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FORMULAE
HANDOUT FOR
CERTIFICATE IN MEC
UPDATED AUGUST’ 06
INDEX
PAGE
SECTION 1
AIRFLOW 1
PRESSURE SURVEYS 7
AIRFLOW MEASUREMENT 10
FANS 12
COMPRESSED AIR 14
SECTION 2
HEAT 15
PSYCHROMETRY 18
REFRIGERATION 22
GASES 27
RADIATION 28
SECTION 3
FIRES 30
DUST 31
NOISE 34
ILLUMINATION 41
MINE WATER 42
ECONOMICS 51
STATISTICS 54
AIRFLOW
Natural Ventilation Pressure [NVP]
a. Density Formula Method [when there are no fans in the circuit]
NVE = Pv
NVE
NVP =
v
REYNOLDS NUMBER
wVD
Re =
μ
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
V2
u + Pv + + Zg = Constant
2
RESISTANCE
KCL w
R = x
A 3 1,2
ATKINSON’S FORMULA
KCLQ 2 w
P = x
A3 1.2
Or
KCLV 2 w
P = x
A 1 .2
Where P = pressure loss due to friction [Pa]
K = friction factor [Ns2/m4]
C = circumference [m]
L = length [m]
Q = air quantity [m3/s]
V = air velocity [m/s]
A = area [m2]
w = air density [kg/m3]
P = RQ2
VELOCITY PRESSURE
V 2w
VP =
2
Where VP = velocity pressure [Pa]
V = air velocity [m/s]
w = air density [kg/m3]
DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION
λLwV ²
p =
2D
Where p = pressure [Pa]
λ = Darcy Weisbach friction factor
L = length [m]
w = density [kg/m3]
V = velocity [m/s]
D = diameter [m]
λ = 6.67K when ws = 1.2 kg/m3
AIR POWER
pxQ RQ3
Wa = OR Wa =
1000 1000
Where Wa = air power [kW]
p = pressure [Pa]
Q = air quantity [m3/s]
R = Resistance (Ns2/m8)
TRIGONOMETRY
A
X
B C
To calculate length AC
opposite ⎛ AC ⎞
Sin x = ⎜ ⎟
hypotenuse ⎝ AB ⎠
To calculate length AB
adjacent ⎛ BC ⎞
Cos x = ⎜ ⎟
hypotenuse ⎝ AB ⎠
To calculate length BC
opposite ⎛ AC ⎞
Tan x = ⎜ ⎟
adjacent ⎝ BC ⎠
EVASEÉS
Actual pressure regain can only be measured or theoretical pressure regain multiplied by evaseè
efficiency:-
LEAKAGE
These are calculated from a square law relationship derived from Atkinson’s formula for a constant
resistance
P ∝ Q2
Or
p1 p2
2
=
Q1 Q2 2
AIRWAYS IN SERIES
QT = Q1 = Q2
PT = P1 + P2
RT = R1 + R2
AIRWAYS IN PARALLEL
QT = Q1 + Q2
PT = P1 = P2
1 1 1
= +
RT R1 R2
REGULATORS
w
Ar = 1.2Q
p
Where Ar = regulator area [m2]
Q = air quantity through regulator [m3/s]
p = pressure used up by regulator [Pa]
w = air density [kg/m3]
Or, when the air density is 1.2 kg/m3
1.31Q
Ar =
p
TP1 = TP2
or
Because
TP = SP + VP
PRESSURE SURVEYS
ΔB1 - ΔB2
R =
QF² − QR²
DENSITY METHOD
The pressure loss:
• the difference between the theoretical pressure increase or decrease and the actual pressure
increase or decrease
AIRFLOW MEASUREMENT
2n − 1
Rn = d
4N
ORIFICE PLATE
1.2Q
Q =
P
CONICAL INLET
Δp
Q = 1.11 D² C
w
VENTURI METER
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Δp ⎜ 1 ⎟
Q = 1.11 d² Cd E z E= ⎜ ⎟
w ⎜ ⎛ d 4 ⎞ 0. 5 ⎟
⎜ 1 − ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝D ⎠ ⎠
q x 10 6
Q =
C
q x 10 6
Q =
C1 − C2
m a
Vg = = Q ∫o Cdt = QA
Wg
m
Q =
w gA
FANS
work output
Efficiency = x 100%
work input
air power
Fan Efficiency = x 100%
fan input power
air power
Overall Efficiency = x 100%
motor input power
FAN LAWS
2. pαw
p1 p2
=
w1 w2
3. Power α w
power 1 power 2
=
w1 w2
Eff1 = Eff2
1. Q α speed
Q1 Q2 Q1 x speed2
= Or Q2 =
speed1 speed2 speed1
2. p α speed2
p1 p2 p1 x [speed2]²
= Or p2 =
speed1 speed2 [speed1]²
3. power α speed3
Eff1 = Eff2
old speed
New pulley size = Old pulley size x
new speed
new speed
New pulley size = Old pulley size x
old speed
COMPRESSED AIR
The increase in pressure due to auto compression can be derived from the equation:-
⎡ gH ⎤
Pe = Ps exp ⎢ ⎥
⎣ RT ⎦
HEAT
AUTO-COMPRESSION OR DE-COMPRESSION
Heat increase or decrease: 0.979 kJ/kg/100m or 9,79 kJ/kg / 1000m of vertical depth
gΔz
H =
1000
H = heat increase
g = 0.979 kJ/kg/100m
Z = vertical depth
V.R.T [approximate]:-
V.R.T. [accurate]:-
H = 0.7θ + θ v
a) Conduction
KA [t1 − t 2]
q =
b
b) Convection
c) Radiation
1
And Fev =
1 A1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
∈1 A 2 ⎝ ∈2 ⎠
OR
⎡⎛ T ⎞ 4 ⎛ T ⎞ 4 ⎤
q = 5,67 ⎢⎜ 1 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ x A1 x Fev
⎢⎣⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
HEAT EQUATIONS
W = M Cp Δt
q = M Cp Δt
⎛ (10,45 + 10 v - v) x (33 - T) ⎞
WCET = 33 - ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 22.04 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
PSYCHROMETRY
BOYLE’S LAW
P1V1 = P2V2
V1 V 2
=
T1 T 2
P1V1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2
Pv
= R
T
And the gas constant [R] for dry air = 0.2871 kJ/kg K
M = Qxw
or
Q
M =
v
Thus:
Q1w1 = Q2w2
A = 0.000644 °C-1
P = pressure [kPa]
0.622 x Pw
v =
P − Pw
0.287 x T
v = m³ / kg
P − Pw
4. Density [w]
1+ r
w = kg / m³
v
5. Enthalpy [H]
H = Ha + rH’w kJ/kg
S = H - rH’w1 kJ/kg
Pw
φ = x 100%
P' s
237.3 x
tdp = °C
17.27 − x
⎡ Pw ⎤
Where x = In⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.6105 ⎦
Q = M x ΔS
M x Δr
R =
1000
Mixing of Airstreams:-
Sc =
[MA x SA ] + [MB x SB]
[MA + MB]
Where: SC = sigma heat content of the mixture [kJ/kg]
[MA x SA] = the total kW of heat from air stream A
[MB x SB] = the total kW of heat from air stream B
[MA x SA] + [MB x SB] = the total kW in air stream C
[MA + MB] = the total mass flow of air stream C
Moisture Content:
rc =
[MA x rA ] + [MB x rB]
[MA + MB]
Where: rC = the moisture content of the mixture [g/kg]
[MA x rA] = the total moisture [g/s] from air stream A
[MB x SB] = the total moisture [g/s] from air stream B
[MA x SA] + [MB x SB] = the moisture [g/s] in air stream C
[MA + MB] = the total mass flow of air stream C
REFRIGERATION
a. Heat balance
b. Carnot C.O.P
T1
Carnot COP =
T 2 − T1
cooling at evaporator
kW
compressor motor input power
cooling at evaporator
kW
compressor motor output power
cooling at coils
kW
total electric input power
W = E Ipf n
twi − two
Nw = x 100%
twi − twbi
Sao − Sai
Na = x 100%
Swi − Sai
1
F = when R>1 and E = Na (Air Efficiency)
⎡ ⎡1 ⎤⎤
⎢1+ R ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎥
⎣ ⎣E ⎦⎦
Or
1
F = when R<1 and E = Nw (Water Efficiency)
⎡ 1 ⎡1 ⎤⎤
⎢1+ ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎥
⎣ R ⎣E ⎦⎦
And
Mw x Cpw
R =
Ma x C' a
Where:
Swi − Sai
C’a =
twi − tai
PH Diagram
A Condenser E D
P = Pressure (kPa)
Compressor
Evaporator
F B C E on constant entropy
Line through C
H = Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
1. Evaporator heat exchange - C - B [kJ/kg]
[D - A] = [C - B] + [D - C]
5. Carnot C.O.P.
T1
T 2 − T1
C−B
D−C
7. Cycle efficiency:-
8. Compressor efficiency:-
E−C
x 100%
D−C
B−F
x 100%
C−F
11. Power consumed by - actual work of compression x compressor mass flow of refrigerant
- [D - C] x M
- [C - B] x M
Q = M x vin
Q = M x vout
[a − c ] − b x 100
a
GASES
GAS DILUTION
Q1 x 106
Q = - Q1
MAC − N
where Q - fresh air volume or mass flow rate required for dilution [m3/s or kg/s]
Q1 - volume or mass flow rate of gas emission [m3/s or kg/s]
MAC - maximum allowable gas concentration [after mixing] in parts Per million by
volume or mass
N - gas concentration in normal air in parts per million by volume or mass
GAS MIXING
RADIATION
⎡ 86.4 x 10 6 V ⎤ 1
T = ⎢ ⎥ 1.85 NB; in brackets to the power of 1/1.85
⎣ Et ⎦
5. Radon Dilution
Rn1
Q2 = Q1
Rn2
1.85
⎡Q ⎤
6. WL2 = WL1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ Q2 ⎦
Where: HID - is the deep dose equivalent index received in the year
FIRES
1. Excess N2 - N2 - 3.7778 O2
2. O2 deficiency - 0.2647 N2 – O2
CH4
4. ‘R’ values on USBM diagram -
D
CO
5. CO/O2 deficiency ratio - x 100% [Graham Ratio]
O2 deficiency
CO2
6. Young’s ratio - x 100%
O2 deficiency
CO2
7. Willet’s ratio - x 100%
Excess N2 + total combustibl es, D + CO2
Please refer to the “Environmental Engineering in South African Mines” Page 814 - 817
DUST
DUST FILTRATION
[m²] = [π D x L] + ⎡⎢ πD² ⎤⎥
⎣ 4 ⎦
DUST DILUTION
100
Percentage particles stated size
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Particle size [um]
Step Example
1. Note the average flow rate and sample time.
Obtain the pump flow rate. 2,2 Litres per minute
Determine the total sample time 8 hours 20 minutes
Convert total sample time to minutes ∴ Minutes = (8 x 60) + 20
= 500 minutes
Step Example
4. Determine the sample mass (mg)
Subtract the pre weighed sample mass Post weighed sample mass - Pre weighed
from the post weighed sample mass sample mass
Also weigh in the manner described in 20,78 - 20,66
step 3.
= 0,12 mg
0,05
=
1,1
= 0,046 mg/m3
NOISE
Background Noise
• Equation:
L M 10
LB = 10 log10 (10 - 10 L A 10
)
Note:
A calculation having a difference of more than 10 dB (A) will indicate that the decibel
value to be subtracted is less than half a decibel and background correction can thus be
ignored.
Wavelength
The relationship between wavelength λ [m], speed c [m/s] and frequency f [Hz] is given in the
following formula: -
c
λ = [units as above]
f
Sound Intensity
p²
I =
wc
⎡ sound power ⎤
SWL = 10Log10 ⎢ ⎥ dB
⎣ reference power ⎦
SPL = 10 Log10
[sound pressure]² dB
[reference pressure]²
Or
SPL = 20 Log10
[sound pressure] dB
[reference pressure]
Where the reference pressure is the sound pressure at the threshold of hearing i.e. 2 x 10-5 Pa
Leq = LA + C1
Leq = LA [av] + a C1
⎡ 1 LAV 10 ⎤
LA[av] = 10 Log10 ⎢
⎣100
∑f 1 10
⎥
⎦
F1 - Duration of the i-class sound level exposure expressed as a percentage of the total
analysis time [normalised to a 40 hour total period]
⎡ L L L ⎤
Leq = 10 Log10 ⎢f1anti log 1 + f2antilog 2 + fn anti log n ⎥ + C1
⎣ 10 10 10 ⎦
Where: f1 to fn - the ratios in relation to 40 hours of the duration of exposure to the sound
levels L1 to Ln
L1 to Ln - the sound levels of dB [A] of the exposures for the duration ratios f1 to fn
OR
Cn
Where F = Σf, where fn = antilog [0,1 x (Lnoise – 90)]
40
C1 C2 Cn
D= + + ....
T1 T 2 Tn
⎡T⎤
Lav = 85 - 10 Log10 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 40 ⎦
⎡101 - L av ⎤
Antilog ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 10 ⎦
When the Exposure Factor D has been obtained, the graph below is used to determine the
equivalent noise level, Leq
Spheres
To calculate area:
Sphere = 4πr2
Hemisphere = 2πr2
¼ Sphere = πr2
Control of Noise
a. Fans
In the design stage the acoustical characteristic of a fan is not usually available and it is
often necessary to make an estimate. Three formulae often used are given below:-
Where SWL is the overall sound power level in the octave frequency bands 31.5 to 8 000 Hz
b. Rock drill
c. Diesel Equipment
i. Exhaust Noise
ILLUMINATION
1. The relationship between wavelength [λ] speed [c] and frequency [f] is given in the following
formulae:-
c
λ = [units as above]
f
c - Velocity [m/s]
f - Frequency [Hz]
The inverse square law states that the illumination at any point on a surface varies directly
with a luminous intensity of the source and inversely as the square of the distance between
the source and the point. If the source is normal to the direction of the incident light, the law
may be expressed as:-
l
E =
d2
d - Distance [m]
MINE WATER
N x DF
CF
xL²
[CF] =
105
If a 100 ml measuring flask is used, [assuming the distilled water and acid used both have
counts of zero
100
Dilution Factor [DF] =
sample volume [ml]
V2
H =
2g
V 2 2 V 21
H = −
2g 2g
Δp
λ =
wV ²
[L / Dh ]
2
0.316
λ =
R e 0.25
PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
HT = Hs + Hf
Hwg
p =
1000
Pump Efficiency
Power output
Efficiency = x 100
Power input
available head
Energy recovered = x g x water flow x efficiency
1000
This pipe friction chart is used to read off directly the Darcy Weisbach’s information, without having
to perform long calculations and applies for both vertical and horizontal pipes.
To read the chart you need to know two of the following factors:
λLV 2
Hf =
2gD
Remember the Darcy Weisbach equation calculate head loss due to friction.
Stroh’s Equation
M 1,92
Hf = 2,04 x 10-9 x xL
d 5,13
V2
H =
2g
2 2
V2 V
H = − 1
2g 2g
Age in Years 10 15 20 30
Age Factor 1,3 1,45 1,6 2,0
New equivalent pipe length = Given new pipe length x age factor.
ΔP
Metres head = (Where ΔP = ΔH - Hf)
9,79
9,79
Δt = per 1000 m = 2,34 oC per 1000 m
4,187
ΔT = μ x ΔP
Energy Recovery
ΔH - Hf
Energy recovered = xgxmxη
1000
• Where Q = l /s
Q x HT x g
Power(in) =
1000 x η
• Where Q = m3/s
Q x HT x g
Power(in) =
η
Important Notes:
• Frictional head loss in pipes down a shaft above a turbine should not exceed 2,5m /
100m
• Water terminal velocity is where the head loss is equal to 100 m / 100 m.
• Pump Total Head (HT) = Static Head (Hs) + Head loss due to friction (Hf)
∴ Ht = Hs + Hf
ECONOMICS
Simple Interest
i
I = pxnx
100
Compound Interest
n
⎡ i ⎤
S = p ⎢1 +
⎣ 100 ⎥⎦
Where: S - total sum of money at the end of the investment period [Rands]
p - principal invested [Rand]
i - interest rate [%]
n - time that the principal is invested [Years]
Present Value
1
Present value of 1 = v n =
[1 + I]n
The present value of 1 per year for n years at an interest rate of I
1 − vn
An =
i
Where: vn - the present value which one unit of money in n years would have at the present time
n - years
NB: Please refer to the “Environmental Engineering In South Africa” hand book page 848 - 860
STATISTICS
MEAN
Σx
x=
n
Σ= The Greek letter sigma means the sum of all individual values of x.
Example:
n = number of values y
Example:
Geometric mean of 2, 4, 6, 3, 5
5
GM = 2x4x6x3x5
= 3.7
MEDIAN (Me):
Is the middle value when all the observations are arranged in ascending order.
n +1
Me =
2
Example:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Is to determine by how much the individual observation vary from the mean.
To calculate the "Standard Deviation" from a set of observations the following formula is used:
Σ ( x - x)2
(S) =
n -1
Σ = The Greek letter sigma means the sum of all individual values of x.
PERCENTILES: Are the values in a set which divide the set into 100 equal parts.
QUARTILES: The values in a set which divide the set into 4 equal parts.
The statistician must decide if the mean of two sets of observations which show a difference from
each other do in fact represent a genuine difference in condition.