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Grapher
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Grapher is a graphing calculator application included with Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger) and later. Originally named Curvus Pro X,
it was purchased by Apple from Arizona Software in 2004. Grapher is able to draw both 2D and 3D graphs.

Contents
1 Using Grapher
1.1 Values & Definitions
1.1.1 Animated Parameters
1.2 Operators
1.2.1 Integrals
1.3 Inverse functions
1.4 Parametric equations
1.5 Examples
2 Screenshots
3 See also

Using Grapher
There are three primary panes in a Grapher window: the equation list, the equation editor and the graph. Above these lies the
toolbar. In the equation editor at the far right you'll find , the "equation pop-up". To show the equation palette:

Window → Show Equation Palette, or

→ Show Equation Palette, or
shift-⌘-E

Some commonly used items (eg π, √ ) can be entered with a single keystroke when combined with the "option" modifier key.
To view these special characters, open the keyboard viewer (http://docs.info.apple.com/article.html?path=mac/10.4/en
/mh2325.html) and hold down "option" or "option+shift".

Values & Definitions

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Every Grapher expression has a value type: scalar, multi-

value, an interval, or a 2D or 3D vector.

The primary Grapher panes

Types
Syntax
Type Notes
Example
1.5 numeric constant
scalar Built-in constant. You can type out the constant name ("pi"), and Grapher will replace it with the
π
symbol ("π")
The multi-valued type is a (finite) set of values. When used in an expression, the expression is
evaluated for each value. The expression is then multi-valued. For example, {0,1,2} * π is
{0, π, 2π}
equivalent to {0,π,2π}. For another example, with a:={0,π/2,π}, we have cos(a)=
{cos(0),cos(π/2),cos(π)}={1,0,-1}. The form a..b produces a range of values from
multi-value {0..2}
the lower to higher number at increments of 1 (e.g. {0..2} is equivalent to {0, 1, 2}). The
{0,0.5..2} form a,b..c produces a range of values from the first up to the third using the difference
between the first two as the increment (e.g. {0, 0.5 .. 2} is equivalent to {0, 0.5, 1,
1.5, 2}). The number of dots, as long as there are at least two, does not seem to matter.
[1,2]
An interval includes all numbers from the lower to the higher, including the endpoints. An interval
interval is another type of set. Unlike multi-values, an interval is infinite in size as it is a contiguous set of
[1;2]
values.

Use equation palette → Operators to enter vectors. A vector whose elements are the axes variables
vector
(e.g. ) is called an "axis vector".

Some operators and functions can take more than one type for an argument. For example, you can add a multi-value and a
scalar. The types of the arguments determines the type of the expression. One thing that differentiates intervals from multi-
values is that some operators and functions can be applied the latter but not to intervals.

Equations in Grapher are either definitions or graph equations. Definitions let you define your own constants and expressions.
To define a symbol, create a new equation, then enter the symbol name (and argument if it's a function), followed by "=" or
":=" and an expression. It's best to use ":=" when defining symbols; when using "=", Grapher may misinterpret it as a graph
equation and give syntax errors. You can also define a symbol inline at the end of a graph equation by appending a comma
followed by the definition. Example definitions:

scalar constant:φ := (1+√5)/2

function:f(t) := t sin(t)

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inline:y=mx+b,m=2,b=-1

Equations that define symbols are global, and can be used in any other equation. Symbols defined inline are local to the
equation and can't be referred to elsewhere. If a global and local symbol have the same name, the local symbol takes
precedence in the equation that defines it.

Animated Parameters

You can define a constant as an "animated parameter", which lets you control the value of the constant with a slider and play
an animation in the graph pane of what happens as the parameter changes. To create an animated parameter, define a constant,
then (with it highlighted) click Equation → Animate Parameter (or press alt-⌘-A). The equation editor for an animated
parameter has special controls.

To change the settings for an animated parameter, such as the minimum and maximum values, or whether the parameter is

discrete or continuous, click .

Operators

Grapher has the standard arithmetic operators you find on calculators: ^ (power), *, /, + and -/. In addition are operators found
on graphing calculators.

Operators
Category Priority Operators Input Name Notes
= = equal
≠ !=, <> not equal
< < less than

1 > > greater than Comparison operators.

less than or
≤ <=
equal
greater than
≥ >=
or equal
! !
2 not Boolean negation.
¬ equation palette → Symbols → ¬
Boolean
Conjunction. "a & b" is true if
both "a" and "b" are true. You
& &
3 and can also enter " " by turning
equation palette → Symbols → 
off shortcuts in the equation
palette and typing "^".
| | Disjunction. "a | b" is true if at
or
equation palette → Symbols →  least one of "a" or "b" are true.
xor, either-or, "a b" is true if either "a" or
4 equation palette → Symbols → 
exclusive-or "b" is true (not both).
element of, "x [-1,5]" is true if x is in the
equation palette → Symbols →  is-in interval "[-1, 5]"

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not an
"x [-1,5]" is true if x is not in
equation palette → Symbols →  element of,
the interval "[-1, 5]"
not-in
Category Priority Operators Input Name Notes
option-v,
√▯ equation palette → Standard → √▯
square root
sqrt(▯) sqrt()

Arithmetic ▯ ▯
√▯ equation palette → Standard →  √▯ n-th root

^
▯▯ power
equation palette → Standard → ▯▯

Number of ways of choosing k

Combinatorics choose items from n items.
equation palette → Operators →  nCk = n! / k!(n-k)!
1 ~ ~ complement
* *
2 intersection
∩ equation palette → Symbols → ∩
Interval
+ +
union
3 equation palette → Symbols → 
− − difference

Left column is for values, right

column is for tests.
 → 

Piecewise Value of "a?b" is "b" if "a" is

? ?
if-then true, undefined otherwise.
: :
"a:b" is equivalent to "a?b".
Value of "a?b:c" is "b" if "a" is
?: ?:
if-then-else true, "c" otherwise. "a:b:c" is
:: ::
equivalent to "a?b:c".
Category Priority Operators Input Name Notes
Can be applied to matrices or
Matrix ▯T ^T transpose vectors. Dot products can be
calculated with "uTv".
option-s
 → ∑ Sum
equation palette → Operators → ∑
Series
option-shift-P
 → ∏ Product
equation palette → Operators → ∏
partial
Calculus ∂ option-d,  → ∂ differential

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Leibniz's notation. If you use

∂/∂t the equation palette to enter
partial
the derivative operator, you
derivative
can change the differential 't' in
equation palette → Operators →  wrt t
the normal way (selecting it &
typing a replacement).
∂^n/∂t^n
equation palette → Operators →  nth partial You can change the differential
derivative 't' and degree 'n' in the normal
wrt t way.

Derivative, using Lagrange's

' ' and Newton's notation,
derivative respectively. Repeat n times
̇  → 
for the nth derivative.
option-b
Performs numeric, rather than
 → ∫ integral
symbolic, integration
equation palette → Operators → ∫
Category Priority Operators Input Name Notes

Integrals

In integrals, the differential element comes before the function to integrate: , not . Due to operator
precedence, you might need to enclose in parentheses the expression you're integrating, else only the first part of the
expression will be integrated. The easiest way of creating an integral is to type the function in the equation editor, select it,
then click Equation → Integrate, which will properly parenthesize the expression.

Inverse functions

Graphing the inverse of a function uses a simple if surprising approach: instead of defining y as a function of x, simply define x
as a function of y. Grapher will then use the y-axis for the independent variable and the x-axis for the dependent. Note that this
doesn't really plot the inverse function, as a given x-value can have multiple y-values (try plotting x=tan(y)).

Parametric equations

Parametric equations are based on vectors and ranges. Rather than setting the default dependent variable "y" equal to an

expression, you set an axis vector (eg ) equal to a vector expression. Independent variables can have any name but must
have a range value. The independent variable can be defined inline or separately from the parametric equation. See examples
below.

Examples

Function Graph Output

y=sin(x)

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y=sqrt(1+x^2)

y=x>-1?x

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Screenshots

The 3D "Conchoid" The 2D "Polar

example Logarithmic" example

See also
Grapher (Wikipedia) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapher)
Taming complex numbers in Grapher.app (http://acko.net/blog/taming-complex-numbers-in-grapher-app)

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