General Maths

Measuring the Earth:

Latitude and Longitude:

Parallels of latitude are imaginary lines that are parallel to the equator. The North Pole
has a latitude of 90 degrees north. The equator is 0 degrees latitude. The South Poles
latitude is 90 degrees south.
Medians of longitude are imaginary lines running around the Earth from Pole to Pole.
The meridian through Greenwich, near London is measured in degrees east and west
of the Greenwich meridian.
Sketching latitude and longitude diagrams:
There are two steps involved in drawing latitude and longitude diagrams:
Step 1: Draw a circle and show the equator (0 degrees) on it.
Step 2: Draw the prime meridian.
Example: Find the difference in longitude (angular distance) between El Ayoun (29
degrees north and 13 degrees west) and Kuwait City (29 degrees north and 48 degrees
west).
The angle between Kuwait city (K) and the Greenwich meridian is 48 degrees.
The angle between El Ayoun (E) and the Greenwich meridian is 13 degrees.
Kuwait City (K) and El Ayoun (E) are on different side of the Greenwich meridian.
The Angular distance = 48 degrees + 13 degrees = 61 degrees.
Example: Find the angular distance between Sao Luis in Brazil (3 degrees south and
43 degrees west) and Rio de Janeiro (22 degrees south and 43 degrees west).
The angle between Sao Luis and the equator is 3 degrees. The angle between Rio de
Janeiro and the equator is 22 degrees. Sao Luis and Rio de Janeiro are on the same
side of the equator. The angular distance = 22 – 3 = 9 degrees.

Distances on the Earth’s surface:

By treating the Earth as a sphere and using circle properties, distances on the Earth’s
surface can be calculated. Great circles, small circles and nautical miles are the key
terms that apply to these calculations.
 Great circles are the big circles on the Earth. All the meridians of longitude
and the equator are great circles. The radius of all great circles is 6400km.
 The radius of small circles is less than 6400km. All the parallels of latitude
except the equator are small circles.
 In navigation, nautical miles (M) are used to measure distances ( a nautical
mile is 1852m long), and knots are used to measure speed. A speed of 1
nautical mile per hour is 1 knot. A nautical mile is also equivalent to the length
of an arc on a great circle subtended by an angle of 1 minute.
On a great circle an angular distance of 1 degree is equal to 60 nautical miles.
Because the radius of small circles is less than 6400km, the angular difference of 1
degree on a small circle is less than 60 nautical miles.
Example: Find the distance in nautical miles between Kiev in the Ukraine (50 degrees
North and 31 degrees East) and Cairo (30 degrees North and 31 degrees East). Kiev
and Cairo lay on the same great circle, the 31 degrees East meridian of longitude. The
angular distance between them is 20 degrees (ie: 50-30). Each degree represents 60
nautical miles. The distance between Kiev and Cairo = 20X60 = 1200 nautical miles.
Great circle distances in kilometres: There are two ways to find the distance in
kilometres along a great circle:
 Find the distance in nautical miles and then convert to kilometres.
 Use the circumference of a circle formula to find the fraction of the great
circle.
Example: How many kilometres is it along the 146 degree meridian of longitude from
Cairns in Queensland (17 degrees south, 146 degrees east) to Burnie in Tasmania (41
degrees south, 146 degrees east).
Method 1: This method of solution requires finding the distance in nautical miles then
converting the distance to kilometres.
Angular distance between Cairns and Burnie = 41 – 17 = 24 degrees
Distance in nautical miles = 24X60 = 1440 nautical miles
Distance in kilometres = 1440 X 1.852 = 2667km.
Method 2: This method of solution involves using the angular distance and radius of
the Earth to find a fraction of the length of the whole great circle.
Arc length in kilometres = x/360 x 2Πr, where x is the angular distance and r is the
radius of the Earth (6400km). In this question x=24°
Arc length is kilometres = 24/360 x 2 x Π x 6400 = 2681.

Time differences: When the day-night football is finishing at 10pm in Perth, fans in
NSW are watching the conclusion at 12 midnight. Western Standard times eg: Perth:0.
Central Standard time eg: Adelaide, Alice Springs, Darwin, Broken Hill: + 1 ½ h.
Eastern Standard time, eg: Sydney, Brisbane, Canberra, Hobart: + 2h.
Example: It is 9:00am Perth. What time is it in Adelaide? Moving east from Perth to
Adelaide, add the time difference. Time in Adelaide = 9:00am + 1 ½ hours =
10:30am.
Example: It is 2:00pm in Sydney. What is the time in Adelaide? Moving west from
Sydney to Adelaide, subtract the time difference. Time in Adelaide = 2:00pm – ½
hour = 1:30pm.

Daylight saving in Australia:

During the summer months some states in Australia have daylight saving.
 Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia have no daylight
saving.
 NSW, Victoria, ACT, South Australia and Tasmania add 1 hour.
Tasmania starts daylight saving at the beginning of October. The other states start it at
the end of October. All finish daylight saving at the end of March.
Example: when it is 9:45am in South Australia during December, which time is it in
Queensland.
During daylight saving time Queensland is 30 minutes behind South Australia.
Time in Queensland = 9:45am – 30 minutes = 9:15am.

World time zones:

The worlds time zones are broken into 24 sections. The 12th section east + 12 and the
12th section west -12 meet at a line known as the International date line.
Example: when it is 1:00pm (1300) in Greenwich, what time is it in Beijing? When it
is 9:00am (0900) on Tuesday in Beijing, what time and day is it in New York?
Beijing is east of Greenwich.
Add the time difference to the time in Greenwich.
Time in Beijing = 1:00pm + 8 hours = 9:00pm.
New York is west of Beijing.
Subtract the time differences from the time in Beijing.
Time in New York = 9:00am – 13 hours = 8:00pm Monday.

Longitude and exact time:

Time zones have been adopted for convince. After all, it would be very confusing to
have the time on the eastern side of a city different from the time on the western side.
A locations ‘true time’ is determined by its longitude and all locations on the same
longitude have the same time. The Earth completes 1 revolution through 360° every
24 hours. It turns through 15° in 1 hours and through 1° every 4 minutes. Locations
with a longitude difference of 15° have a true time difference of 1 hour.
15° longitude difference = 1 hour time difference
1° longitude difference = 4 minutes time difference
Example: The position co-ordinates of Tunis are (37°N, 10°E) and those of Jiddah are
(21°N, 40°E). When it is 5pm in Jiddah, what time is it in Tunis.
Step one: Calculate the time difference.
The angular difference in longitude = 40° - 10° = 30°
The time difference = 30 X 4 = 120 minutes = 2 hours.
Step two: calculate the actual time difference.
Tunis is two hours behind Jiddah
The true time in Tunis = 5pm – 2 hours = 3pm.
Example: When it is 11am in Hamburg (54°N, 10°E), what is the time in Tokyo
(35°N, 140°E)?
Angular difference in longitude = 140° - 10° = 130°
Time difference = 130 X 4 =520 minutes = 8 hours 40 mintues.
The time in Tokyo = 11am + 8 hours 40 minutes = 7:40pm.

Interpreting sets of data:

Interquartile range as a measure of spread:
Example: Find the range and the interquartile range of these 20 scores:
13,14,16,17,17,18,18,18,18,19,19,19,19,21,21,21,22,23,29,32
Range = highest score – lowest score
= 32-13=19
Lower quartile = boundary of the bottom 25% of the scores
= boundary of the bottom 5 scores
= 17+18/2 = 17 ½
Upper quartile = boundary of the top 25% of the scores
= boundary of the top 5 scores
= 21+21/2 = 21
Interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile
= 21 – 17 ½
=3½

Box and whiskers plots:

A box and whisker plot shows the positions of median, the upper and lower quartiles,
and the highest scores.
Example: This box and whisker plot shows the time a representative sample of
customers at ‘Kennys Chinese Takeaway’ were required to wait before their dinner
was ready.
The box in the diagram represents the interquarile range.
In this example, 25% of the customers waited less than 5 minutes, another 25%
waited longer than 13 minutes and 50% waited from 5 to 13 minutes.
The waiting time were between 1 minute and 17 minutes. The time of 24 minutes
indicated by the + is very different from the others. It is called an outlier.
50% of the customers waited less than 10 minutes and 50% waited more than 10
minutes.
A score is considered to be an outlier if it is more than 1 ½ times the interquartile
range above the upper or below the lower quartile. The whiskers in a box and whisker
plot are never more than 1 ½ times as long as the interquartile range.
Example: Kristy likes to talk to her friends on the phone. Construct a box and whisker
plot to display the lengths of Kristy’s phone calls last night. Length of Kristy’s phone
calls in minutes: 1,13/ 15,17/ 19,20/ 22,22
Lower quartile = 14 minutes, median = 18, upper quartile = 21
Interquartile range = 21 – 14 = 7
Maximum length of the whiskers = 1 ½ X 7 = 10 ½
Kristy’s phone call that lasted only 1 minute is an outlier. It is more than 10 ½ minutes
less than the lower quartile of 14.

Standard deviation:
The standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of the spread of a set of
scores. It is a popular measure because practical observations have shown that, when
a set of scores is spread out according to a particular pattern which is called the
normal distribution, approximately 68% of all the scores fall within 1 standard
deviation of the mean. The method for finding the standard deviation is quite
complicated. Fortunately, all scientific calculators calculate standard deviation
automatically at the same time as they calculate the mean. The symbol on the
calculator that represents the population standard deviation is On. The symbol for the
sample standard deviation is 0n-1.
Example: the cricket selectors are trying to choose between two pairs of indoor
cricket batsmen for the state team. Two sample sets of results for the pairs of batsmen
(in runs) are:
Pair A: 34, 30, 36, 35, 29, 34
Pair B: 41, 26, 37, 35, 25, 34
Calculate the mean and sample standard deviation for each pairs of scores. Set your
calculator for statistics and clear all memory. Enter the scores the same way you enter
the scores to find the mean the use the 0n-1 button to find the sample standard
deviation.
Both pairs have a mean of 33 runs.
Pair A’s sample standard deviation = 2.83 2dp
Pair B’s sample standard deviation = 6.29 2dp
Pair A is more consistent. It has the smaller standard deviation.

Skewed distribution:
A skewed distribution is not symmetrical. In a skewed distribution the values of the
mean, mode and median are not equal. The value / position of the mean can be
significantly altered by any outlying scores but outliers do not affect the mode or
median. The relative positions of the mode and mean can be used to describe the skew
of a distribution.
Positively skewed: the mean is to the right of the mode because of the larger scores to
the right. The mean has a larger value than the mode. Mean – mode = a positive value.
 Negatively skewed: the mean is to the left of the mode because of the very small
scores to the left. The mean has a smaller value then the mode. Mean – mode = a
negative value.

Back to back stem and leaf plots:

Differences and similarities between two sets of data can be seen when the
information is displayed in ‘back to back’ stem and leaf plots.
Example: Ian has two different types of tomatoes growing in his vegetable garden.
Next year he plans to only grow one variety. He wants to know which variety he
should choose to grow: Big Red or Grosse Lisse. He recorded the number of tomatoes
that came off each plant of the two varieties this year. His results are shown in this
table:
Big Red: 36 21 8 15 24 19 25 23 6
Grosse lisse: 24 16 26 22 18 22 24 9
Display the information in a back to back stem and leaf plot, the advise Ian on which
of the two varieties of tomatoes is more suitable for his garden.
Big Red Grosse lisse
Leaf Stem Leaf
86 0 9
95 1 568
5 4 3 1 2 224469
6 3
Mean Median Range Standard deviation
Big Red 20.5 22 30 8.6
Grosse lisse 20.5 20 20 5.7
Both varieties have the same mean, although the mean of Big Red is slightly inflated
by the outlying score of 36 tomatoes. Grosse lisse is a more constant variety in Ian’s
garden. This is indicated by its smaller standard deviation. Provided the two varieties
are equally nice, Grosse Lisse is probably the more suitable variety for Ian to grow
next year.

Area charts:
Area charts can be used to show trends in information over time.
Example: Mike, Lisa and Brooke work in the sales department of a large company.
This area graph shows there quarterly sales for the year 2000.
Mikes sales figures can be read straight off the graph:
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Mikes sales $400 $600 $300 $500
To work out Lisa’s sales, Mike’s sales must be subtracted from the values at the top of
Lisa’s part of the graph.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Lisa’s sales 600 – 400 1000 – 600 400 – 300 800 - 500
= $200 = $400 = $100 $300
To work out Brooks sales, the values at the top of Lisa’s part of the graph must be
subtracted from the values at the top of the whole graph.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Brookes sales 1000 – 600 1400 – 1000 800 – 400 1200 – 800
= $400 =$400 =$400 =$400

Information in two way tables:

Example: Angus was investigating right / left handedness and right / left footedness as
part of a biology assignment. Because he knew these characteristics are inherited,
Angus decided to record some results at his extended family reunion picnic. The table
shows the results for his extended family.
Right footed Left footed Total
Right handed 50 10 60
Left handed 12 8 20
Total 62 18 80

What percentage of Angus’s extended family are right handed?

What percentage of the right members of Angus’s extended family are left footed?
There are 80 people in Angus’s extended family and 60 of them are right handed.
Percentage of the family who are right handed
= number of right handers / number of people in the family X 100
= 60 / 80 X100
= 75%
Of the 60 right handed members of Angus extended family, 10 are left footed.
Percentage of right handers who are left footed
= number of people who are both right handed and left footed / number of right
handers X 100
= 10 / 60 X 100
= 16.7%

Refining algebraic skills:

Substituting into and evaluating expressions and formula:
Example: Evaluate 6a – 3c + 5d; given that a = 17, c = -2 and d = -7
6a – 3c + 5d = 6 x 17 -3 x -2 + 5 x -7
= 102 + 6 – 35
= 73
Example: For Anna’s 5th birthday party her father hired a giant spherical balloon of
volume (V) 270 000 cm³. He was worred. Would it fit through the door? Use the
formula R = 3√4 v / 4 Π to find the radius R of the balloon. Answer correct to the
nearest centimetre.
To simplify calculations:
Step 1: 3 x 270 000 = 810 000
Step 2: 4 x Π = 12.566 370 61
Step 3: 3√810 00 / 12.566 370 61
= 40cm ( correct to the nearest centimetre).
Yes, the balloon will fit through the door. Doors are wider than 40cm.

Adding and subtracting like terms:

Only ‘like terms’ can be added or subtracted.
Example: Simplify these expressions:
4a – 5a² + 2a + a²
4a – 5a² + 2a + a²
= 6a – 4a²

7/2a³ + 5b – 2/3a³
= 17/6a³ + 5b
Multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions:
6x²y³ x 5x4y
= 60x6 y4
18c5/12c³ = 32²/2

5a4c² x 4a³c ÷ 10a5c³

= 5a4c² x 4a³c / 10a5c³
=20a7c³ / 10a5c³
=2a
a5 ÷a-³
=a5--³
=a8
12y (y + 1) / 3 (y + 1)
4y.
Index laws for multiplication: add
Index laws for division: subtract.

Simplifying brackets:
Example: expand and then simplify 4a – (3a + 5) – 4a (a -3)
= 4a – 3a – 5 – 4a² + 12a
= - 4a² + 13a – 5

Solving equations:
Solve 4(x – 2) – 1 = 6 – 3 (2x +4)
Step 1: Expand the brackets: 4x – 8 – 1 = 6 – 6x – 12
Step 2: Tidy up: 4x – 9 = 6x -6
Step 3: Rearrange with the x terms on one side and numbers of the other: 4x + 6x = -6
+9
Step 4: tidy up: 10x -3
Step 5: find 1x: x = 3/10

Equations with fractions:

Solve x/3 – 2x-1/2 = 4
Step 1: Multiply each term by 6: 6 x x/3 6 x 2x-1/2 = 6x 4
Step 2: Cancel the fractions: 2x – 3 ( 2x -1) = 24
Step 3: solve the equation: 2x – 3 (2x – 1) = 24
2x – 6x + 3 = 24
-4x = 24 – 3
-4x = 21
x = 21/-4 or -5 ¼

Solving equations with roots and powers:

Example: solve √4x + 1 = 9
To cancel out a square root, square both sides of the equation.
(√4x – 1)² = (9)²
4x-1 = 81
4x = 80
x = 20
Example: Find the solution to the equation: 3√2y-1 = 5
(3√2y – 1)³ = (5)³
2y – 1 = 125
2y = 126
y = 63
Example: Solve the equation 5p² - 1 = 44
Step 1: Find the value of p: 5p² - 1 = 44
5p² = 45
p² = 9
Step 2: Take the square root of both side of the equation to find p
P= ±√9
= ±3

Solving equation arising from substitution:

Algebraic formulas are used in many situations. However, the pronumeral you need to
evaluate is not always the pronumeral written on the left hand side of the equals sign.
When this happens you will need to solve the equation that remains after the
substitution.
Example: the formula v² = u² + 2as is used in science in the study of how things
move. Find the value of s when u = 8km/h, a = 10km/h and v = 30km/h.
v² = u² + 2as
30² = 8² + 2 x 10 x s
900 = 64 + 2 x 10 x s
900 = 64 + 20s
836 = 20s
s = 836 / 20
= 41.8km

Changing the subject of a formula:

In a formula, when one pronumeral is written on its own, on the left hand side of the
equals sign, and all the other pronumerals are written on the right hand side of the
equals sign, the pronumeral on the left hand side is called the subject of the formula.
For example, V is the subject of the formula V = Πr²h. The instruction ‘change the
subject of the formula to h’ means rewrite the formula with h in the left hand side of
the equals sign.
Changing the subject of a simple, linear formula:
Example: solve 7x + 6 = 10 for x
7x + 6 = 10
7x = 10 -6
7x = 4
x = 4/7
Make x the subject of the formula ax + m = z
ax + m = z
ax = z – m
x = z-m / a
Solve the equation 2(N + 7) = 7 for N
2(N+3) = 7
2N + 6 = 7
2N = 7 – 6
2N = 1
N=½
Transpose the formula A(N + Q) = R to make N the formula:
A(N + Q) = R
AN + AQ = R
AN = R – AQ
N = R – AQ /A

Changing the subject of a formula involving fractions:

Multiplying both sides of the formula by the lowest common denominator to cancel
out all the fractions is usually the first step in changing the subject of a formula that
involves fractions.
Example: Solve 5 = 3(2 + L) / 2 for L
5 = 3(2 + L) / 2
2 x 5 = 2 x 3(2+ L) / 2
10 = 3(2 +L)
10 – 6 = 3L
4 = 3L
4/3 = L
So L == 4/3 or 1 ¼
Example: Make L the subject of the formula S = n(a + l) /2
2 x s = 2 x n(a + l) /2
2s = n (a + l)
2s = na + nl
2s – na = nl
2s – na / n = L
So L = 2s-na/ n

Formulas involving powers and roots:

Example: Solve the equation √x – 1 = 3 for x.
Square both sides of the equation.
x–1=9
x=9+1
x = 10
Example: change the subject of the formula √x – Π = V to x.
Square both sides of the formula
x – Π = v²
x = v² + Π
Example: Solve the equation 4k² - 3 = 22 for k.
4k² - 3 = 22
4k² = 22 + 3
4k² = 25
k² = 25 / 4
k = ±√25 / 4
=±5/2
Example: Make k the subject of the formula ak² - b = Π
ak² - b = Π
ak² = Π + b
k² = Π + b / a
k = ±√ Π + b / a

Solving equations by estimation and refinement:

Solving some equations that arise in practical situations requires methods beyond this
course. To solve these equations an ‘estimate and refinement’ technique can be used.
This method is sometimes called ‘guess and check’.
Example: Solve the equation 1.07n = 2. Answer correct to the nearest whole number.
First guess (estimate) n = 5 1.075 = 1.4 too small
You now ‘refine’ your estimate.
Second guess n = 10 1.0710 = 1.96 too small, but closer
Third guess n = 11 1.0711 = 2.10 too big
The answer is between 10 and 11. n =10 gives an answer closer to 2 than n = 11, so
the answer is n =10 (correct to the nearest whole number)

Scientific notation:
Example: Write 78 900 000 in scientific notation
78 900 000 = 7.89 x 107
Example: Express 1.03 x 10 – 4 without scientific notation
1.3 x 10 – 4 = 0. 000 103

Investing in tties.
Annuity:
An annuity is a sequence of payments that are of equal amounts and made at equal
time intervals, for a specific time period. The payments (contributions) are usually put
into some kind of investment account which earns compound interest.
Future value of an annuity: the future value of an annuity is the final amount of
money at the end of the investment periods. Having a fixed amount deducted from a
wage or salary, then having it redirected to a special purpose investment account, is a
good way to save money. This is a common method of providing money for such
things as holidays, house deposits and retirement.
The formula: A = M {(1.r)n – 1 / r }can be used to calculate the total amount saved. $A
(i.e. the future amount) from a regular saving of $M at r% for n units of time.
A = Final amount he will have (future value)
M = What his regular savings are
(1 + r )n – 1 / r = Adjustment for interest.
Example: Robbie wants to go to Europe after his HSC. To help him save the money
for the trip he has a part time job packing supermarket shelves. He started the job in
year 10 and every month he deposits $260 in a special holiday investment account.
The account pays 9%pa monthly compound interest.
In this example: M= $260, r = 9% ÷ 12 = 0.0075 and n = 32 months
A = M {(1 + r)n – 1 / r}
= 260 x {1.0075 32 – 1/ 0.0075}
= $9363.86
Robbie will have approximately $9364 in his investment account. The future value of
his investment is $9364.
Example: To ensure that it has sufficient funds for a new delivery van the ‘ You can
Crust Us’ bakery intends to invest $3000 at the end of each year, ay 8%pa compound
interest for 6 years.
How much will be in the fund after 6 years?
How much interest will be earned after 6 years?
The solution to this example shows two different ways of finding the future value.
The future value formula is on the formula sheet supplied for use in examinations.
A = M {(1 + r)n – 1 / r}
Where A = the future value
M = the contribution (payment) per period (paid at the end of the period)
r = the percentage rate of interest, per period (as a decimal)
n = the number of compounding periods.
In this example:
M = $3000
r = 0.08
n = 6 years
A = 3000 (1.086 – 1 / 0.08)
= $22 007.79
In the future (i.e. in 6 years time) the bakery will have approximately $22 000 for its
new van.
Example: After the birth of her granddaughter, Robyn decided to invest some money
to help pay her granddaughters education fees. Robyn decided to invest $800 every 6
months for 17 years, at 6%pa. Find the value of the annuity after 17 years.
A = M {(1 + r)n – 1 / r}
In this example: M = $800, r = 6% ÷ 2 = 0.03 and n = 17 x 2 = 34 half years.
A = 800 (1.0334 – 1 / 0.03)
= 446 184.14
The future value of Robyn’s investment (annuity) is approximately $46 184

Calculating the value of the periodical contribution (M):

The formula A = M {(1 + r)n – 1 / r} can also be used to calculate the size of regular
savings required to produce a desired future value.
A = amount required in the future
M = regular savings
(1 + r)n – 1 / r = adjustment for interest
Example: Amna wants to visit Asia after the HSC and she has estimated she will need
$7000 for the trip. Amna has a part time job in a restaurant and she has 24 months to
save for her trip. How much will she need to save every month at 6%pa monthly
compounding?
In this example: A = $7000, r = 6% ÷ 12 = 0.005 and n = 24 months.
7000 = M {(1 + 0.005)24 – 1 / 0.005}
= M x 25.43
M = 7000 ÷ 25.43
= $275.27
Amna will need to save $275.27 every month.
Example: Ann wants to buy a new car in 5 years time. She opened an investment
account paying 9%pa and she plans to make equal quarterly deposits into the account.
How much should she deposit each quart so that she will have $12 000 in the account
after 5 years?
Calculate the amount of interest she will earn over the 5 years:
A = $12000, M = ?, r = 9% ÷ 4 = 2.25% or 0.0225 and n = 5 x 4 = 20 quarters
A = M {(1 + r)n – 1 / r}
12000 = M (1.022520 – 1 / 0.0225)
= M x 24.9115
M = $481.71
Ann will have to save $481.71 per quarter.
Amount deposited = $481.71 x 20
= $9634.20
Interest = $12000 - $9634.20
= $2365. 80
Interest earned over 5 years will be $2365.80

Present value of an annuity: the present value of an annuity is the lump sum that could
be deposited now to give a desired result in the future.
In this course two different formulas are used to find the present value (N) of an
annuity:
N = A / (1 + r)n which is a rearrangement of the compound interest formula.
N = M {(1 + R)n - 1 / r (1 + r)n which is a rearrangement and adaptation of the
formula for periodical contribution.
The present value formulas and / or tables have a great variety of applications.
Present value formula application 1:
Making a ‘one off’ investment to produce a required future amount. In this section the
first formula will be used.
Example: How much will Orann need to invest today, at 8%pa compounding yearly,
to give him $70 000 after 20 years?
The questions supplies the following information:
Future value (A) = $70 000
Interest rate ( r ) = 0.08
Number of compounding periods (n) = 20 years
Present value (N) = ?
N = 70 000 / 1,0820
= $15 018.37
This means that a single investment of $15 018.37 today (at 8%pa) will give Orann
$70 000 in 20 years.
Present value formula application 2:
Investing a single lump sim to produce the same amount as a periodic investment.
Example: Ellen has an investment account that pays 6%pa, compounding yearly, into
which she deposits $1500 per year. She plans to make regular investments every year
for 12 years. What single investment could she make today at 6%pa, compounding
annually for 12 years, that would produce the same amount as her periodic investment
account?
Contribution per period (M) = $1500
Interest rate ( r ) = 0/06
Number of compounding periods (n) = 12 years
Present value (N) = ?
N = 1500 x {1.0612 – 1 / 0.06 x 1.0612}
= $12 575.77
Example: How much must Anna invest today at 8%pa so that she can withdraw $3000
every 6 months for the next 10 years.
Withdrawal per period (M) = $3000
Interest rate ( r ) = 8% ÷ 2 = 0.04
Number of compounding periods (n) = 10 x 2 = 20 half years
Present value (N) = ?
N = 3000 (1.0420 – 1 / 0.04 x 1.0420)
= $40 770.98

Calculating the size of loan repayments:

When a bank lends money, from the banks point of view the borrower’s repayments
accumulate in the same way as does an annuity. This means the present value formula
can also be used to determine the size of loan repayments.
N = M {(1 + r)n – 1 / r (1 + r)n}
N = what is needed today (the loan)
M = regular repayments
Example: For her end of HSC holiday Linda borrowed $2000 at 8%pa payable
quarterly over 2 years.
How much per quarter will Linda repay?
How much interest will Linda pay over the 2 years?
Present value (N) = $2000
Number of compounding periods (n) = 2 x 4 = 8 quarters
Interest rate = 8% ÷ 4 = 0.02
2000 = M (1.028 – 1 / 0.02 x 1.028)
M = 2000 / 7.32548
= $273.02
Linda will repay $273.02 per quarter for 2 years.
Interest paid = sum of all payments – amount borrowed (N)
= (4273.02 x 8) - $2000
= $2184.16 - $2000
= $184.16
Linda will pay $184.16 interest over 2 years.

Applying area and volume:

The circumference of a circle: the circumference of a circle is the distance around the
edge of the circle.
Essential formula = C = 2Πr
r = radius
= C = Πd
d = diameter.
Example: What is the circumference of this circle to the nearest centimetre?
Either of the circumference formulas could be used:
C = 2Πr or C = Πd
=2xΠx7 C = Π x 14
C = 44cm C = 44cm.
Example: Calculate the perimeter of this quadrant (quarter of a circle). Perimeter =
distance around the boundary of the shape.
= 5 + 5 + ¼ of 2Πr
= 10 + ¼ x 2 x Π x 5
= 17.9m

Areas of circles and annuluses:

Essential formula: Area, A, of a circle = Πr²
Example: The diameter of a circle is 12m. What are its area and circumference?
The formula A = Πr² will be used to calculate the area of a circle and CΠd will be
used for the circumference. The diameter is 12cm, so the radius is 12 ÷ 2 = 6m.
A = Πr² and C = Πd
A = Π x 6² C = Π x 12
A = 113m² C = 38m.
The area of the circle is 133m² and its circumference = 38m.
Example: What is the area of this sector?
There are 360° in a whole circle.
This sector is 50/360 of the whole circle.
Area of the sector = 50/360 x Πr²
= 50/360 x Π x 9²
= 35.3cm²
Example: What is the size of the shaded area?
The shaded area is called an annulus. An annulus is the area between a pair of
concentric circles (concentric circles have the same centre). This area can be
calculated in two ways.
Find the difference between the area of the larger circle and the area of the small
circle:
= Π x 10² - Π x 6²
= 201cm²
Some people prefer to use a formula to calculate the area of an annulus.
Area of an annulus = Π(R² - r²); where R = radius of the larger circle and r = radius of
the smaller circle.
In this example R = 10cm and r = 6cm
A = Π (10² - 6²)
= Π (100 – 36)
= 201cm.

Area of an ellipse:
Ellipses have two axes of symmetry. The larger axis is called the major axis and the
shorter one is called the minor axis. The length a is the semi-major axis and it is half
the length of the major axis. The length b is the semi-minor axis and it is half the
length of the minor axis.
Essential formula: area of an ellipse = Πab
where a = length of the semi major axis and b = length of the semi minor axis.
Example: The major axis of this ellipse is 12m long and the minor axis is 8m long.
What is the area of the ellipse?
a = half the length of the major axis, a = 6m
b = half the length of the minor axis, b = 4m
Area of ellipse = Πab
=Πx6x4
= 75.4m²

Areas of composite figures:

Example: Nathan’s veranda is in the shape of a rectangle with a semicircle on the end.
He is planning to cover the veranda with tiles. How many square metres of tiles will
he need?
The quantity of tiles Nathan will need is equivalent to the sum of the area of the
rectangular section and the semicircular section of this veranda
Area of veranda = area of rectangle + area of the semicircle
Area = l x b + ½ Πr²
= 10 + 6 + ½ x Π x 5²
= 60 + 39.3
= 99.3m²
The area of Nathan’s veranda is 99.3m². He should order 100m² of tiles.
Simpson’s rule:
Simpson’s rule is a method of calculating the approximate area of a price of land. The
formula for simpson’s rule = h/3 (df + 4dm + dl)
Example: Use simpson’s rule to calculate the area of this piece of land. All
measurements are in metres.
Area = h/3 (df + 4dm + dl)
= 5/3 (8 + 4 x 13 + 9)
= 115m²
The area of the piece of land is approximately 115m².
Example: Use two applications of simpson’s rule to find the area of this field which is
bounded by a road, 2 fences and a river.
Area ABCD = h/3 (df + 4dm + dl)
= 10/3 x (21 + 4 x 24 + 18)
= 450m²
Area CDEF = h/3 (df + 4dm + dl)
= 10/3 x (18 + 4 x 19 + 0)
= 313 1/3 m²
Total area = 450 + 313 1/3
= 763 1/3 m²

External surface area:

A solids external surface area is the sum of the area of each of its external surfaces.
Example: The local post office sells containers in the shape of a cylinder to customers
who have rolled documents to post. The cylinder is 600mm long and its diameter is
110mm. What is its external surface area?
The height of the rectangle is the same as the circumference if the circle (2Πr or Πd)
Cylinder external surface area = the area of the 2 circles + the area of the rectangle
= 2 x Π x 55² + 600 x 2 x Π x 55
= 226 352 mm² to the nearest whole number.
The external surface area is 226 352mm² to the nearest square millimetre.
Example: Tess enjoys making pottery. One of her best selling products is a ceramic
container for keeping bottle of drink cold. The container is in the shape of a cylinder
which is open at one end. What is the external surface area of Tess’s ceramic
container?
When a cylinder is described as ‘open’ it means that one or both of the circular ends
of the cylinder are missing.
The external surface area = the area of the circle + the area of the rectangle
= Π x 8² + 28 x 2 x Π x 8
= 1608cm²

Surface area of a sphere:

Essential formula: surface area of a sphere = 4Πr², where r = radius of the sphere.
Example: A large weather balloon has a diameter of 2.8m. What is the surface area of
the balloon?
The radius of the weather balloon is 1.4m
Surface area = 4Πr²
= 4 x Π x 1.4²
= 24.6m²

Volumes of composite figures:

Example: The diagram shows a grain silo. Calculate the maximum volume of the
grain the silo can hold.
First step: To make sure all the measurements are in the same units.
The capacity of the silo = volume of cylinder + volume of the cone
= Πr²H + 1/3Πr²h
= Π x (0.7)² x 2.6 + 1/3 x Π x (0.7)² x 0.9
= 4.46m³
The capacity of the silo is 4.46m³

Calculation errors from errors in measurement:

Even though it might be small, there is an error involved in every measurement. When
measurements are used in calculations, answers should not be more accurate tan the
original measurements.
Example: The dimensions of this rectangle were both recorded ‘correct to the nearest
metre’. Within what range of values does the exact lie?
The smallest area could be is: 11.5 x 7.5 = 86.25m²
The largest the area could be is 12.5 x 8.5 = 106.25m²
The exact area is bigger than or equal to 86.25m² but less than 106.25m²

Staging multiple events:

Tree diagrams and systematic counting:

Example: When Yassif travels home from school he can cross one of 3 different
bridges, then he can walk down one of 2 paths leading to his home. How many
different routes can Yassif take between school and home?
B1 P1 B1, P1
P2 B1, P2
B2 P1 B2, P1
P2 B2, P2
B3 P1 B3, P1
P2 B3, P2
Another way to calculate the number of possibilities is to multiply the number of
choices Yassif has to each stage of his trip home:
3x2=6
Example: The theme of a party Lauren is going to is ‘look like a nerd’. Lauren has
found 4 shirts, 2 hats and 3 pairs of pants she could wear to the party. How many
different sets of ‘nerd clothes’ can she make?
Lauren could use a tree diagram to calculate the number of sets of clothes she could
make, but multiplying the number of choices she has for each of clothing would be
much easier.
4 x 2 x 3 = 24 different sets of clothes.

Permutations:
When the order in which items are arranged is important, the arrangement is called a
permutation.
Example: Five men, Bill, Jay, Luke, Tony and Scott, are competing in a crossword
competition. In how many different ways can the first two places in the competition
be filled? What is the probability Luke will win and Scott come second?
One way to find the number of possibilities is to multiply the number of possibilities
at each stage: 5 people could come fist, which would leave 4 people to come second;
5 x 4, which means 20 possibilities. Alternatively, use 5P 2 (5 men to place 2 in order)
to calculate the possibilities.
There is only 1 way in which Luke will win and Scott come second. The probability
of this happening is 1/20.

Combinations:
Example: The tennis coach needs to choose 2 people to play together as a doubles
team in a competition. He plans to choose the pair at random from his 4 member
talented players’ squad. The 4 players are Marie, Gemma, Alice and Donna. There are
6 different doubles teams he could choose:
Marie and Gemma Gemma and Alice Alice and Donna
Marie and Alice Gemma and Donna Marie and Donna
When the order in which items are arranged is not important, it is called a
combination. There are two common methods for calculating the number of
combinations.
In the tennis problem, there are 4 players who could be selected first. This leaves 3
players to select second, giving: 4 x 3 double pairs
But this procedure counts each doubles pair twice, (remember, ‘Marie and Alice is
exactly the same as “Alice and Marie”). To complete the calculation, the expression 4
x 3 must be divided by the number of times each doubles pair has been counted. This
means, number of doubles pairs = 4 x 3 / 2 = 6
Most calculators have a ‘combinations’ button, nCr. In this notation n = the total
number and r = the number being chosen. In the tennis example, the number of
possible players is 4 (n=4) and 2 are being selected (r=2). Evaluating 4C2 on your
calculator gives 6.
Example: The social club has 20 executive members. A committee of 4 of the
executive members is going to be formed to organise the New Years Eve party. How
many different committees are possible?
Selection of 4 members from 20 gives 20 x 19 x 18 x 17. But identical committees
have been counted twice. So the number of the committee is 20 x 19 x 18 x 17 ÷
(number of times each committee has been counted). Number of times each
committee had been counted is the number of ways the 4 members of a 4 person
group can be arranged: 4 x 3 x 2 x 1. This means, the number of committees = 20 x 19
x 18 x 17 / 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 4845.
The nCr method is much easier. There are 20 members (n = 20) and 4 are to be chosen
(r = 4). So the number of committees = 20C4 = 4845.
Summary: There are five different ways to systematically determine the number of
outcomes of a multistage event. These are:
 Write a list of all possibilities and count them
 Draw a tree diagram to help you systematically list possibilities
 Multiply the number of possibilities at each stage of the multistage event
 Use ‘combinations’, and the nCr, function on your calculator, when you are
choosing part of a group and order is not important
 Use ‘permutations’, and the nPr function on your calculator, when you are
choosing part of a group and order is important.

Modelling relationships:

Using linear models:

Example: To advertise the coming school musical, the promotion committee has
decided to make and sell promotional T-shirts. The initial set-up cost of making the T
shirts is $140 and each shirt will cost an additional $10 to make. The promotion
committee plans to sell the shirts for $20.
Write an expression for the total cost (dollars) of producing n T-shirts
= set up cost + $10 x the number of T-shirts made
C = $140 x 10 x n
C = $140 x 10n
Write an expression for the total revenue (R dollars) the committee will receive for
selling n T-shirts.
= $20 x the number of shirts sold
R = 20 x n
R = 20n
Note: by completing tables of values makes constructing graphs easy.
The ‘Breakeven’ point is when the cost of production and the revenue received are
equal. This is represented by the point where the two graphs intersect.
The committee estimates that it will be able to sell 80 shirts. How much profit can it
expect to make?
The profit = revenue received – cost of producing the T-shirts
= 20 x 80 – (140 + 10 x 80)
= 1600 – 940
= $660.

Non linear models:

Straight line models or linear graphs can be used to analyse situations like the total
distance covered at a constant speed. Some examples of non linear models are
quadratic, cubic, hyperbolic and exponential models.

Quadratic models: the graphs of quadratic functions are called parabolas. Equations of
the type y = ax² + bx + c represent quadratic models.
Example: Complete this table of values for y = x² - 4x
Plot the points on a number plane and join them with a smooth curve. What is the
minimum value of y in this graph?
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 -3 -4 -3 0 5
The minimum value of y is -4 and it occurs when x = 2.
Example: Complete this table for y = -x² + 6x – 5
Draw the graph.
What is the maximum value of y on the graph?
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y -5 0 3 4 3 0
The maximum value of y is 4. It occurs when x = 3.
Note:
 When the coefficient of x² (the number infront of the x²) is positive, the curve
has a minimum value.
 When the coefficient of x² is negative, the curve has a maximum value.
 Parabolas are symmetrical about the maximum or minimum turning points.

More quadratic models:

Example: Prawn Delight Catfood has been selling in the supermarket for 2 months.
The selling price per carton to the supermarket has risen as more cartons of cat food
are sold. The selling price (S dollars) per carton is calculated using the formula S =
-2n² + 20N.
Where N = the number of thousand cartons sold per week.
Complete this table and graph S = -2n² + 20N for N between 0 and 9.
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
S($S) 0 18 32 42 48 50 48 42 32 18
When 2000 cartons are being sold per week the price will be approximately $32 per
carton.
The maximum price = $50 per carton.
To reach the maximum price of $50, 5000 cartons will need to be sold per week.
The limit must be somewhere less than 10 000 cartons because, using this formula,
when 10 000 cartons are sold, they are sold for $0 each.

Cubic models:
The equation y = ax³ represents a cubic model. The most common application of the
cubic model is for investigating volume and mass.
The basic cubic graph: these two tables of values represent y = 2x³ and y = 1/2 x³ for
positive values of x.
Y = 2x³
X 0 1 2 2.5 3
Y 0 2 16 31.25 54
Y = 1/2x³
X 0 1 2 2.5 3
Y 0 0.5 4 7.8 13.5
Features of the basic cubic graph:
 All graphs to form y =ax³ pass through the origin (0,0)
 The y values on cubic graphs change rapidly
 The larger the value of a in y = ax³, the more rapidly rhe y value changes.
Example: The cubic model V =1/2d³ can be used to approximate the volume (Vcm³)
of a sphere with diameter.
Draw the graph of the model V = 1/2d³ for d up to 4cm.
Use the graph to determine the approximate values of the diameter and radius of the
sphere that has a volume of 22cm³.
The exact volume of a sphere can be determined using the formula V = 1/6Πd³. Show
the graph of V = 1.6Πd³ on the same number plane as a graph of V = 1/2d³ and
comment on the accuracy of the approximate model V = 1/2d³.
Construct a table of values to represent V = 1/2d³
D 0 1 2 3 2.5 4
V 0 0.5 4 13.5 21.4 32
To find the approximate diameter and radius of the sphere with volume of 22cm³,
locate 22 on the vertical (volume) axis and read across to the graph then down to the
horizontal (diameter) axis. The diameter is approximately 3.5cm. This means the
radius, which is half the diameter, is approximately 1.8cm.
Complete a table of values, correct to 1 decimal place, for both models for V.
D 0 1 2 3 3.5 4 5 6
V=1/2d³ 0 0.5 4 13.5 21.5 32 62.5 108
V=1/6Πd³ 0 0.5 4.2 14.1 22.5 33.5 65 113
Conclusion: the model V = ½d³ is a good approximation to V = 1/6Πd³ for small
diameters. As the diameters increase, the accuracy of the approximation decreases.

Exponential models:
The equation y = b ( ax) represents an exponential model. The most common
applications of the exponential model include: compound interest, depreciation,
population numbers and some drug concentration levels in blood. The basic
exponential graph: these two tables of values represent the equations:
y = 300 x (1.2)x
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 300 360 432 518 622 746
y = 300 x (0.8)x
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 300 420 192 153 122 98
Features of the basic exponential graph:
 All graphs of the form y = b(ax) pass through the value b on the vertical axis.
 When the value of a is bigger than 1 the graph goes up. This situation models
growth.
 When then value of a is between 0 and 1 the graph goes down. This situation
models decay.

Hyperbolic models:
The equation y = a/x represents a hyperbolic model.
The basic hyperbolic graph: these two tables of values represent the equations:
y = 2/x
X 0 1/3 ½ 1 2 4 6
y - 6 4 2 1 ½ 1/3
y = -2/x
X 01/3 1/3 ½ 1 2 4 6
y - -6 -4 -2 -1 -1/2 -1/3
Features of the basic hyperbola:
 The function does not exist for x = 0 or y = 0
 As x gets smaller, y gets longer
 As y gets smaller, x gets larger.

Applying trigonometry:

Sine ratio: sin = opposite / hypotenuse = O/H

Cosine ration: cos = adjacent / hypotenuse = A/H
Tangent ration: tan = opposite / adjacent = O/A
Example: In each of the following triangles find the value of x. Answer correct to 1
decimal place.
X/ 12 = cos 32°10’
x = 12 x cos 32°10’
x = 10.2m
18.1/x = sin 17°48’
18.1 = x x sin 17°48’
18.1 / sin 17°48’ = x
x = 59.2m
Example: Calculate the size of angle. Correct to the nearest minute.
Tan = 4 / 12
= 18°26’ to the nearest minute.
Example: In triangle ABD find the size of angle DAB. Answer correct to the nearest
degree. In triangle ABC what is the size of angle CAB? Calculate the length of BC,
answer correct to the nearest metre. What is the length of DC?
Tan angle DAB = 130 / 80
= 58° to the nearest degree.
Angle CAB = angle DAB – angle DAC
= 58° - 17°
= 41°
Tan 41° = BC / 80
BC = 80 x tan 41°
= 70m to the nearest metre.
BC = 130 – 70
60m.

Bearings:
Navigators use bearings to specify direction. They give:
 the 3 – figure angle of the direction from the true north (in a clockwise
direction)
or
 8 generalised directions of N, S, E, W, NW, SE, SW
Example: The direction of OA is south east. Using three figures of OA = 90° + 45° =
135°
The direction of A from O is 135° or SE.
Example: The direction of AB = 90 + 90 + 70
= 250°
The direction from A to B is 250°
Example: The direction PC is 28°. Using three figures, the direction of C from P is
028°.
Example: What is the bearing:
of C from A, from C to B, of A from B and from A to B.
The first step is to draw lines showing the direction of north at every place where
direction lines cross. Then find the size of as many angles as you need in the diagram.
1. a = 180 – 49
= 131°
(a + 49° make a straight line).
2. angle = 180° - (49° + 62°)
= 69°
(The angle in a triangle add up to 180°)
3. B = 49°
(All the lines pointing north are parallel, so 49° and B are alternate, ie: in a “Z” shape)
4. O = 180° - (69 +49)
= 62°
(Angles marking a straight line add up to 180°)
To find the bearing of C from A, draw a compass grid through A (because the
direction is ‘from’ A).
The bearing is 90 + 90 = 180°
The bearing of C from A is 180° or south.
To find the bearing from C to B, draw a compass grid through C (the direction is
‘from’ C) and fill in the angles.
The bearing from C to B is 62°
This is written as 062°.
To find the bearing of A from B, draw a compass grid through B.
The bearing is 90 + 90 + 90 + 41 = 311°
The bearing of A from B is 311°

Bearing and trig problems:

Example: A commercial fishing boat left port P and proceeded in a direction of 128°
for 30 nautical miles to a good fish reef, R. How far is the reef east of port.
Always start by drawing a diagram. The boat left from P. The first step in drawing the
diagram is to place P at the centre of a compass grid and then mark the 128° direction.
The length of PR is 30M (M is the symbol for nautical miles). The length x shows the
distance the reef is east of port.
x / 30 = cos 38°
x = 30 x cos 38°
= 24 to two significant figures.
The reef is 24M east of port.
Example: As part of a training exercise a group of soldiers hiked 13km due west of
their base and then 8kn due north to their camp site. Calculate the straight line
distance from their base to the camp site. What is the bearing of the camp site from
their base to the nearest degree?
The soldiers left from their base. Draw a compass grid through the base.
Use Pythagoras theorem to calculate x.
x² = 8² + 13²
= 64 + 169
= 233
The straight line distance from base to camp is 15km.
The bearing of the camp site from the base = 90 + 90 + 90 + x.
Tan x = 8 / 13
x = 32° to the nearest degree.
The bearing of the camp site from the base is 302°.

Sine rule:
a / sine A = b / sine B = c / sine C. This angle connects each side with the angle
opposite it.
Example: Find the length of the side marked x in this diagram.
The sine rule connects each side with the angle opposite it.
x / sin 58 = 12.5 / sin 60.
sin 58 x X/ sin 58 = 12.5 / sin 65 x sin 58
x = 12.5 x sin 58 / sin 65
x = 11.7 three significant figures.
Example: Find the length of the side marked a.
The size of angle that connects with side a is missing. The first step in finding the size
of a is to calculate the size of the third angle.
180 – ( 107 + 41 ) = 32°
The third angle is 32°
a / sin 32 = 12 / sin 107
sin 32 x a / sin32 = 12 / sin 107 x sin 32
a = 6.6 to two significant figures.

Using the sine rule to find an angle:

The sine rule can be rearranged to:
sin A / a = sin B / b = sin C / c  use this form of the rule to find an angle.
Example: Find the size of angle x, correct to the nearest minute.
sin A / a = sin B / b
sin x / 18 = sin 72 / 21
18 x sin x / 18 = sin 72 / 21 x 18
sin x = 0.815
shift sin
x = 54°36’ to the nearest minute.

Cosine rule:
In any triangle: c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos C
This formula connects one side with the cosine of the angle opposite it and also uses
the lengths of the other two sides.
Example: Use the cosine rule to find the length of the side marked x in this diagram,
correct to 1 decimal place.
Step 1: write down the formula you are going to use:
 This is the side you are going to find. c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos C  This is the angle
opposite the side you are calculating.
The other two pronumerals in the formula are for the lengths of the remaining two
sides.
Step 2: Write the labels on the diagram to correspond to the formula you are going to
use.
Step 3: Write down the formula, substitute it and evaluate x.
c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos C
x² = 9² + 12² - 2 x 9 x 12 x cos 72°
√ the number = type in like it is
x = 12.6 to 1 decimal place.
Example: Use cosine rule, p² = q² + r² - 2qr cos P, to calculate the length x correct to 2
significant figures.
p² = q² + r² - 2qr cos P
x² = (4.3)² + (5.6)² - 2 x 4.3 x 5.6 x cos 125°
= 8.8 to 2 significant figures.

Using the cosine rule to find an angle:

When you know the lengths of all three sides in a triangle you can use the cosine rule
to calculate the size of any angle in the triangle. To make it easy to find angles, the
cosine rule formula, can be arranged to:
Cos C = a² + b² - c² / 2ab
Example: Find the size of angle x correct to the nearest minute.
cos C = a² + b² - c² / 2ab
(shift) cos x = (12² + 10² - 9²) / (2 x 12 x 10)
x = 47°13’ to the nearest minute.

Two triangle problems:

Example: Use the sin rule in triangle ABC to show that AC = 50 sin 30° / sin 10°.
Hence find the value of h correct to 2 significant figures.
Show that AC = 50 sin 30 / sin 10 does not mean use your calculator to work out that
ac = 144m. In this case it means use the sine rule formula to show where this equation
comes from.
In triangle ABC, AC connects with 30° and the side 50m connects with 10°.
AC / sin 30 = 50 / sin 10
Multiply both sides of the equation by sin 30°
sin 30 x AC / sin 30 = 50 / sin 10 x sin 30
AC = 50 sin 30° / sin 10
Now to find h!
h / x = sin 40
h = x X sin 40
Now you can use AC = 50 sin 30° / sin 10 (or AC = 143.97)
h = 50 sin 30° / sin 10 x sin 40 ( or h = 143.97 x sin 40)
= 92.541
93m correct to 2 significant figures.

Area of a triangle:
There are two methods for finding the area of a triangle:
Area = ½ base x height
Area = ½ ab sin C
Example: Calculate the are of triangle ABC. Answer correct to 3 significant figures.
Area of triangle = ½ ab sin C
= ½ x 16 x 10 x sin 125°
= 65.5cm² to three significant figures.

Plane table radical surveys:

Example: Justine was asked to complete a plane table survey of a block of land the
local council was considering turning into a recreational park.
Remember: in plane table surveys the angles drawn at the centre are accurate but the
lines representing the distances to the corners are not drawn to scale.
Use the cosine rule to find the length of the side AB correct to 1 decimal place.
Calculate to area of triangle ATB correct to the nearest square metre.
Substitute into the formula c² = a² + b² - 2ab cos C.
x² = 43² + 85² - 2 x 43 x 85 x cos 98°
AB = 100.5m long 1 decimal place.
Because triangle ATB does not contain a right angle, the formula A = ½ ab sin is used
to calculate the area.
A = ½ x 43 x 85 x sin 98
= 1810m² to the nearest square metre.

Compass radial surveys:

A compass radial survey is very similar to a plane table radial survey. The only
difference is that a compass, rather than a ruler or didade is used to find the directions.
Example: In this radial survey calculate:
The size of angle ATB
The size of angle DTA
The length of AB to the nearest metre, using the cosine rule
The area of triangle DTA to the nearest square metre.