International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10

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International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nlm

On the physics of viscoplastic fluid flow in non-circular tubes

a a,b,⁎ a
crossmark
Mario F. Letelier , Dennis A. Siginer , Cristian Barrera Hinojosa
a
Centro de Investigación en Creatividad y Educación Superior & Departmento de Ingeniería Mechánica, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
b
Department of Mathematics and Statistical Sciences & Department of Mechanical, Energy and Industrial Engineering, Bostwana International University
of Science and Technology, Palapye, Bostwana

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Flow of Bingham plastics through straight, long tubes is studied by means of a versatile analytical method that
Viscoplastic allows extending the study to a large range of tube geometries. The equation of motion is solved for general non-
Bingham circular cross-sections obtained via a continuous and one-to-one mapping called the shape factor method. In
Hershey-Bulkley particular the velocity field and associated plug and stagnant zones in tubes with equilateral triangular and
Non-circular tube
square cross-section are explored. Shear stress normal to equal velocity lines, energy dissipation distribution
Plug and stagnant zones
and rate of flow are determined. Shear-thinning and shear-thickening effects on the flow, which cannot be
accounted for with the Bingham model, are investigated using the Hershey-Bulkley constitutive formulation an
extension of the Bingham model. The existence and the extent of undeformed regions in the flow field in a tube
with equilateral triangular cross-section are predicted in the presence of shear-thinning and shear-thickening as
a specific example. The mathematical flexibility of the analytical method allows the formulation of general
results related to viscoplastic fluid flow with implications related to the design and optimization of physical
systems for viscoplastic material transport and processing.

1. Introduction
Knowledge of the flow of viscoplastic materials is relevant in many
contexts such as flow of paints, pastes, suspensions in complex
geometries with industrial applications, coating and mining, foodstuffs
processing, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical and construction industries,
ceramics extrusion, blood and other biological fluid flows, semi-solid
materials and in some natural flows such as mud, lava displacements
and debris flow. In all these applications as well as natural phenomena
the rate of flow, the velocity distribution and the energy dissipation are
important flow variables to determine. One model of viscoplastic fluid
widely used is Bingham model for its capacity of predicting useful
results in most areas of interest. The Bingham model becomes non-
linear for flow configurations different from parallel axisymmetric or
unbounded parallel surfaces and, moreover, requires careful interpre-
tation and analysis of mathematical results, which are meaningful only
when all physically relevant conditions between stress and rate of
deformation are met. Other types of non- Newtonian bounded flows,
such as viscoelastic fluid flows in tubes, may be fully described
physically over the whole flow region by means of mathematical or
numerical results derived from the constitutive and linear momentum
balance equations. But this is not the case for viscoplastic flows
described by the Bingham model since it predicts physically mean-
ingless results in some zones that must be identified and characterized
as plug zones and stagnant zones where there is no deformation. This is
not explicitly predicted by the Bingham model, and must be deduced
from conditions associated with the yield stress, tube contour and the
related physical considerations. Understanding the dynamics of the
formation of dead regions for instance is important to the design of
extrusion geometries. It is quite difficult to model viscoplastic fluid flow
and design operating systems in most real-life contexts. In particular
the determination of the location and shape of the boundary separating
the yielded and unyielded masses of the fluid must be part of the
solution of the initial boundary value problem.
Several authors have addressed in the past the analysis of the flow
of Bingham fluids in conduits and related geometries. The ground-
breaking work of Russian researchers in the sixties set the tone for the
research direction for decades to come. Safronchik [1–3] and Mosolov
and Mjasnikov [4–6] conducted fundamental investigations on the
propagation and the location of the yield surface and its properties and
the plug and dead regions in the flow, respectively. The channel flow of
a Bingham plastic with a given initial velocity distribution and a time
dependent pressure gradient is investigated in [1] to determine the
subsequent velocity field and the location of the yield surface. A highly
complicated equation for the velocity dependent on the location of the
interface between the plug zone and the flowing mass of the fluid is

⁎
Corresponding author at: Centro de Investigación en Creatividad y Educación Superior & Departmento de Ingeniería Mechánica, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
E-mail addresses: dennis.siginer@usach.cl, siginerd@biust.ac.bw (D.A. Siginer).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2016.09.012
Received 19 September 2016; Accepted 23 September 2016
Available online 04 October 2016
0020-7462/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.F. Letelier et al.
derived, and a non-linear integral equation for the position of the
interface is presented. The unsteady motion of a Bingham fluid both in
bounded and unbounded domains is investigated in [2], specifically the
unsteady flow field generated by a rotating cylinder and the flow field in
a Couette device, respectively. A non-linear integral equation to
determine the location of the yield surface is derived but left unsolved.
The unsteady flow of a Bingham fluid in a circular tube is examined in
[3] and again an unsolved complicated equation is presented to
determine the location of the yield surface. These equations can be
solved albeit with considerable difficulty; however whether or not their
predictions lead to the correct physical solution, the speed of propaga-
tion and position of the yield surface, is an open issue as can be seen
from the discussion in the papers of Huilgol [7,8]. For instance the
attempt by Huilgol [7] to solve the non-linear integral equation derived
by Safronchik [1] to determine the speed and location of the yield
surface in the Rayleigh problem for a Bingham fluid led to the non-
existence of a solution. Huilgol states that the reasons behind this non-
physical result are the importance of the homogeneous and non-
homogeneous boundary conditions imposed on the velocity field at
the yield surface, and points out that a qualitative understanding of the
existence or non-existence of moving yield surfaces in any flow of yield
stress fluids requires a deeper insight into the right conditions to be
imposed at the interface. Conditions for the existence of the plug zones
were investigated by Huilgol [8] who showed in particular the
singularity of the yield surface across which the velocity, the accelera-
tion and the velocity gradient as well as the shear stress, its time
derivative and its gradient are all continuous, but the time derivative of
the acceleration, the spatial gradient of the acceleration, the second
gradient of the velocity and the corresponding temporal and spatial
gradients of second order of the shear stress all undergo jumps.
The pioneering work of Safronchik [1–3] and the work of Huilgol
[7,8] shows how difficult it is to determine the location and speed of
propagation of a yield surface even in simple geometries. The complex-
ity of the behavior of the yield surface was further brought to light by
Glowinski [9] who showed that the yield surface may move laterally
with a finite speed in the pressure gradient driven flow of a Bingham
fluid, the rigid core in the center gradually becoming larger, the yield
surface expanding with a finite speed of propagation, decelerating the
fluid and eventually choking off the flow and bringing it to rest.
Specifically he proved that the flow of a Bingham fluid in a pipe of
arbitrary cross-section comes to a halt in a finite amount of time if the
pressure gradient drops suddenly below a critical value needed to
overcome the effect of the yield stress in contrast to the behavior of a
Newtonian fluid which comes to rest in an infinite amount of time
when the pressure gradient is removed suddenly.
Sekimoto [10,11] made important contributions in the early nine-
ties to the determination of the propagation speed and the location of
the yield surface. He finds in [10] a similarity solution and derives an
equation for the location of the yield surface in the case of an existing
steady simple shear flow in the semi-infinite region over a flat plate
which becomes unsteady due to a sudden reduction in the shear stress
on the boundary to a value below the yield stress of the Bingham fluid.
He shows that the yield surface propagates from the flat plate boundary
into the fluid and derives an evolution equation for the location of the
yield surface at subsequent times; however he does not solve the
equation either. The lateral movement of a yield surface in a shearing
flow is considered in [11]. He correctly assumes that the lateral motion
of the yield surface obeys the diffusion equation,
∂u ∂τxy
ρ =
∂t ∂y
and asserts that the gradient of the shear stress τxy is continuous across
the yield surface provided certain continuity conditions are met the
continuity of the local acceleration among them. He presents an
evolution equation for the location of the yield surface; however it is
2
International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10
not solved and no examples are given.
The existence and uniqueness of the plug region was shown by
Mosolov and Mjasnikov [4] using variational methods. In particular
they show exactly and analytically that the flow stops if the Bingham
4
number Bi exceeds a critical Bingham number Bic= 2 + π =1.0603178
with no-slip conditions on the walls when the cross-section is a square.
This result, that there is a limiting Bingham number for a given cross-
sectional tube, was extended later to general cross-sectional tubes by
Duvaut and Lions [12], and much later was confirmed through
extensive numerical computations by Saramito and Roquet [13] for a
square cross-section with no-slip conditions as well as with slip on the
walls Roquet and Saramito [14]. In the latter case Bic depends on a
dimensionless slip parameter S that quantifies the extent of slip. For S
=0.6 the critical Bingham number is determined to be
2
Bic= 2 + π =0.5301589. When S =+∞ fluid sticks to the wall and no-slip
condition prevails. The existence of dead regions with a concavity
always turned towards the inside of the cross-section was proven
analytically by Mosolov and Mjasnikov [5]. This is clearly a very
difficult proposition to show numerically as a general statement as is
obvious from the numerical results presented by Saramito and Roquet
[13] and Roquet and Saramito [14].
The first numerical study of yield stress fluids was done by Fortin
[15]. The augmented Lagrangian method framework introduced by
Fortin and Glowinski [16] and further developed by Glowinski and
LeTallec [17] was used by Huilgol and Panizza [18] to study the flow in
an annulus and an L-shaped cross-sectional tube. The flow of a
Bingham fluid in a square duct, and in particular the geometry of the
plug zones as well as the dead zones at the duct corners was explored
numerically by Saramito and Roquet [13] and Roquet and Saramito
[14]. In the earlier paper [13] the fully developed Poiseuille flow of a
yield stress fluid in a square cross-section was studied with no-slip
condition at the walls using the augmented Lagrangian method frame-
work coupled to a mixed anisotropic auto-adaptive finite element
method. In the later paper [14] the Poiseuille flow of a yield stress
fluid in a square cross-section with slip yield boundary condition was
considered numerically using the same approach introduced by the
authors previously. The consideration of slip is important as it
frequently occurs in the flow of two-phase systems such as suspensions,
emulsions and in industrial viscoplastic flow problems such as concrete
pumping, and it appears to be more pronounced when the material has
a yield stress property such as bio-solids and pastes. Steady flow of
Bingham fluids in narrow eccentric annuli was investigated both
analytically and numerically by Walton and Bittleston [19], and
conditions for the existence of plug zones and quasi plug zones were
discussed in the context of the flow of pastes and suspensions in
complex geometries with industrial applications. Wachs [20] also
studied the problem for a wide range of the relevant parameters using
numerical methods. The present authors [21,22] studied viscoplastic
flows in a variety of non-circular tubes both analytically and numeri-
cally relating geometric and flow variables to predict velocity distribu-
tion, rate of flow, and energy dissipation. Recent work that contributes
insights into the physics of the flow of viscoplastic fluids and the
complexities associated with it, as constitutively characterized by the
Bingham model, addresses thermal effects, Akram et al. [23] and Turan
et al. [24], and the Lattice Boltzmann method applications in complex
geometries, Tang et al. [25]. A major difficulty with the flow of a
Bingham fluid in complex geometries is the existence of spatial
discontinuities in kinematic and dynamic variables at the interface
between regions undergoing deformation and the plug and stagnant (or
dead) zones.
To the best knowledge of the present authors, no published
analytical work exists shedding light onto the general behavior of flows
of Bingham fluids in non-circular tubes of arbitrary cross-section. The
kinematics and dynamics of the steady, developed and isothermal flow
of Bingham fluids in longitudinally constant, non-circular cross-
M.F. Letelier et al. International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10

sectional tubes are investigated in this paper. An analytical method terms of stress is written as,
previously developed by the authors [21,26–28] for modeling flow in
∂τrz τrz 1 ∂τθz ∂P
tubes of arbitrary contours is extended to viscoplastic flow. The method + + =−
∂r r r ∂θ ∂z (4)
is based upon a one-to-one mapping of a reference circle representing a
tube of circular cross-section into cross-sections of arbitrary shape. in which P is the pressure. The analysis of the flow structure can be
This approach makes it possible to solve the equations of motion in a enhanced by the use of natural coordinates, Letelier and Siginer [21]. If
great variety of cross-sectional shapes. Tube contours can be selected n is a curvilinear coordinate normal to the flow isovels (equal velocity
from a continuous spectrum of shapes. In particular, the method is lines), then (1, 4) transform into,
applied to the analysis of central plug zones, stagnant zones at sharp
dw
corners, shear stress distribution and energy dissipation, and rate of τnz=Bi − , τnz≥Bi
dn (5)
flow variation with yield stress. Results presented are partially con-
sistent with previously published investigations. Certain analytical dτnz τnz ∂P
anomalies that deserve close attention are described with some detail, + =−
dn ρ ∂z (6)
since they point out aspects of the physics of Bingham flows that may
have been overlooked so far. in which τnz is the normal axial shear stress and ρ is the radius of
Although Bingham constitutive equation is widely used to model curvature of isovels. Flow analysis in a range of tube cross-sectional
the flow behavior of viscoplastic fluids to predict the evolution of the shapes can be achieved by imposing a boundary condition through a
flow in many areas of application it may fall short of expectations under shape factor G defined as,
certain prevailing conditions as it includes only two material para- (7)
G=1 − r 2+εr αsinαθ
meters, namely the yield stress and viscosity, which may restrict the use
of that model when either the constitution of the fluid is more complex where (ε, α ) are mapping parameters of a one-to-one and continuous
or the flow characteristics demand more involved predictive capacity. mapping to map the base circumference into a continuous spectrum of
In these cases the Herschel-Bulkley (H-B) constitutive equation, an tube contours. ε is chosen as the perturbation parameter in the analysis
extension of the Bingham model with a third material parameter, i.e. a presented in this paper. The parameter α must be an integer number in
power index, can be used. The range of values of the power index of the order to get closed shapes for the mapped tube contour. Combinations
H-B model greater and lesser than unity determines the extent of the of ε and α yield many different contour shapes forG = 0 while
shear-thinning and shear-thickening behavior, respectively. H-B con- simultaneously satisfying the no-slip boundary condition as it will
stitutive model has been extensively applied successfully, in particular become apparent in the analysis below. This shape factor can be made
recently, to a variety of problems such as the dispersion of a solute in more general by adding more terms to the mapping (7). The axial
an annular tube for modeling blood flow in an artery affected by a velocity w is expressed as an asymptotic expansion,
catheter, Ramana & Sarojamma [29], non-Newtonian flows with a
w=G (r , θ )[ f0+εf1+ε 2f2 +O (ε 3)] (8)
stratified interface, Moyers-Gonzalez et al. [30], and peristaltic pump-
ing in a channel, Vajravelu et al. [31] among others. The analytical in which the functions fi are unknowns to be determined by substitut-
method introduced in this paper to predict the flow field of a Bingham ing Eq. (8) into Eq. (4). The structure of (8) ensures that asymptotic
plastic is used to determine the flow field of an H-B fluid in tubes of conditions for ε = 0 and for Bi = 0 are met. It should be noted that the
arbitrary cross-sectional geometries. The analysis is valid for a wide mapping parameter (also the perturbation parameter) ε has maximum
spectrum of non-circular cross sectional shapes. As a specific example allowable values εc for a given value of α . If ε > εc the mapped contour is
the influence of shear-thinning and shear-thickening on the plug zones no longer closed. The limiting value εc of ε is given by the following
and stagnant zones has been investigated in the flow field in a tube with expression when α > 2 , Siginer and Letelier [26,27],
equilateral triangular cross-section and a comparative study with the
2 ⎛ α −2 ⎞
(α −2)/2
predictions of the Bingham model is presented. εc= ⎜ ⎟
The paper is organized as follows: The flow of Bingham plastics and α⎝ α ⎠ (9)
Hershel-Bulkley fluids in straight tubes of arbitrary cross-section is
Introducing the expansion of the velocity field w into asymptotic
analyzed in Sections 2 and 3, respectively. Results are discussed in
series,
Section 4 and Conclusions are presented in Section 5.
w0=w0 +εw1+ε 2w2+O (ε 3) (10)
2. Analysis: bingham fluids and substituting (10) into (1) we obtain,

For parallel flow in tubes, Bingham constitutive equation, in ∂wo ⎡ ∂w1 ⎤ ⎡ ∂w2 Bi ⎛ ∂w1 ⎞2 ⎤ 2
τrz=Bi − −⎢ ⎥ ε−⎢ + 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ε + O (ε 3 )
cylindrical coordinates, is given by, ∂r ⎣ ∂r ⎦ ⎢⎣ ∂r 2r (∂wo /∂r )2 ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ ⎥⎦ (11)
⎛ Bi ⎞ ∂w ⎛ Bi ⎞ 1 ∂w
τrz=−⎜1 + ⎟ , τθz=−⎜1 + ⎟ ⎡ ∂w2 ⎤ 2
∂w1
⎝ I ⎠ ∂r ⎝ I ⎠ r ∂θ (1) 1 ⎛ ∂w ⎞ N ⎛ ∂w1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂w1 ⎞ 2
τθz=− ⎜ o −N ⎟ ∂θ
ε−⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟− ⎥ ε + O (ε 3 )
r ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ ∂wo
⎣ r (∂wo /∂θ )2 ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ⎠ (∂wo /∂θ ) ∂θ ⎦
∂θ
τrz≥Bi , τθz≥Bi (2)
(12)
1
⎡ ⎛ ∂w ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ∂w ⎞ ⎤ 2
2 The zero order velocity is the well-known Bingham formula for flow
I =⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥ in round tubes, i.e.
⎢⎣ ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎝ r ∂θ ⎠ ⎥⎦ (3)
w0=1 − r 2−Bi (1 − r ) (13)
where τrz and τrθ are the axial shear stress components, Bi is the
Bingham number a dimensionless yield stress, and I defined in (3) is Thus
the second invariant of the rate of deformation tensor. Scale factors a (a
Bi
reference radius) for the radial coordinate r , w0 for the axial velocity f0 =1 −
1+r (14)
w, ηw0 / a for all shear stress components, and ηw0 / a2 for the axial
pressure gradient, in which η is the fluid viscosity have been introduced The dimensionless pressure gradient is (−4). Substitution of (11–
to render all variables dimensionless. The momentum equation in 14) in (4) gives,

3
M.F. Letelier et al. International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10

⎛ Bi ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2w 1 ∂w1 ⎞ ∂ 2w1 where K (r , θ ) is a complex function that involves terms in w0 and w1.
r ⎜r − ⎟ ⎜ 21 + ⎟+ =0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂r r ∂r ⎠ ∂θ 2 (15) Eq. (21) can be solved analytically and hence f2 can be found in a
similar fashion to f0 and f1. Computing f2 does not change results
The mathematical structure of the longitudinal velocity field w qualitatively as compared to the case where only f0 and f1 are
implies that the tube boundary can be specified in an infinite number of considered. Analytical expressions for fi ,i = 3, …, M can be determined
different forms. The range of the spectrum of mapped closed tube in a similar way but make only increasingly small quantitative
contours may be substantially extended if an infinite number of contributions to the values of the flow variables, and do not change
additional mapping terms of the form εi r αi sin αi θ , εi r αi cos αi θ are at all the qualitative outcomes as would have been implied by the
incorporated into the shape factor G defined in (7). That makes it asymptotic nature of the expansions.
possible to describe very complex shapes depending on the number of Energy dissipation can be computed through the dissipation
additional mapping terms included. Shape factor G describes exact function ϕ . In natural coordinates ϕ is given by
ellipses for α = 2 and any ε , an exact equilateral triangle for the limiting
case of ε = εc=0.3849 , and regular figures of number of sides equal to α dw
ϕ = τn =τn (τn−Bi )
in which sides are slightly curved when ε = εc as in (9) if only one dn
mapping term is considered in (7). In the present analysis two families Clearly ϕ is a function only of the normal shear stress at any point
of shapes are considered; shapes that evolve from a circle to an with the yield stress, the Bingham number as a parameter, that is,
equilateral triangle (α = 3,0 ≤ ε ≤ εc=0.3849) and shapes that evolve
ϕ=ϕ (τn; Bi )
from a circle to a square (α = 4,0 ≤ ε ≤ εc=0.25) with slightly curved
sides when ε = εc . These tube contours were selected because they are
the contours with the largest departure from the circle the base
contour, and thus, are more likely to bring out the dynamic character- 3. Analysis: Hershel-Bulkley (H-B) fluids
istics of Bingham fluid flows.
To solve (15) we set, The constitutive equation of an H-B fluid for parallel, 2-D flow, in
w1=Rα (r ) sinαθ (16) dimensionless variables, reduces to,
⎛ Bi ⎞ ∂w ⎛ Bi ⎞ 1 ∂w
where α is the mapping parameter in (8). We make a change of τrz=−⎜I n −1+ ⎟ , τθz=−⎜I n −1+ ⎟
2r
dependent variable r= Bi and transform (15) into ⎝ I ⎠ ∂r ⎝ I ⎠ r ∂θ (22)

d 2Rα (r ) dR (r ) 2 ⎡ ⎛ ∂w ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ∂w ⎞2 ⎤ 2
1
r (1 − r ) +(1 − r ) α +α Rα (r )=0
dr 2 dr (17) I =⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎝ r ∂θ ⎠ ⎦⎥ (23)
This is the hypergeometric equation of the second kind the solution
of which is given in terms of the generalized hypergeometric function τrz andτθz are the components of the extra-stress tensor, and Bi and n
represent the dimensionless yield stress, the Bingham number, and the
Fqp (a1, ….,ap; b1, ….,bq; r )
power index, respectively. The range of the power index specifies the
The first hypergeometric function F12 (a1, a2; b1; r ) corresponding to shear-thinning and shear-thickening capability of the H-B fluid. The
p=2, q =1 is the solution of (17). It is also known as “the” hypergeo- axial velocity field w(r , θ ) is expanded in an asymptotic series similar to
metric equation or Gauss’s hypergeometric function, and it arises the expansion (10) in Section 2 in terms of the small one-to-one
frequently in physical problems. The solution of (17) reads, mapping parameter ε. In this case w0 in the asymptotic expansion (10)
is the well-known velocity field of an H-B fluid in a circular tube, i.e.
2 − Bi −1
⎛ 2⎞
R α (r ) = 2 F1 ⎜a , b ; c ; ⎟ 2 F1 (a, b ; c; r ) n
2 ⎝ Bi ⎠ w0=K [(Y (1))−Y (r )]; K =
2(1+n ) (24)
2 F1 (a , b ; c ; r ) , a = − α , b = α , c=1 1+n
Y (r )=(2r − Bi ) β ; β =
α ; 1; r ) is reduced to polynomials for positive, integer values n (25)
2 F1 (− α ,
of α . Evaluating the solution for α=3 and α=4 corresponding to the The comparison of O(1) terms in Eq. (8) and Eq. (10) yields,
equilateral triangular and the square cross-sections we obtain, respec- w0
tively, R3 and R 4 , f0 =
1−r 2 (26)
Bi 3 9 2 9 Shear stress components can be linearized through a combination
R3 = − + Bi r − Bi r 2 + r 3
80 40 10 (18)
of Eqs. (22–25) and substituted into the linear momentum balance Eq.
R 4 = 0. 00179Bi 4 − 0. 05714Bi 3r + 0. 42857Bi 2r 2 − 1. 14286Bi r 3 + r 4 (4) following a similar procedure as in Section 2. The resulting
equation for w1 in the asymptotic expansion (10) is given by,
(19)
∂ 2w1 ∂w ∂ 2w
Equating terms of O(ε) in (8) and (10), and imposing the regularity nr (2r −Bi ) +[2(2n −1) r −nBi ] 1 +2 21 =0
∂r 2 ∂r ∂θ (27)
condition that f1 be continuous at r = 1 we find,
Rα (r ) − r αf0 The function f1 in the asymptotic expansion (8) is computed
f1 = sinαθ through the solution of Eq. (27). The solution of Eq. (27) for the
1−r 2
description of the H-B fluid flow in a tube with arbitrary cross-section
And for the equilateral triangular cross-section α=3 we determine, is sought by prescribing
(2 − Bi )(1 + r ) R3 (r ) − 2 R3 (1)(1 + r − Bi ) r 3 w1 (r , θ )=Rα (r )sin αθ (28)
f1 = sin3θ
2R3 (1)(1 + r )(1 − r 2 ) (20)
where Rα (r ) is a function of the radial coordinate r, and α is the
The second order velocity w2 can be computed from the differential parameter appearing in the shape factor Eq. (1). Substitution of Eq.
equation of second order derived from (4), (28) into Eq. (27) yields the following equation for Rα (r )
⎛ Bi ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2w 1 ∂w2 ⎞ ∂ 2w2 d 2Rα (r ) dR (r )
r ⎜r − ⎟ ⎜ 22 + ⎟+ =K (r , θ ) nr (2r −Bi ) +[2(2n −1) r −nBi ] α −2α 2Rα (r )=0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂r r ∂r ⎠ ∂θ 2 (21) dr 2 dr (29)

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M.F. Letelier et al. International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10

Making the same type of dependent variable change r =2r / Bi as in

Section 2 reduces (29) to the following Hypergeometric equation,

d 2Rα (r ) ⎡ ⎛ 2n −1 ⎞ ⎤ dRα (r ) α 2
r (1 − r ) + ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟r ⎥ + Rα (r )=0
dr 2 ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎦ dr n (30)
The regular solution to Eq. (13) is given in terms of the
Hypergeometric function of the first kind F12 (a, b;c;r )

Rα (r ) = γF12 (a, b; c; r )

1−n +∆ 1−n −∆
a=− ; b=− ; c=1;∆ = (1−n )2 +4α 2n
2n 2n
where γ is a constant whose value is determined by imposing a
regularity condition at r = 1,
(2−Bi )1/ n
γ= 2
2 F12 (a, b; c; Bi ) Fig. 2. Normal shear stress distribution for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi=0.3
τn=0.3,0.5,0.7,0.9,1.1,1.3,1.5,1.7,1.9,2.1and 2.3 from center to wall.
It is worthwhile to remark that for Bi = 0 the function Rα (r ) reduces
to the O(ε) contribution for the purely power-law fluid solution, i.e.
Bi →0 1− n −n
Rα ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2 n r

Similarly, for n=0, Rα (r ) collapses onto the O(ε) solution for the
purely Bingham flow as previously found for the triangular and square
cross-sections, namely, for α=3,
n →0 ⎛ Bi3 9Bi2 9Bi 2 3⎞
R3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ ⎜ − + r− r +r ⎟
⎝ 80 40 10 ⎠

Finally, comparison of O(ε) terms in Eq. (8) and Eq. (10), and using
Eq. (28) yields f1 as
Rα (r )−r αf0
f1 = sin αθ
1−r 2
Higher order terms can be determined in like manner.
Fig. 3. Equal velocity lines for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi=1.65, w=0, 0.007, 0.014 and 0.02
from border to center. Plug zone is in light gray color. Stagnant zones are in dark gray
4. Results
color in the corners.

Setting G(r, θ) =0 and varying the values of the mapping para-

meters ε and α yields a great variety of cross-sectional contours. The
values ε = 0.3849 and α = 3 leads to an exact equilateral triangle; the
geometry corresponding to ε = 0.22 and α = 4 is a square with rounded
corners. The velocity field and normal shear stress distribution for
α = 3 are shown in Figs. 1–9 and Figs. 10–11 show the velocity field for
α = 4 . Figs. 1–9 show the evolution of the plug and stagnant zones for
the equilateral triangular cross-section for three values of the yield
stress. The boundary of the plug zones is defined as the maximum
velocity equal velocity line, and the stagnant regions at the corners are
limited by the walls and the line on which w = 0 . This definition for the

Fig. 4. Normal shear stress distribution for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi=1.65 τn=1.683,1.8,1.9

and 2.0 from center to wall.

plug boundary makes physical sense since a solid region must move
with constant velocity. Fig. 7 illustrates a 3-D plot of the mathematical
predictions of (8), where negative velocity contours at the center and
inside the stagnant regions have been eliminated. This full mathema-
tical configuration is complex and is only partly realistic. Predicted
local maxima, as shown in Fig. 8 for Bi = 1.7, cannot exist because they
violate the condition stated in (2), that is, shear cannot be smaller than
the yield stress, which would be the case if there are zones of positive
velocity gradient in the flow. Therefore the only realistic interpretation
Fig. 1. Equal velocity lines for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi = 0.3, w = 0,0.15,0.3,0.45,0.6and0.722
is that the Bingham model is valid from the tube wall up to the
from border to center. Plug zone is in gray color.

5
M.F. Letelier et al.
Fig. 5. Equal velocity lines for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi =1.7 w=0, 0.0111 from border to
center. Plug zone is in light gray color. Stagnant zones are in dark gray color in the
corners.
Fig. 6. Normal shear stress distribution for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi =1.7; τn=1.736,1.8,1.9
and 2.0 from center to wall.
Fig. 7. 3-D plot of velocity field for α = 3; ε = 0.3849, Bi=1.7.
continuous curve of maximum velocity. However, in these cases there
would be a velocity gradient discontinuity in parts of the plug zone
contour. Physically this means, as can be appreciated from Figs. 2, 4
and 6, that the normal shear stress is not constant in the plug
boundary, as it is for smaller .
Thus the discontinuity is of mathematical nature but not physical.
The reliability of these analytical results have been confirmed through
the following validation procedure; second order terms in ε have been
considered to show that they have little effect on the results, and the
calculations have been extended to contours with much smaller value
for ε than for α = 3 and ε = 0.3849 : α = 4 (ε = 0.204), α = 5 (εc=0.186)
6
International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10
Fig. 8. Equal velocity lines corresponding to Fig. 7.
Fig. 9. Plug and stagnant zones for α = 3, ε = 0.375, Bi = 1.7, w = 0.0120 . Plug zone is in
light gray color. Stagnant zones are in dark gray color.
Fig. 10. Plug and stagnant zones for α = 4, ε = 0.25, Bi = 1.8, w = 0.00297 . Plug zone is
in light gray color. Stagnant zones are in dark gray color.
and α = 6(εc=0.148). In all these cases same type of flow configurations
prevails.
The work by Saramito and Roquet [13,14] shows concave stagnant
zones at the corner, whereas the present analysis predicts convex ones,
using the same definition criteria. The present method provides a
mathematical argument that backs the convex shape prediction. Eq. (6)
shows that at the corner apex τn is zero since the radius of curvature is
zero. Deformation starts when τn≥Bi . Figs. 2, 4 and 6 show that close to
M.F. Letelier et al.
Fig. 11. Plug and stagnant zones for α = 4, ε = 0.204, Bi = 1.8, w = 0.00576 . Plug zone is
in light gray color. Stagnant zones are in dark gray color.
the corners iso-τn curves are convex, a result that can be very accurately
computed for smaller Bi and is exact for Bi = 0. The main argument is
that the normal shear stress curves at the corners are convex, starting
with Newtonian fluids, and at the border of the dead zones the normal
shear stress should be equal to the yield stress, and that is what the
analysis shows.
The effect of sharp corners on the flow is illustrated in Figs. 9–11, in
which sharp edges have been smoothed by taking a smaller value of ε
with everything else equal. In these cases the stagnant zones decrease
significantly as the plug velocity increases. Rate of flow Q = ∫ wrdrdθ
s not much different qualitatively with respect to the presented case and
can be computed once the geometry of isovels and solid zones is
known. S is a piece-wise area composed of a central constant velocity
portion and a complex-shaped annulus in which the velocity varies.
Stagnant zones are not considered. Three values of Q have been
Fig. 12. Isovels and velocity profiles along a symmetry axis for a fixed value of the Bingham number Bi=0 and various values of the power-law index: (a) and (d): n = 0.5 ; (b) and (e):
n = 1.0 ; (c) and (f): n = 1.5.
7
International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10
computed for α = 3 and ε = 0.3849 and three values of the dimension-
less yield stress the Bingham number Bi,
Bi Q
0.5 1, 171
1.0 0, 620
1.5 0, 170
A 100% increase in the dimensionless yield stress Bi from Bi = 0.5
to Bi = 1.0 decreases Q by 47%. In all these computations the pressure
gradient has been kept fixed at a value of −4. Other values of the
pressure gradient do not change the general outcomes of this analysis.
In steady flow axial pressure forces are balanced out by axial shear
stress for any fluid element. In circular tubes constant normal shear
stress curves are also circular, so that all circular concentric elements
develop a constant shear stress on their limiting surfaces. This is not
the case for non-circular tubes, except when the dimensionless yield
stress Bi and the radius of the fluid element are small, see Fig. 1.
Figs. 2, 4 and 6 depict the curves of constant normal shear stress which
are directly related to the dissipation function through Eq. (2). The
maximum normal shear stress occurs at the center of the walls of the
triangle, and the minimum τn=0 occurs at the apex of the corners and at
the tube center. Greater normal shear stress means greater normal
velocity gradients implying that velocity increases faster closer to the
middle of the walls of the triangle. Knowledge of energy dissipation
distribution inside the flow region can help improve conduit design and
help predict head loss in flows in complex geometries.
Next the general expression obtained for the velocity field of an H-B
fluid is evaluated for the equilateral triangle case parametrized by the
values of α and ε . The results for the square with rounded corners are
are not displayed. Equal velocity curves (isovels) and velocity profiles
are shown for the triangular cross-section corresponding to α = 3 and
ε = 0.3849 . The yield stress takes in each figure the following values:
Bi∈{0.0,0.5,1.0,1.3}. Within each figure, the behavior of a shear-thin-
M.F. Letelier et al.
Fig. 13. Isovels and velocity profile along a symmetry axis for a fixed value of the Bingham number Bi=0.5 and various values of the power-law index: (a) and (d): n = 0.5 ; (b) and (e):
n = 1.0 ; (c) and (f): n = 1.5.
ning fluid (n = 0.5), purely plastic fluid (n = 1), and shear-thickening
fluid (n = 1.5) is presented in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd columns, respec-
tively. The corresponding velocity profile is drawn along a symmetry
axis of the cross-section. For Bi ≠ 0 , plug-zones (PZ) are identified by
the contour given by the maximum velocity isovel. Plug-zones at the
cross-sectional center and stagnant zones (SZ) at the borders are
shown (if any) as shaded areas with corresponding velocities shown in
the velocity profiles.
Fig. 12 depicts the behavior of a purely power-index fluid, Bi=0 ,
where neither SZ or PZ are present. When the yield stress value
increases up to Bi=0.5 as in Fig. 13 the situation changes and SZ and PZ
appear as a function of n. Fig. 13 shows that for n=0.5 there exist SZ
but no PZ, while for n=1 and n=1.5 the opposite situation is found.
Figs. 14 and 15 show that this difference becomes more pronounced as
Bi takes higher values. In each figure, instead of a PZ for n=0.5 the
central zone of the cross-section holds comparatively high velocities,
with a cusp at r = 0 which gets sharper as Bi increases. Hence, even if
the fluid becomes stagnant near the edges of the cross-section it is
rapidly flowing at the center. Conversely, when n=1.5 the opposite
occurs, i.e. PZ are formed but no SZ appears for the values of the yield
stress analyzed. Moreover, for any fixed value of n , as the Bingham
number Bi increases, the velocity and hence, rate of flow decreases in
line with plastic behavior.
5. Conclusions
The extension of a versatile analytical method previously used by
the authors for steady flow in non-circular tubes of viscoelastic fluids to
the flow of Bingham fluids has provided several novel insights
concerning the flow dynamics. This method was used to study the
secondary flows and heat transfer in flows of viscoelastic fluids leading
to novel analytical predictions, Siginer & Letelier [26,27]. In this paper
the analysis is focused mainly on an equilateral triangular tube cross-
section, and also on the square cross-sectional tube to some extent. The
8
International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10
cross-sectional geometry is determined by the shape factor method,
which maps the circular base contour onto a family of shapes
characterized by two parameters, α and ε . The exact equilateral
triangular cross-section (α = 3, ε = 0.3849 ) has been chosen to illus-
trate explicit results. However it is relevant to point out that the
velocity field can be evaluated for any arbitrary cross-sectional contour
via the shape factor method.
Viscoplastic flows in non-circular tubes develop zones of unde-
formed fluid called plug zones and if the tube contour has sharp
corners, stagnant zones appear in the vicinity of the apex of the corner.
We show that the Bingham model may mathematically predict velocity
fields that are in part not realistic and need physical interpretation.
This is especially so when the plug zones have non-circular boundaries.
In this case the longitudinal shear stress is not constant at the
boundary of the plug zone, and it is equal or greater than the yield
stress. The analytical method presented yields fast results for a wide
variety of contours, thus allowing the comparison and quantification of
the effect of different contours on the kinematic and dynamic variables
of the flow. We show in particular that a radius of curvature at the
corners no matter how small greatly diminishes the stagnant zones and
increases the rate of flow, which means that even a very small
departure from sharpness at the corners produces this result. In
addition we also predict that stagnant areas at the corners of the
cross-section are convex in contrast to the findings of previously
published work, Saramito and Roquet [13] and Roquet and Saramito
[14], and we provide a rigorous mathematical argument in support of
our predictions. The rate of flow and energy dissipation distribution in
the tube cross-section has been explored. Energy dissipation, an
important variable in the design of conduits for viscoplastic materials,
is closely related to normal shear stress distribution, which can be very
accurately determined via the analytical approach presented in this
paper.
Flow of a Herschel-Bulkley fluid in tubes of non-circular cross-
section has been investigated analytically using the same approach as
M.F. Letelier et al. International Journal of Non–Linear Mechanics 88 (2017) 1–10

Fig. 14. Isovels and velocity profile along a symmetry axis for a fixed value of the Bingham number Bi=1.0 and various values of the power-law index: (a) and (d): n = 0.5 . (b) and (e):
n = 1.0 ; (c) and (f): n = 1.5.

for Bingham fluids. In general the results are in agreement with the is shear-thickening, velocity increases when compared to the case of
standard behavior of power-index fluids in circular pipes. For any value the purely plastic Bingham fluid (n = 1). For shear-thinning fluids, that
of the Bingham number Bi and power index n > 1 that is when the fluid is when n < 1, the opposite behavior occurs, that is overall the velocity

Fig. 15. Isovels and velocity profile along a symmetry axis for a fixed value of the Bingham number Bi=1.3 and various values of the power-law index: (a) and (d): n = 0.5 ; (b) and (e):
n = 1.0 ; (c) and (f): n = 1.5.

9
M.F. Letelier et al.
decreases when compared to the purely plastic Bingham fluid, but
locally increases in the central region. When the velocity is normalized
with the average velocity, the opposite trend is true.
A particularly interesting result is that the plug-zone size and
geometry are functions of the power law index n. For a fixed value of
the Bingham number Bi the plug-zone shape departs from a circle as n
moves away from unity, and can become completely absent for shear
thinning fluids. The stagnant zones also depend on n . In the present
analysis they are present only in the velocity distributions for n = 0.5,
but are absent in the other two cases analyzed.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by FONDECYT-Chile through grant
number 1130346, and by DICYT at the Universidad de Santiago de
Chile.
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