directional Terms
STRUCTURE N FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION  Body Parts and Regions
 Chemicals  Body Planes
 Cell  Body Cavities
 Tissues  Serous Membrane
 Organs
 Organ system Anatomical Position??
 Organism  It is a position with the body erect with the arms at the sides and
the palms forward.
SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY  The anatomical position is of importance in anatomy because it is
 Integumentary system the position of reference for anatomical nomenclature.
Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevent water loss and  Supine – lying face upward
produces vitamin D precursors. Consists of skin, hair, nails and sweat  Prone – lying face downward
glands.
 Skeletal system Anatomical Position
Provide protection and support, allows body movements, produces  A person in the anatomical position is standing erect with the
blood cells and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, associated head, eyes and toes pointing forward, feet together with arms by
cartilages, ligaments and joints. the side.
 Muscular system  The palms of the hands are also point forward.
Produces body movements, maintains posture and produces body Directional Terms
heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.  It describe parts of the body relative to each other.
 Note that the directional terms superior, inferior, anterior and
 Lymphatic system
posterior are useful for humans only, since these surfaces are
removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats
different in quadrupeds.
disease, maintains tissue fluid balance & absorbs fats from the digestive
 The terms cranial, caudal, ventral, and dorsal are preferable
tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and other
because they can be used universally.
lymphatic organs.
 Respiratory system
Regional Terms??
Exchanges O2 and CO2 between the blood and air and regulates blood
 The detailed study of the anatomy of a part or region of the
pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.
human anatomy.
 Digestive system
 Used to characterize specific body areas.
Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion,
absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes. Consists of the
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
mouth, esophagus, stomach intestines & accessory organs
 The abdominopelvic quadrants evenly divide the space of the
 Nervous system
torso below the diaphragm into four.
detects sensations and controls movements, physiologic processes &
 They are referred to simply by location :
intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and
 right upper quadrant (RUQ)
sensory receptors.
 right lower quadrant (RLQ)
 Endocrine system
 left upper quadrant (LUQ)
influences metabolism, growth reproduction and many other functions.
 left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Consists of glands that secrete hormones.
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants
 Cardiovascular / Circulatory system
 RUQ :
Transports nutrients, waste products, gases & hormones throughout
 right portion of the liver
the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of
body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood.  gallbladder
 Urinary system  right kidney
removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion  small portion of the stomach
balance and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder and  portions of the ascending and transverse colon
ducts that carry urine.  parts of small intestine
 Reproductive system  LUQ :
Production of sex cells and hormones. Consists of the ovaries, vagina,  left portion of the liver
uterus, mammary glands, testes, ducts, penis and associated  larger portion of the stomach
structures.  pancreas
 left kidney
Characteristics of Life  spleen
 Organization  portions of the transverse and descending colon
 Metabolism  parts of the small intestine
 Responsiveness Abdominopelvic Quadrants
 Growth  RLQ :
 Development  cecum
 Reproduction  appendix
 part of the small intestines
Homeostasis  right reproductive organs
 The existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment  right ureter
within the body.
  LLQ : CHAPTER 2
 majority of the small intestine
 some of the large intestine THE INTERGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 left reproductive organs The Integumentary System
 left ureter  Consists of the skin and accessory structures (hair, nails, glands).
Abdominopelvic Regions  Means covering – it covers outside of the body and is easily
 Smaller than the four abdominopelvic quadrants and allow more observed.
detailed discussion of the area.  Functions :
 These are :  Protection
 the right hypochondriac  Sensation
 right lumbar  Vitamin D production
 right inguinal (or right iliac)  Temperature regulation
 epigastric  Excretion
 umbilical Components of the Integumentary System
 hypogastric (or pubic)  Hypodermis / subcutaneous layer (superficial fascia region) –
 left hypochondriac deepest
 left lumbar  Dermis (middle region)
 left inguinal (or left iliac)  Epidermis
Body Planes / Sections (outmost superficial region)
 An organ or entire body can be described by three planes known  Accessory structures
as the sagittal, frontal and transverse plane. Hypodermis
 The sagittal (median) plane divides the body into left  Attaches skin to underlying bone & muscle – supplies it with blood
(sinister) and right (dexter). vessels and nerves.
o This happen by combination of the dorso-  Loose connective tissue that contains about half the body’s stored
ventral and the cephalo-caudal axis. fat (as padding & insulation).
Body Planes / Sections  No sharp boundary exists between the dermis and subcutaneous
 The frontal plane divides the body into front (ventralis / anterior layer.
means at or near the front); and back (dorsalis / posterior means Skin – Dermis
at or near the back).  Layer of dense CT, 10X thicker than epidermis.
o This happen by combination of the bilateral and the  Dense CT contains fibroblasts, fat cells & microphages.
cephalocaudal axis.  Fewer fat cells & blood vessels compared to hypodermis.
 Fibroblast produce collagen & elastin - give mechanical strength &
Body Cavities elasticity characteristic.
 The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain the internal organs  With increasing age, however, the deterioration of the elastin
(viscera). fibers causes the skin to lose its elasticity.
 The two main cavities are called the ventral and dorsal cavities.  To which epidermis is attached.
 The ventral is the larger cavity and is subdivided into two parts by  Dermis contains :
the diaphragm :  Hair follicles
o thoracic  Smooth muscle
o abdominopelvic  Glands
 Blood vessels
Body Cavities  Nerves
 As you can see, the cranial and vertebral cavities are together  Lymph vessels
considered the dorsal cavities.  Orientation of the collagen fibers produces cleavage / tension
 While the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities are considered lines in the skin.
the ventral cavities.  Dermis – Dermal papillae
 Some of the cavities, e.g. the cranial, are completely surrounded  Contain blood vessels to supply the overlying epidermis with
and protected by bone, others are incompletely surrounded by nutrients, remove waste products and aid in regulating body
bone. temperature.
Serous Membranes  Can be found in the hand’s palm and feet’s sole.
 Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities.  Parallel, curving ridges that shape epidermis into fingerprints and
 Thoracic cavity – 3 serous membrane-lined cavity : a pericardial footprints.
(heart) cavity & 2 pleural (lung) cavities.  Ridges increase friction and improve the grip of the hands and
 Abdominopelvic cavity – peritoneal (stretch over) cavity. feets.
Mesenteries Skin – Epidermis
 Consists of 2 layers of peritoneum fused together, connect the  Stratified squamous epithelium, cell are produced by mitosis.
visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs :-  New cells formed, push older cells to the surface (40 – 56 days),
 to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall flake off – keratinization.
 to the visceral peritoneum of other abdominopelvic organs.  Prevent water loss (permeability barrier) and resists abrasion.
 Functions :  Stratum basale (deepest stratum) – consists of cuboidal /
 anchor organs to the body wall, columnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions every 19 days.
 provide a pathways for nerves and blood vessels to reach  Stratum corneum (most superficial stratum) – consists of dead,
the organs. squamous cells filled with hard protein keratin, coated and
Retroperitoneal Organs surrounded by lipids; help prevent fluid loss through the skin.
 Abdominopelvic organs closely attached to the body wall without Cell types that form Epidermis
having mesenteries.  Keratinocytes - produce the fibrous protein keratin.
 Covered by parietal peritoneum.  Melanocytes - produce the protein pigment melanin.
 Include the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, parts of the  Langerhans cells - epidermal macrophages (phagocytize foreign
intestines and the urinary bladder. material) that help activate the immune system.
 Merkel cells - function as touch receptors in association with
sensory nerve endings.
Keratinocytes (Basal cells)
 Four or five strata (layers) of keratinocytes lay the foundation for
epidermis.
 Thin skin has 4 strata of cells while thick skin has 4 or 5 layers of
cells.
Skin Color
 Determine by pigments in the skin, blood circulating through skin
and thickness of the stratum corneum.
  Results from a combination of genetic, environmental and
physiological factors.
 Genetic differences in skin color result from differing amounts of
melanin and in the size of melanin granules.
 Exposure to the sunlight causes darkening of the skin.
 Circulation within dermal blood vessels affects skin colour.
 Three pigments contribute to skin color :
 Melanin – yellow to reddish-brown to black pigment,
responsible for dark skin colors. Greater amount are
produced following the skin exposure to sun.
 Carotene – yellow to orange pigment, most obvious in
the palms and soles of the feet.
 Hemoglobin – reddish pigment responsible for the
pinkish hue of the skin.
Melanin
 Group of pigments responsible for skin, hair and eye colour.
Mostly brown to black pigments, but some are yellowish or
reddish.
 Provide protection against UV light (sun).
 Produce by melanocytes – irregular in shape with many long
processes.
 Golgi apparatus – package melanin into vesicle (melanosomes);
move into cell processes.
 Production determined by genetic factors, exposure to light and
hormones.
 Genetic factor – amounts of melanin produced in different races.
 Exposure to light – stimulates melanocytes to increase melanin
production.
 Hormones – cause in increase in melanin production during
pregnancy in the mother.
Carotene
 Found in plants such as squash and carrots - ingested by human
as a source of vitamin A.
 Lipid-soluble; can accumulates in the lipids of the Str.corneum
and in the fat cells of dermis & hypodermis – give the skin a slight
yellowish tint.
Hemoglobin
 Hemoglobin is the complex molecule responsible for transport of
oxygen throughout our bodies.
 It is the primary protein constituent of RBCs:
 Oxygenated hemoglobin has a reddish hue
o produces a pinkish tint to lightly pigmented
skin
 Deoxygenated hemoglobin has a bluish color (cyanosis)
o characteristic of oxygen deprivation and
suffocation
Accessory Skin Structures
 Hair
 Smooth muscles
 Glands
 Nails
Hair
 Filamentous strands of dead keratinized cells produced by hair
follicles.
 Contains hard keratin; tougher and more durable than soft
keratin of the skin.
 Rapid cell growth at the base of hair follicle in the hair root
causes hair to grow longer.
 Hair color determined by genetics; melanin is responsible for
most hair color.
Hair Follicles
 Associated with a sebaceous glands, capillary bed, nerve ending
and smooth muscle (arrector pili muscle).
 If sebaceous glands become plugged and infected, it becomes
skin blemish or pimple.
 The pilomotor/arrector pili muscle is attached to its base and
contraction of the muscles causes the hair to become erect.
 When stimulated (cold, fear) these muscle pull the hair follicles
upright to trap heat.
Smooth Muscle
 Associated with each hair follicle – arrector pili.
 Contraction of the arrector pili – goose bumps.
Sebaceous Glands
 Secretes sebum which waterproof the epidermis & hair.
 Type of holocrine glands.
 Function :
Inhibit the growth of bacteria on the skin surface. Sebum mildly
toxic.
Prevent drying of skin and hair.
Sweat Glands
-2 types of sweat gland :
 Merocrine glands – are found all over the body. It respond to
body temperature. Secretion – mostly water with a few salts.
 Apocrine glands – larger, occur in the axillae (underarm) and
genitalia area. Active at puberty, it respond to body temperature,
stress and sexual arousal and may produce ‘body odor’ by
bacteria activity.
* Important in the maintenance of normal body
temperature.
Modified Sweat Glands
Ceruminous Gland
 Located in the dermis of the ear canals.
 Secretes cerumen or ear wax.
 Function :
Keep the outer surface of the eardrum pliable & prevent drying.
Mammary Glands
 Function :
Secreting milk
Nails
 Protective covering over the ends of fingers & toes.
 Consist of highly keratinized, modified epidermal cells overlying
the nail bed, with the lunula as the most actively growing region
of the nail root.
 As the new cells are produced, old cells are pushed outward and
become keratinized.
Physiology of
Integumentary System
1.Protection
 Preventing water loss.
 Prevents entry of microbs/foreign substances.
 Protect from abrasion.
 Absorbs UV light and protect from damaging effects.
 Hair protection
 Nail protection
2.Sensation
 Skin receptors to detect pain, heat, cold, pressure and hair movement.
3.Vitamin D production
 Precursor molecule of vitamin D form after exposure to UV light.
4.Temperature regulation
 At about 37ºC. Maintain by homeostatic mechanisms.
5. Excretion
 Limited amounts of nitrogenous wastes are eliminated from the
body in sweat by the sweat gland.
 Not significantly involve in excretion of waste products.
Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid
 Easily observed, often reflects events occuring in other parts of
the body.
 E.g. cyanosis – indicate impaired circulatory/respiratory function;
jaundice – liver damaged by a disease (viral hapatitis).
 Nutritional status affect condition of the skin, hair and nails.
 E.g. Iron-deficiency anemia – nails become flat/concave in shape;
hair analysis.
Burns
 Classified according to the depth of the burn.
 Partial-thickness burns – Str.basale remains viable; epidermis
regeneration occurs within the burn area & edges of the burn.
 Divided into 1st and 2nd degree burns.
1st Degree Burns
 Involve only epidermis, red & painful, slight edema.
 Can be caused by sunburn / brief exposure to hot or cold objects
– heal without scar in a week.
2nd Degree Burns
 Damage epidermis & dermis.
 For minimal dermal damage, symptoms include redness, pain,
edema and blisters.
 Heal – 2 weeks and without scar.
 For burn goes deep into dermis, wound appears red, tan / white,
several months to heal and might scar.
 Epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue in hair follicles &
sweat glands, and from the edges of the wound.
3rd Degree Burns
 Full thickness burns – epidermis & dermis totally destroyed,
recovery occurs from the edges of the burn wound.
 Often surrounded by areas of 1st & 2nd degree burns.
 Painless because sensory receptors in epidermis & dermis were
destroyed.
 Appear white, tan, brown, black or deep cherry red.
  Long time to heal, form scar tissue with disfiguring and
debilitating wound contracture.
 To prevent complication and speed healing, skin graft are
performed.
 Interstitial fluid nourishes the graft until blood vessels grow into
the graft and supply nourishment.
 Donor tissue produces new epidermis from epithelial tissue in the
hair follicles and sweat glands (as in superficial 2nd degree burns).
Skin Cancer
 Most common cancer type. Associated with chemicals, radiation
(X-rays) and exposure to UV light.
 Most develop on the face, neck or hands.
 Fair-skinned or age >50 likely having skin cancer.
 Basal cell carcinoma – begins in Str.basale and extends into
dermis to produce an open ulcer.
 Can be cured by surgical removal / radiation therapy.
 Squamous cell carcinoma – from cells immediately superficial to
the stratum basale.
 Cells continue to divide – produce keratin, result in
nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the epidermis.
 If untreated – tumor can invade the dermis,
metastasize; cause death.
 Malignant melanoma – rare form of skin cancer arises from
melanocytes (mole).
 Appear as large, flat, spreading lesion / as a deeply
pigmented nodule.
 Fatal if not treated early in development.
 Yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue) is contained in
the medullary cavity.
Structure of Long Bone: Epiphysis
 Expanded ends of long bones.
 Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone.
 Joint surface is covered with articular (joint; hyaline) cartilage.
Structure of Long Bone: Periosteum
 A tough, fibrous tissue containing blood vessels, lymph nodes and
nerves covers the outside.
 Double-layered protective membrane.
 Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue.
Structure of Long Bone: Periosteum
 Collagen fibers merge with the tendon & ligaments that are
attached to the bone.
 The inner layer of periosteum contains cell that produce bone –
osteoblast.
 Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, & lymphatic vessels.
 Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers.
Structure of Long Bone: Endosteum
The lining of the marrow canal that keeps the cavity intact.
Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone

Structure of Short Bones

Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle.
CHAPTER 3
Bones that form within tendons (e.g., patella).
The Skeletal System
Structure of Flat Bones
Thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, & most skull bones).
 Consists of bones and their associated CT.
 Dynamic, living tissues that are capable of growth, detect pain
Structure of a Flat Bone
stimuli, adapt to stress and undergo repair after injury.
Structure of Irregular Bones
Functions
Bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones).
 Support – rigid bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments.
Structure of Short, Irregular & Flat Bones
 Protection – protects the organs it surround.
Have no diaphysis or epiphysis.
 Movement – skeletal muscle, tendons, joints, ligaments.
Exterior is thin layer of compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone.
 Storage – stores minerals and fat
RBM is found within the spongy bone.
 Blood cell production – bone marrow
Short bones – wrist & ankles.
Flat bones – ribs, shoulder blades, hip & cranial bones.
Connective Tissue of Skeletal System
Irregular bones – the vertebrae & facial bone.
 Bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
Compact bone
 Extracellular matrix (molecule types & qtities) responsible for CT’s
Forms most of the diaphysis of long bones & the thinner surfaces of other
characteristics.
bones.
 Collagen – tough protein
Lamellae (ECM) of compact bone – organized into sets of concentric rings,
 Proteoglycans – consists of polysaccharides attached to core
each surround a central (haversian) canal.
protein; can attract n retain water.
Osteon (Haversian) system – central canal, lamellae & osteocytes.
 Tendons, ligaments – large amounts of collagen fibers; tough.
Osteocytes located in lacunae, connected to another by cell processes in
 Cartilage – collagen n proteoglycans; smooth & resilient (shock
canaliculi.
absorber).
Canaliculi – tiny canals that connect the haversian canal to the osteocytes.
 Bone – collagen & mineral (calcium n phosphate)
Cancellous bone
General Features of Bone
Spongy bone – mainly in epiphysis of long bones, forms the interior of all
other bones.
 Long – upper and lower limb
Consists of delicate interconnecting rods – trabeculae.
 Short – wrists and ankle
Add strength to bone without added weight.
 Flat – certain skull bones, ribs, scapulae
Several lamellae with osteocytes between the lamellae, no blood vessels, no
 Irregular – vertebrae & facial bones
central canals.
Nutrients exit vessels in marrow & pass by diffusion via canaliculi to the
osteocytes of the trabeculae.
Structure of Long Bone
Bone Ossification
 Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus).
Formation of bone by osteoblast – involves synthesis of an organic matrix
 Diaphysis is the long, hollow cylinder of hard, compact bone.
containing collagen & proteoglycan, addition of hydroxyapetite crystals to
 At each end of the diaphysis is an epiphysis.
the matrix.
 The medullary canal in the center, is filled with marrow, and is
Osteoblast surrounded by bone matrix - osteocyte.
surrounded by compact or hard bones.
2 processes – intramembranous ossification, endochondral ossification.
Both involving formation of bone matrix on preexisting CT & result in
Structure of Long Bone: Diaphysis
compact and cancellous bone.
 Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones.
Bone Ossification (cont’)
 Composed of compact bone that surrounds the
Intramembranous oss. –
medullary cavity.
Osteoblasts begin to produce in CT membranes; in skull bones (parietal &
frontal bones). The Human Body Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)
Osteoblasts line up on the surface of CT fibers (in ossification area) and In infants.
depositing bone matrix forming trabeculae. Found in the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone.
Skull bones result from fusion of these centers as they enlarge. In adults.
Found in the diploë of flat bones, and the head of the femur and humerus.
Bone Ossification (cont’)
Endochondral oss. – Parts Of The Skeletal System
Include bones at the base of skull & most of remaining skeletal system. Axial Skeleton - bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage/bony
Cartilage models – have general shape of the mature bone. thorax.
Chondrocytes – increase in number (divide), hypertrophy, die. The cartilage Axial Skeleton consists of :
matrix in the center of the cartilage model becomes calcified. Skull
Blood vessels accumulate in the perichondrium – causes unspecified CT cells Spinal column
becoming osteoblasts. Ribs
Osteoblasts produce bone collar at the diaphysis, perichondrium becomes Sternum (breast bone)
periosteum. Hyoid bone (Lingual bone, supports tongue)
Blood vessels penetrate diaphysis bringing osteoblasts and stimulate
ossificiation. Parts Of The Skeletal System Axial Skeleton: The Skull
These most complex bony structure, is formed by the cranium and facial
Bone Ossification (cont’) bones.
Endochondral oss. – Cranium – protects the brain and is the site of attachment for head and neck
Center part of diaphysis – primary ossification center. muscles.
Osteoblasts invade spaces left by the dying cartilage cells. Facial bones:
Some calcified cartilage matrix removed by osteoclasts, then osteoblasts line Supply the framework of the face, the sense organs, and the teeth.
up on remaining calcified matrix & forming trabeculae. Provide openings for the passage of air and food.
Medullary cavity forms in the center as osteoclasts remove bone n calcified
cartilage and then fill with bone marrow. Anatomy of the Cranium Cranium
2nd ossification centers form in the epiphysis. Rounded chamber that encloses the brain.
Composed of 8 distinct cranial bones :
Bone Growth Two parietal
Occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other Two temporal
CT – appositional growth. Frontal
Bones grow in diameter – osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the Occipital
surface of bones, between periosteum & existing bonematrix. Sphenoid
Bone grow in length – epiphyseal plate. Ethmoid

Bone Remodelling Facial Bones

Involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts & deposition of new 14 bones of which only the mandible and vomer are unpaired.
bone by osteoblasts. The paired bones are :
In all bone. Maxillae
Responsible for changes in bone shape, adjustment to stress, bone repair Zygomatics
and calcium ion regulation in the body fluids. Nasals
Bone Repair Lacrimals
Palatines
Bone broken, blood vessels are also damaged and bleed. Inferior conchae
Clot forms at the damaged area, after 2 – 3 days blood vessels & cells from
surrounding tissues invade the clot, producing fibrous network of CT n Axial Skeleton: The Vertebral Column
cartilage between broken bones, holding the bone fragments together and Formed from 26 irregular bones (vertebrae) connected in such a way that a
fills the gap. flexible curved structure results.
Callus – zone of tissue repair. Consists of :
Cervical vertebrae – 7 bones of the neck
Importance of Ionic Calcium in the Body Thoracic vertebrae – 12 bones of the torso
Calcium is necessary for: Lumbar vertebrae – 5 bones of the lower back
Transmission of nerve impulses. Sacrum – bone inferior to the lumbar vertebrae that articulates with the hip
Muscle contraction. bones
Blood coagulation. Coccyx- tail bone
Secretion by glands and nerve cells.
Cell division. General Structure of Vertebrae
Body or centrum – disc-shaped, weight-bearing region.
Hormonal Mechanism 12. Hormonal Mechanism Vertebral arch – composed of pedicles and laminae that, along with the
Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release Calcitonin. centrum, enclose the vertebral foramen.
Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in bone. Vertebral foramina – make up the vertebral canal through which the spinal
Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid gland to release PTH. cord passes.
PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the Spinous processes project posteriorly, and transverse processes project
blood. laterally.

Diseases Of The Bones

Arthritis:
Rheumatoid, Osteoarthritis
Gout
Rickets
Slipped (herniated) disk
Whiplash injury
Abnormal curvatures of the spine

Other Medically Related Disorders

Osteoporosis – Reduced mineral density, porous, susceptible to fracture.
Osteomyelitis – Infection involving all or part of the bone.
Osteosarcoma – Bone cancer.
Bones and Cartilages of