Wastewater Treatment

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I
Water Treatment Processes
Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Associate Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering, BUET
Engineered systems for Water Purification
Public water supplies, though only a fraction of the water use, require the
largest amount of effort expended by environmental engineers in the water
treatment field
Processes : theory and applications

 Aeration (Gas Transfer)
 Solids Separation
 Settling Operations
 Coagulation
 Softening
 Filtration
 Disinfection
 Advanced treatment options
(Ion exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis, Adsorption)
CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

AERATION (GAS TRANSFER)

Aeration (Gas Transfer)
A physical phenomenon in which gas molecules are exchanged
between a liquid and a gas at a gas-liquid interface.
Examples Water treatment objectives
O2, Cl2 Oxidation of Fe2+, Mn2+, S2-
O3 Disinfection, color removal, oxidation of organics
Absorption
ClO2 Disinfection
CO2 pH control
SO2 Dechlorination
NH3 Chloramine formation for disinfection
CO2, O2 Corrosion control
Desorption
H2S Odor control
NH3 Nutrient removal
VOC Taste and odor control, removal of carcinogens

Principles of Gas Transfer: Two-film theory
The interface is composed of two distinct films that serve as a barrier
between the bulk phases
Concentration gradient (Cs – Ct) is the driving force

Mass transfer can be enhanced by reducing the thickness of the film
(either gas or liquid)
Effect of Solubility and Hydrodynamic Conditions
Rate limiting step: the step which offers the most resistance to
movement
It is possible that one of the films exhibits relatively high resistance

and therefore dominates the overall resistance to transfer.
So the solubility of the gas and the hydrodynamic conditions which

establish the film thickness or renewal rate (in either phase)
determine if a film controls.
Henry’s Law dictates the extent to which gas is soluble in water:
P (mol/mol of air) = c (mol/mol of water)× H (Henry’s Constant)

Solubility and Mass Transfer
If the gas is highly soluble (e.g. NH3):
Passage of gas molecules across the gas film is the controlling factor.
Moving or stirring the gas will enhance transfer
If the gas is weakly soluble (e.g. O2, N2 and CO2):

Passage of gas molecules across the liquid film is the controlling
factor. Moving or stirring the liquid will enhance transfer
Gases of intermediate solubility (e.g. H2S):

Effect of both films are important.
Solubility of gas depends on:

a) Its partial pressure in the atmosphere in contact with water
b) Water temperature
c) Presence of impurities

Quantifying and Optimizing Gas Transfer
Rate of mass transfer per unit volume per unit time
Integrating over time: interfacial area

Example Problems
Problem: Dechlorinated secondary effluent is placed in a storage basin until
needed for reuse. The initial DO is 1.5 mg/L, estimate the time required for
the DO to reach 8.5 mg/L due to surface reaeration, assuming the water in
the storage basin is circulated and not stagnant. Assume KL = 0.03 m/h, CS =
9.09 mg/L. The surface area of the storage basin is 400 m2 and depth is 3m
Problem: A falling raindrop initially has no DO. Saturation conc of oxygen in

water is 9.2 mg/L. After falling for 2 seconds, the droplet has a DO conc. of
3.2 mg/L. How long must the droplet fall to achieve a concentration of 8.2
mg/L?
Problem: Water contains 6.84×10-8 moles Trichloroethylene (TCE,

MW=131.4) gas per mole of water. What is the concentration of TCE in
water? If Henry’s constant, H = 560 atm at 20⁰C, what will be the conc. In
water in the presence of 0.01 mole air?

Liquid-Gas contact systems
Designed to drive the water-gas mixture towards equilibrium as quickly as
possible for degasification or oxidation purposes
Accomplished by
- dispersing the water into the air
- dispersing the air into the water
Four types of aerators:

1. Gravity aerators Used for water treatment
2. Spray aerators
3. Diffusers
Used for wastewater treatment
4. Mechanical aerators

Basic Principles of Liquid-Gas contact systems
-To maximize the area of contact between the water and air (increase
of interfacial area through forming water droplets)
- to increase the exposure time of contact (projecting water very high

or dropping water from an elevated place)
- to produce motion of one fluid relative to other so that exchange can

be enhanced by maximizing the concentration gradient (renewal of
interface by agitation)

Gravity aerators
Cascades Inclined
planes
Tower with
countercurrent
flow of air Perforated
stacks

Packed Columns (gravity aerator)
Purewateroccasional.net

Spray aerators
Nozzled aerator Aerator nozzles

SOLIDS SEPARATION

Sedimentation theory
For a discrete spherical particle, settling velocity/terminal velocity is
obtained when
Gravitational force (F) = Frictional Drag force (FD)
( ρ S − ρW ) gV = C D AC ρW vS2 / 2 FD Water density, ρW
2 gV (ρ S − ρW )
vS =
C D ρW AC
vS d
4 g (ρ S − ρW )d
vS =
3C D ρW
Density, ρS
V = volume of particle = πd3/6
F
AC = X-sectional area of particle = πd2/4
vS = settling velocity
CD = drag coefficient

Determination of Drag coefficient, CD
Typical Reynolds number for particles

C D = 24 / R R ≤1 in water treatment
C D = 24 / R + 3 / R + 0.34 1 < R < 10 4
Problem: Find the terminal settling
C D = 0.4 10 4 < R < 105
velocity of a spherical particle with
g (ρ S − ρW )d 2 diameter 0.5 mm and sp. Gravity 2.65
vS = settling through water at 20⁰C
18µ
(Answer: 0.11 m/s)
Stoke’s Equation
Settling Column to Determine vs
Application of Stokes Equation is
seldom possible in water treatment
Camp devised an indirect method to

determine settling velocity using a
settling column
vs = distance/time = Z0/t0
vp = distance/time = Zp/t0
Z p / Z 0 = v p / v0
The same principle can be applied to
determine settleability of a given
suspension

Settling of Particles in a Clarifier
Type I: Horizontal, discrete, or free settling. Particle size, shape and sp.
Gravity do not change with time. Ex: plain settling in water treatment
plants and grit settling in wastewater treatment plants.
Type II: Settling of flocculent particles in a dilute suspension.

Particles aggregate, coalesce with other particles
Ex: settling of flocs after coagulation and flocculation in water and
wastewater treatment plants
Type III: Zone settling or hindered settling. This occurs in the secondary
clarifiers at wastewater treatment plants.
Type IV: Compression settling where the particles are too close that
settling can occur by compaction. This occurs in secondary clarifiers in
wastewater treatment plants when the solids at the bottom are thickened.

Different settling types
Type I: discrete settling

Type II: Flocculent settling
Type III: Zone settling (hindered and compression settling)
Discrete settling Flocculent settling Hindered settling

Depth
Depth
Depth
Compression settling
Time Time Time

Ideal Sedimentation Basin: assumptions
Inlet Zone Outlet Zone
vO
v hO
Particles and velocity vectors are uniformly distributed

across the tank cross-section
Liquid moves as an ideal slug down the length of the tank
Any particle hitting the bottom are removed

Ideal Sedimentation Basin
Inlet Zone Outlet Zone
vO
v hO
h vS v
Overflow rate: v0 = h0 / t0 = h0Q / V = Q / A
Overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins and it

identifies the smallest settling velocity attributable to the class of
particles which experience complete removal
For vS < v0 , the removal percentage will be 100(vS /vO) because

h / h0 = vS / v0
Removal efficiency from settling velocity characteristics
xO
having < stated velocity

Fraction of particles
dx
vx vO
Settling velocity
Total particle fraction that will be removed:

1 xO
(1 − xO ) +
vO ∫0
v x dx Applicable only for ideal settling

Problem: Calculating Removal Efficiency from
settling column experiments
A settling analysis is run on a Type-I suspension. The

column is 1.8 m deep and the data is shown below:
Time (min) Suspended Solids (mg/l)
0 300
60 189
80 180
100 168
1.8 m 130 156
200 111
240 78
420 27
Sampling
port
Compute the removal efficiency of the settling basin
when the loading rate is 25 m/d.

Flocculent settling (Type II settling)
A general formula for determining settling velocities cannot be derived
Settling column with multiple ports used to take samples at different
depths for different times. Contour of iso-removal lines constructed.
For a predetermined detention time, overall %removal can be obtained
Slope of iso-removal line gets

steeper with depth

Problem: Flocculent settling
Suspended Solids at different time and depths are shown in the table. The
initial SS concentration is 250 mg/L.
Time (min) 30 60 90 120 150 180

Depth (m)
0.5 133 83 50 38 30 23
1 180 125 93 65 55 43
1.5 203 150 118 93 70 58
2 213 168 135 110 90 70
2.5 220 180 145 125 103 80
3 225 188 155 133 113 95
What will be the overall removal efficiency of a settling basin which is 3m

deep with a detention time of 1hr 45 min

Estimating removal efficiency for flocculent settling
∆r × Z i
Total particle fraction that will be removed: R = r0 + ∑
Z0

Rectangular and Circular sedimentation tanks
Rectangular tank
L:W = 2:1 to 4:1
W = 12 m (max)
L = 48 m (max)
Depth = 2.5 – 3m (discrete)
Sludge zone
= 3 – 4m (flocculent)
Circular tank
Advantages:
-Sludge removal and
maintenance easier
- excess wier overflow rate is
Sludge zone not a problem

Design Criteria
Number of units: Good practice to have multiple units (at least 2)
Overflow rates: 1 – 2.5 m/h (discrete), 0.6 -1 m/h (flocculent)
Detention time: 2 – 4 hr(discrete), 4 – 6 hr (flocculent)
Horizontal velocity: should not exceed 9 m/h (light flocculent suspensions) and
36 m/h (heavier discrete particle suspensions)
Wier overflow rate: should not exceed 6 m3/hr per m of wier (light flocculent
suspensions) and 14 m3/hr per m of wier (heavier discrete particle suspensions)
Wier
arrangement

Design Problem: Sedimentation Tank
A city must treat 15000 m3/d of water. Flocculating particles are produced and a
column analysis indicates that an overflow rate of 20 m/d will produce
satisfactory removal at a depth of 3.5 m. Determine the size of the required
settling tank

COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

What is coagulation?
Colloidal impurities are responsible for color and turbidity
Colloidal particles do not settle by gravity and pass through filters.

Colloidal particles can only be removed by promoting aggregation
(and subsequent increase in size) by adding chemical agents.
Coagulation
CE331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed
What is coagulation?
Source: water.me.vccs.edu
Source:www.ramezanitrading.com

Reasons for Stability of colloidal particles
Large surface/volume ratio because of their extremely small size
Surface phenomena (e.g. accumulation of charges) predominate
• Molecular arrangement within the crystals

• loss of atoms due to abrasion
• Isomorphic replacement etc
In natural waters, most colloidal substances are negatively charged

Surface Charge on a Particle in Water
Net charge strongest at the

stern layer and decreases
exponentially with distance
from the colloid

Destabilization of colloidal particles
1. Reduction of surface potential by double layer compression
2. By adsorption and charge neutralization
3. Destabilization of colloids by enmeshment in a precipitate
4. Destabilization by Adsorption and charge neutralization
1. Double-layer compression:
Electrolytes added
Ion concentration, n
Increased charge density in n+
diffuse layer
n- n+
Less volume of charge required
n-
to neutralize surface charge
Distance from surface
Destabilization of colloidal particles (DLVO model)
Double layer
repulsion Intermediate High electrolyte
electrolyte concentration
Energy barrier concentration
Potential
Resultant
Van der Waals

attraction
(Derjaguin and Landau 1941; Verway and Overbeek 1948)
Effective method but the ionic strength is

much greater than what would be
acceptable for potable water

Effect of Charge on Double layer and Residual Turbidity
According to DLVO model:

Coagulation concentration
for counter-ions with charge
numbers 1, 2 and should be
in the ratio of
1/16:1/26:1/36 or
1000:16:1.3 to achieve a
given residual turbidity

2. Adsorption and charge neutralization:
Difference with double-layer
compression:
(a) Stoichiometric relationship
with the concentration of
colloids
(b) Charge reversal possible
with overdose
(c) Sorbable species capable of
destabilizing colloids at
lower dosages
3. Enmeshment in a precipitate (Sweep floc coagulation):

• Sufficient amount of coagulants (Al2(SO4), FeCl3, MgCO3 and Ca(OH)2)
can generate rapid precipitates (Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3, Mg(OH)2 and CaCO3)
• Nucleation of precipitate on particle surface, growth of an amorphous
precipitate, entrapment of particle

4. Adsorption and interparticle bridging:
Some molecules having large molecular size are useful coagulating
agents (starch, cellulose, polysaccharide gums, proteineous materials,
synthetic polymeric compounds)

4. Adsorption and interparticle bridging:

Double-layer
compression
Adsorption
Adsorption
and sweep
floc
Adsorption with
polymers

Coagulant dosage and colloid concentration
Adsorption and
charge neutralization Charge reversal
 Inverse relationship between C and S for sweep floc coagulation
 Stoichiometric relationship associated with adsorption and
charge neutralization
Alkalinity – Coagulation relationship
If sufficient alkalinity is present, pH is not drastically reduced:
Al2 (SO4 )3 ⋅14 H 2O + 6 HCO3− ⇔ 2 Al (OH )3 ⋅ 3H 2O( s ) + 6CO2 + 8 H 2O + 3SO42−
FeCl3 + 3HCO3− + 3H 2O ⇔ Fe(OH )3 ⋅ 3H 2O( s ) + 3CO2 + 3Cl −
If sufficient alkalinity is not present:
Al2 (SO4 )3 ⋅14 H 2O ⇔ 2 Al (OH )3 ⋅ 3H 2O( s ) + 2 H 2O + 3H 2 SO4
FeCl3 + 3H 2O ⇔ Fe(OH )3 ⋅ 3H 2O( s ) + 3HCl
If natural alkilinity is not enough, it may be Lowers the pH

necessary to add alkalinity to buffer the pH (by drastically
adding Ca(OH)2 or Na2CO3)

pH and Dose: Alum Coagulation
• Alum Most effective between pH 5 and 7.5

• Iron salts have a wider range of effectiveness, less expensive than alum
but can cause color problems if not completely removed.
Jar Test to Determine the Optimum Dose

Problems
Problem 1: Find the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be
consumed at the optimal dose from the data given:
optimum pH = 6.0
Problem 2: Estimate the pH that results from addition of 100 mg/L of alum
to a water with no alkalinity and estimate the amount of NaOH to bring the
pH to 7.0
Reactions: Al2 (SO4 )3 ⋅14 H 2O = 2 Al (OH )3 ⋅ 3H 2O( s ) + 2 H 2O + 3H 2 SO4
H 2 SO4 + 2 NaOH = Na2 SO4 + 2 H 2O

Guidelines for selecting a coagulant
• Alum dose varies between 5 –

50 mg/L

Velocity Gradient and Mixing Time
RMS of Velocity P = power input (W)
gradient: G = P /( µV ) V = volume of basin(cu. m)
µ = fluid viscosity (Pa.s)
Coagulation requires very high velocity gradients. G values in the

range of 3,000 to 5,000 s -1 and detention times on the order of 0.5 s
are recommended for adsorption/destabilization reactions. For
sweep coagulation, detention times of 1 to 10 s and G values in the
range of 600 to 1,000 s-1 are recommended
Flocculation requires a velocity gradient high enough to cause

particle contact and to keep the flocs from settling but low enough to
prevent the flocs from tearing apart.
Both G and the product of the velocity gradient and detention time
(Gt), serve as criteria for the design of mixing systems.
Mixing Practice
Mixing equipment may be divided into two broad categories:
1) Equipment that is applicable to dispersion of the coagulant into

the raw water (flash mixing/ rapid mixing) and
Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets Adsorption/
In-line mechanical mixing charge
neutralization
In-line static mixing
Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
Diffusion by pipe grid Sweep-floc
Hydraulic mixing
1) Equipment that used to flocculate the coagulated water

(Flocculator)
Paddle Flocculator
Vertical Turbine mixing

Rapid mixing: In-line Blender and static mixing
Blender: G values in the range of 3,000 to 5,000 s -1 and detention times on
the order of 0.5 s
Static-mixer advantages: (1) no moving parts

and (2) no external energy
source is required.
disadvantage : the degree of
mixing and mixing time is a
function of flow rate.

Rapid Mixing: CMFR/CSTR
Used when predominant coagulation mechanism is sweep-floc
Detention times of 1 to 7 s and G values 600 to 1,000 s-1 are recommended

Horizontally baffled, at least two to three compartments
Axial flow preferred for rapid mixing

Slow mixing basin (Flocculator)
Enough mixing must be provided to bring the floc into contact and to keep
the floc from settling in the flocculation basin.
Heavier floc and higher suspended solids concentrations require more
mixing to keep the floc in suspension.
At least three compartments with tapered G should be provided.
The velocity of flow from the flocculation basin to the settling basin should
be low enough to prevent shear and breakup of the floc but high enough to
keep the floc in suspension.
Type G (s-1) Gt0

Low turbidity, color removal 20 – 70 60,000 – 200,000
coagulation
High turbidity, solids removal 50 - 150 90,000 – 180,000
coagulation
Softening, 10% solids 130 - 200 200,000 – 250,000
Softening, 39% solids 150 - 300 390,000 – 400,000
Slow Mixer Arrangements
Baffled Chamber
Vertical Turbine
mixing
Paddled Flocculator

SOFTENING

Source of Hardness in Natural Water

Objectives of Lime-Soda Softening
• Reduce soap consumption (acceptability issue)
• Removal of heavy metals, NOM, turbidity, and pathogens as well

as improving the water quality that reduces costs for
distribution system corrosion, boiler and cooling water feed, and
home water heater systems.
• The concurrent removal of arsenic, chromium, iron, lead,

manganese, and mercury provides an additional benefit to the
removal of hardness
Softening is done by
- Chemical precipitation
- Ion Exchange

Chemical Reactions
“Slaking”

Effect of pH in the solubility of Ca2+
To Precipitate CaCO3, the pH of the water must be raised to about 10.3.

To precipitate Mg, the pH needs to be raised to a range of about 11 to 11.3

Empirical Considerations in Softening Process
Practical Solubility limits:
Minimum Ca-hardness that can be practically achieved = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
Minimum Mg-hardness that can be practically achieved = 10 mg/L as CaCO3
Practical consideration for Magnesium:

Bacause Mg-removal is expensive, normally only the Mg that is > 40 mg/L as
CaCO3 is removed
Excess Lime:
For a reasonable removal of hardness, an extra amount of lime in excess of the
stoichometric equivalent is provided
For Ca-removal: excess lime = 20 mg/L as CaCO3
For Mg-removal 20-40 mg/L as CaCO3 excess lime = 20 mg/L as CaCO3
For Mg-removal > 40 mg/L as CaCO3 excess lime = 40 mg/L as CaCO3

Empirical Considerations in Softening Process
CO2 Removal:
When concentration exceeds 10 mg/L as CO2 (22.7 mg/L as CaCO3),
removal by air stripping is more economical compared to lime addition)
Recarbonation:
Excess lime adds hardness in the form of Ca2+. It is removed in the subsequent
process step called recarbonation.
Lime addition:
Lime is always added upto the stoichiometric equivalent of the bicarbonate
present regardless of the concentration of Ca2+. Otherwise the pH objective
of 10.3 required to precipitate CaCO3 will not be achieved.
Final hardness limit of treated water is chosen based on regulatory

requirements.

Summary of Chemical Additions

Problems: Lime-Soda Softening
1. Determine the chemical dosage required for selective calcium removal.
Estimate the dosage of quicklime that needs to be added if the purity of lime is
90%
2. Determine the chemical dosage to soften the water to the practical solubility
limits. Assume that the lime is 100% pure.

Split Treatment
Advantages: (1) Water can be tailored to achieve a desired Mg- hardness. (2)
reduction in capital cost of tankage, as entire flow need not be treated, (3)
minimizes operational cost of chemicals, (4) uses natural alkalinity of water to
lower the pH of product water and assist in stabilization.
Mgf = Final Mg Concentration = usually 40 mg/L as CaCO3

Mgi = Concentration from the first stage = usually 10 mg/L as CaCO3
Mgr = Raw water Mg Concentration

Split Treatment
If total hardness after blending > desired final hardness, then further softening
in the second stage is required. In this case, no further Mg removal is needed,
only Ca removal is required.

Problem: Split Treatment
Determine the chemical dosages to soften the water to meet the following
finished water criteria:
Maximum Mg-hardness = 40 mg/L as CaCO3
Total hardness = 80 – 120 mg/L as CaCO3

Conventional Softening Basins
Similar to the ones used in coagulation and flocculation (paddle mixers or
vertical turbines)
Practice: a portion of the precipitate is recycled to the head end of the process to
accelerate the precipitation
Flash mixing:
radial flow impellers used, G should be in the range 300 to 700 s-1, minimum
mixing time 10 to 30 s
Flocculation mixing:
axial flow impellers or paddle wheels used, G should be in the range 130 to 300 s-
1, minimum mixing time 30 to 45 minutes, Gt = 200,000 to 400,000, velocity
through the floc. Basin = 0.15 to 0.36 m/s

Upflow Solids Contact Basin

Water Stabilization and Recarbonation
Water in the distribution system should be neither scale-forming nor corrosive.
Recarbonation is done to stop the precipitation reaction by lowering the pH. CO2
addition is the preferred choice to lower the pH.
Recarbonation after selective calcium removal:
Recarbonation after excess lime treatment to remove Ca and Mg:
pH is lowered to 8.4 to 8.6

Recarbonation Practice
CO2 added under pressure. Gas transfer principle applies.
Typically two chambers: one for mixing (3 – 5 min detention) , one for reaction
Total detention ~ 20 min
Source of CO2
-Exhaust from combustion of

natural gas
- liquified CO2
- recalcification of CaCO3 sludge
(necessitates substantial
investment)

ION EXCHANGE

Ion Exchange Practice
A wide variety of Dissolved solids can be removed (applications: softening,
demineralization)
Reaction takes place at the solids interface, but solid material does not
directly enter into the reaction
Usually conducted in enclosed structures containing the medium
Water is forced through the material under pressure
Materials used:
•Synthetic resins (more effective, easily regenerated, greater number of
exchange sites)
•naturally occurring zeolite (sodium alumino-silicate) also known as
greensand
•Single stage (when flow can be interrupted, e.g. household softeners)

•Multiple units or moving beds (when continous flow is required)

Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages over lime-soda softening
-Avoid generation of large quantities of sludge
- physical-mechanical apparatus is much smaller and simpler to
operate
Disadvantages
- Water must be absolutely free from turbidity, organic content
- Iron/Mn precipitates can foul the surface
For Groundwater, IE must be conducted before aeration

For surface water, IE must be conducted after all necessary
treatment but before chlorination

Reactions: Softening process

Breakthrough in the IE process

Reactions: Regeneration process

Ion Exchange for Demineralization
In IE softening, there is no net decrease in TDS
In IE demineralization, the exchanged ions must not contribute to

TDS. This is accomplished by exchanging hydrogen for the dissolved
cations and hydroxide for the dissolved anions. The two then combine
to form H2O, leaving no residual and not affecting the pH.
IE process carried out in two steps. Cations removed first followed

by anions.
Completely demineralized water is undesirable. Therefore a

portion of the water is bypassed and blended with the process
effluent.

Ion Exchange for Demineralization

Problems
1. A home water softener has 0.1m3 of ion exchange resin with exchange
capacity of 57 kg/m3. The occupants use 2000L of water per day. If the
water contains 280 mg/L of hardness as CaCO3 and it is desired to soften
it to 85 mg/L as CaCO3 how much should be bypassed? What is the time
between regeneration cycles?
1. An ion exchange softener with exchange capacity of 90 kg/m3 is to be

used to treat water having hardness of 250 mg/L. Water is treated at a
flow rate of 0.4 m3/min.m2. The regeneration capacity is 150 kg NaCL per
m3 of resin with 10% solution. Determine
(a) The volume of medium required and the physical arrangement for
continuous operation in fixed beds.
(b) Determine the chemical requirement and the regeneration cycle time.

FILTRATION

Why filtration?
 Sedimentation with or without coagulation or sedimentation with

softening will not ordinarily give clear sparkling and bacteriologically safe
water.
 Filter media are very efficient in retaining fine and colloidal particles of
clay and silt.
 Aids in removing color, odor, iron and manganese
 Under certain conditions, filtration may serve as a primary turbidity

removal process (i.e direct filtration of raw water)

Types of filters
 Granular materials (sand, anthracite, coal, magnetite) 0.1 – 10 mm
Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Roughing filters (RF)
 Diatomaceous earth(7 – 50 μm), a deposit formed form siliceous

fossil remains of diatoms
 Membrane Filtration (0.45 – 0.2 μm), capable of removing bacteria

and in some cases molecular separation

Typical Granular Medium Filter Components
Filter Box
(to prevent loss of filter

material in the underdrain
system)
Underdrain
system

Variations in the Underdrain System

Mechanism for particle removal
In filtraiton process, particulate materials either accumulate on the
surface or collected through the filter bed
(A) Physicochemical process
Mechanical Non-straining
A well-designed and
straining mechanism
operated filter should
remove virtually all solids
(Impaction, Interception,
diffusion, electrostatic down to the submicron
attraction etc.) size
(B) Biological process
Formation of a thin layer of
microbial film around the sand
grains (‘Schmutzdecke’)

Mechanical straining
Principle mechanism of particle removal in filters where thin media
are used (i.e. screens or membranes).
No unambiguous criteria has

been established yet to
determine when mechanical
straining becomes important.
Undesirable for granular media

filters as head loss will increase
rapidly due to the formation of
surface mats.
www.vokesair.com

Non straining mechanisms
(A) Impaction: due to inertia of
particles.
(B) Hydrodynamic forces: non-

uniform shear distribution
within pore spaces
(C) Interception: particles along

the streamlines which pass
within a distance < radius of
the particle.
(D) Diffusion: Particles influenced by

Brownian motion.
(E) Attraction forces: Van der Waals forces of attraction,

electrostatic attraction
Non straining mechanisms
(F) Sedimentation: Particles with density > water will tend to
deviate from the fluid streamlines. Pores act as small settling basins
small
sedimentation
basin
Attachement mechanisms:
(A) Coagulation
(B) Adhesion
(C) Adsorption

Filter Hydraulics
The headloss through a clean stratified-sand filter with uniform porosity
described by Rose (1945) :
The headloss is directly proportional to the square of the filtration or

loading rate, so small increases in loading rate are amplified.
Headloss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the sand grains.
The porosity, which is assumed constant through the bed, plays a very
strong inverse role in the headloss.

Filter Backwash
A filter run is terminated and back washing is initiated when
sufficient solids have accumulated to
(1) Use up the available driving force
(2) Cause the filtering velocity to drop below a predetermined level
(3) Exhaust the storage capacity of the bed so that solids begin to
“break through” into the effluent
Backwashing: reversing the flow and forcing clean water upward

through the media. The filter bed is expanded so that the granules are
no longer contact with each other, exposing all the surfaces to
cleaning (by hydrodynamic shear)

Filter Operation and Backwash
Regular operation: A, B open, rest closed
Backwash: C, D open, rest closed
Filter development: A, E open until effluent

is of desirable quality
Water from backwash can be reused.

(running through sed./coag.). Since
SS is stabilized, removal will be easy
A
E C
D
B

Roughing filtration: layout and design
Purpose:
Pretreating
water with
high
turbidities
Three types
Decreasing
gravel size

Roughing filtration: cleaning and efficiency
Cleaning:
Either hydraulically (shock drainage) or manually
Up-flow filters Excavation of filter

possess a bed, washing and
favorable layout refilling
Efficiency:
 SS removal upto 95% and turbidity removal of 50-90% have
been reported
 Color removal 20-50% and faecal coliform reduction 0.65 – 2.5
log units
 50% removal of iron and manganese has also been achieved

Roughing filtration: advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
 Allows deep penetration of filter materials
 Have large silt storage capacity
 Often used before SSF because of their effectiveness in removing
SS
 More effective as a pretreatment than pre-sedimentation for raw
water to the physical standards required by SSF
Disadvantages:
 Limited to average turbidity of 20-150 NTU to prevent frequent
clogging

Slow Sand Filtration (SSF)
Purpose:
 Reduce the number of microorganisms in water
 Retain fine organic and inorganic solid matters
 Oxidize organic compounds dissolved in water
~1m depth, with Fine sand

~0.1m overboard (upgraded), free
from impurities
Suitable for the development of surface water-based water supply

systems in developing countries
Difference between particle removal mechanism of RSF
and SSF
SSF: Removal by biological layer

RSF: Removal by Al-Floc layer

SSF Characteristics
 Very low rate of filtration
Limitations of
 High removal of turbidity (80-85%) and color (95-99.9%)
 No pretreatment generally required for water <30NTU
 Not very effective in removing colloidal matters, treating
SSF
water >30NTU or with excessive algal growth
 Low cost operation and maintenance
 2-4 weeks ripening period required after installation,
however it can regain full biological activities (formation of
‘Schmutzdeke’) after a few hours of cleaning thereafter.
 Cleaning done by removing scraping and removal of the
top 1.5-2 cm of sand
 Perform best under continuous operation and constant
flow conditions

Rapid Sand Filtration (RSF)
Higher filtration rate is achievable because of the coarse sand (d10 = 0.4-
1.2 mm) and relatively uniform-sized particles that are used as the filter
medium
Graded gravel, 0.5 m thick Coarse sand layer, 1 m thick
Can be both gravity type and pressure type, can be

fixed or variable-head

Characteristics of RSF
 High filtration rates 5-15 m3 per m2 per hour
 High removal of turbidity (80-85%) and color (85-95%)
 Pretreatment such as coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
are required
 Suitable for all types of turbid and colored water
 Relatively high cost of operation and maintenance.
 Cleaning of filter bed by backwashing

Effect of Gradation on Filtration in RSF
 Natural gradation of particles after backwash will be such that the
smallest particles are at the top.
 Water with large strong flocs will cause rapid binding at fine
grained surface, rapid build up of head loss, necessitating frequent
backwashing
 This situation could be alleviated if the gradation of the filter
could be reversed.
 Such arrangement will allow
- The use of entire depth of filter medium
- Larger volumes of SS could be retained between backwashes
- Longer filter runs, less head loss, greater filtering rates
This is possible by carefully selecting medium with regard to size

and density.
Dual and mixed-media filters can approximately achieve this

Dual and Multi-media Filters
Mixed-Media Filters
Dual Media Filters

Operational difficulties in RSF
(A) Negative head and air binding (B) Formation of mud balls

Operational difficulties in RSF
(C) Cracking of filter bed (D) Jetting and sand boils
(E) Sand Leakage

Characteristic Differences among SSF, RSF and RF

Physical Characteristics of Particles and Filtration
o Initial number and mass concentration
o Average size characterizing the distribution
Process Avg SS
size (mg/L)
(μm)
Gravity >100 >50
Sedimentation
Screening ~30 <50
Filtration using <30 <50
granular media
without
sedimentation
Coagulation <30 >50
sedimentation
prior to filtration

DISINFECTION

Disinfection
Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce pathogens to an
acceptable level (not the same as sterilization).
Drinking water does not need to be sterile to be safe to drink.
Three categories of human enteric pathogens are of concern in

drinking water: bacteria, viruses, and amebic cysts. Disinfection must
be capable of destroying all three.
Some water treatment processes assist in removing pathogens

(coag./filtr/softening/settling), but to provide protection against re-
growth, additional disinfection must be practiced.
Five agents have found common use in disinfecting drinking water:

(1) free chlorine, (2) combined chlorine, (3) ozone, (4) chlorine
dioxide, and (5) ultraviolet irradiation.
Ideal Disinfectant Properties
1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be
introduced into water within a practicable period of time over an expected
range in water temperature.
2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration, and

condition of the water to be treated.
3. They must be neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor

unpalatable or otherwise objectionable in the concentrations required for
disinfection.
4. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined

easily, quickly, and, preferably, automatically.
5. Their cost must be reasonable.

Disinfection Chemistry: Chlorination
Chlorine existing in the form of

HOCl and/or OCl is defined as
free available chlorine or free
chlorine.
At low concentrations chlorine kills microorganisms by penetrating the cell

and reacting with enzymes and protoplasm. At higher concentrations,
oxidation of the cell wall will destroy the organism
To optimize disinfecting action, the design pH is in the a range 6.5 to 7.5.

Disinfection By-Products (DBPs)
Chlorine reacts with NOM to form a number of carcinogenic
byproducts. Trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles, haloketones,
haloaldehydes, chloropicrin, cyanogen chloride, and chlorophenols.
Chloramines react with NOM to form byproducts but at lower

concentrations
Chlorine dioxide and ozone can oxidize a number of organic

constituents without producing THMs or HAAs. However, chlorine
dioxide itself and the chlorite ion are toxic. In addition, if bromide is
present, ozonation will form the hypobromite ion which, in turn, forms,
hypobromous acid that will react with NOM to form brominated
byproducts.
No known DBPs result from UV radiation.

Disinfection Kinetics: Chick’s Law
Dr. Harriet Chick demonstrated that disinfection could be modeled as a
pseudo-first order reaction with respect to the concentration of organisms:
Recognizing the effect of disinfectant concentration, Watson (1908) proposed

an alternative expression to describe a given level of inactivation
The Chick-Watson law in integrated form

Problem: Disinfection Kinetics
The data for HOCl disinfection of poliovirus at a concentration of 1.8 mg/L is
shown below. The temperature was 20°C , the pH was 6.0. Determine the rate
constant of inactivation assuming the Chick-Watson model applies with an n
value of 1.0.

Factors Affecting Disinfection
1. Form of Chlorine (Hypochlorous acid is more effective than the
hypochlorite ion)
2. pH (free chlorine species is related to pH)
3. Concentration
4. Contact Time Governed by Chick-Watson Law
5. Type of Organism (Viruses, cysts and ova are more resistant than bacteria)
6. Temperature
Plotting combinations of
disinfectant concentration and
time to a fixed % inactivation for a
given temperature yields curves
that follow the form of Cnt =
constant.

Factors Affecting Disinfection (ctd)
Cnt = constant. The constant is a function of the organism, temperature, and pH.
Time to achieve 99.6 to 100

percent kill at water temperature
of 0C to 5C.
Time to achieve 99.6 to 100

percent kill at water temperature
of 20C to 24C.

Chemical Oxidant Demand (Breakpoint Chlorination)
Chlorine + organics (organic acids e.g. humic, fulvic) = chlorinated HC (carcinogenic)
Chlorine + phenolic compounds = odor

Chemical Oxidant Demand
(Fe+2,
Mn+2, H2S
and
organics)
Reactions with organics can be

prevented by adding ammonia
since chloramine do not react
with organics and phenols
Combined chlorine are less effective as disinfectant (requires larger conc and contact periods),
but are persistent and provide continuous protection against regrowth in dist system
Advanced Treatment Technologies:
MEMBRANE PROCESSES
•Reverse Osmosis
•Electrodialysis

What is “Reverse” Osmosis?
A membrane process for desalination by the application of hydrostatic
pressure to drive the feedwater through a semipermeable membrane
while major portion of its impurities are left behind
Product (near atm.

Pressure, low salt
content)
Waste (high pressure,

high salt content)
Operating pressure: 300 – 400 psi (desalting brackish water)

800 – 1000 psi (seawater desalination)

Principles of Reverse Osmosis
Osmotic
pressure
Source: www.peerlesswater.com
Typical Applications of Reverse Osmosis
i. Desalination of brackish water (TDS < 10000 mg/L) to provide
potable water
ii. Pretreatment of normal municipal water (TDS 500 – 1000
mg/L) preceding ion exchange deionization to make ultrapure
water for applications such as boiler feed
iii. Recovery of valuable or reusable materials from a waste via the
RO reject stream
iv. Reduction in the volume of waste, if required
v. Water conservation or recovery such as the cooling tower
blowdown

Membrane configurations
o Spiral wound membrane
o Tubular membrane
o Hollow fine fibre module
o Plate and frame membrane
Source: maple.dnr.cornell.edu

Large-scale setup
Source: pure-aqua.com
Type of membranes
o Thin, imperfection-free
Ideal o Water can pass through with little hindrance
Membrane o Impermeable to ions
properties o Capable of withstanding pressure
Two types
Cellulose Acetate (CA) Polyamide membranes
o Cheaper, can tolerate Cl2 o Subject to degradation by Cl2
o Subject to biological attack or other oxidants
o not susceptible to biological
attack
o Do not hydrolize. Best within
pH 4-11
o Longer life (3-5 years)

Electrodialysis
Electric energy is used to transfer ionized salts from feedwater
through selective membranes, leaving behind purified product
water
Source: fumatech.com

Electrodialysis
- Cation and anion-selective

membranes placed
alternatively to form a
membrane stack.
- Concentrated and
dilute/pure solutions
collected from the spaces
between alternating
membranes.

Advanced Treatment Technologies:
ADSORPTION

What is adsorption?
The physical and/or chemical process in which a substance is
accumulated at the interface between the phases which may be solid-
liquid, liquid-liquid, gas-liquid or gas-solid.
Silica Gel
Activated carbon

Adsorbate, Adsorbent and Absorption
Adsorbate: the substance being removed from the liquid phase
Adsorbent: the solid phase onto which the accumulation takes place.
Activated carbon is used exclusively in full scale water treatment.
Adsorbent Adsorbate Adsorbent

(porous structure) (‘flat’ surface)
Absorption means uniform distribution of the substance throughout

the bulk
Adsorption essentially happens at the surface of the substance.
Kinetics of adsorption
Diffusion into the pores and adsorption
Transport across
boundary layer to
the surface
Bulk transport
from boundary
layer to adsorbent
surroundings

Mechanisms of adsorption
Adsorbate has less free energy on the surface of adsorbent than in solution
Physical adsorption: dipole-dipole interaction, hydrogen bonding,

Van der Waal’s force, Hydrophobic bonding (non-polar adsorbate)
Typical for water treatment (e.g.

adsorption of fatty acids on carbon)
Can form multilayers, free to move on the surface, always reversible
Chemisorption: Electrostatic chemical bonding between adsorbate

and adsorbent
ROH(aq) + SOH = SOR + H2O (aq)
R is metal ion adorbate and S is metal oxide adsorbent

Forms monolayers, specific to a certain site, can be irreversible
Mechanisms of adsorption
Adsorption of Electrolytes: Adsorption of ionic species to

surfaces by electrostatic attraction.
Highly dependent on pH and ionic strength.
pH governs the stability of acids

and bases in polar water
 Covalent or electrostatic chemical bonding Increasing

 Dispersion interactions (Van der Waals bond
force) and hydrogen bonding energy
 Dipole-dipole interaction

Physical Properties of Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is produced by roasting carbonaceous material (in
the absence of air to form char) and then oxidized at higher temp. to
create a very porous structure (“Activation”)
Crushed into granules from 0.1 to 2 mm (Granular Activated Carbon)

or pulverized into powder (Powdered Activated Carbon).
500-1500 m2/g surface area can be achieved.
PAC : (filterability and bulk density)
Product water contamination Removal capacity of the adsorbate
GAC: (hardness and particle size)
Losses by attrition in Affects bulk transport (availability of

filter runs and macropores) and headloss across the
backwashing beds

Application Techniques of GAC and PAC
Consists of a bed of materials in cylindrical tank and water is
passed through the bed. Can be fixed or moving bed
Carbon is cleaned/regenerated in a furnace in a similar manner as the original

activation.
Bed can get plugged by SS. Provision of backwash provided or the bed may be
operated in a fluidized state
Application Techniques of GAC and PAC
PAC: cannot be operated in a fixed bed arrangement due to the
small size of particles (high head loss)
PAC is contacted with water in open vessels where it remains in

suspension for specific contact period
Removed from water by conventional solid separation techniques
Regeneration of PAC is much more difficult than GAC (mixture of

steam and other hot gases hold the carbon in suspension while
the regeneration occurs)

IRON, MANGANESE AND ARSENIC REMOVAL

Wastewater Treatment

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Wastewater Treatment

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CE 331: Environmental Engineering I

Water Treatment Processes

Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Processes : theory and applications

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Concentration gradient (Cs – Ct) is the driving force

It is possible that one of the films exhibits relatively high resistance

So the solubility of the gas and the hydrodynamic conditions which

Henry’s Law dictates the extent to which gas is soluble in water:

P (mol/mol of air) = c (mol/mol of water)× H (Henry’s Constant)

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

If the gas is weakly soluble (e.g. O2, N2 and CO2):

Gases of intermediate solubility (e.g. H2S):

Solubility of gas depends on:

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Rate of mass transfer per unit volume per unit time

Integrating over time: interfacial area

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Problem: A falling raindrop initially has no DO. Saturation conc of oxygen in

Problem: Water contains 6.84×10-8 moles Trichloroethylene (TCE,

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Four types of aerators:

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

- to increase the exposure time of contact (projecting water very high

- to produce motion of one fluid relative to other so that exchange can

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Nozzled aerator Aerator nozzles

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Gravitational force (F) = Frictional Drag force (FD)

( ρ S − ρW ) gV = C D AC ρW vS2 / 2 FD Water density, ρW

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Typical Reynolds number for particles

Camp devised an indirect method to

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Type II: Settling of flocculent particles in a dilute suspension.

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Type I: discrete settling

Discrete settling Flocculent settling Hindered settling

Time Time Time

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Particles and velocity vectors are uniformly distributed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Overflow rate: v0 = h0 / t0 = h0Q / V = Q / A

Overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins and it

For vS < v0 , the removal percentage will be 100(vS /vO) because

having < stated velocity

Total particle fraction that will be removed:

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

A settling analysis is run on a Type-I suspension. The

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Slope of iso-removal line gets

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

Time (min) 30 60 90 120 150 180

What will be the overall removal efficiency of a settling basin which is 3m

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed

CE 331: Environmental Engineering I Dr. Tanvir Ahmed