3 BASIC GRAVITY FLOW PRINCIPLES FOR GRANULAR AND COARSE MATERIALS IN MASS MINING. METHODS 3.1 Introduction he most effective mining methods in many cases are block caving, panel caving, and, in high- Jensity ores (iron ores), sublevel caving. The type of gravity flow in these mining methods is varacterized by “simultaneous supply” of the material from above and “simultaneous extraction (or draw)” from below as illustrated in Figure 1.5-1b, In other types of mass mining methods, such as large seale open stoping, the most important factor, after stability of the stopes, is again the gravity flow of fragmented material. However, the stoping conditions consist of a separate supply of aterial (ore) and separate extraction as illustrated in Figure 1 this section, the basic principles of gravity flow with respect to mass mining methods will be considered 3.2 Particle Size Considerations In mining, the material fragments are large in the majority of cases and therefore it is considered coarse material. Until now, we have not used any rigorous particle size classification system. Particle size classification is important. Imagine, for example, a mixture of materials that contains lar, ete) and sizes (blocks, fragments, chippings, sand, and rock powder, and even earth and clay components). With respect to material behavior, it has been noted that the presence of even a small percentage (10-15%) of fine particles within the coarse material mixture may change the behavior of the coarse material. Under some conditions, the mobility of a coarse mixture may be enhanced by the addition of fine materials. However, we also need t© mention that in other situations fine particles with a certain moisture content can create plastic, sticking and even cementing behaviors which reduce the mobility of the coarse material. various shapes (round, angular, trian, Although no formal classification of such materials exists, we can distinguish four very simplified and idealized types of coarse material, This will enable us to obtain’ a better technical feeling about the behavior of each type. The four general material types are presented in Figure 3.2-1. Type | is a coarse material consisting of relatively large rounded particles with approximately uniform size and ape. Type 2 is a coarse material composed of angular and tabular particles with more or less the same size. Type 3 is a mixture of large particles, rock fragments, chippings, and sand. Type 4 consists of a complex mixture of large blocks, medium sized particles and fragments, chippings, sand, rock powder. The graph in Figure 3.2-1 represents the entire sphere of applicability of gravity transportation. Range (A) is only for chutes and range (B) is for steep ore/waste rock passes. As is evident from e materials require some type of mechanical transportation for slope angles up to about 40 dearees. For coarse materials (Type 1 and Type 2) we can use gravity transportation in open chutes in the range Al and A2. Type 3 and Type 4 materials require an inclination range of BL and B2 and they must be transported in ore/waste rock passes. Although quantitative data are jacking, it is evident that steeper angles are necessary for gravity transportation of low mobility, coarse materials, Lower angles are sufficient for gravity movement of higher mobility coarse materials such as TypeGravity flow in sublevel and panel caving —A common sense appro Figure 3.2-1 33 Gravity Flow Motion In the previous sections, we stressed that gravity flow in a caving method is, in principle, similar to a silo or bin which is simultaneously filled from the top and simultaneously extracted from below In model tests, gravity flow is usually demonstrated with a simple vertical glass model with horizontally layered white and black sand filling or with fill materials arranged in a black and white checkerboard patter. We know that in the initial phases of extraction, the original horizontal black lines start to bend downwards. When the inflection points are connected, we obtain a shape similar to an ellipse. In reality, because the model represents only a vertical section and the process occurs in a three-dimensional environment, we have a body which is similar to an elongated ellipsoid of revolution. When a certain volume of ore is extracted, the remaining material above the discharge opening or draw point replaces the loss by loosening. Therefore we can speak about the ellipsoid of loosening, Shown in Figure 3.3-1 is the active zone (A), the motionless passive zone (P), and the corresponding ellipsoid of loosening (EL). From observation, there must be @ certain relationship between the quantity of extracted material and the size of the ellipsoid of loosening, We must emphasize that from the photographs of the models introduced earlier and/or from any two- dimensional sand models, it is not possible to define the location, shape, dimensions, and volume of the zone from which the material was extracted. We need to understand that all two-dimension models, although showing the active zone and the ellipsoid of loosening, only indicate the gravity ‘motion of the material which still remains in the model.ure 3.31 The phenomenon that occurs just above the discharge opening (draw point) in the first phases of extraction, i.¢, in the lower part of the thick layer of a loose material must first be analyzed. We should consider the situation as shown in Figure 3.3-2a which represents a model prepared for testing. The content of the mode! includes material (R) in a lower part of the model, and material (W) which represents the overburden. The intersection of the horizontal plane (n) separating materials (R) and (W) with a vertical axis drawn through the discharge opening is marked as (‘). Figures 3.3- and 3.3-2d are subsequent phases of extraction prior to the time when point N enters the outlet. During this process we will extract only the material (R). As extraction continues, the material will be a mixture of (R) and (W) with the proportion of (W) increasing and that of (R) decreasing2] e— MATERIAL (Ww) 5p MATERIAL UR ' i t ba | Ge Tourer Figure 3.3-2a Model constructed from material R in lower part and material W in upper part prepared for testing — extraction. Intersection of horizontal plane n (between material R and W) with vertical axis from outlet is marked as N. ex —z. MATERIAL (w excLusivety MATERIAL IRD ure 3.3-2bMATERIAL (W) RIAL «A Figure 3.3-2c Figure 3-2d Point N reaching the outlet, Plane n forms a funnel F with periphery on the plane nin point 1 and 2. 39Gravity flow in sublevel and panel caving A common sense a As presented in Figure 3.3-2d, the originally horizontal plane (n) forms funnel with the apex (N) in the discharge opening (outlet) and with a periphery which intersects plane (n) at Points | and 2 As shown in Figure 3.3-3 (the model from Figure 3.3-1) the ellipsoid of loosening EL intersects the plane (n) in the same points as the funnel (Points 1 and 2), With regard to Figure 3.3-2d, because only the material (R) was extracted and neglecting a certain amount of swell, the volume of the funnel Vf is about the same as the volume of the extracted material in the cone Ve. nen] Figure 3.3-3 This information enables us to construct the structure of the relationship between the volume of the extracted material Ve, the approximate shape of the funnel (F) and its volume Vf, the intersection of Points | and 2 of the funnel and the ellipsoid of loosening EL with horizontal plane (n), and th location of (N). From the model shown in Figure 3.3-3 and a number of similar models, it was possible to determine that the height of the ellipsoid of loosening hl. is about 2.5 times larger than the height hn of the funnel. These same parameters were used for construction of the idealized Figure 33-4,Figure 3.3-4 AL this point we only know that the extraction material (R) comes from the area which is located between the original and final locations of point (N). But we cannot define either the shape or the other dimensions of the cone from which the material (R) was extracted. Figure 3.3-5 presents a gravity flow model with an outlet which is constantly open and with the model being continuously refilled from the top. Zones with various material movement veloc were approximately identified using photographs taken with different exposure times. The relationship between particle movement and exposure time makes the moving particles in the middle of the model appear on the film (and photograph) as lines. With increased time of exposure, smaller velocities of particle movement can be traced and recorded on film, By shortening the exposure time, all particles having a velocity below that which corresponds to the ratio between exposure time and movement velocity are “shut out”. They appear to be motionless on the photograph. Figures 3.3-Sa, b, ¢ and d present four subsequent phases of decreasing exposure time (ET). The zones of the particle velocities V1 < V2 < V3 < V4 were obtained at corresponding exposure times ET] > ET2 > ET3 > ET4, The approximate boundaries of these velocity zones are denoted by white dots on each separate photograph. Although the photographs in Figure 3.3-6 are not of high quality, even so, the photographs enable visualization and understanding of the distribution of particle velocities in gravity flow. The flow velocities shown indicate approximate elliptical flow at the various velocities. 41Grav flow EXPOSITION et Fine | en: ET. yeLociry SPREE | vi< Ve < Figure 3.3-5 The main task, that of determining the shape and the dimensions of the zone from which the material was extracted and its relationship with the gravity flow stream, still remains. This was accomplished using three dimensional models. Figure 3.3-6 shows the principle of how the three-dimensional models were arranged. A number of three-dimensional models were used where the lower material (R) and the upper part of the material (OW) were the same, only the color was different. Materials with different densities were also used. a { HORIZONTAL a Figure 3.3-6Afier determining the shape and dimensions of the extraction ellipsoid based upon the three- dimensional models and in situ test results, it was then possible to visualize the extraction ellipsoid and the process of subsequent draw on the vertical section of a “Type B” model, ie. models with an arbitrary arrangement of filling. The test results in three-dimension were used to prepare a template of the ellipsoid in two-dimensions. In these models some of the white material was replaced by black material in the shape of an ellipse, as is evident from Figure 3.3-7a. Figure 3 From the subsequent extraction phases b, ¢, and d of Figure 3.3-7, it is evident that the elliptical shape is maintained while the zone of extraction decreases. From Figures 3.3-6 and 3.3-8, we can derive certain logical conclusions concerning the mechanics of the lower part of the gravity flow stream. In order to encompass the entire lower part of the gravity flow zone, we must introduce the ellipsoid of loosening. Extraction of a certain volume of material from the discharge opening results in the development of an ellipsoid of loosening in the lower part of the gravity flow. It has a height which is about 2.5 times greater than the height of the outflow funnel (F), see Figures 3.3-3, 3.3-4, and 3.3-7a. This means that the length of the ellipsoid of loosening is about 2.5 times greater than the ellipsoid of extraction since its height is equal to the vertical interval (Inn) as shown in Figures 3.3-3 and 3.3-4, The boundary of the ellipsoid of loosening represents the limit of movement. From all of our experiments, it was evident that the particle velocity in gravity flow is not uniform but has a specific and relatively complex pattern. The velocity is greater at shorter distances from (a) the discharge openings and (b) the vertical axis of the gravity flow stream With this logic, it was possible to develop an analysis to estimate the velocity distribution, Figure 3.3-8 shows the velocity distribution on a vertical section drawn through the axis and the zero velocity contour (at the boundary of the ellipsoid of loosening) for horizontal levels E-E” down to A-A’, As seen, it is an axisymmetric illustration of the velocity vectors. The maximum velocity ‘occurs along the axis of the ellipse, At the apex of the ellipsoid it is v= Vo = 0, on level E-E’ it is v = VI, on level D-D” it is v= V2 with V2=VI, on level C-C’ it is v = V3 with V3>V2, on level B-B” it is v = V4 with V4>V3, and on level A-A* ( the level of the discharge opening), the maximumGravis flow wy sublevel and panct caving —A common sense approach velocity is v = VS which is greater than V4. For better visualization, the velocity vectors V are not drawn in the true direction (along the z axis), but are drawn in the x direction (perpendicular to the axial section of the ellipsoid). The velocity on the boundary, i.e. on the boundary of the ellipsoid of loosening, is zero. oa Figure 3.3-8 From Figure 3.3-8, we can derive the iso-velocity lines (lines with the same particle velocity). In Figure 3.3-9 the line corresponding to the velocity VI is constructed, The line that connects particles of the same velocity forms an ellipse in vertical section and an ellipsoid in space. The shape of the gravity flow zone in the lower part is controlled by a specific velocity distribution Naturally, a change in the particle velocity is necessary since the particles must regroup in order 10 be able to flow from wide flow streams through the narrow discharge openingNOT TO SCALE re 3.3-9 Figure 3.3-10 is a reconstruction of the model from Figure 3.3-7 and has the same subsequent phases a, b,c, and d. Just as the ellipsoid of extraction is being discharged from the outlet, the ellipsoid of loosening has its largest shape. This is shown in Figure 3.3-10d. A complete picture of all components and their relationships for the lower part of the gravity stream is constructed in Figure 3.3-11, This figure shows the gravity flow principles as a reciprocal function between the ellipsoid of extraction EE, the ellipsoid of loosening EL, the outflow funnel (F) and the cone of extracted material Ve. In accordance with Figure 3.3-11 we can specify the following relationships: Vee = Ve = Ve = 1/15 Vi Assuming that the material in the lower part (height hn) is the ore [denoted by (R)] and that in the part is the waste rock (W) it is also evident from Figure 3.3-11 that the maximum volume from the extraction ellipsoid with height hn, Any additional material discharge will result in a rapid increase in dilution because the outflow zone (F) has been filled by waste rock (W). overlyi of ore that can be discharged without any waste (without dilution) is onlywi Figure 3.3-10 WATERIAL, lentified by relationships of extraction flow funnel F and cone of extraction Figure 3.3-11 | ellipsoid Ex, loosening el material R with volumeBecause the shape of the ellipsoid (which can be characterized by the eccentricity) depends on the material, with the same extraction height hn, the extraction (and loosening) ellipsoid can rent volume and thickness, type of th have a di In simplified form, the shape (width) of the gravity flow stream can be depicted as a function of ‘material type as shown in Figures 3.3-12a through 3.3-12c. Figure 3.3-12a represents a very slender stream in a very fine material, Figure 3.3-12b shows the flow stream for granular materials, and Figure 3.3-12c shows the flow stream for coarse materials, NOT TO SCALE Figure 3.3-12 A) Very fine material, B) Granular material and C) Coarse material. Material density will also affect the width of the flow stream. The higher the density of the material, the slimmer is the gravity flow stream. As shown in Figure 3.3-12a, in very heavy (high density ) 1rrow streams may develop especially when the material is fine. ore, 34 Eccentricity and Mobility The form of the ellipsoid of extraction (or loosening) can be clearly defined by its eccentricity. The formula for the eccentricity of an ellipsoid is: y(a? -b?) where (a) is the semi-major axis and (b) is the semi-minor axis of the ellipsoid. Naturally, the greater the eccentricity, the slimmer is the ellipsoid of extraction (or loosening) and the smaller is its volume. Even in the same material type (A, B, and C) [see Figure 3.3-12] the eccentricity is not constant but increases with the height of the ellipsoid of extraction and loosening. We need to emphasize that the eccentricity depends not only on the size of the particles and fragments and on the height of the ellipsoid but also upon many other factors. Some of these are: 47 |ity flow in sublevel and panel Shape and form of the fragments, Surface roughness of the particles, Friction between the particles, Local interlocking, Percentage of powder, Percentage of fines, sand and clay, Moisture content, Compressibility, Compaction, Plasticity, Strength of fragments, Magnitude, distribution and direction of external loads and forces, and Extraction or discharge rate. approach All these factors result in a certain behavior that can be expressed as the mobility of the material, Figure 3.4-1 illustrates the effect of material mobility on the shape (slim to broad) and eccentricity ‘on the ellipsoid of extraction and loosening. Although only qualitative, Figure 3.4-2 provides insight into the gravity flow behavior of diff SHAPE of ela l Tt = a aT o CONS. aD GARR RATERS owe ITs [ECCENTRICITY t me tipo of Ese eeneg Figure 3.4-1An elongated ellipsoid of revolution is the characteristic shape for the ellipsoid of loosening and for the ellipsoid of extraction in the lower part of the gravity flow stream. These elliptical shapes are very regular for homogeneous materials and a minimal width discharge opening. For heterogeneous materials or those with an apparent cohesion, the shape of the ellipsoid begins to change. An re 3.4-2, shows draw from a column of sand with apparent cohesion. In heterogeneous materials, the ellipsoids of extraction and loosening do not have the shape of an elongated ellipsoid of revolution whose upper half is exactly identical to the lower half In these materials, the upper half is wider than the lower half. If the degree of heterogeneity is small (c.g. small, fragmented materials), the difference between the actual and ideal sha Differences in shape increase with increasing heterogeneity of the material. The differences in shape also increase with extraction height and width of the discharge opening. extreme case, as illustrated in F Figure 3.4-2 en in the same rock, there are different categories of granular and coarse materials. Differences in asting pattern and other effects ma terial differences that can affect draw shape. Figure 3.4-3 illustrates a case where (a) is the ellipsoid width for an idealized form in a homogeneous material and (b) represents the real form in a heterogeneous material, Figure 34-36 ates, in simplified form, the situation of small scale sub-level caving, ie. with a sub-level cight of about 10 to 12 meters. This case was chosen because materials in the granular and coarse ies are very favorably distributed over a large width in the upper portion of the extraction 4. As seen in Figure 3.4-3b, the lower part has small fragmented material (1), the central part inular material (2), and the upper part has coarse material (3). This distribution is in ‘ordance with the pattern of fan holes drilled from the lower sublevel drift. The highest mobility terial is (1) and the lowest is (3). This supports the specific shape with the larger width in the upper part of the extraction ellipsoid, The friction along the sublevel front is relatively small in the lower part and high in the upper part. Full scale tests of sublevel caving at the Griingesberg mine (Janelid, 1973) indicated that this specific shape of the extraction ellipsoid is characteristic for such heterogeneous material distributions (see Figure 3.4-4), ellipsoid has normal 49SNOANaDOWOH Figure 3.4-3 Figure 3.4-435 Velocity Characteristics In the lower part of the gravity flow stream, the movement of the material is not random but follows a convergent pattern from a wide flow area to the narrow discharge opening. This is only possible by having higher particle velocities along the axis of the flow stream and lower velocities near the ellipsoid of motion boundaries (Figures 3.2-5 and 3.2-8), The distribution of velocities, with a zero velocity on the boundary of the ellipsoid and with maximum velocity along the center of the discharge opening was illustrated in Figure 3.2-8. It is exclusively the distribution of velocities in the specific form of an ellipsoid which enables the rearrangement of fragments to flow downwards from the wide stream through a narrow outlet at the bottom. Although not completely correct, the motion of materials in the lower part of the gravity flow stream is referred to as “elliptical gravity flow Nevertheless, the technical term of elliptical flow enables us to distinguish the motion in the lower part from that in the upper part where cylindrical motion is evident. Figure 3.5-1 illustrates elliptical and cylindrical mass flow motion. Figures 3.5-1 a and b present the development of the ellipsoid of loosening. In Figures 3.5-1 ¢ and d, the eccentricity of the ellipsoid of loosening rapidly increases and the active zone (A) is almost vertical. At the same time, the width has increased. Continued extraction will generate the maximum dimension of the ellipsoid. Eventually the ellipsoid transitions to cylindrical mass flow. It is important to emphasize once again that the diameter of the cylindrical mass flow is also a function of material type. Figure 3.5-2 presents two subsequent phases of the model shown in Figure 3.5-1. Figure 3.5-2a shows the condition that is close to the transition from elliptical to cylindrical flow. Figure 3.5-2b shows the condition when cylindrical flow is initiated and has diameter D. Cylindrical flow streams in mines can propagate to heights of more than several hundred meters. 31Gravity flow in sublevel and panel caving ~A com Figure 3.5-2 It is important to note that (1) the transition from elliptical to cylindrica abruptly and (2) cylindrical flow occurs with more or less constant diameter. This type of flow behavior has been observed in silos and mines with continuous extraction for many decades (Kvapil, 1953) al flow does not occur TYPE OF THE GRAVITY FLOW CYUNDRICAL FLOW eee LUPTICAL FLOW Block caving suBLEVEL cavING .d material volume. Figure 3.5-3 Scheme of the gravity flow types as a function of the extractes Ultimate elliptical Elliptical gravity flow in initial phases of extraction. b y flow after large extraction. ¢) = Conversion to cylindrical flow after very large continous extraction. A = Active zone, P = Passive zone. IMPORTANT: ‘Axes of the gravity flow streams are vertical,Figure 3.5-3 illustrates, in simplified form, the transition from elliptical to cylindrical flow. The width dm (or diameter) of the flow is sufficiently large that arching in the roof cannot develop. The shape and width of the cylindrical mass flow in the same material is practically constant and independent of the width of the extraction opening. Figure 3 5-4 shows cylindrical mass flow in the upper part (all the particles have the same movement) and uneven movement in the lower part (clliptical flow). Figure 3.5-4a shows a gravity flow stream with discharge opening of minimum \width (V) while in Figure 3.5-4b the discharge opening is (W) which is equal to the width of section 1-1” in Figure 3.5-4a. Naturally, since the minimum discharge opening (V) requires a greater reduction in flow section, the flow in the elliptical flow portion is more uneven than with a wider discharge opening (W). €) cunomonmassriow — B) Figure 3.5-4 3.6 Mass Flow Conditions For gravity mass flow to occur, the material inside the flow stream is moving downwards uniformly. Therefore, only a cylindrical gravity flow stream correctly satisfies the conditions of mass flow, It is necessary to respect these constraints in order to avoid any problems in the operation, Figure 3.6-1a is a simplified model showing cylindrical gravity flow (after McCormick, 1968), This drawing correetly represents the mass flow conditions in the upper part of the flow stream, but deviates from reality in the lower part where elliptical flow conditions exist. As discussed previously, the reduction in flow area to the discharge opening requires that non-uniform flow conditions occur in the lower part of the flow stream. It is possible to prove this simple logic by comparison of the flow section 1-1” with section 2-2". In Figure 3.6-1, section 2-2" is many times smaller than section 1-1" and the loose material in this section will be laterally compressed prior to 533.6-2, the material can exhibit cylindrical mass flow over its entire heig of the discharge opening are the same as the diameter (D) of the eylinde discharge. In Fig) the width (W) an Figure 3.6-1 Figure 3.6-2certain conditions it can even propagate through very thick overbt piles degrade and can exhibit a certain cohesion. The cylindrical chimney can express itself at the surface by forming a sinkhole (see Figure 3.7-1). The occurrence of the sinkhole can be explained quite simply. If the weight of the top “plug” of material is greater than ‘shear strength of the material along the perimeter of the cylinder, then the plug will collapse ¢ location and timing of the formation of the sinkhole is unpredictable. It may be the result of .w from single or multiple draw points. Sinkhole formation may also be the result of a massive collapse of a large underground cavity. It is logical that large overdrawing of ore or high extraction from one draw point in a mine can induce complete caving to the surface. It is unknown if the process is continuous or if it occurs intermittently over time. Figure 3.7-1 shows a cylindrical flow nat was about 550 m high. The sinkhole is approximately 25 meters in diameter, amps. Over time, th Cylindrical Elliptical gravity flow caravity flow Mass flow 37-1 After a very large discharge of material occurs a conversion from elliptical gravity flow (a), (b), to a cylindrical gravity flow (c). ——— bis santce.and panel As in elliptical flow, cylindrical mass flow is affected by material properties. Fine (high mobility) spaterials result in a narrow flow stream, while coarse materials (low mobility) generate wide flow ‘reams, Material density will also affect the flow stream. High-density materials result in a Gecrease in the width of the flow stream while lower density materials increase the flow stream width: In the same material, for the same height or length of the cylindrical or chimney flow and the same extraction rate, the maximum diameter of the vlinder is practically constant (there is a slight inctease in diameter with height, but this can be ignored). The diameter of the cylinder will ch ‘with different materials. Since the overburden often consists of variable materials (waste materials from various operations), the flow stream through the overburden may result in different size cylindrical flow streams and sinkholes. The sinkhole at the ground surface shown in Figur Figure 3.7-3 shows two sinkholes with different diameters in close proximity to each other, Because the sinkholes intercepted an inclined surface the sinkhole shapes are elliptical. Figures 3.7-4 and the inclined surface. Although explicit data were hot available, itis evident that the sinkholes occurred at different times and therefore intersected. As ‘one of the sinkholes is relatively new as indicated by the “fresh” surface 3.7-2 is the same one presented in Figure 3.7-1 show the intersection of several sinkholesigure 3.7-4Gravity low in sublevel and panel caving —A 6 Figure 3.7-5 3.8 Progressive Failure and Intermittent Flow Figure 3.8+1 shows “caving” in a base friction model constructed using sand. The sand material has ‘an apparent cohesion thereby imparting some shear strength to the material. In this model, it was possible to introduce an opening with a span sufficient to propagate collapse of the roof: As the root fnaterial fails, arching is generated in the material just above the roof. As time ine progressive failure of the sand material occurs (see Figure 3.8-1a through d). The proc progressive failure may or may not be continuous since it depends upon the material and structurs features in the overlying strata, A relatively small cavity enables collapse and dévelopment of a sinkhole. It is important to note that the caved chimney is smaller than the span of the openingFigure 3.8-1 This model demonstrates that progressive failure of the roof and overlying overburden is an intermittent process. The process is interrupted by the development of arching in the overlying material, In materials with high mobility (Figure 2.1-2), the occurrence of flow interruption (mainly by arching) will be very small. Underlying cavities (if any) will also be small. Arches that form will collapse a short time after forming With materials of low mobility, the occurrence of flow interruption by arching is high. The underlying cavities can be very large and may remain open for long periods of time before collapsing, Sinkholes at the surface may appear only after a long period of time and may remain for long periods of time. The diverse and irregular nature of the flow of loose materials can be significant. Here, the flow of loose materials will only be presented in an illustrative form, Figure 3.8-2a presents a simple sand model in the form of an inclined, open, shallow trough w vertical sides. As the material is extracted, the material flows out from a zone that is similar to a half-shell ellipse. The toe forms the resistive part while the upper part forms the active part. If the resistive part is too weak compared to the overlying active part, it will collapse and the active part will move downward. As shown in Figure 3.8-2b, the movement of the sand is irregular, forming “waves” close to the discharge opening (the lower half of the trough). With additional discharge (Figure 3.8-2c) deep waves occur in the upper part of the trough. Together with the waves, the entire sand strip in the trough starts to successively slip downward toward the outlet. It is evident that with such large gravity flow mechanisms the flow is irregular. Info in sublevel ane ponel caving A common sense ap principle, it consists of the temporary formation of zones of local compression (arching) and tensior (loosening). Figure 3.8-2a, b and ¢ It is important to recognize that in large scale block caving arches can occur not only over a sin gravity flow stream but also over a group of flow streams. In such a scenario, when it occurs ove the draw points and when the roof abruptly fails, there is a massive collapse that ean generate strong air blast in the underlying openings. The air which is trapped below the failing arch nd pushed out into the workings. Its foree can be very destructive. Natu he cavity is to the underlying extraction level drifts ally, 1 compressed destruction will be greater the closer Figures 3.8-3 through 3.8-5 present a set of three simple models representipe examples of bloc caving, In these three models, the dark sand at the bottom represents ore and the completely blac part represents the block. The overlying layers of white sand with different apparent cohesio The extraction from these models was made fic represent the top zones including the overburden. six draw points located at the bottom of the block (Kvapil, 1953-1957). Adding moisture to the sai introduced the apparent cohesion of the model material.Figure 3.8. 1234 5-6 bande 61Figure 3.8-5a and b Careful examination of the behavior of these models enables us to develop the following qualitative conclusions: 1, The occurrence of flow irregularities such as arching or hang-ups over the underlyin: cavities is enabled by the movement of coarse material in the gravity flow. Although such ‘anomalies can originate anywhere above the extraction level, the majority probably occurs along the front of progressive caving and/or in front of the gravity flow streams (see, for example, Figures 3.8-3a and b, Figures 3.8-4a, b, ¢, and Figure 3.8 over the extraction level. Figure 3.8-5b shows the development of arching very close to the extraction level. From the models, it is evident that with the diversity of the materials involved and the wig variety of arching conditions the formation of smaller or larger arches with underlyin cavities will be a usual phenomenon, especially in large gravity flow systems (for example block caving). The arches can cause different difficulties for ore extraction and give rise t safely concems in the mine workings. The abrupt failure of large arches above draw points can result in a dangerous air blast. 3, Arching over an underlying cavity can occur at any height above fhe extraction level anc can re-occur even in the same flow stream (see Figure Sa and b). In the lateral direction this phenomenon can occur anywhere but always inside of the block periphery nt cause’ 4. There are many differ of arching. We can distinguish artificial causes related engineered structures (drawpoints, for example) and natural causes, which are incorporate: and randomly distributed, in a heterogeneous rock mass. Simple artificial causes of arching are shown in Figure 3.8-3a. As material is extracted from dra points 1, 2, 5, and 6, overlying zones high above the block can create elliptical arches wit tinderlying cavities. This was possible to achieve only by an apparent cohesion of the mode material Shortly after the first extraction phase shown in Figure 3.8-3a, both arches collapsed, resulti the intiation of progressive caving of the overburden (shown in Figure 3.8-3b). This caving characterized by two long main peripheral cracks which incline towards the central subsiding 20n. Several small cavities are located below these main cracks. These cavities would not be considere dangerous in a block caving operation since they are very high above the extraction level and also small es (Figure 3.8-3a) that collapse and start caving of th minutes. In a mine with blocks 150 5. It is also interesting to note th: The two arches with underlying caviti overburden were formed in the model after about 20 to more meters high, this process can take many months or even yalthough the entire central part of the overburden subsided above draw points 3 and 4, elliptical racks formed outlining undeveloped arches, These cracks are the apexes of the ellipsoids of Joosening generated by material extraction. In Figure 3.8-3b, the elliptical cracks are marked with a (C) and the peripheral cracks as (PC). “The phases shown in Figures 3.8-3c and 3.8-3d demonstrate the development of uniform mass flow ‘As shown in Figure 3.8-3d, the black lines in the white waste remain horizontal, reflecting uniform flow conditions, It is important to mention that as a result of the extraction process and the pattern of caving, the surface breaks down, Surface subsidence forms a crater with the deepest point just about the center of the mined block The model in Figures 3.8-4a, b, ¢, demonstrates natural arching enabled by the properties of the cave material, The white layer (L1) which lies immediately above the top of the block is material ‘with low apparent cohesion. After a small amount of extraction ftom draw points 5 and 6, arching is apparent with abutments being created in the ore (black) and with an apex forming in contact with the stronger layer (L2). Below the arch are several cavities. They are not symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis of the arch but are inclined. The main cavity (C) lies below the right flank of the arch. The stiff intact ore of the block forms the right abutment while the left abutment is located in weak fill, whieh is in motion. Therefore, the arch is flatter and lower on. its left side than on the right side. Figure 3.8-4b show® the identical situation as in Figure 3.8-4a but in this figure the cavity (C) is Jocated above draw point 1. When the block is overlain by a relatively weak material (L1). and extraction starts with the peripheral draw points 1, 2, 5, and 6, problems with ore draw can occur. {As shown in Figure 3.8-4c, large open cavities (OC) can form on and above both sides of the block. This provides a pathway for the penetration of the overlying waste or overburden. Figures 3.8-Sa and b show a simplified model where all of the layers (L1, L2, L3, and L4) making up the overburden consist of weak material which can cave very easily. It is logical that the weaker material will form higher arches. This is evident from Figure 3.8-Sa. Although the arches are temporary they can be very high and irregular in shape. As shown, with a very small extraction of ore (black), the overlying overburden (white), which has high mobility, starts to penetrate into the ore and generate high dilution. Under these conditions where the ore block is covered by high mobility material, the draw points should have very small spacing to minimize dilution. Figure 3.8-5b presents a photograph of the same model as in Figure 3.8-Sa, but with the flow of caved waste (white material) through draw points | through 6, instead of the extraction of caved ore 9 Arch Formation It is important to understand that arches form as the result of material striving to restore equilibrium. There are two basic types of arches: those that form in a continuum; and those arches that form in coarse materials. Continuum Arches Arches in a continuum, such as those shown in Figures 3.8-3, 3.8-4, and 3.8-5 occur as the result of increased compression of materials at the abutments and reduced compression (relaxation) beneath the arch. Eventually, shear stresses between the underside of the arch and the compressed arch result in a separation of the underlying material. Figure 3.9-1 shows the instant when the underlying 63we arch, (2) is th (A) are the abutments, (1) is th zone separates from the arch. In this figure, separation crack, and (3) is the separated zone below the arch. Naturally, the formation of an are avity which is vaulted over by an arch exists with the ore is being drawn from draw points 5 an avity stream, an arch can form can be considerably simplified if a pre-existis the continuum. This is shown in Figure 3.9-2, wher 6. Since the abutments are more resistant zones outside of Figure 3.9-1 Figure 3me cases, the apex of the ellipsoid of loosening can correspond with the arch. This can lead to Jar gravity flow by the failure of the underlying column and the collapse of the arch. From ground openings, we know that arches have an Serience in mining and in the construction of uw ptical or parabolic shape. The elliptical shape is mainly characteristic for high arches (see Figure re 3.9-3b). parabolic shaped is more typical for low arches (see F a) b) gure3.9-3aandb # is a very probable that the irregularities in the ore draw are bigger for wider and higher arches, have a width of one or two (or more) gravity flow streams. After estimating culate the height (h) of the arch. \e probable span c: e span (1), we can ie dimensions of the arch depend on the material properties and the acting conditions. The incipal property is characterized by the angle of internal friction, which is directly proportional to naterial. For the height (h) of the arch we consider two extreme conditions ¢ strength of «IF the angle of internal friction converges to 90°, then the height of the arch h conver zero (extremely strong materials ); and ‘© When the angle of internal friction converges to zero degrees, the height (h) of the arch converges to infinity (extremely soft materials ). ese two extreme conditions are introduced here to provide an understanding of the important ic of internal friction. rence of the ar .© of the most important factors relating to the shape of the arch is its depth below surface and erefore the acting load. This load (vertical stress) is calculated using the volume weight of rial (tonnes/cubic meter) multiplied by the depth (meters). With increasing depth below the .c, the angle of internal friction decreases. As a simplification, we will consider the angle of emal friction to be decreased by a certain reduction angle y. We can use the following empirical muta H cos , 9.81 S*sing 3 65“Grit fon insublevel and panel where: 4 = weight'volume of material (tonnes/cubie meter) 11 = depth below surface (m) § ~ shear strength of in situ rock = friction angle. Figure 3.4-4 presents a model where (b) isthe depth below surface, (A) are the abutments, (1) is the argh, (1) is the arch span, and (h) is the height of the arch. Here we first need to estimate the wicth ait the arch which ean then be used to calculate the height ofthe arch (h). in soft material where is less than 45 degrees (Le. for high arches) the arch height is *cos(p-2*v) 2a15*sin(g—2*V) For more competent material when @ is greater than 45 degrees. the arch height is: _Atcostg=2*V) 1+sin(p-2*y) [as discussed previously, the reduction angle ‘is subtracted from the angle of internal friction to yield: see = 9 2Y Once epdecr is calculated, the shape of the arch (hil) ean be estimated using the diagram in Figure 3.955, Figure 3.9-4wo az SSSaSa gaa e > aan ‘| oy Pa ov SURESH ERRERRERRARR ne Figure 3.9-5 The diagram in Figure 3.9-S is presented in terms of zones. Zone 1 is for high arches, Zone 2 is for medium high arches, Zone 3 is for low arches, and Zone 4 is for flat arches. The relationship shown ‘approximate and does consider variable material properties and applied conditions, Coarse Material Arches Arch formation in coarse gnaterials, such as in ore and waste, can result in operational problems for mining operations. The arches can develop anywhere above the extraction zone. Information from bin, silo, and mining operations indicate that arches in coarse materials have a parabolic shape. The bottom part of the bin or draw point has walls inclined at an angle a. Generally the height h of the arch will be smaller if the inclined walls are steeper. In addition, the angle a can affect the abutment stresses. If the walls are steep, the abutment stresses developed by the low arch can be very t Figures 3.9-6 and 3.9-7 present arch heights as a function of wall inclination. The distribution of forces beneath the haunch of the arch formed from coarse materials are presented for the simplified geometries. As shown, the tangent to the median line at the foot of the arch intersects the axis of symmetry of the arch. A horizontal line drawn through this intersection point forms an angle f to the tangent. The inclination of the wall of the bottom of the discharge hopper is a and the angle formed by P and N is designated as 8. 67jevel and panel caving A common sense approach igure 3.9-6 For very high arches, the angles B, @, and y are given a subscript | and for low arches a subseript 2 For a parabolic arch, the horizontal component (H) of stress exerted by the arch can be estimated by The blocks of coarse materials may be assembled in a random configuratjon so that the height h of the arch will vary with the same inclination, a, of the outlet walls. The drch characteristics can be expressed in terms of angle B. The height of the arch will vary between certain limits, which correspond t0 Binsx > B > Brin Without disturbing the equilibrium of ‘the arch. ‘As evident in Figure 3.9-6, the haunch of a high arch is held in place by friction, R, which acts in an upward direction. In this scenario, force R is greater than T. The equilibrium of a flat arch (Figure 319-7) assuming the same inclination, a, of the hopper wall or draw point, is formed by the friction force, R, acting downwards. In this case, R is again greater than T. Figure 3.9-7As shown in Figures 3.9-6 and 3.9-7, for high arches, By = 90 - a, + 0; and for flat arches, i = 90 - ce - 8s, When the values of T and R are equal and the friction angle ©; of coarse material along the clined wall of the discharge chute is known, the formulas presented in Table 3.9-1 can be used to estimate the maximum and minimum values for angle f and the horizontal force H at the abutments Approximate values of typical frietion angle @ for coarse materials are presented in Table 3.9-2. Fable 3.9-1 Maximum height of arch from coarse | Minimum belaht of arch from coarse material ‘material Brox = 90 — a+ a Bain = 90 a= & 4 ! Amin = § tan(a — 4) [mas Fran +90 2 Table 3.9-2. Informative values of angles of friction o1 along the wall of the discharge hopper for various coarse materials. Type of Goeficentof| coarse materiel Prater against ‘ition atone wall, licompeted of a Dotemita, meson, Sicet seo Marble Conerste 065-033 Mood O75 Granite Stel 0-050 Graswacke, Corerate (070-090 Magnesite Iron ore Stee (compact and Conerece yer coat Wood! Rock elt Stel 947-087 Conex 038-090 Gypsom Stel ost-o7 Concrete oe Sandetone is mea 962-090 Solid shale 2-40" osa-o8e dove 55-050 coal 20°40" coke wea Figure 3.98 illustrates the condition where the span, 1, of the arch across the outlet is larger than the width of the outlet (see points A and B). The distance from the median arch through points A and B 69Gravity flow in sublevel and panel caving — A 6 to the edge of the discharge opening must be at least one-half the diameter of the boulder. F typical conditions, the span | in coarse materials can be estimated by: 1=a+Deosa he diameter of the block and ‘a’ is the span (see Figure 3.9-8). Figure 3.9-8 also shows Sof the parabolic median line ofthe arch lies half away along section © NN of the axis given by the intersection with the tangent line he angle which is included where D is tl that the apex, of the parabola. Point C on the axis of the parabola is oinich wouches the parabolic median of the arch at points A and B. T| cen the tangent (1) and the axis of the parabola is given by ¥ = 90~ 8. poorer Figure 3.9-8 * When the span, }, and the angle, B, mentioned earlier, an arch in coarse equilibrium conditions are fulfilled. The limits are ex} hight ofthe arch, The maximum height of an arch formed of coarse ma are known, the height of the arch can be calculated. Also, as was materials has certain limiting geometries within which the pressed by a certain maximum and minimur terial is: 01(90 — Bors) Nae gee and the minimum height of the arch is: + c01(90- Prin) orizontal forees exerted by the arch on the walls of the discharge hepper can bi ‘The corresponding h calculated from the following equations: Aol in = Bh.igure 3.9-9 shows the horizontal forces HI and H2 as a function of height of the arch. It is evident the lower the arch the higher is the horizontal stress. Due to the high stresses involved, ‘oying a low arch can be difficult because itis stable and its collapse may be abrupt igure 3.9-9 should be noted that the arch above an outlet (opening) is formed by the lowest line of rock eces. The layer of rock which forms the arch is shown in Figure 3.9-10. The abutments of the arch re marked A-and B. Figure 3.9-11 shows the distribution of the stresses in the arch using a photo- astic stress model ure 3.9-10 1Gravity flow in sublevel and panel eaving —A common sense approach Figure 3.9-11 The relationships developed above are only strictly valid for arches formed above the central part of an outlet (opening) in the form of a long slot, because only then can we regard the arch of coarse material as being in a biaxial state of stress in a vertical plane. Since the outlet openings usually have the form of a square, cirele, or rectangle, we have to deal with the stress state of a three dimensional arch which complicates matters. Investigations have shown that the earlier statements are substantially valid for these cases. Discrepancies appear to lie between practically permissible limits, We can summarize the formation of arches above the outlet opening in coarse materials as follows: 1. The width reduction of the gravity-flow of coarse material at the outlet opening is the main reason for the formation of arches. Coarse materials cannot form arches if e/d = 1, where ¢ is the extraction width and d is the inflow width; ‘The arch of coarse material is formed by the lowest layer of blocks clustered above the opening outlet of the discharge hopper: The median line of an arch in coarse material is parabolic in form: 4. The height of the arch of coarse materials depends upon the inclination of the walls of the discharge hopper or inclined walls of the drawpoint. The arch height becomes less if the walls are steeper; ‘A decreasing height of arch in coarse materials increases the stress on structure of the discharge opening walls; 6. Discharge hoppers with excessively steep walls are dangerous in operation. The inclination of the hopper walls can be regarded as excessive if a > 60°, It is normally adequate ifa > 9! x s, where gl is the angle of friction on the wall of the discharge hopper and s is the factor of safety. The factor of safety should vary between 1.05 for smooth surfaces and 1.15 for rough surfaces; 7. The arch forms more easily if the mobility of the coarse material mixture is small: 8. Flat arches ean be formed more easily if the particles are more irregular and stronger. Sticky materials assist in the formation of arches; 9. Arches of coarse material form more easily if the individual blocks of rock are larger and 10. A smaller outlet opening area facilitates arching and an enlargement of the area reduces it.ation of the minimum dimensions required of outlet able 3.9-3 Formula for the detern openings for coarse material. Area of outlet opening. Square opening Fa Circular opening Fs Sx DEX K Fg = OBS (5 x Dy x Kor | 085 x Fa WIDTH OF OUTLET OPENING Length of one side of square opening Diameter of circular opening /oas(s x De 785 a= V (Sx Dx Kor | an=VF he minimum required area Fa of a square horizontal outlet opening required for coarse material .e Table 3.4-3) can be approximately calculated using the formula: S*D)P*K Vhere D is the average diameter of the rock and K is the coefficient derived from the nomograph wn in Figure 3.4-12: The length of one side of the square opening is ‘oarse materials, especially in mining, are a mixture of different material types and particle sizes. \tremely different and varying combinations may be produced and their detailed assessment ‘ould be very complicated. In the nomograph, to simplify matters, only the major fractions which onstitute the coarse material category have been further subdivided. The coarse particles and their n 25 to 100 percent are designated as I. The characteristic shape of the ar, and sharp-edged) and their percentage are indicated along the various unctional lines. Designation II represents medium size particles (coarse pebbles), designation IIT ienotes the finer fraction (gravel and sand), and designation IV the fine constituents with cohesion soil and clay). The nomograph is applied by following the sequence of arrows. The value of cquired coefficient, k, varies from 0.6 to 1.4. As shown, the nomograph indicates that coarse aterials with a fines content over about 10 percent is unsuitable for self-acting flow through the uutlet opening. lercentage rai articles (rounded, at is pethaps possible to compile more accurate formulae than those given above for the letermination of the size of the outlet openings for coarse material. Such formulas would, however, Jude a number of complicated factors. It is possible that for practical purposes it is better to use imple equations which may include a certain amount of error, yet produce fairly safe predictions.Gravity flow in sublevel and panel caving A come one-sided discharge hoppers and bins are ofien used. Figure 3.9-13 shows in a simple form the occurrence of arching in such a bin, The arch is formed by the lowest layer of blocks, those shaded in Figure 3.9-13. One abutment of the arch rests on the inclined wall while the second abutment rests on the vertical wall just above the edge of the outlet. A photo: adel showing the stress distribution for this same arch configuration is shown in Figure 3.9-14. The same basic considerations as discussed for symmetrical bins apply also to arches in one-sided discharge bins.igure 3.9-13 igure 3.9-14 3.10 Drawpoint Width .cts, the basic geometries and functions of the discharge zones in block or panel 2, sublevel caving, and large stoping are similar to symmetrical and bins with one-sided does this concer gravity-flow principles, but it also concerns (1) the ‘ccurrence of arches just above the edge of the extraction opening (draw points), and (2) the straction. Not onl;7 Gravity flow in sublevel and panel caving ~A common sense approdh minimum size of the extraction opening. In mass mining systems involving the use of large LHDs, the width of the extraction opening is practically the same as the width of the extraction drift Figure 3.10-1 As illustrated in Figure 3.10-1, the width (W) of the extraction drift or draw point should not only satisfy the conditions for good gravity-flow, but also enable a smooth extraction of the v materials, When planning the width of the drift, assuming that the width of the extraction (c) opening corresponds to the width (W) of the extraction drift, the following equation can be used: Weis") *k where D is the size (diameter) of mixtures as read from the nom ¢ average particle , and k is the coefficient for coarse material raph in Figure 3.9-12 In Figure 3.10-1, the symbol (1) is the extraction or draw point drift, (2) is the extraction bell, and (3) are the haulage drifis. It is important to emphasize that in block or panel caving the fragmentation of caved rock is variable. As shown in Figure 3.10-2, the size of the large blocks candescribed using the average of three perpendicular dimensions. Very large blocks may develop int the lower part of the caving zone (just above the blasted undercut zone). Because the vertical nice to the draw points is small, little fracturing and crushing occurs. Figure 3.10-3 shows a at Im high and 2 meters wide or lon dium sized block in the draw point drift. The block is a ses the boulders are so large that the draw point becomes blocked and may require to free the opening, Figure 3.10- re 310-3 oA Effective Extraction Stream Width The shape of the roof of the extraction drift in the zone of ore draw is important. When the ore is of medium or small fragmentation, the effective width of the extraction opening depends not only the actual width but also on the shape of the drift roof. When the roof is arched as shown in mented ore in the drift will be in the form of a cone, Ore lines of upo Figure 3.11-1a, the slope of the n any place on the periphery or at the toe of the cone will follow the surf extraction ”Gravity low in sublevel and panel caving A common sense approsch the cone. Therefore, an outflow opening very narrow in width will form in the vicinity of the cone apex at the arched roof. This situation is not favorable because the effective width of the extraction opening will be small and the gravityflow stream will be slim. fo waste i i i CONE, OF BLASTED SRE —SuBLEVEL, Brier Figure 3.11-1 When the roof is only slightly arched or horizontal as shown in Figure 3.11-1b, the fragmented ore forms a prism in the extraction drift. Extraction from this slope toe will permit parallel flow on the slope. Therefore, almost the entire width of the extraction drift can be utilized as an effective extraction opening. This is very favorable because the effective width of extraction and the gravity flow stream will be broad thus enabling better recovery with lower dilution. Figure 3.11-2 shows the approximate effective extraction width expressed as a percentage of the actual extraction drift width, WD, asa function of the roof shape and the fragmentationEFFECTIVE EXTRACTION WIDTH (OF Wo) Figure 3.11-2 3.12 Extraction Depth Good ore extraction requires not only a large extraction width, (perpendicular to the axis of the extraction drift) but also a satisfactory thickness or depth of the outflow stream (measured parallel > the longitudinal axis of the extraction drift). The coarse material in the extraction drift forms an inclined slope as is evident from Figure 3.12-1 The slope of the cparse material is stable because its inclination is equal to the natural angle of ose (@). According to Rankine’s theory, the principal stress trajectories in the pile of coarse material are not vertical or perpendicular nor parallel to the slope inclination. Rather, the stress trajectories are inclined away from the vertical by angle B=(90-9)/2 as shown in Figure 3.12-1 With material extraction from the toe, the slope will approach the theoretical stable limit defined by ectory 3-2. This is the theoretical situation in which the new slope 3-2 will have a stability cient equal to 1.0, i.e. the slope is ready to fail. Figure 3.12-1 79weet Gravity flow n sublevel and panel caving ~A common serve apprise tn order to utilize the low weight of the triangle 1-2-3 (Figure 3.12-1), and the complete height, hD. of the extraction drift, the digging depth, x, should be: 90° hy cor@— hy tan oto hy 5 since the penetration depth of the loading machine is usually 1.0 to 1.4 meters, which is smaller than the theoretical depth ( x) given by the above equation, only the upper part (e) of the extraction drift height will be utilized for normal extraction, The remaining lower part permits the extraction of blocks which are larger than the depth of the outflow. The slope of the pile in the extraction drift does not have a constant angle of inclination, As shown in Figure 312-2, under normal conditions the slope can vary between the points | and 2, This means that the slope toe (point 1), can be close to or identical to point 2, The closer the slope is 10 the plane 3-2, the more likely abrupt failure will oceur Figure 3.12-2 Figure 3.12-3 presents an illustration of Rankine’s theory and the mechanics of coarse materials. ‘The Phase A geometry is created by dumping from the top crest. Because the coarse material is a mixture, segregation occurs which eauses the slope to curve. A certain volume can be remov ed from the slope toe until Phase B is reached. At this point, the steepened slope is in accordance with the stress trajectory. It should be noted that for both Phases A and B the slope erest is intersected a point 1. At the end of Phase B extraction, the stability of the steep slope has a safety factor of 1.0 end additional extraction will result in abrupt failure of the slope. Phase C shows the result of an abrupt failure of the steep slope and the development of a new ctestat point 2. The slope ip Phase | + tdentieal 10 that of the previous Phase A (in all Phases A, B, and C, the stress trajectory ST intersects the crest of the slope.Figure 3.12-3 3.13 Gravity Flow Stream Thickness Experience both from operations and laboratory research has shown that the depth or thickness of sravity-flow stream (as measured in direction of the longitudinal axis of the extraction drift) decreases as: 1. The friction of the fragmented ore over the steep wall increases, 2. The unit weight of the fragmented ore inereases, and 3. The inclination of the wall against the gravity-flow stream increases. For better visualization, the impact of wall inclination is shown in Figures 3.13-1, 3.13-2, and 3.13- 3, which are models filled with the same material. Although these are models of narrow silos, the principles of decreffsing gravity-flow stream thickness as a function of the wall inclination are the same as for sublevel caving, Figure 3.13-1 shows the case when the wall is vertical, Figure 3.13-2 shows the case when the wall is inclined by approximately 10° and Figure 3.13-3 shows the wall with an inclination of approximately 15°. It is evident from these three figures that if factors 1, 2, and 3 are all present, then the thickness or depth of the gravity-flow stream is small. The practical consequence is that in such a thin gravity-flow stream arching can develop relatively easily 81 catiaations, we know of situations where the steep loading front does not terminate at the intersection with the roof of the extraction drift but is displaced toward the waste as is shown in 3.13-4. In many cases, the arch of the roof cavity then collapses and the material flows into the drift as shown as Phase B in Figure 3.13-4. Beginning with the Phase B geometry are two possibilities. One is shown as Phase C in which the arched roof of Phase B collapses ind a new cavity develops at a higher level. The second possibility emerging from Phase B is shown as Phase D. Heft collapse of the wall of waste from the side (or front) occurs. This is then extracted in the gravityS4 flow stream, The penetration of waste from the side (or front) can also jccur on any higher level. We can easily imagine the Phase C and Phase D processes occurring at any higher level. The intervals are irregular because the occurrence of arching is irregular. The uilure of an arch in ore and the penetration of waste from the side (or front) into the cavity gravity “low stream depends on many factors such as mobility, compaction, settlement, compressibility, cte Figure 3.13-4 shows only a simplified scenario of these phenomena. The process can be even more complex because certain cavities can also form in the neighboring waste and some of them can cause the loss of ore. Phase A in Figure 83Gravity flow i sublevel and O = FRAGMENTED ORE w= CAVED WALTE c= cAviTy Figure 313-4