Clean Water Supply Shortages and Measures

to Conserve Water in Developing Countries

with Examples from Ghana

Prepared For:
Mr. Felix Tettey
Regional Finance Manager
Ghana Water Corporation Limited
Takoradi, Ghana, West Africa

By:

Sabastina Ellingsworth
WR 227 Student
Procurement/Supply Chain Management Student

August 13th, 2018

 ii

4000 Lancaster Dr NE
Salem, OR 97305
August 13, 2018

Mr. Tettey
Regional Finance Manager
Ghana Water Corporation Limited
Takoradi, Ghana, West Africa

Dear Tettey,

Here is my report, Clean Water Supply Shortages and Measures to Conserve Water in
Developing Countries with Examples from Ghana. In preparing this report, I have
gained more knowledge about the need for water quality to humanity and how
important it is to conserve water to avoid future shortages. Although there is a growing
understanding that clean water is the link to health and economic prosperity in
developing countries throughout the world, many have yet to understand the real need
to conserve clean water to avoid future shortages.

In the developing world, clean water shortage remains the major concern. The lack of
an adequate supply of clean water for drinking is a serious health issue. Most water
industries within developing countries are incapable of supplying adequate and clean
water to their citizens. However, the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nation
(UN), and UNICEF, together with other developed countries render help to less
privileged countries by providing clean water, and education on conserving water.
Finding ways to minimize clean water shortages and introducing measures to conserve
water, when implemented, will help save water and life in the long run.

I believe my information will help other developing countries battling clean water
scarcity. Thank you for your guidance and encouragement throughout this process. I
have enjoyed my work on this project and would be happy to answer any questions.
Please email me at selling6@my.chemeketa.edu.

Sincerely,

SabastinaEllingsworth
Sabastina Ellingsworth
 Table of Contents

Letter of Transmittal …………………………………………….…………………………… ii

Abstract ………………...……………...…………………………...………………………….. iv

Introduction ….………………………………………………….….....………………………. 1

Findings and Conclusions ………..……………………..……………….………………...… 2

Why is Clean Water So Important?...…..…………………………………………….. 2

Global Concern. ..……………………...……………………………………………………… 2

Access to Clean Water – Globally……………………………………………………...3

Total Water Withdrawal – Globally…………………………………………………...3

Overview of Ghana…………………………………………………………………………….3

Water Challenges in Ghana ………………..………...…………………...………..… 4

Urban vs. Rural Water Distribution in Ghana……………. …..…………………… 4
Percentage Of People Without Clean Water in Ghana…………………………… ..4

Afro barometer survey …………..………………………………………………………. 5

Key Findings: ……………………………………………………………………….... ..5

Recommendations/Conclusions ……………………………………………………………...6

Recommended Measures for Conserving Clean Water .……...………..….……… 6

Conclusions …..…… …………………………………………………………………. 6

Sample Phone Interviewed Question …...…………………………………………….…… 7

Works Cited …………………………………………………………………………....……… 8

 iv

ABSTRACT

Water is life’s most basic need and a necessity for human survival. Yet there is a water
crisis in our global world. About 1 billion people live without access to clean water
(Wikipedia Contributors, 2018), and by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in
countries with absolute water scarcity according to the United Nations (UN) 2016. It is
happening all over the world, especially in the developing areas of Sub-Saharan Africa
and in poor areas of other countries. Water is linked with many services either directly
or indirectly, such as: human health, education, welfare, and social and economic
development of a country. Lack of clean water exposes people to waterborne diseases.
As the population continues to increase, there will be greater need for clean water and
measures to conserve water.

This project is aimed at providing measures for solving clean water shortages in
developing countries, with examples from Ghana. Data analysis was based on the
information obtained from phone interviews with Felix Tettey, Regional Finance
Manager of Ghana Water Corporation Limited and personal observations during my
whole life living in Ghana. It also reviewed secondary research conducted by other
researchers on the scarcity of clean water both globally and in developing countries.
Other data resources were reviewed from the Ghana Water Corporation Limited
(GWCL).
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 1

Introduction

“Access to safe water can turn problems into potential: unlocking education, economic
prosperity, and improved health. Every human being deserves to define their own future, and
water makes that possible.”
(Water.org, 2016)

Water is one of the most important necessities for human life. It is required for many
things, including growing food, personal hygiene, hydration, power generation, and
fire control. Water is a part of our daily life, and we are heavily dependent on it. Water
covers about 71% of the earth’s surface, but out of this, only about 2.5% is fresh water.
More water is stored in deep groundwater, so only a small amount is readily available
for human use according to Wikipedia, 2018.

With clean, fresh, safe water becoming more and more scarce, there is even a greater
demand and need for people to access clean drinking water. “Natural disasters,
population growth, drought, and dirt contribute to people dying from waterborne
illnesses,” said Felix Tettey, Regional Finance Director, Ghana Water Corporation
Limited, in a phone interview. For people to survive, they need access to clean water,
and by having a personal filtration system, you give people the ability to access that
water and have a better chance at life. The need for clean, safe water is good for
everyone, but in the developing countries alone it is a far greater issue.

Water scarcity involves water stress, water shortage, and water crisis. The areas most
affected by water scarcity in a country are mainly the rural areas of developing
countries and not urban areas. This is mainly because rural people have little or no
knowledge of water conservation and management; they rely on the government and
indigenous knowledge to survive. For instance, more than 40% of Ghana’s 25 million
people lack access to safe water (Safe Water Network, 2018).

Water conservation refers to the reduction in the usage of water. It can also include the
recycling of water for purposes of irrigation, cleaning, and even treatment for later use.
The measures to conserve water are very important and beneficial to our future. We do
not know that there will be enough water for a more crowded world in the future, so
we must learn how to conserve water to prevent future problems. The aim of this study
is to discuss clean water problems and create awareness in local people on the measures
needed to conserve clean water to avoid future shortages.
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 2

Findings and Conclusions

Why is Clean Water So Important?

Did you know that all the water that we use today is the same water that goes back into
the environment to be used again another day? Also, the water that you see flowing in
rivers and lakes is some of the same water, after it is properly treated, that comes out of
the nozzle at your home or school. Drinking water, lake water, underground water, and
stream water are all parts of the same cycle. This continuous cycle and our dependence
on water are why water, air, and ground pollution should be important to you, as well
as conserving the small amount of clean water that is available—that is, as long as you
want to use it.

Water covers over 71% of the Earth's surface (USGS, 2016). Water quality is important
because it directly affects the health of people, animals, and plants that drink or
otherwise utilize the water. When water quality is compromised, its usage puts users at
risk of developing health complications. The environment also suffers when the quality
of water is low. Yet freshwater is essential for life. Plants, animals, and humans all need
fresh water to survive. We use it for drinking, for cooking, for washing, to irrigate
crops, as part of sanitation systems, and in industrial factories, to name a few.

While there is a lot of water present on our planet, only 1% of the water is easily
available for our use. About 97% of the Earth’s water are in the oceans, frozen in ice
caps and glaciers, or underground (NASA). We cannot change the amount of water that
we have, even though it seems like we receive new water each time it rains or snows.

Despite the importance of water to human life, there are still shortages of clean water
globally. As estimated by the Government of Canada, 2017 and quoted in World Water
Council, 2005, over 40% of the global population does not have access to enough clean
water and nearly 900 million to 1.1 billion people worldwide lack clean drinking water.
The developing countries are those who suffer the most for lack of clean water,
especially those living in the rural areas. Therefore, there is a high need to conserve
what have, to avoid future crises.
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 3

Global Concern

Approximately half the global population is already living in potential water scarce
areas at least one month per year and this could increase to some 4.8–5.7 billion in 2050.
About 73% of the affected people live in Asia (69% by 2050), (qtd. in UN Water, 2012)

As the (below) two charts in Figure 1 and 2 show, even though the amount of water
locked up in groundwater is a small percentage of all of Earth's water, it represents a
large percentage of total freshwater on Earth. The pie chart shows that about 1.7 percent
of all of Earth's water is groundwater and about 30.1 percent of freshwater on Earth
occurs as groundwater. As the bar chart and the table show, about 5,614,000 cubic miles
(mi3), or 23,400,000 cubic kilometers (km3), of groundwater exist on Earth. About 54
percent is saline, with the remaining 2,526,000 mi3 (10,530,000 km3) about 46 percent,
being freshwater. Water in aquifers below the oceans is generally saline, while the water
below the land surfaces where freshwater, which fell as precipitation, infiltrates into the
ground is generally freshwater. There is a stable transition zone that separates saline
water and freshwater below ground (USGS, 2016).

Figure 1
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 4

Figure 2

One estimate of global water distribution

Water volume, Water volume, Percent of Percent of total freshwater

Water source in cubic miles in cubic kilometers total water

Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 0.8% 30.1%

groundwater

Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 1.7% --

Total global water 332,500,000 1,386,000,000 -- --

Source: Gleick, P. H., 1996: Water resources. In Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, ed. by
S. H. Schneider, Oxford University Press, New York, vol. 2, pp.817-823.

Figure 3
Access to Clean Water - Globally
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 5

“The global demand for water has been increasing at a rate of about 1% per year as a
function of population growth, economic development and changing consumption
patterns, among other factors, and it will continue to grow significantly over the next
two decades” (UN Water, 2018). As projected in the (above) figure 3, 1.6 billion people
have gained access to a safe water source since 1990. The proportion of people in
developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30%
in 1970 to 71% in 1990, 79% in 2000 and 84% in 2004 (qtd. in Wikipedia).

Figure 4

Total Water Withdrawal – Globally

According to the chart (above) in figure 4, total global water withdrawals in 2025 are
projected to increase by 22 percent above 1995 withdrawals, to 4,772 km3. Projected
withdrawals in developing countries will increase 27 percent over the 30-year period,
while developed-country withdrawals will increase by 11 percent (Mark W. Rosegrant
et. al, 2002).
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 6

Overview of Ghana
The Republic of Ghana, commonly known as the Gold Coast is in West Africa, between
the nations of Cote D’Ivoire and Togo. The capital, Accra, is the largest city in Ghana,
which is comprised of three million people. Ghana has an estimated population of
twenty-four million people, and a growth rate of 1.8%. The nation is home to numerous
ethnic groups with the Akan, Mole Dagbon, Ewe, and Ga-Dangme people accounting
for the majority. More than two-thirds of Ghanaian’s practice Christianity, followed by
Islam at 15.9%, and traditional religions at 8.5%. The official language of Ghana is
English; however, an estimated 79 native languages are spoken (BU African Presidential
Center).

Water Challenges in Ghana

Ghana has been facing problems with lack of access to clean water for years. In the
Northern region of the country, around half of the population living there does not
have access to clean and safer drinking water. Many times, the most viable water source
is a man-made trench that fills up during the rainy seasons. However, these trenches
quickly become contaminated with waste, and the water is unfit to be consumed
according to Tettey.

He said, “water shortages have forced citizens to queue for hours, even after walking to
distant sources”. He added that a major problem of shortage of clean water in rural
parts of Ghana is simply inadequate infrastructure. Not enough pipes exist to satisfy
demand. Also, the most viable water source is a man-made trench that fills up during
the rainy seasons. However, these trenches quickly become contaminated with waste,
and the water is unfit to be consumed. Also, the problem is compounded by the
collective failure of the government and citizens to protect the nation’s water bodies.

Also, most people rely on surface water sources, which frequently contain life-
threatening parasites and high microbial content. In some regions of the country, the
water has significant water discoloration and contains dangerous minerals. During the
dry season, many areas suffer from water scarcity.
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 7

Urban vs. Rural Water Distribution in Ghana

From a global perspective, the problem can be viewed within two extremes. At one
extreme are the highly urbanized cities of advanced industrialized countries, where
most of the population has in-house water connections, backed by adequate
infrastructure. At the other extreme is the rural sector of developing countries having
no service of any kind for either potable water or excreta disposal (Biswas, 1981).

As projected by the Safe Water Network, 2018, 8.3 million people in Ghana lack safe
water access. Within this gap, it is estimated that up to 7 million people are living in
rural settings, peri-urban areas, and small towns. Figure 5 gives a glimpse of how those
living in the urban areas have access to piped-water system as compared to those in the
rural areas part of Ghana. It also pointed out that Urban Ghanaians are almost twice as
likely to have access to a piped-water system as their rural counterpart (89% vs. 47%) as
estimated by Mina Okuru et. al, 2017.

Figure 5

Urban v. Rural
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 8

Figure 6 (below) illustrates the percentage of the population that went without enough
water in Ghana in 2014. About one-fourth (26%) of Ghanaians say they went without
enough clean water for home use at least once during the year. That includes 11% who
say they experienced water shortages “several times” and 8% who went without
enough water “many times,” or “always.” These findings make Ghana one of the better-
served populations among 36 countries surveyed in 2014/2015: On average, 45% of
Africans say they went without enough water at least once (qtd. in Mina Okuru et. al,
2017).

Figure 6

Percentage of People Without Clean Water in Ghana

 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 9

Afrobarometer survey

According to research conducted by Mina Okuru at el, Afrobarometer, a team in Ghana,

led by the Center for Democratic Development (CDD Ghana), interviewed 2,400 adult
Ghanaians between May 24 and June 10, 2014 and came up with the below key findings
relating to those living without water.

Key findings:

 Approximately 26% of Ghanaians live without enough safe water and about one
in 12 (8%) who experienced water shortages “many times” or “always.”

 70% of Ghanaian populations live in areas served by piped-water, whereas 30%

do not. Also, people living in the cities have greater access to a clean piped-water
system as compared to rural counterparts (89% vs. 47%).

 Residents in areas like Greater Accra (86%), Brong Ahafo (84%), Ashanti (84%),
and Western regions (81%) have access to piped water as compared to those
living in the Northern and Upper West region (19%) of Ghana.

Recommended Measures for Conserving Clean Water

Water conservation involves changing habits. Since many of these habits have become
established over a lifetime, they can prove difficult to alter. People can become active in
conserving water by starting simply, then gradually taking more advanced steps to
reduce water consumption. The simplest habits involve turning off water whenever it is
not being used. When water is needed for rinsing dishes, it can be held in a sink rather
than allowing it to flow, unused down the drain

An individual may simply use less water. For example, some people use a hose to
“sweep” the sidewalks, when a broom works well. People can shorten their shower
times or reduce the amount of water they use when bathing.

Other conservation methods may initially require more effort and funds, but in the long
run they will save money and resources. For example, households can install low-flow
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 10

showerheads with smaller holes that reduce water flow and increase pressure. A
capped bottle weighted with stones takes up space in a toilet tank, reducing the amount
of water available to flush down the drain.

Here are some further suggestions:

1) Turn off the water when it is not in use. Don’t leave it running when brushing
your teeth. Turn off the water between soaps and rinses when washing hands.
This can save a lot of water. In fact, as much as 160 gallons of water can be
conserved each month when you turn the water off.

2) Check for leaks. This includes the toilet and the sinks in the home. Even a small
leak could cause an extensive amount of extra water usage and more money
added to the water bill.

3) Consider purchasing a dual-flush toilet. These technologies-savvy toilets are

great to promote water conservation. Take showers instead of baths. Stop using
extra water when you flush, by avoiding placing anything in the toilet. This
includes tissue and cigarette butts. Using this method to eliminate these items
will cost you an additional 5 to 6 gallons of water per flush.

4) Do not use water to defrost foods. Although many people do use this method, it
requires a lot of water to do this.

5) Run the dishwasher or washing machine only with a full load.

6) Plant your garden in the spring and you can save since water requirement levels
are less during this season.

7) If you need to run water before the water becomes hot, store the cool running
water in a bottle for use in rinsing dishes, and washing vegetables and hands.
 Conserving Water in Developing Countries 11

Conclusion

The unfortunate problem with these developing countries is that they feel the greatest
symptoms of water security issues, yet they have the least funding and lowest priority
to do anything about causal factors. According to the World Health Organization, of
those affected by water scarcity in the world, the majority live in developing countries.

For people outside of major cities in developing countries to access water domestically,
they need roads, pipes, treatment plants, and wells to bring clean and ample water to
them. This is a major issue in developing countries because 80 percent of people
globally who lack access to clean water live in rural areas. Yet in many of these
countries, this infrastructure is nowhere to be found, generally because of a lack of
funding for the creation and upkeep. People in these countries must collect water from
far away sources, walking large distances and carrying large weights of water.

As can be seen, water is essential to life because it heavily influences public health and
living standard. However, water is unequally distributed throughout the world. At
present, approximately 1.2 billion people live in areas wherein water is scarce, and 1.6
billion people face economic water shortages. Therefore, the World Health
Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund, various governments, and public and
private sector entities have used intensive efforts to provide enough water supply to
residents, particularly in rural areas in developing countries. So, conserving water is
something that we all should be doing. We take water and water supply for granted. By
conserving water, we can help supply more water while bringing a multitude of
benefits your way.
 Sample Phone Interviewed Questions with Mr. Felix Tettey,
Finance Director, Ghana Water Corporation Limited

The following phone interviewed questions took place:

a) If Ghana has a lot of water, why are there shortages?

b) Are there simpler and cheaper ways to increase water supply
c) Is the focus on rural areas of getting clean water or urban areas? Why the focus
on the urban areas for clean water and not rural areas?
d) How large is the dam, how much water will it store? Where is it located?
e) How long will it take for a dam to be built? Will the water be clean?
f) Who will benefit from improved water?
g) What percentage lack clean water?
h) Will people have to wait for a dam to be built before getting improved water?
i) Are there any measures put in place to conserve water? If yes, what are the
measures. If no, why?
j) Why is it hard to conserve water? Why is it hard to put measures in place?
k) Are there challenges face in putting measures in place to conserve water
l) Did you think the people waste water? If yes, Why? If no, why?
m) What are the behaviors and attitude of Ghanaian towards water conservation
and measures?
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