Scientific Calculator Comparison - Vol II

Appendices and Supplementary Material

Casio fx-115ES and Sharp EL-W516

by Jim Cullen
Scientific Calculator Comparison Vol II
Appendices and Supplementary Material

Casio fx-115ES and Sharp EL-W516

Jim Cullen

Document Version: v1.1 Dated: November 20, 2011

"The essence of mathematics is not to make simple things
complicated, but to make complicated things simple."

~ Stanley Gudder
 Table of Contents
Appendix A: fx-115ES Physical Constants (CODATA 1998 values).............................1
Appendix B: EL-W516 Physical Constants (CODATA 2006 values)............................3
Appendix C: fx-115ES Metric & Unit Conversions.......................................................5
Appendix D: EL-W516 Metric & Unit Conversions......................................................7
Appendix E: 3X3 Sample Matrices.................................................................................9
Appendix F: 4X4 Sample Matrices ( W516 only )........................................................11
Appendix G: Linear Systems, 4 Equations and 4 Unknowns ( W516 only )................13
Appendix H: The π Imposters.......................................................................................16
Appendix I: Dot Products, Cross Products, and Matrix Determinants.........................19
Appendix J: Accurate Standard Normal Distribution Function....................................22
Appendix K: The Hyperbolic Functions and their Inverses..........................................24
Appendix L: The LHC, Protons, and E=mc2................................................................25
Appendix M: Higher Order Derivatives of Functions...................................................32
 Appendix A: fx-115ES Physical Constants (CODATA 1998 values)

No. Name of Constant Symbol Value

1 Proton mass mp 1.67262158 E -27 kg
2 Neutron mass mn 1.67492716 E -27 kg
3 Electron mass me 9.10938188 E -31 kg
4 Muon mass mμ 1.88353109 E -28 kg
5 Bohr radius a0 5.291772083 E -11 m
6 Planck constant h 6.62606876 E -34 J s
7 Nuclear magneton μN 5.05078317 E -27 A m2
8 Bohr magneton μB 9.27400899 E -24 A m2
9 Planck constant divided by 2 pi ħ 1.054571596 E -34 J s
10 Fine-structure constant α 7.297352533 E -3 unitless
11 Classical electron radius re 2.817940285 E -15 m
12 Compton wavelength λc 2.426310215 E -12 m
13 Proton gyromagnetic ratio γp 267522212 s-1 T-1
14 Proton Compton wavelength γc,p 1.321409847 E -15 m
15 Neutron Compton wavelength γc,n 1.319590898 E -15 m
16 Rydberg constant R∞ 10973731.568549 m-1
17 Atomic mass unit u 1.66053873 E -27 kg
18 Proton magnetic moment μp 1.410606633 E -26 J T-1
19 Electron magnetic moment μe -9.28476362 E -26 J T-1
20 Neutron magnetic moment μn -9.6623640 E -27 J T-1
21 Muon magnetic moment μμ -4.49044813 E -26 J T-1
22 Faraday constant F 96485.3415 C mol-1
23 Elementary charge e 1.602176462 E -19 C
24 Avogadro constant NA 6.02214199 E 23 mol-1
25 Boltzmann constant k 1.3806503 E -23 J K-1
26 Molar volume of an ideal gas Vm 0.022413996 m3 mol-1 ( 273.15 K , 101.325 kPa )
27 Molar gas constant R 8.314472 J mol-1 K-1
28 Speed of light in a vacuum c0 299792458 m s-1
29 First radiation constant c1 3.74177107 E -16 W m2
30 Second radiation constant c2 0.014387752 m K
31 Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.670400 E -8 W m-2 K-4

1
32 Electric constant ε0 8.854187817 E -12 F m-1
33 Magnetic constant μ0 1.2566370614 E -6 N A-2
34 Magnetic flux quantum Φ0 2.067833636 E -15 Wb
35 Standard acceleration of gravity g 9.80665 m s-2
36 Conductance quantum G0 7.748091696 E -5 s
37 Characteristic impedance of the Z0 376.730313461 Ω
vacuum
38 Celsius temperature t 273.15 degrees Celsius
39 Newtonian constant of gravitation G 6.673 E -11 m3 kg-1 s-2
40 Standard atmosphere atm 101325 Pa

2
 Appendix B: EL-W516 Physical Constants (CODATA 2006 values)

No. Name of Constant Symbol Value

-1
1 Speed of light in a vacuum c0 299792458 m s
2 Newtonian constant of gravitation G 6.67428 E -11 m3 kg-1 s-2
3 Standard acceleration of gravity g 9.80665 m s-2
4 Electron mass me 9.10938215 E -31 kg
5 Proton mass mp 1.672621637 E -27 kg
6 Neutron mass mn 1.674927211 E -27 kg
7 Muon mass mμ 1.88353130 E -28 kg
8 Atomic mass unit 1u 1.660538782 E -27 kg
9 Elementary charge e 1.602176487 E -19 C
10 Planck constant h 6.62606896 E -34 J s
11 Boltzmann constant k 1.3806504 E -23 J K-1
12 Magnetic constant μ0 1.256637061 E -6 N A-2
13 Electric constant ε0 8.854187817 E -12 F m-1
14 Classical electron radius re 2.817940289 E -15 m
15 Fine-structure constant α 7.297352538 E -3 unitless
16 Bohr radius a0 5.291772086 E -11 m
17 Rydberg constant R∞ 10973731.57 m-1
18 Magnetic flux quantum Φ0 2.067833667 E -15 Wb
19 Bohr magneton μB 9.27400915 E -24 A m2
20 Electron magnetic moment μe -9.28476377 E -26 J T-1
21 Nuclear magneton μN 5.05078324 E -27 A m2
22 Proton magnetic moment μp 1.410606662 E -26 J T-1
23 Neutron magnetic moment μn -9.6623641 E -27 J T-1
24 Muon magnetic moment μμ -4.49044786 E -26 J T-1
25 Compton wavelength λc 2.426310218 E -12 m
26 Proton Compton wavelength γc,p 1.321409845 E -15 m
27 Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.6704 E -8 W m-2 K-4
28 Avogadro constant NA 6.02214179 E 23 mol-1
29 Molar volume of an ideal gas Vm 0.022413996 m3 mol-1 ( 273.15 K , 101.325 kPa )
30 Molar gas constant R 8.314472 J mol-1 K-1
31 Faraday constant F 96485.3399 C mol-1

3
 32 Von Klitzing constant RK 25812.80756 Ω
33 Electron charge to mass quotient -e/me -1.75882015 E -11 C kg-1
34 Quantum of circulation h/2me 3.63694752 E -4 m2 s-1
35 Proton gyromagnetic ratio γp 267522209.9 s-1 T-1
36 Josephson constant KJ 4.83597891 E 14 Hz V-1
37 Electron Volt (elementary charge) e 1.602176487 E -19 C
38 Celsius temperature t 273.15 degrees Celsius
39 Astronomical unit AU 1.495979 E 11 m
40 Parsec pc 3.085678 E 16 m
12
41 Molar mass of carbon-12 M( C) 1.2 E -2 kg mol-1
42 Planck constant divided by 2 pi ħ 1.054571628 E -34 J s
43 Hartree energy Eh 4.35974394 E -18 J
44 Conductance quantum G0 7.7480917 E -5 s
-1
45 Inverse fine-structure constant α 137.0359997 unitless
46 Proton-electron mass ratio mp/me 1836.152672 unitless ratio
47 Molar mass constant Mu 0.001 kg mol-1
48 Neutron Compton wavelength γc,n 1.319590895 E -15 m
49 First radiation constant c1 3.74177118 E -16 W m2
50 Second radiation constant c2 0.014387752 m K
51 Characteristic impedance of the Z0 376.7303135 Ω
vacuum
52 Standard atmosphere atm 101325 Pa

Note for Appendices A & B: The twelve entries in bold green are scientific constants
found on the EL-W516 but not found on the fx-115ES. All scientific constants on the fx-115ES
are also found on the EL-W516. Many values for scientific constants on the fx-115ES are out
of date and so do not agree with the values the EL-W516 provides. The values found on the
NIST CODATA website agree with the values on the EL-W516. In every case the difference is
in the last few digits and so should not present a problem for the average user who will
usually only make use of four or five significant digits in a calculation.

4
 Appendix C: fx-115ES Metric & Unit Conversions

No. Conversion Conversion Factor

1 in  cm 1 in = 2.54 cm
2 cm  in 1 cm = 1/2.54 in
3 ft  m 1 ft = 0.3048 m
4 m  ft 1 m = 1/0.3048 ft
5 yd  m 1 yd = 0.9144 m
6 m  yd 1 m = 1/0.9144 yd
7 mi  km 1 mi = 1.609344 km
8 km  mi 1 km = 1/1.609344 mi
9 n mile  m 1 n mile = 1852 m
10 m  n mile 1 m = 1/1852 n mile
2
11 acre  m 1 acre = 4046.856 m2
12 m2  acre 1 m2 = 1/4046.856 acre
13 gal (US)  litre 1 gal (US) = 3.785412 litre
14 litre  gal (US) 1 litre = 1/3.785412 gal (US)
15 gal (UK)  litre 1 gal (UK) = 4.54609 litre
16 litre  gal (UK) 1 litre = 1/4.54609 gal (UK)
17 parsec  km 1 parsec = 3.085678 x1013 km
18 km  parsec 1 km = 1/3.085678 x 1013 parsec
19 km/hr  m/s 1 km/hr = (5/18) m/s
20 m/s  km/hr 1 m/s = (18/5) km/hr
21 oz  gram 1 oz = 28.34952 gram
22 gram  oz 1 gram = 1/28.34952 oz
23 lb  kg 1 lb = 0.4535924 kg
24 kg  lb 1 kg = 1/0.4535924 lb
25 atm  Pa 1 atm = 101325 Pa
26 Pa  atm 1 Pa = 1/101325 atm
27 mm Hg  Pa 1 mm Hg = 133.3224 Pa
28 Pa  mm Hg 1 Pa = 1/133.3224 mm Hg
29 hp  kW 1 hp = 0.7457 kW
30 kW  hp 1 kW = 1/0.7457 hp
31 kgf/cm2  Pa 1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa

5
32 Pa  kgf/cm2 1 Pa = 1/98066.5 kgf/cm2
33 kgf∙m  J ( Joule ) = N∙m kgf∙m = 9.80665 J ( Joule ) = N∙m
34 J  kgf∙m 1 J = 1/9.80665 kgf∙m
35 lbf/in2  kPa lbf/in2 = 6.894757 kPa
36 kPa  lbf/in2 1 kPa = 1/6.894757 lbf/in2
37 °F  °C °C = (( temp°F - 32 ) / 1.8 )
38 °C  °F °F = ( temp°C x 1.8 + 32 )
39 J  cal 1 J = 1/4.1858 cal
40 cal  J 1 cal = 4.1858 J

6
 Appendix D: EL-W516 Metric & Unit Conversions

No. Conversion Conversion Factor

1 in  cm 1 in = 2.54 cm
2 cm  in 1 cm = 1/2.54 in
3 ft  m 1 ft = 0.3048 m
4 m  ft 1 m = 1/0.3048 ft
5 yd  m 1 yd = 0.9144 m
6 m  yd 1 m = 1/0.9144 yd
7 mi  km 1 mi = 1.609344 km
8 km  mi 1 km = 1/1.609344 mi
9 n mile  m 1 n mile = 1852 m
10 m  n mile 1 m = 1/1852 n mile
2
11 acre  m 1 acre = 4046.856 m2
12 m2  acre 1 m2 = 1/4046.856 acre
13 oz  gram 1 oz = 28.34952 gram
14 gram  oz 1 gram = 1/28.34952 oz
15 lb  kg 1 lb = 0.4535924 kg
16 kg  lb 1 kg = 1/0.4535924 lb
17 °F  °C °C = (( temp°F - 32 ) / 1.8 )
18 °C  °F °F = ( temp°C x 1.8 + 32 )
19 gal (US)  litre 1 gal (US) = 3.785412 litre
20 litre  gal (US) 1 litre = 1/3.785412 gal (US)
21 gal (UK)  litre 1 gal (UK) = 4.54609 litre
22 litre  gal (UK) 1 litre = 1/4.54609 gal (UK)
23 fl oz (US)  mL 1 fl oz (US) = 29.57353 mL
24 mL  fl oz (US) 1 mL = 1/29.57353 fl oz (US)
25 fl oz (UK)  mL 1 fl oz (UK) = 28.41306 mL
26 mL  fl oz (UK) 1 mL = 1/28.41306 fl oz (UK)
27 calth  J Calth = 4.184 J
28 J  calth J = 1/4.484 calth
29 cal15  J Cal15 = 4.1858 J ( NIST 15°C )
30 J  cal15 J = 1/4.1858 cal15 ( NIST 15°C )
31 calIT  J CalIT = 4.1868 J

7
 32 J  calIT J = 1/4.1868 calIT
33 hp  W 1 hp = 745.7 W
34 W  hp 1 W = 1/745.7 hp
35 ps  W 1 ps = 735.4988 W
36 W  ps 1 W = 1/735.4988 ps
2
37 kgf/cm  Pa 1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa
38 Pa  kgf/cm2 1 Pa = 1/98066.5 kgf/cm2
39 atm  Pa 1 atm = 101325 Pa
40 Pa  atm 1 Pa = 1/101325 atm
41 mm Hg  Pa 1 mm Hg = 133.3224 Pa
42 Pa  mm Hg 1 Pa = 1/133.3224 mm Hg
43 kgf∙m  J ( Joule ) = N∙m kgf∙m = 9.80665 J ( Joule ) = N∙m
44 J  kgf∙m 1 J = 1/9.80665 kgf∙m

Note for Appendices D & E: The conversion entries in bold blue are conversions found
on the fx-115ES but not found on the EL-W516. The entries in bold green are scientific
constants found on the EL-W516 but not found on the fx-115ES. One entry is in bold red. The
115ES converts back and forth between horsepower (hp) and kilowatts (kW). The W516
converts back and forth between horsepower (hp) and watts (W). All metric and unit
conversions that are common to both calculators have the same conversion factor.

8
 Appendix E: 3X3 Sample Matrices

Determinant = +1

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 −3 0 1 3 4 0 2 −1 4 −1 −3
−1 4 −3 0 −1 −2 −4 1 2 4 −3 −2
0 0 1 −1 −2 −3 1 −3 1 1 0 −1

[ −3 4 −2
−1 4 −3
−3 5 −3 ] [ 4 3 −1
−1 −3 2
1 −1 1 ] [
−2 2
0 1
1
0
1 −1 −1 ] [2 −2 3
2 −1 2
−1 2 −2 ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3 1 −1 0 0 −1 1 3 −3 −4 1 −4
−4 −2 1 3 4 −2 −1 −3 4 5 1 4
5 2 −2 4 5 −1 0 −1 4 3 −1 3

[ 3 3 1
−2 −1 0
−5 −3 0 ] [ 3 0 1
5 −3 1
−1 2 0 ] [0 1 −1
−3 −2 −5
−1 0 −2 ] [ −2 5 −3
−1 4 −2
1 1 0 ]
[ −3 0 −4
2 1 2
−2 0 −3 ] [ 3 −2 −1
3
−5 1
1 0
1 ] [ 1
0
2 −3
0
−1 −3 1
1
] [
−3 2 −2
2 0 −1
1 −1 1 ]

9
 3X3 Sample Matrices

Determinant = -1

[ −1 4 −3
1 −3 0
0 0 1 ] [ 0 −1 −2
1 3 4
−1 −2 −3 ] [
−4 1
0
2
2 −1
1 −3 1 ] [ 4 −3 −2
4 −1 −3
1 0 −1 ]
[ −1 4 −3
−3 4 −2
−3 5 −3 ] [ −1 −3 2
4 3 −1
1 −1 1 ] [0 1
−2 2
0
1
1 −1 −1 ] [ 2 −1 2
2 −2 3
−1 2 −2 ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−4 −2 1 3 4 −2 −1 −3 4 5 1 4
3 1 −1 0 0 −1 1 3 −3 −4 1 −4
5 2 −2 4 5 −1 0 −1 4 3 −1 3

[ −2 −1 0
3 3 1
−5 −3 0 ] [ 5 −3 1
3 0 1
−1 2 0 ] [
−3 −2 −5
0 1 −1
−1 0 −2 ] [ −1 4 −2
−2 5 −3
1 1 0 ]
[ 2 1 2
−3 0 −4
−2 0 −3 ] [ 3 1 0
3 −2 −1
−5 1 1 ] [ 0
1
0 1
2 −3
−1 −3 1 ] [ 2 0 −1
−3 2 −2
1 −1 1 ]
Note: These sample 3X3 matrices ( for the 115ES or the W516 ) contain integers from -5 to +5. The
determinants are equal to ±1 and the matrix inverses contain only integers from -9 to +9.

10
 Appendix F: 4X4 Sample Matrices ( W516 only )

Determinant = +1

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
2 0 1 −1 5 5 3 −2 4 4 −1 −3 −5 −1 3 2
−3 1 0 2 −4 −4 −2 1 0 −3 2 4 −1 1 −2 0
−1 −3 −4 1 −1 −2 2 −2 1 −3 3 5 0 −2 5 1
−2 −1 −2 2 3 2 5 −4 −5 −3 0 1 3 0 0 −1

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 3 0 1 2 −4 −4 1 −5 −1 4 −1 0 −3 5 2
−4 −1 2 2 −1 2 0 1 1 −4 −2 3 −4 2 −2 3
−3 −5 1 −1 −2 5 4 0 −5 −5 3 2 −2 2 −3 1
−1 5 1 4 −1 1 3 −2 0 −3 −1 2 −5 4 −5 3

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 1 0 4 1 2 −3 −3 −2 4 −3 −5 −1 −1 3 −4
2 −1 0 −3 3 4 −5 −4 −1 1 0 −1 −4 2 2 −1
−3 1 0 4 1 1 −2 −1 −2 4 −1 −4 1 0 −1 1
−2 −1 1 1 −1 −2 4 4 0 1 3 1 −3 4 −2 4

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
3 1 0 1 1 1 −2 −2 −4 0 3 1 −2 −1 −4 −4
5 2 0 1 3 0 −2 −1 −4 −1 3 0 1 0 2 1
5 0 −4 0 −3 2 1 −2 2 −2 −2 −3 0 −3 −2 −5
−4 −3 −3 −2 3 −2 0 2 −1 1 1 1 −3 1 −5 −2

11
 4X4 Sample Matrices ( W516 only )

Determinant = -1

[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
−2 −1 1 2 3 5 −4 −1 −3 0 −2 −5 2 −5 1 1
−2 −4 −5 −3 1 1 −1 0 −5 5 −2 5 4 −1 −5 0
1 −1 −3 −3 2 2 2 3 −4 3 −2 1 −1 −3 4 1
−1 −3 −5 −4 −1 0 −3 −3 2 −2 1 −2 0 4 −3 −1

[ ] [ ][ ][ ]
1 2 2 0 −2 −3 −3 −5 −1 −1 4 −3 −5 −1 3 −4
2 2 2 −1 −5 −3 −5 −4 5 −4 −4 1 −1 −2 2 0
−3 −3 −2 2 −2 −1 −2 −1 −5 3 5 −2 −1 2 −1 −2
−4 −5 −1 4 −1 0 −1 0 2 −1 −2 1 3 3 −4 1

[ ] [ ][ ][ ]
−5 −4 5 −5 0 −2 1 −2 0 4 −5 −1 1 2 0 −3
−4 −3 4 −4 −1 −1 −1 2 0 1 −2 0 3 5 1 −2
2 2 3 −2 2 2 1 −1 −1 −4 −5 2 −2 −4 −1 1
2 2 2 −1 0 3 −2 4 0 −4 4 1 2 4 2 3

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2 3 −1 4 4 2 5 2 0 −1 0 1 4 −1 0 0
2 1 0 0 −5 0 0 −4 3 0 3 4 3 −4 4 3
0 0 0 −1 0 2 5 −1 −1 −4 0 5 −1 0 0 0
−3 −5 2 −5 1 1 3 0 4 1 4 4 −4 2 −1 −1

Note: These sample 4X4 matrices ( for the W516 only ) contain integers from -5 to +5. The determinants
are equal to ±1 and, for the sake of simplicity, the matrix inverses contain only integers from -9 to +9.

12
 Appendix G: Linear Systems, 4 Equations and 4 Unknowns ( W516 only )

This applies only to the W516. Both the 115ES and the W516 have the ability to solve
systems of linear equations, and both are limited to a maximum of three equations with three
unknowns. Both calculators use matrices to represent the linear system and to solve the
system. It makes sense that the 115ES is limited to a maximum of three equations with three
unknowns since that's as large a matrix as the 115ES is able to handle. The W516 though, is
able to perform calculations on 4X4 matrices and so is perfectly capable of solving linear
systems with four equations and four unknowns. For some reason, this capability was not
built into the W516 Equation Solver. See Chapter 12 for more information on the Equation
Solver.

A linear system of four equations and four unknowns would be something similar to:

{ }
a 1 W b1 X c 1 Y d 1 Z = e1
a 2 W b 2 X c 2 Y d 2 Z = e2
a 3 W b3 X c 3 Y d 3 Z = e3
a 4 W b 4 X c 4 Y d 4 Z = e4

which in matrix form can be represented by:

[ ] [] []
a1 b1 c1 d1 W e1
a2 b2 c2 d2 X e2
• = or A·x = b
a3 b3 c3 d3 Y e3
a4 b4 c4 d4 Z e4

For those of you already familiar with linear systems, you can skip over this elementary
and rough description of the process of solving a linear system. A is the coefficient matrix, x is
the solution vector, and b is the constant term, a vector that is the product of matrix A and
vector x. To solve the linear system is to solve for the solution vector x. We would think that,
algebraically, x would be equal to b divided by A, and this is nearly correct. We don't really
divide matrices but we can multiply by an inverse to get the same effect. If you multiply both
sides of the above equation by A-1, then you can say that x = A-1 b. There is a catch; matrix A
can only have an inverse if the determinant of A is non-zero which is why the Equation Solver
generates an error in linear systems with singular coefficient matrices. In a way, it's the matrix
equivalent of a 'division by zero' error. If the determinant of A is equal to zero, then there is
either no solution to the system or there are an infinite number of solutions. Identifying which
is the case will require some work on pencil and paper since neither calculator will be able to
provide any further information on the system of equations.

13
 To illustrate solving linear systems of four equations with four unknowns on the W516,
we will use the following linear system as an example:

{ }
2 W 1 X 3Y 7 Z = 45
4 W −1 X 5 Y −2 Z = 38
0 W 3 X −4 Y 6 Z = −13
2 W −3 X 7 Y 0 Z = 56

and the task is to find the values of W, X, Y, and Z which will make all four equations true
simultaneously. If we put our problem into matrix form, we get the following:

[ ] [] [ ]
2 1 3 7 W 45
4 −1 5 −2 X 38
X = or Ax = b
0 3 −4 6 Y −13
2 −3 7 0 Z 56

We'll solve the system on the W516 in Matrix Mode, which is accessed by pressing
[ON/C][MODE][4]{MATRIX}. The following instructions for calculating x=A-1·b are fast-paced
and assume familiarity with the Matrix mode of operations on the W516. Refer to Chapter 14
for more information and detail on the Matrix mode.

The first thing to do is type the coefficient matrix A into the matrix editor. Press [MATH]
[2]{EDIT} to get into the editor and then press [4][4][=] to specify a 4X4 matrix; four rows by
four columns. Now key in the coefficients: [2][=] [1][=] [3][=] [7][=] [4][=] [(-)][1][=] [5][=] [(-)]
[2][=] [0][=] [3][=] [(-)][4][=] [6][=] [2][=] [(-)][3][=] [7][=] [0][=]. It's convenient to store the
coefficient matrix A into matrix memory matA. Do this by pressing [ON/C] to exit the editor;
[MATH][4]{STORE} and finally [0]{matA} to choose to store the editor contents into matA.

Next, we'll store vector b, as a 4X1 matrix, four rows by one column, into matrix
memory matB. Enter vector b into the editor: [MATH][2]{EDIT}, [4][1][=]{4row,1col matrix},
then [4][5][=] [3][8][=] [(-)][1][3][=] [5][6][=], then [ON/C][MATH][4]{STORE} [1]{matB}.

We should check that there is a unique solution to the system by calculating the
determinant of the coefficient matrix. You can do this by pressing: [MATH][6]{CALC}[0]{det}
[MATH][1]{MATRIX}[0]{matA} [=]. The result is 110, which is certainly non-zero and so
matrix A does have an inverse and the system does have a unique solution.

To solve the system, multiply the inverse of matrix A by the vector b. You can do this by
pressing: [MATH][1]{MATRIX}[0]{matA}[2ndF][2]{x-1} [X] [MATH][1]{MATRIX}[1]{matB}
[=]. The W516 tells you that the result is a 4X1 matrix and that it is equal to:

14
 [] [] []
2 W 2
−1 X −1
, so that x = =
7 Y 7
3 Z 3

which means that the solution vector, x, is W=2, X=-1, Y=7, and Z=3. These values will make
all four of the equations in the linear system true simultaneously:

{ } { } { }
2 21−13 773 = 45 4−12121 = 45 45 = 45
4 2−1−15 7−23 = 38 8135−6 = 38 38 = 38
or or
0 23−1−476 3 = −13 0−3−2818 = −13 −13 = −13
2 2−3−17 703 = 56 43490 = 56 56 = 56

For more information on matrix operations, refer to Chapter 14.

15
 Appendix H: The π Imposters

The W516 and the 115ES are able to evaluate expressions and produce exact results
when possible; that is, a rational expression involving integers, surds, or mathematical
constants such as e or π. The W516 and 115ES are both excellent calculators and can easily
perform calulations involving exact expressions as well as produce results that are exact
expressions. Be aware however that the internal algorithms which handle these calculations
are not completely infallible on either calculator.

As an example, we will look at two expressions that approximate the value of π. These
expressions are ones that I've submitted to the Pi Approximation Contest Center at
http://www.contestcen.com/pi.htm and approximate the value of π to a certain number of
decimal digits. The value of π is of course transcendental; it's digits continue infinitely and do
not repeat. Additionally, due to its transcendental nature, π is not even an irrational number; it
cannot be a solution to a polynomial with rational coefficients. This means that no rational
expression, even one containing irrational numbers, can ever equal π exactly. There are
however some rational ( and irrational ) expressions that approximate π to a great number of
digits. Let's see if the 115ES or the W516 can be fooled into thinking that an evaluated
expression is exactly equal to the value of π. The first fifteen significant digits ( fourteen digits
past the decimal ) of the value of π are 3.14159265358979 and will be our basis for
comparison with the results provided by both calculators.

This first approximation is equal to π to a precision of ten digits past the decimal point
for a total of eleven significant digits. The ln is the Natural Logarithm function which is the [ln]
key on both calculators. The red digits in the decimal expansion are the incorrect digits:

ln  820 −
544
99  = 3.14159265353897 ... ≈ 

The 115ES is not fooled and the result of the evaluation of the above expression is a
decimal value of 3.14159265353897. The W516 is not fooled either, returning a decimal value
of 3.1415926535388. You can not see all these digits initially but, if you multiply the answer by
100000 and subtract 314159, you can remove the initial digits and bring the remaining digits
into view. Compare these results to the actual value of π given above as 3.14159265358979
to fifteen significant digits.

16
 This next approximation to the value of π is a bit more accurate and is equal to π out to
twelve digits past the decimal for a total of thirteen significant digits. Again the red digits in the
decimal expansion are the incorrect digits:

5  580674 − 456 = 3.141592653589 44 ... ≈ 

This time the 115ES is fooled and produces a result which claims that the evaluated
expression is exactly equal to π. The W516 is likewise fooled into thinking that the expression
is exactly equal to π. We can take a closer look at the results the 115ES and W516 calculated
by removing some significant digits and inspecting what remains. We can do this by
multiplying by 1X105 and subtracting the integer value of 314159. The remaining digits are the
continuation of the digits of the calculated result. On the 115ES we calculate: [Ans] [X] [1]
[X10x] [5] [-] 314159 [=]. What remains is 0.265358944 so that the value calculated by the
115ES was 3.14159265358944. On the W516 we do the same by pressing: [ALPHA] [=]
{ANS} [X] [1][Exp][5] [-] 314159 [=]. The result is the decimal value 0.26535890 meaning the
result calculated by the W516 was 3.1415926535890.

Here are a few more expressions, one results from certain identities of modular
functions, and the other from an infinite harmonic sum. How accurate are these
approximations of π? Feel free to experiment on your own:


40
3 ln  640320  8 1
≈  9450 ∑ ≈ 
 163 x=1 x8

Some experimentation reveals that the 115ES is fooled by an approximation of π if

there are at least thirteen correct significant digits; the W516 is fooled by an approximation of
π containing at least twelve correct significant digits. Neither calculator is fooled by attempts
to approximate the values for irrational numbers such as  2 which has a decimal value of
1.41421356237309 to fifteen significant digits.

17
 2,000 Digits of Pi
π = 3.
1415926535 8979323846 2643383279 5028841971 6939937510 5820974944
5923078164 0628620899 8628034825 3421170679 8214808651 3282306647
0938446095 5058223172 5359408128 4811174502 8410270193 8521105559
6446229489 5493038196 4428810975 6659334461 2847564823 3786783165
2712019091 4564856692 3460348610 4543266482 1339360726 0249141273
7245870066 0631558817 4881520920 9628292540 9171536436 7892590360
0113305305 4882046652 1384146951 9415116094 3305727036 5759591953
0921861173 8193261179 3105118548 0744623799 6274956735 1885752724
8912279381 8301194912 9833673362 4406566430 8602139494 6395224737
1907021798 6094370277 0539217176 2931767523 8467481846 7669405132
0005681271 4526356082 7785771342 7577896091 7363717872 1468440901
2249534301 4654958537 1050792279 6892589235 4201995611 2129021960
8640344181 5981362977 4771309960 5187072113 4999999837 2978049951
0597317328 1609631859 5024459455 3469083026 4252230825 3344685035
2619311881 7101000313 7838752886 5875332083 8142061717 7669147303
5982534904 2875546873 1159562863 8823537875 9375195778 1857780532
1712268066 1300192787 6611195909 2164201989 3809525720 1065485863
2788659361 5338182796 8230301952 0353018529 6899577362 2599413891
2497217752 8347913151 5574857242 4541506959 5082953311 6861727855
8890750983 8175463746 4939319255 0604009277 0167113900 9848824012
8583616035 6370766010 4710181942 9555961989 4676783744 9448255379
7747268471 0404753464 6208046684 2590694912 9331367702 8989152104
7521620569 6602405803 8150193511 2533824300 3558764024 7496473263
9141992726 0426992279 6782354781 6360093417 2164121992 4586315030
2861829745 5570674983 8505494588 5869269956 9092721079 7509302955
3211653449 8720275596 0236480665 4991198818 3479775356 6369807426
5425278625 5181841757 4672890977 7727938000 8164706001 6145249192
1732172147 7235014144 1973568548 1613611573 5255213347 5741849468
4385233239 0739414333 4547762416 8625189835 6948556209 9219222184
2725502542 5688767179 0494601653 4668049886 2723279178 6085784383
8279679766 8145410095 3883786360 9506800642 2512520511 7392984896
0841284886 2694560424 1965285022 2106611863 0674427862 2039194945
0471237137 8696095636 4371917287 4677646575 7396241389 0865832645
9958133904 7802759009

18
 Appendix I: Dot Products, Cross Products, and Matrix Determinants

This section is a bit fast, even though the key sequences are given, so you might want
to make sure you're comfortable with Vector and Matrix mode before continuing. We will be
working with vectors in three dimensions and we are going to define three vectors for the
examples we will be discussing. Store them to the usual vector memories; VctA-VctC on the
115ES and L1-L3 on the W516:

a = [ 5 , 1 , 1]
 
b = [ 1 ,6 , 0 ] c = [−3 ,0 , 2 ]

We'll take the cross product of the first two vectors a and b, and then see how the third
vector c is situated relative to the cross product vector. We'll look at this from the vector
viewpoint and from the matrix viewpoint.
The right-hand rule for vector cross products determines the direction of the resultant
vector. This is required since, for any two given input vectors a=[a1,a2,a3] and b=[b1,b2,b3],
there are actually two vectors that are perpendicular to both vectors a and b; one defined by
axb, and the other defined by bxa. For ease of discussion, we'll define vector p=axb and
vector q=bxa. We may as well further state that p=[p1,p2,p3] and q=[q1,q2,q3]. The two input
vectors a and b can be said to define a plane and the two opposing cross products p and q
are both perpendicular to this plane but point in exactly opposite directions with equal
magnitudes. In other words, p+q=[0,0,0]. The positive half-plane, relative to the cross product,
is in the direction indicated by the right-hand rule. We want to calculate the cross product
p=axb and its magnitude |p|. Store the vector p into vector memory L4 on the W516 ( the
115ES is out of vector memories ) and store |p| into independent memory M:

a ×b = [ −6 , 1 , 29 ]
p =  ∣p∣ = 878 ≈ 29.63106478

ON the 115ES, press: [AC] [SHIFT][5][3]{VctA} [X] [SHIFT][5][4]{VctB} [=]. Verify

that you have the correct answer for axb, then press: [AC] [SHIFT][hyp]{Abs} [SHIFT][5][6]
{VctAns} [=] [SHIFT][RCL]{STO} [M+]{M}.

On the W516, press: [ON/C] [MATH][6][8]{o_prod(} [MATH][1][0]{L1} [(x,y)]{,}

[MATH][1][1]{L2} [)] [=] [ON/C] [MATH][4]{STORE} [3]{L4}. Verify that you have the correct
vector result for axb, then press: [ON/C] [MATH][6][CNST]{abs_list} [MATH][1][3]{L4} [=]
[STO][M+]{M}.

We'll need to recalculate the vector p=axb on the 115ES since we have access to only
three vector memories VctA-VctC and we've already used them all.
If we now add the third vector c=[c1,c2,c3], there can be only one of two situations that

19
result ( barring the fact that c could also be coplanar with a and b ); vector c points in the
same half-plane as p, or vector c points in the opposite half-plane as p. Determining which is
the case can be accomplished by taking the dot product of vectors c and p. If the result is
positive, then vector c is in the same half-plane as p. Further, the projection of vector c, onto
the line defined by p, will point in the same direction as p itself. We can calculate, using the
dot product formula, the magnitude (h) of the projection of vector c onto p. This is easier than
calculating the value of θ ( the angle between a and b ) and then using trig functions. Now
we'll calculate the value of h and store it into independent memory A:

c⋅a ×b
a ×
c⋅ b  = ∣c∣∣a ×
b∣cos  h = ∣c∣cos  h = ≈2.564875767
∣a ×b∣

ON the 115ES, press: [AC] [SHIFT][5][5]{VctC} [SHIFT][5][7]{Dot} [(] [SHIFT][5][3]

{VctA} [X] [SHIFT][5][4]{VctB} [)] [÷] [ALPHA][M+]{M} [=] [SHIFT][RCL]{STO} [(-)]{A}.

On the W516, press: [ON/C] [MATH][6][9]{i_prod(} [MATH][1][2]{L3} [(x,y)]{,}

[MATH][1][3]{L4} [)] [÷] [ALPHA][M+]{M} [=] [STO][CNST]{A}.

and we find that it is a postive value equal to approximately 2.564875767. We can use the
information we have so far to calculate the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the
vectors a, b, and c. This would be equal to the area of the base of the parallelepiped
multiplied by the height (h). This volume (V) would be equal to:

V = h∣p∣ = 76

ON the 115ES, press: [AC] [ALPHA][(-)]{A} [X] [ALPHA][M+]{M} [=].

On the W516, press: [ON/C] [ALPHA][CNST] [X] [ALPHA][M+]{M} [=].

Note that, had we switched the order of the cross product, then the projection of c onto
p would have been negative, causing the above volume V to switch sign to -76. In fact, if we
had switched the roles of any two vectors in the above example, we would have changed the
sign of the resulting volume of the parallelepiped.
What we'll do next is go into Matrix mode and store a matrix made up of all the
components of vectors a, b, and c. We will go ahead and make them column vectors. On the
W516, this can be done automatically for you ( see Chapter 17 for more details ). We will
define this as matrix A. Store this matrix into the usual matrix memory:

20
 [ ] [ ]
a 1 b1 c1 5 1 −3
A = a 2 b2 c 2 A = 1 6 0
a 3 b3 c 3 1 0 2

We will be interested in the determinant of matrix A. If you calculate it, you will find that
the value of the determinant is 76. Calculate the determinant of the transpose of A; you will
find that it also is equal to 76. Take the left column of matrix A and move it over so it becomes
the right column. Repeat. Alternatively, take the top row and move it down so it becomes the
bottom row. Repeat. The determinant will always be 76. Try this whole process on the
transpose of matrix A. The value of the determinant will always be 76.
When calculating matrix determinants, it is known that if you exchange any two rows or
columns in the matrix, then the sign of the determinant will change. This may sound familiar to
you electricians out there who know that, if you exchange any two of the electrical leads on a
three-phase motor, you reverse its direction of rotation. This is vaguely similar to what
happens with matrices. It's the order of the elements of the matrix that count. As long as
column one comes before column 2 comes before column 3, as in the original matrix, reading
from left to right, then the determinant will not change. Likewise with the ordering of the rows.
The components of the vectors in the resulting column vectors ( or row vectors for that
matter )will always conspire to produce a parallelepiped with the same volume.
Many of the properties of matrix determinants can be understood in terms of the
volumes of parallelepipeds spanned by the column vectors. The catch with this geometrical
view of dot products, cross products, and determinants is that it is very limited in the matrices
that it can be applied to. Cross products, with the usual properties, exist only in 1, 3, or 7
dimensions. A 1x1 matrix is trivial and a 7x7 matrix is impossible to visualize, so only with 3x3
matrices can we use this geometrical approach.

21
 Appendix J: Accurate Standard Normal Distribution Function

Use the graph above and the descriptions in the table below to choose the range you
need to calculate the probability for. The integral expression for the required range is given so
that the probability calculated will be accurate to 11 digits past the decimal. X is used instead
of Z to match the variable used in the numerical integrator. Integrals with |X|<1.5 will be more
accurate but maximum accuracy should be taken to be 12 digits past the decimal. Note that
items 7 and 8 use |X| instead of X.

x− x
X =
x

0 X2


−
1 1
1: From −infinity to X<0 ( Area C )
2
−
2 ∫X e 2

X X2


−
1 1
2: From −infinity to X>0 ( Area C+A+B )
2

2 ∫0 e 2

0 X2


−
1
3: From X<0 to 0 ( Area A )
2 ∫X e 2

X X2


−
1
4: From zero to X>0 ( Area B )
2 ∫0 e 2

0 X2


−
1 1
5: From X<0 to +infinity ( Area A+B+D )
2

2 ∫X e 2

X X2


−
1 1
6: From X>0 to +infinity ( Area D )
2
−
2 ∫0 e 2

22
 ∣X ∣ X2


−
2
7: Within ±X ( Area A+B )
 ∫0 e 2 Use |X|

∣X ∣ X2


−
2
8: Outside of ±X ( Area C+D ) 1 −
 ∫0 e 2 Use |X|

23
 Appendix K: The Hyperbolic Functions and their Inverses

Hyperbolic Functions:

e x −e−x 1 2
sinh  x = csch  x = = x −x
2 sinh x e −e

e e
x −x
1 2
cosh  x = sech  x  = = x −x
2 cosh  x  e e
2x 2x
e −1 1 e 1
tanh  x  = 2x coth  x = = 2x
e 1 tanh x  e −1

Inverse Hyperbolic Formulas ( for real-valued x ):

sinh−1  x  = ln  x x 2 1

cosh −1  x  = ln  x x 2 −1 ; x≥1

tanh−1  x  =
1
2  
ln
1x
1−x
; ∣x∣1

sech−1  x  = cosh−1 
1
x  = ln
1 1− x 2
x  ; 0 x≤1

csch −1  x  = sinh−1
 
1
x
= ln
1  1x 2
x

∣x∣ 
coth−1  x = tanh−1 
1
x
=
1
2
ln
x1
x−1  ; ∣x∣1

Some basic Hyperbolic Identities:

cosh  x sinh  x = e x cosh  x−sinh  x  = e−x

cosh 2  x−sinh 2  x  = 1 tanh 2  x sech 2  x = 1 coth 2  x −csch 2  x  = 1

24
 Appendix L: The LHC, Protons, and E=mc 2

This curiosity involves protons accelerated to near light-speed, Einstein's Mass-Energy

relation, and of course some bits of mathematical conjuring to tie it all together. It sounds like
complicated work but, then again, that's what scientific calculators are best at. Let the
calculator handle the drudgery of calculation, leaving the operator free to think about the
conceptual work. The article is mainly informative but there are example calcuations at the
end of the article for you to use in verifying the figures. They are fairly straight-forward and all
the mathematical functions, physical constants, and conversions required are found inside the
calculator.

Info: Are Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Collision Energies Dangerous?

Let's begin with a discussion of the energy of accelerated particles. This is usually
measured in electron volts. One electron volt is that amount of kinetic energy gained by an
electron accelerated through a potential of one volt. This is an extremely small amount of
energy and so it is common to see particle energy expressed in thousands (1keV=1000eV),
millions (MeV=1x106eV), billions (1GeV=1x109eV), or even trillions TeV(1x1012eV) of electron
volts. Electron volts can be converted to Joules by multiplying by 1.602x10 -19, which is a
physical constant stored on the calculator (#23 on the 115ES or #09 on the W516).

As far as the range of energies usually encountered, let's look at the highest particle
energies observed in nature, the ultra-high energy cosmic rays and other particles that
probably originate from active sources in the universe such as supermassive black holes,
gamma ray bursts, and hyper-novae. Particles from these objects impact the earth's
atmosphere with energies in the range of about 10MeV to 100 million TeV (10 20eV). The
observed rate of the most energetic of these particles, 100 million TeV and above, is about 1
per square kilometer per century. The Earth's surface area is about 5.1x10 8 km2, so we can
expect 5.1x106 ultra-high energy particle collisions per year in the Earth's upper atmosphere.
This works out to 13963 collisions each day. If the energy of one these particles could be
converted to the kinetic energy of a golfball (45g) impacting your body, the energy would be
equivalent to being struck by a golfball thrown at 60mph. Depending on where a 60mph
golfball impacts your body, it could cause some serious damage.

Scientists, rather than waiting around for nature to provide accelerated particles for
their experiments, have built their own particle accelerators so that collisions can be observed
under laboratory conditions. The largest and most powerful particle accelerator on earth, the
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, will be able to accelerate a proton to an energy of
7TeV. The energy equivalent of this is a grain of rice (25mg) chugging along at about one foot
per second, the speed acquired if the grain of rice were dropped from a height of 4.5
millimeters (acceleration due to gravity is 9.807m/s 2). To be fair though, the LHC will collide

25
two protons at 7TeV, for a total collision energy of 14TeV. So we'll make that two grains of rice
dropped from 4.5mm. By any reasonable standard, this would not be considered a lethal
projectile.

Nature at 100 million TeV vs the LHC at 14 TeV. A 60mph golfball vs two grains of rice
dropped from 4.5mm. Which would you rather be hit with? The punch delivered by nature is
over 7 million times more energetic than the world's most powerful particle accelerator. We've
all heard that there are some concerns about the energy levels of particle beams in current
scientific experiments and the resulting exotic forms of Armageddon spewing out from the
bowels of the machine. The simple energy comparison above should illustrate the fact that
nothing out of the ordinary could possibly be created in the experimental LHC collisions since
we aren't even close to being able to recreate the ordinary energies that nature brings down
over our heads every single day.

Accelerated Protons in the LHC

The LHC accelerates particles, not golfballs or grains of rice, but the physics is very
similar. We will use, for the examples given, the proton, a positively charged particle found in
the nucleus of regular atoms. The LHC acquires their protons from hydrogen gas. The rest
mass of a proton (mp) is 1.672621637x10-27 kg, and can be found as a physical constant on
your calculator (#01 on the 115ES and #05 on the W516). The W516 contains the current
updated NIST recommended value. We will convert this to the proton's mass energy
equivalent, which NIST says should be 938272013 eV or 938.272013 MeV.

m p c2
m p eV  =
e

where c is the speed of light (const #28 on the 115ES and #01 on the W516) and e is the
figure for converting Joules to electron volts (const #23 on the 115ES and #09 on the W516).
The speed of light c is 299792458 m/s and e is 1.602176487x10-19 J/eV. Store the value for
the proton's rest energy into memory M.

On the 115ES key in: [AC] [■/□] [SHIFT][7]{CONST}[0][1]{mp} [SHIFT][7]{CONST}[2]

[8]{c0} [x2] [] [SHIFT][7]{CONST}[2][3]{e} [=] [SHIFT][RCL]{STO}[M+]{M}

On the W516 key in: [ON/C] [CNST][0][5]{mp} [X] [CNST][0][1]{c0} [a/b] [CNST][0][9]
{e} [=] [STO][M+]{M}.

Note the result on the 115ES is 938271996.1 eV which is different from the value that
is recommended by NIST. The result from the W516 is 938272013.4 eV which is almost
exactly the current recommended value.

26
 At this point we also have to note that the extremely high proton energies we will be
discussing imply particle speeds very near to light speed. At such speeds, relativistic effects
can not be neglected. At relativistic speeds, there is an apparent increase in mass due to the
Lorentz factor, gamma:

1
 = 1

 or  =
2
m = m0  where
1 − 
v
c
 1 − 2

where β is the velocity of the particle in terms of the speed of light (c), m0 is the mass of the
particle at rest, and m is the observed mass of the particle while travelling at speed v.

This is not an actual increase in the rest mass (which never changes) but an observed
decrease in the added speed per unit of energy added to the motion of the rest mass. From a
Newtonian perspective we observe a mass increase, but from a relativistic perspective, we
simply observe a different relationship between kinetic energy and the speed of the particle.
In this light, the Lorentz factor gamma (γ) is fused into all manner of relativistic formulas. As
for our proton, we already have our γ since we know that our accelerated proton, with a rest
energy of 938272013 eV, will have an energy of 7TeV. We can simply divide here to obtain γ,
which comes out to 7460.523068 rounded to ten significant digits. We want to store this into
memory A on our calculator:

On the 115ES key in: [AC] [7][x10x][1][2] [÷] [RCL][M]{M} [=] [SHIFT][RCL]{STO}[(-)]
{A}.

On the W516 key in: [ON/C] [7][Exp][1][2] [÷] [RCL][M+]{M} [=] [STO][CNST]{A}.

Knowing γ means we can rearrange the Lorentz factor to solve for β, which is the
speed of the particle in terms of, or divided by, the speed of light.

 =
 1 −
1
2

and we find that β is just about 0.999999991 if rounded to ten significant digits. This means
that a proton with an energy of 7TeV must be travelling at 99.9999991% of the speed of light,
which is 299792455.3 m/s and just few meters per second slower than the speed of light. We
will store this figure into memory B:

27
 On the 115ES key in: [AC] [√ □] [1][-][■/□][1] [] [RCL][(-)]{A} [x2] [=] [SHIFT][RCL]
{STO}[°'”]{B}.

On the W516 key in: [ON/C] [2ndF][x2]{√ }[1][-][1][a/b][RCL][CNST]{A} [x2] [=]

[SHIFT][RCL]{STO}[yx]{B}.

Info: Total Beam Energy

These are all impressive figures. Despite the historic energy levels the LHC will reach,
the collisions seem safe enough – they won't destroy the Earth – so we should be good to go
with this accelerator business, right? Well, almost. If you consider just a single proton, then
the dangers are totally negligible but, the LHC does not accelerate single protons. Each
accelerator ring (and these are all nominal figures) holds 2808 packets or bunches of protons
spaced around the accelerator ring, with each bunch containing 1.15x10 11 protons. The total
number of protons in both rings of the LHC accelerator is 6.458x10 14, each with an energy of
7TeV. The total energy of all the protons in both rings is then 4.521x10 15 TeV or 7.243x108 J.
Now imagine a fully loaded Nimitz-class aircraft carrier, almost 1100 feet long and weighing in
at 103,000 tons or 9.34x107 kg. We'll let our aircraft carrier float motionless in an imaginary
lake right next to the LHC. Imagine further that we could discharge the contents of both
accelerator rings of the LHC into the back of the carrier and convert the total proton energy
into the kinetic energy of the ship. Given that E k=½mv2, we can calculate the resulting speed
the Nimitz-class carrier would gain from this impact. The result, neglecting losses due to
friction or other forces, is 3.94 m/s or 8.81 mph.

This is the real danger of such large particle accelerators; the total energy of all the
protons held in the particle beams that are travelling at a speed very near that of light. It is an
enormous amount of energy and this beam has to be constantly deflected to follow a circular
path by equally enormous and powerful super-conducting magnets. Stuff this energy into a
beam pipe the size of a can of soup, surround it with coolant piping, super-conducting electro-
magnets, wiring, control circuitry, sensors, and other instrumentation, and you can see why
such great care is taken during the collision experiments. Given what the beam energy can do
to our hypothetical aircraft carrier target, imagine the catastrophic damage to the LHC itself if
the proton beams were to inadvertently exit the beam pipe during an experiment at nominal
power levels. The damage to coolant and control systems, as well as other instrumentation
and hardware, could be tremendous.

Proton Beams and Very Big Magnets

The LHC accelerator ring has a circumference of 26659m, and so has a radius of
4242.9m. At a nominal beam energy of 7TeV, the proton bunches run around the ring at a rate
of 11245.45 revolutions per second at a speed of 0.999999991c. Protons will not naturally
follow a circular path but must be forced to do so and, in the case of the LHC, this is done

28
with 1232 superconducting dipole magnets, each of which are 14.3m long and weigh 35 tons.
The dipole's magnetic field interacts with the positive charge of the protons, producing a
Lorentz force which deflects the protons into a circular path.

If there are 1232 dipoles around the ring, each at an effective length of 14.3m, then
there are only 17618m worth of dipole magnets spread around the ring. This is a hair over
66% of the length of the beam pipe. In between the magnets, we can consider the beam path
as effectively a straight line since no deflection occurs. Magnetically then, the circumference
of the LHC beam pipe is only 17618m, and dividing by 2π gives an effective bending radius
(Rb) of 2803.9m. There is a centripetal force associated with a 7TeV (E) proton being
accelerated into a circular path, given by:

mv 2 mc 2 E
Fc = ≈ =
Rb Rb Rb

where E = (7TeV)(1.6022x10-19J/eV) = 1.1215x10-6J, and Rb = 2803.9m. At 7TeV, the speed of

the proton is indistinguishable from the speed of light out to eight significant digits and won't
affect our calculation here, so v is simply set equal to c. The centripetal force (Fc) comes out
very close to 4x10-10N (Newtons). This is the force that must be exerted by the dipole magnets
in order to keep the proton in a circular path. The formula for the Lorentz force is:

Fc
F c = q v B or B =
qv

where Fc is again 4x10-10N, q is 1.6022x10-19C (Coulombs), and v is the speed of the proton
around the accelerator (again set v=c for simplicity). The value of B comes out to 8.328(N·s)/
(C·m) which are the units for the magnetic field strength in Teslas, so B = 8.328 Tesla. This is
very close to the 8.33T quoted by CERN in various publications.

Calculations used in this Appendix

We've covered just the very basic physics involved with accelerating a proton to 7TeV
in a mathematical representation of the Large Hadron Collider. This section will cover a few of
the formulas and calculations used in this appendix. Feel free to try them on your own with
different values for the energies, masses, etc.

The 100 million TeV golfball: If a 45 gram golfball has 100 million TeV of kinetic energy,
then how fast is it moving? The first step is to convert the 100 million TeV into mks (meter-
kilogram-second) units. Energy in mks units is the Joule (kg·m 2/s2). The conversion from eV to
Joules can be done by multiplying electron volts by e ( const #23 on the 115ES and #09 on

29
the W516 ), which has a value of approximately 1.6022x10 -19 J/eV. The 100 million TeV is the
same as 1x1020 eV.

On the 115ES key in: [AC] [1][x10x][2][0] [X] [SHIFT][7]{CONST}[2][3]{e} [=].

On the W516 key in: [ON/C] [1][Exp][2][0] [X] [CNST][0][9]{e} [=].

The equivalent energy is 16 Joules. The next step is to rearrange the equation for
kinetic energy, Ek=½mv2, and solve for speed (v) which, in the mks system, will end up being
in meters/second. The mass (m) of a golfball is about 45 grams (0.045 kg).

Ek =
1
2
2
mv or v =
 2 Ek
m

On the 115ES key in: [AC] [√ □] [■/□] [2][X][1][6] [] [.][0][4][5] [=].

On the W516 key in: [ON/C] [2ndF][x2]{√ }[a/b][2][X][1][6][][.][0][4][5] [=].

The speed of the golfball is 26.67 m/s ( meters per second ). Multiply by 3.6 to get 96
kph ( kilometers per hour). On both calculators, conversion #08 will convert this to mph ( miles
per hour ). The answer, rounded to two significant digits, is 60 mph.

The 7 TeV grain of rice: Again we have to convert eV to Joules by multiplying electron
volts by e ( const #23 on the 115ES and #09 on the W516 ). Note that 7 TeV is the same as
7x1012 eV. This time we come up with an amount of energy equal to 1.12x10 -6 J. A grain of
rice (m) has a mass of about 25 mg which is 25x10-6 kg. The acceleration of gravity on the
surface of the Earth (g) is 9.80665 m/s2 ( const #35 on the 115ES and #03 on the W516). We
drop the grain of rice from a height (h) and so we convert gravitational potential energy to
kinetic energy (Ek). We'll use three equations from basic kinetics:

1 1 2
Ek = mv 2 and v = g t and h = gt
2 2

The first equation describes kinetic energy of a mass (m) travelling a speed (v). The
second equation describes the increase of an object's speed during freefall under the
acceleration of gravity (g) per unit time. The third equation describes the distance an object
has moved while under acceleration (g) for a time (t). Solving the third equation for time and
substituting into the second equation gives us:

30
 v = g
 2h
g
or v = 2 g h

We can then insert this result into the kinetic energy equation:

1 2 Ek
Ek = m  2 g h or E k = m g h so h =
2 mg

The equation Ek=mgh is actually a basic idea but was derived here again for those who
may not have seen it. Now it's simply a matter of plugging in the known values; Ek = 1.12x10-6
J and m = 25x10-6 kg, to obtain a value for the height of the drop (h) according to the last
equation above.

On the 115ES key in: [AC] [■/□] [1][.][1][2][x10x][(-)][6] [] [2][5][x10x][(-)][6] [X]
[SHIFT][7]{CONST}[3][5]{g} [=].

On the W516 key in: [ON/C] [a/b][1][.][1][2][Exp][(-)][6] [] [2][5][Exp][(-)][6] [X]

[CNST][0][3]{gn} [=].

The answer is approximately 4.57x10-3 m or about 4.5mm. The equations used in the
aircraft carrier example are identical to those used in the 100 million TeV golfball. Can you
verify the result?

Currently, in early 2010, the LHC is accelerating protons to half the energy mentioned
in this appendix, that is, 3.5 TeV. Can you find the magnetic field strength of the dipole
magnets at this energy? What is the total beam energy in both beams at 3.5 TeV with 3X10 9
protons per bunch and 4 bunches per beam?

31
 Appendix M: Higher Order Derivatives of Functions

Consider a smooth continuous function, f(x), and any

point on the curve [x,y=f(x)]. The derivative of the function is
also a smooth continuous function, df(x)/dx. Let m be the
derivative of the function at point x. We would like to
approximate this derivative, and call the approximation m'.
The derivative is the instantaneous slope of the curve of f(x)
at point x, or the rate of change of f(x) per change in x, when
the change in x is very small. This very small change in x is
called ∆x. Delta-x, or dx, has it's origins with ∆x.
To calculate our approximate derivative, m', we take
two points on either side of x, and we'll call those points x+∆x
and x-∆x. Since f(x) is smooth and continuous, f(x+∆x) and
f(x-∆x) exist, and the difference between them, which we'll
call a, is very small as measured along the y-axis. Still, a does
have a definable value, which is f(x+∆x)−f(x-∆x).
Since x±∆x is the area of concern, as measured
along the x-axis, we'll call this distance b, which is twice ∆x,
or 2∆x. Since ∆x is very small, a and b define a nearly perfect
right triangle, with b as the length of the base and a as the
height. The slope of the hypotenuse ( or slanted side ) of the
triangle is defined by m'=a/b ( rise over run ), and is an
approximation of the derivative of f(x) at x.
This centered difference method is how the 115ES and W516 calculate
numerical derivatives of functions.

There's no reason why this process can't be carried one step further. Since f(x) is a
smooth and continuous function, as it it's derivative df(x)/dx, then we should be able to take
the derivative of the derivative. As a matter of fact we can. This is the second derivative,
written often as d2f(x)/dx, and it is the instantaneous rate of change of the first derivative per
change in x. To make the formulas easier to read, the first ( 1'st ) derivative of f(x) will be
notated as f '(x) and the second ( 2'nd ) derivative as f ''(x). If you were able to follow the logic
of defining the 1'st derivative, then you probably have a good idea what the formula for the
2'nd derivative looks like:

f '  x x − f '  x− x 

f ' ' x =
2 x

From the description given for the first derivative, it's still pretty easy to see what's
going on in the second derivative calculation. We're subtracting the values of the 1'st
derivative from points slightly above and below x, and this difference is divided by 2∆x to give

32
a measure of the change of f '(x) per change in x as a ratio or slope. This ∆f '(x) / ∆x is an
estimate of f ''(x).

To actually perform the calculation for the 2'nd derivative, you need to have strict
control over the value of ∆x. Fortunately, the W516 does allow the size of ∆x to be specified in
numerical differentiation. This option will have to be used since the W516, at times, does not
choose very wise values for ∆x. Wise or not, the internally calculated values of ∆x will not
work for us. For the examples we will look at, I will specify f '(x)to be equal to 0.00001.

We won't have to specify ∆x on the 115ES since it's numerical differentiation uses a
slightly different approach. The 115ES, by default, uses a value of 1X10 -10 for the tolerance of
it's calculation. Internally, a ∆x is chosen such that the returned derivative is accurate to that
tolerance.

The example we will use is a fourth-order ( quartic ) polynomial, for which we will
evaluate derivatives at x=3:

f  x  = 3x 4−2x 35x 28x−6

Using the rules for differentiation from basic calculus, here are the first few orders of
derivatives for our f(x), evaluated at x=3:

Derivative Equation Evaluated at x=3

3 2
1'st f '  x = 12x −6x 10x8 308
2
2'nd f ' '  x  = 36x −12x10 298
3'rd f ' ' '  x  = 72x−12 204
4'th f ' ' ' '  x = 72 72

Calculating the 2'nd Order Derivative on the W516

Since our ∆x is fixed at 0.00001, we'll store this value into variable memory M on both
calculators. On the W516, press [.][0][0][0][0][1] [STO][M+]{M}. On the 115ES, press [.][0]
[0][0][0][1] [SHIFT][RCL]{STO} [M+]{M}.

The W516 has function memories available for use, so we'll store f(x) into function
memory F3. We'll also store the expression for the derivative of f(x) at point x=3+M, into
function memory F4. The 115ES has no function memories, so we'll have to depend on the
calculation history to save us a lot of retyping.

33
 On the W516, remember to enclose the expression for f(x) within parentheses, as
described at the end of Chapter 13, so the expression may be inserted into a numerical
differentiation function. On the W516, press: [(] [3][RCL][RCL]{X}[yx][4][] [−] [2][RCL]
[RCL]{X}[2ndF][RCL]{x3} [+] [5][RCL][RCL]{X}[x2] [+] [8][RCL][RCL]{X} [−] [6] [)] [STO]
[]{F3}. The expression for f(x), enclosed within parentheses, is now stored in function
memory F3.

Also on the W516, to store the required expression for f '(x) at x=3+M into function
memory F4, press: [ON/C] [RCL][]{F3} [2ndF][] [2ndF][∫dx]{d/dx} [2ndF][][BS] [3] [+]
[RCL][M+]{M} [STO][]{F4}. We control the value of M in this expression, and so we control
the exact point at which the derivative is evaluated.

We'll use our other variable memories to store some intermediate values in the
calculation of the 2'nd derivative. Variable memory A will hold the value of f '(3−∆x) and
memory B will hold the value of f '(3+∆x). Store the value −0.00001 into memory M. Store the
value of f '(3−∆x) into memory A by pressing: [ON/C][RCL][]{F4} [=] [STO][CNST]{A}. The
value you should get for this is 307.99702. Now make sure that +0.00001 is stored into
memory M. Next we need to store the value of f '(3+∆x) into memory B. By pressing: [ON/C]
[RCL][]{F4} [=] [STO][yx]{B}. The value you should get here is 308.00298. From our
derivative table, we see that f '(3)=308. We've calculated and stored the derivatives of two
points a very small distance to either side of x=3, and the derivatives are close to, but not
quite equal to, 308. There is a small change in the value of the dervative:

f '(3−0.00001) = 307.99702 F '(3) = 308 f '(3+0.00001) = 308.00298

Since we've chosen ∆x to be very small, the triangle mentioned at the beginning of this
appendix should be very close to a perfect right triangle. Since the base of our triangle is split
evenly using ±∆x, then the value of the height of our triangle should be split evenly; in other
words, f '(3−∆x) and f '(3+∆x) should be equidistant from the value 308, such that the
average of the two is close to 308. If you calculate this as (A+B)/2, you'll find that the average
is 307.99999999006, or within about 1x10-8 of exactly 308. Further, the slope of the
hypotenuse of the triangle should be an even better estimate of the 2'nd derivative.

We have our values stored so all that's left to do is calculate the 2'nd derivative by
recalling the definition and substituting in our stored values:

f '  x x − f '  x− x  B− A

f ' ' x = or f ' ' x =
2 x ∣2 M ∣

We've taken the absolute value of 2M to make sure this value is positive. To evaluate
this expression on the W516, press: [ON/C] [a/b] [RCL][yx]{B} [−] [RCL][CNST]{A} []
[2ndF][(−)]{Abs} [2][RCL][M+]{M} [=]. The value you get should read just 298 and, in this

34
case at least, the W516 interpreted the result as exactly equal to 298. From the derivative
table shown earlier, we see that f ''(3) should be exactly equal to 298, so the results of our
calculation of the 2'nd derivative were accurate.

Calculating the 2'nd Order Derivative on the 115ES

To calculate the 2'nd derivative of our polynomial on the 115ES, we have to be a little
more careful. The 115ES has no function memory so we'll have to rely on calculation history
to save us a lot of typing. Also, if the calculator happens to power itself down because you've
left it set for too long, then all your work is lost.

We've already stored our value for ∆x, which is fixed at 0.00001, into variable memory
M. We have to calculate and store the value of f '(3−∆x) into memory A, and f '(3+∆x) into
memory B. Our next step is to build the expression for our derivative by pressing: [AC][SHIFT]
[∫ □]{d■/dx} [3][RCL][)]{X}[x□][4][] [−] [2][RCL][)]{X}[SHIFT][x2]{x3} [+] [5][RCL][)]{X}[x2]
[+] [8][RCL][)]{X} [−] [6] [] [3][+][ALPHA][M+]{M} [=]. If M=+0.00001 like it should be, then
you should have the result for f '(3+∆x), which is 308.00298, in the display. Store this result to
memory B by pressing: [SHIFT][RCL]{STO}[°'”]{B}. Now store the value −0.00001 into
memory M by pressing [AC] [−][.][0][0][0][0][1] [SHIFT][RCL]{STO}[M+]{M}. Now we need
to recall our derivative expression from calculation history. Press [] untill you see it, then
press [=]. The derivative will be recalculated with the new value of ∆x stored in M. The new
calculated value should be 307.99702. Store this value, which is f '(3−∆x), into memory A by
pressing: [SHIFT][RCL]{STO}[(−)]{A}.

Now we're at the point where we can calculate our estimate of the 2'nd derivative by
calculating the value of (B−A)/Abs(2M). Press [AC][■/□] [RCL][°'”]{B} [−] [RCL][(−)]{A} []
[SHIFT][hyp]{Abs} [2][RCL][M+]{M} [=] and you should get the result 298.0000189. From
the derivative table shown earlier, we see that f ''(3) should be exactly equal to 298, so our
calculation is just a little off. The reason this result is not as accurate as the result from the
W516 is because we do not have strict control over the ∆x that is used on the 115ES. You can
control tolerance on the 115ES but not the ∆x. Even then, it is only possible in Line mode, and
Line mode is not discussed here. See your manual for more details.

Calculating the 3'rd Order Derivative

You approach this problem the same way you did with 2'nd derivatives. The 3'rd
derivative is the rate of change of the 2'nd derivative per change in x. The formula for
calculating f '''(x) = ∆f ''(x) / ∆x looks very similar to the other equations:

f ' '  x x − f ' '  x− x

f ' ' ' x =
2 x

35
 The problem here is that the 115ES and W516 do not calculate 2'nd order derivatives,
only 1'st order derivatives. We have to express the formula ∆f ''(x) / ∆x in terms of the 1'st
order derivatives. In the above equation for f '''(x), each of the terms in the numerator can be
reformulated in terms of 1'st order derivatives, and then the entire expression has to be
evaluated. When you substitute the formula for f'(x) into the terms containing f''(x), the
formula for the 3'rd order derivative simplifies to:

f '  x2  x f '  x−2  x −2 f '  x

f ' ' ' x =
4  x 2

In this case, there are three terms in the numerator so we will need to use three of our
variable memories. Our expression will again be evaluated at x=3 and ∆x is again 0.00001.
Now we define: A=f '(3+M) with M=0.00002, B=f '(3+M) with M=−0.00002, and C=f '(3+M)
with M=0. Our estimate of the 3'rd derivative is then equal to:

AB−2 C
f ' ' ' x =
4 M 2

When evaluated on the W516, the result is highly variable, depending on the selection
of the value of ∆x but does wander around in the area of 200. The polynomial f(x) is very
steep near x=3 and so there are radical changes in the values of the derivatives for small
changes in x. Performance is better with moderately sloped functions, but accuracy still
deteriorates when calculating higher and higher derivatives.

36