I.

VECTORS AND SCALARS

A. Definition of Terms

1. Scalar Quantity
 Quantity that is specified by its magnitude only
 Created using ordinary rules of algebra

Some scalar quantities are:

Temperature - 370C
Mass - 100 kilograms
Time - 60 seconds
Energy - 100 joules

Example 1: Displacement is a vector. Without its direction, the magnitude is

known as distance. To illustrate the difference between the two,
consider the situation wherein a lost traveler asks for directions
to the hotel from a gas station attendant and is just told to
travel straight for 500 meters. This could mean 500 meters in
any direction and he has to search within a 500-meter radius for
the hotel. This is a difficult and tiring way of traveling. But
specifying 500 m to the northeast specifically points out where
he must head for and how far he has to travel.
Distance:

HOTEL

500-meter
radius
circular
search area

2. Vector Quantity
 Physical quantity that is specified by both its magnitude and direction
 Can be represented by an arrow – the length is proportional to the
magnitude, and the direction pointed to by the arrowhead represents the
direction of the vector
 A vector quantity A is written is bold type, A, and its magnitude is
denoted as | A | = A.
 Obeys the rules of vector algebra (as discussed in section C)

Some vector quantities are:

Displacement - 30 m, to the left
Velocity - 100 m/s, 400 north of east
Acceleration - 9.8 m/s2, downward
 Force - 10 newtons, 450 above the positive x-axis

 CHECK THIS OUT!

Determine whether the following can best be described by a vector or scalar quantity.
Use V for a vector quantity and S for a scalar quantity.

_____ 1. A child‟s fever at 390C running for two days.

_____ 2. A car‟s kilometer-instrument reading.
_____ 3. A plane flying the Manila-to-Davao route at a speed of 640 m/s.
_____ 4. A marathon runner finishing a 10-kilometer race in one-and-a-half hours.
_____ 5. A book of mass 0.5 kilogram.
_____ 6. The weight of the same book in #(5).
_____ 7. Plot of land 40 m x 60 m.
_____ 8. Calorie content of a chocolate bar.
_____ 9. Density of gold.
_____ 10. Cyclist increasing his speed from 5 m/s to 6 m/s in 5s in the final 50-m
straight line rush towards the finish line.

B. Vector Resolution

 A vector A can be separated into two vector

y
components that are perpendicular to each other
in the Cartesian coordinate system; one is along
the x-axis and the other is along the y-axis.

 In this coordinate system, a vector A has the

following vector components: A
A sin θ

θ
x-component: Ax = + | A | cos θ = + A cos θ
y-component: Ay = + | A | sin θ = + A sin θ
A cos θ x

 The magnitude Ax (Ay) is the length of the line segment intercepted by a lien
drawn from the tip of vector A and perpendicular to the x-axis (y-axis).

 To indicate the direction of the vector components, a plus (+) is appended to

the magnitudes of the component vectors to indicate vectors going in the
positive (+) x-axis or (+) y-axis, and a minus (-) sign is appended to the
magnitudes of the component vectors to indicate vectors going in the
negative (-) x-axis or (-) y-axis.

 The resultant or sum of the x and y components of a vector is the vector

itself.
Ax + Ay = A

 From the components one can reconstruct the vector from:

 Ax
A= A x2  Ay2 and tan θ =
Ay

Example 2: Find the x and y components of a displacement vector D

with a magnitude of 100 m oriented 60 degrees from the
negative x-axis.
-x  0
60

D Solution:

Dx = -100 cos 600 = 50 m, to the left

Dy = -100 sin 600 = 87 m, downward
 -y

 CHECK THIS OUT!

Find the components of the given vector, or from the given components find the original
vector.

1. | A | = 100; θ = 300
y

θ
x

2. | A | = 75; θ = 550
x

θ
A
y

3. A 700-newton force 200 below the positive x-axis.

4. Ax = -70; Ay = +20

5. Components of a plane‟s velocity in the N and E directions if it travels with a

velocity of 60 m/s, 30 degrees east of north.

6. A force with components: Fx = -600 N and Fy = +400 N

7. A 15-unit vector oriented 350 below the positive x-axis

8. A 100-unit vector oriented 530 above the positive x-axis

9. A 100-N weight rests on a 35 inclined plane. Set your coordinate system such that
the (+) axis is parallel, going up, while the (+) y-axis is perpendicular and away
 from the surface of the inclined plane. Find the components of the weight parallel
and normal to the surface of the inclined plane.

10. The center of a typhoon moving at 60 km/hr towards NE Luzon. Find the
components of the velocity in the North and East directions.
C. Vector Properties

1. Equality
 Two vectors (A and B) are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude and direction.

Graphical Method Component Method

A=B The condition for two vectors to be equal

must
be that their components are equal:
Ax = Bx Ay = By
A B
Acosθ = Bcosθ Asinθ = Bsinθ
θ θ
2. Addition
a. Graphical method: Head-to-tail rule
 To add vectors (A and B), connect the tail of B to the head of A.
With more than two vectors, successively connect the tail of C

one vector to the head of the previous vector until all the
vectors have been connected.
 The RESULTANT (sum) is the vector formed by B
connecting the tail of the first vector to the head of the
A
last vector.
 Magnitude of resultant ≠ A + B+ C, unless A, B, and C are in the same
direction.
b. Analytical method: Component addition
 For a vector addition operation, R = A +B, the equation implies that
each component of R must be the same as corresponding components
of the
sum A + B:
Rx = Ax + Bx
Ry = Ay + By
R
with the resultant vector: R = Rx 2  Ry 2 and tan θ = y
Rx

 Vector addition is commutative. Given two vectors A and B: A + B = B

+ A.

Graphical Method Component Method

A = B = From real number algebra the magnitude

of the
components, it can be seen that:
 Ax + Bx = Bx + Ax
A+B B+A Ay + By = By+ Ay
B

A A+B
A+B A NOTE: Only magnitudes of components
B on similar axes may be added and
treated as real numbers.

 Vector addition is associative. The order of addition of three or more

vectors does not affect the resultant.
Given three vectors A, B and C: A + (B + C) = (A +B) + C.

Graphical Method Component Method

A B C
A
From the real number algebra of the
components;
(A+B)+C
C Ax + Bx + Cx = Ax + (Bx + Cx)
(A+B)+C
A+B = (Ax + Bx) + Cx
B
A+B Ay + By + Cy = Ay + (By + Cy)
A A
= (Ay + By) + Cy
A+(B+C)

C
A+(B+C)
B+C B+C
B
A

Example 3: An airplane flies in an northeasterly direction at 100 km/hr

at the
same time that there is a wind blowing at 50 km/hr to the
northwest.
What is the resultant velocity of the plane?

Solution: X-components:
Vxplane = + Vplane cos 450
Vxwind = + Vwind cos 450

Y-components:
Vyplane = + Vplane sin 450
Vywind = + Vwind sin 450

Resultant velocity:

Vx = Vxplane + Vxwind
= Vplane cos 450 – Vwind cos 450
 = 35 km/hr, east

Vy = Vyplane + Vywind
= Vplane sin 450 + Vwind sin
= 106 km/hr, north

V = Vx2 + Vy2 = 352  1062

= 112 km/hr
tan θ = Vy / Vx = 106 / 36
0
θ = 71.6 above the positive x-axis

3. Negative of a vector
 Given a vector A, its negative is the vector –A. –A has the same magnitude
as A but points in the opposite direction. A + (–A) = 0.

Component Method
A → –A
Ax → – Ax
Ay → – Ay

4. Subtraction
 To subtract B from A, we simply add (–B) to A; that is, A – B = A + (–B).

Component Method
Ax – Bx = Ax + (–Bx)
Ay – By = Ay + (–By)

5. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

 A vector D multiplied by a positive scalar e, gives us vector eD, which has
the same direction as D and the magnitude eD.

Component Method
Each component of the original vector A is increased twice
A → 2A
Ax → 2Ax
Ay → 2Ay
| 2A | = 2 |A|

CHECK THIS OUT!

Perform the required vector operations using the properties of vectors.

1. (a) Find the resultant velocity of a riverboat that steams 60.0 km/hr u\in still
water, if it travels
upstream against a river current that flows 5.0 km/hr.
 (b) What about its resultant velocity during the return trip?

2. If the vectors below have the following components:

A: Ax = +3 ; Ay = –1
B: Bx = –2 ; By = +4
C: Cx = +1 ; Cy = +2

Find:
(a) 2A – B + 3C
(b) | 2A – B + 3C |
(c) A+B+C
(d) |A+B+C|

3. Three forces act on particle P. Their components are:

F1: F1x = +45 N ; F1y = –50 N
F2: F2x = –10 N ; F2y = –35 N
F3: F3x = +20 N ; F3y = +30 N

(a) Find the components of the resultant vector.

(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector?
(c) What fourth force F4 should be applied to make the resultant zero?

4. (a) Find the resultant of the following displacements:

A: 20 km, 300 south of east
B: 50 km, due west
C: 40 km, northeast
D: 30 km, 600 south of west
(b) What fifth displacement E should be made to return to the starting point?

5. Find the resultant of a pair of velocities: 100 km/hr, north and 7.0 m/s, east.

6. Components of:
A: Ax = +3.0 m ; Ay = +3.5 m
B: Bx = +4.0 m ; By = –2.5 m

Find:
(a) components of the vector sum A + B
(b) magnitude and direction of A + B
(c) components of A – B
(d) magnitude and direction of A – B

7. An object is acted upon by three forces lying on the same plane as shown below.

(a) Find the resultant of the three forces.

(b) What additional force must be applied to make the resultant zero?

8. A bird on its migration route flies in several stages. IT first flies 100 km, north, then
flies 500 km, NW, before flying due north again for 200 km.
 (a) What is the resultant of the bird‟s displacement?
(b) If the bird takes a straight route back, what distance should it travel and in
what direction?

9. Three forces act simultaneously on point A. One force is 5.0 N, south, the second is
15 N, 650 below the horizontal line of the SE quadrant and the third is 50 N, 40 0
above the horizontal in the NE quadrant. To make the resultant zero, what is the
required force?

10. A cave explorer surveys and underground cavern. He traverses a path 400.0 m
directly east, then 50.0 m west of north then 500.0 at 45 0 west of south. After a
fourth displacement, he finds himself back at his starting point. Find the fourth
unknown displacement.

II. TYPES OF MOTION

 Motion may be defined as the change in position of an object relative to other

objects that are considered at rest.
 The motion of an object may vary from a simple one-dimensional motion, such
as a car speeding along a straight, flat, and narrow road, to a complex three-
dimensional motion such as that of a space probe hurtling through deep space.
 Such motion can be analyzed mathematically with equations which describe an
object‟s motion based on some simplifying assumptions.

A. Definition of Terms
Following are the terms used to describe the motion of an object.

1. Distance
 Separation between two objects

2. Position
 Separation between an object and a reference point; how far an object is
to some reference point

3. Displacement
 Net change in position of an object from its initial to its final position
 Only the initial and final positions are significant; it doesn‟t matter how
complicated was the path take in reaching the final position (may be
straight or zigzag)
 Displacement is a vector quantity since the distance and the direction need
to be given
distance + direction
 With SI unit of meter (m)

Displacement = ΔX = Xf - Xi

Example 1: Position, Distance and Displacement

 Consider points A, B, C and their locations with respect to two
reference points O and O′

Distance between: Distance between:

O-B = 10 units O′-B = 14 units

O-A = 10 units O′-A = 6 units
O-O′ = 4 units O′-O = 4 units

With O as reference point, With O′ as reference

point,
Position of: Position of:
A = – 10 A = – 6
B = + 10 B = +14
C = + 3 C = + 7
O′ = – 4 O = + 4

Displacement from: (O as ref. pt.) Displacement from: (O′

as ref. pt.)
A→B = + 10 – (-10) = +20 units A→B = + 14 – (-
6) = +20 units
B→A = – 10 – 10 = –20 units B→A = – 6 – (-14)
= –20 units
A→C = + 3 – (-10) = +13 units A→C = + 7 – (-6)
= +13 units
B→C = + 3 – 10 = –7 units C→A = + 7 – 14 = –7 units

Example 2: A hiker walks 30 km due north from his camp. Late in the
afternoon he walks back 10 km south along the same path. He
then decides to pitch his tent as it was already getting dark.
(a) What is his total displacement from the camp?
(b) What is the total distance he traveled?

Solution: (a) With the camp as the origin:

ΔXAM = +30 – 0 = +30 km
ΔXPM = –10 = ΔXPM – 30
XPM = +20 km, position from camp

ΔXtotal = ΔXAM + ΔXPM

ΔXtotal = –10 + 30 = +20 km

(b) Total distance traveled = 30 + 10

= 40 km

4. Speed
 Distance covered by a moving object over a unit of time interval
 Speed is a scalar with SI unit meter per second (m/s)
 a. Average speed
o The ratio of the total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that
distance.
o A useful idea when an object moves with varying speed at different
times, by giving one an idea of what single constant speed the object
would have traveled if it were to cover the same distance in the same
amount of time.
Average speed total distance traveled
= elapsed time

b. Instantaneous speed
o The ratio of the distance traveled within a very short time interval, to
the time interval.
o The time interval must be small enough such that speed is constant
over that time interval.
o The speed indicated by a vehicle‟s speedometer.
? x2 – x1
Instantaneous speed
x =
=
?t t2 – t1

5. Velocity
 The rate at which the displacement of an object changes.
 Like displacement, velocity is also a vector: speed + direction.
 When PAGASA issues storm warnings, they give information on the storm‟s
velocity – what speed the storm is moving and in which direction it is
headed.
 With SI unit of meters per second (m/s)

a. Average velocity
o The ratio of the net displacement during a particular time interval Δt, to
that interval
net Δx x2 –
Average velocity (v) displacement x1
= =
= total time Δt t2 – t1
elapsed

b. Instantaneous velocity
o The ratio of the net displacement during a very small time interval Δt, to
that interval
o The speed indicated by a vehicle‟s speedometer plus the direction of
motion pointed to by a compass

Note: The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is equal to the

instantaneous speed.

Example 3: A car is driven 80 km west in 1 hr and then 70 km east in 2hrs.

What is the average speed and average velocity of the carin
km/hr? (set east as the positive direction)
 Solution: Δx1 = 80 km, west = –80 km t1 = 1 hr
Δx2 = 70 km, east = +70 km t2 = 2 hr

total distance traveled = 80 + 70 = 150 km

total displacement = Δxtotal = –80 + 70 = –10
km, west
time interval = Δt =1+2 = 3 hr

(a) average speed = 150 km/3 hr = 50 km/h

(b) average velocity = –10 km/3 hr = –3.3 km/hr = 3.3
km/hr, west

6. Acceleration
 The rate at which the velocity of an object changes
 An object is considered accelerating when its speed is changing (while
moving in straight line) or the direction of the velocity changes (while
magnitude is constant) or both are occurring simultaneously
 Acceleration is a vector with SI unit meter per second squared (m/s2)
 A negative sign indicates that the object is slowing down or changing the
direction of motion
change in Δv v2 – v1
Acceleration (a)
velocity = =
=
time interval Δt t2 – t1

Example 4: A bullet is fired from a gun and goes on from 0 to 600 m/s in 0.5s
of a second before it leaves the barrel. What is the rate of change
of the bullet‟s velocity within the time the bullet is in the gun
barrel?

Solution: Acceleration (a) = (600 – 0) / 0.5 = 1200 m/s2

Example 5: A car was moving along a highway at 90 km/h when the driver
noticed that the posted speed lmiit was only 40 km/h. He gently
stepped on the brake and got to the speed limit in 2 seconds.
What is his acceleration in m/s2?

Solution:
(40 - 90) 1 hr 1000
Acceleration (a) km/hr m –6.9
x x =
= 2s 3600 1 km m/s2
s

 REMEMBER: Vector quantities such as position, displacement, velocity,

and acceleration are signed quantities, meaning, they have
plus (+) or minus
(–) preceding their magnitudes to indicate their direction
with reference to a coordinate system such as a rectangular
or Cartesian coordinate system.
CHECK THIS OUT!

Find the required quantities.

1. A marathon runner finishes a 10-km race in 1 hr and 15 minutes. What is his speed
in km/hr and m/s?
2. An archer fires an arrow towards a target 100 m away. If the arrow flies straight
and hits the target in 12 seconds, with what speed did the arrow travel in m/s?
3. Scientists have determined that light travels at about 300,000,000 m/s. If light
from the sun takes 8.3 minutes to reach the earth, how far is the earth from the
sun in meters? kilometers?
4. A jet plane travels at a constant speed of 625 m/s. How far does the plane travel in
(a) 1 s? (b) one minute? (c) one hour?
5. A patrol car starts from the police station and travels 15 km east then turns around
and heads west along the same route for 15 km, arriving back at the police station
in 65 minutes. (a) What was the patrol car‟s average speed in km/hr? (b) average
velocity?
6. A fire truck racing towards a burning building changes its velocity from 0 m/s to 40
m/s in 5 seconds as it drives out of the fire station. What is its acceleration?
7. The same fire truck in #(6) slows down as it nears the scene of the fire. Its velocity
changes from +40 m/s to 8 m/s in 8 seconds. What is its acceleration?
8. In one race on August 30, 1987, Ben Johnson ran the 100-m dash in 9.83 seconds.
He ran the 50.0 to 70.0 m stretch in 1.70 seconds. What was the magnitude of his
average velocity for (a) the whole race? (b) the 50.0 to 70.0 m segment?
9. A jogger runs in a straight line for one hour with an average velocity of magnitude
1.4 m/s. What distance does she cover in this time?
10. A particle is at x = +5 m at t= 0, x= –7m at t= 6 s, and x= +2 m at t= 10 s. Find
the average velocity of the particle during the intervals (a) t= 0 to t= 6 s; (b) t= 6 s
to t= 10 s; (c) t= 0 to t= 10 s.

B. One Dimensional Motion: Motion in A Straight Line

 Motion of this kind is restricted in two directions, eg. up or down, left or
right, and is distinguished by designating one as positive and the other
negative.
 Examples are: a car moving along a flat, straight line and narrow road, or
a freely falling object.
 The equations developed for one-dimensional motion can be extended to
more complicated motion such as in two or three dimensions.
 The bold letters x or y denote the position of the particle in a 1-D
coordinate system 9number line) from a point that can be conveniently set
as the origin.

1. Motion with Constant Velocity

 The object moving with a velocity v or some average velocity vave
travels along a straight line and covers a certain distance Δx given by
the magnitude of the displacement Δx for a given time t.

(1) Δx = v t ; Δx = x – x0 → displacement
 ; v → velocity
; vave → average velocity
; t → time
(2) Δx = vave t
 Graphically, typical position-time graphs and velocity-time graphs for
constant velocity motion are:

Example 6: A car cruises along a straight portion of the highway at 60

km/hr. How far will it travel in one and half hours if it
continues to move in a straight line?
Δx = vt
Δx = 60 km/hr x 1.5 hrs
= 90 km

2. Motion with Constant Acceleration

 These equations only apply in the direction of an object‟s motion where
it moves with constant acceleration.

(3) vf = v0 + at ; a →
acceleration
; vf → final velocity

(4) x = x0 + v0 t + ½ at2 ; v0 → initial

velocity
; t → time

2
(5) vf = v02 + 2aΔx ; x → final
position
; x0 → initial position
(6) (vf + v0)t ; Δx = x – x0 →
Δx= displacement
2
 Graphically, typical position-time graph, velocity-time graph, and
acceleration-time graph for constant acceleration motion are:

Example 7: Find the displacement of a bus as it accelerates uniformly

form +10 m/s to +30 m/s in a 20-s interval.

(30
Solution (vf + v0)t
Δx = = +10)20 = 500 m
:
2 2

Example 8: A cyclist is moving with a velocity of 2 m/s, pedals furiously

and accelerates at 2 m/s2 for 5s. How far does the cyclist
move?
 Solution v0 t + ½ ( m/s)(5s) + ½ (2
Δx = = = 35 m
: at2 m/s2)(5s)2

Example 9: A jet airplane needs to reach a speed of 100 m/s in order to

take off. With a runway of 1000 m, what must its
acceleration be?

Solution: vf2 = v02 + 2aΔx

→ a = (vf2 – vi2)/2aΔx = [(100 m/s)2 –
0]/2(1000m) = 5 m/s2

CHECK THIS OUT!

Exercises: Solve for the needed quantities.

1. A plane taking off starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 100 m/s in 15s.
What is its acceleration?
2. A rocket traveling at 100 m/s accelerated uniformly at 200 m/s over a 20-s interval.
What is the rocket‟s displacement during this time?
3. An airplane accelerates from a speed of 150 m/s at the constant rate of 3.0 m/s2
over a distance of 530 m. What is the plane‟s speed after moving this distance?
4. During landing the pilot of the same plane in #(3) brings he plane to a stop with an
acceleration of –8.0 m/s2 and uses 484 m of the runway. How fast was the plane
moving before the pilot started breaking?
5. An LRT train starts from rest at the station and accelerates at a rate of +1.80 m/s 2
for 12.0 s. It then runs with constant speed for 30.0 s. It then slows down at a rate
of –3.50 m/s2 until it stops at the next station. Find (a) the distance traveled during
the positive acceleration stage of the trip; (b) the distance traveled during the
constant speed stage of the trip; (c) the distance traveled during the negative
acceleration stage of the trip; and (d) the total distance traveled for the entire trip.

3. Free Fall
 Free fall motion is one-dimensional motion along the vertical where the
moving object is just acted upon by the force of gravity.
 It is constant acceleration motion, with acceleration due to gravity g,
directed downward with magnitude 9.8 m/s2.
 Equations (3) – (6) are used with g (–9.8 m/s2) replacing a.

(7) vf = v0 + gt ; g →
acceleration
due to gravity
; vf → final velocity

(8) y = y0 + v0 t + ½ gt2 ; v0 → initial

velocity
; t → time
 2
(9) vf = v02 + 2gΔy ; x → final
position
; x0 → initial position

(10) (vf + v0)t ; Δy = y – y0 →

Δy= displacement
2
 Several factors are neglected: air resistance, earth‟s rotation, and
variation of g with altitude.
 Examples of freely-falling bodies are: a fruit falling from a tree, a coin
dropped.

Example 10: A durian fruit falls freely from a tree.

(a) What is its velocity after 4s?
(b) How far does it fall during this time?

Solution: a. vf2 = v0 + gt = 0 m/s – (9.8 m/s2)(4 s) = –39.2

m/s
b. Δy = v0t + ½gt2 = 0 m/s – ½(9.8 m/s2)(4 s)2 = –
78.4 m

Example 11: A ball is thrown straight up with an initial speed of 20 m/s.

It is caught at the same distance above the ground from
which it was thrown.
(a) How high does the ball rise?
(b) How long does the ball remain in the air?

Solution: a. In the upward part of the ball‟s flight (before it begins to

fall) its final
velocity at the top is zero.
Use: vf2 = v02 + 2gΔy and solve for Δy with vf
=0
→ Δy = –v02 /2g = –(20 m/s)2/2( –
9.8 m/s2) = 20.4 m
b. The time of rise equals the time to fall. So the time to
rise is just half
of the total time of flight.
Use: vf = v02 + gt with vf = 0 and solve for t =
time to rise
vf = ½ of total time of flight
→ t = v0 / g = –(20 m/s2)/( –9.8 m/s) =
2.04 s
Total time of flight = 2(2.04s) = 4.08s

CHECK THIS OUT!

Find the required quantities.

1. A brick falls freely from the top of a building construction site.
(a) What is its velocity after 4s?
(b) How far does it fall during this time?

2. A piece of rock is flung straight up with an initial speed of +20 m/s. It is caught at
the same distance above ground from where it was thrown.
(a) What is the maximum height attained by the rock?
(b) How long does the ball remain in the air before it is caught.

3. While going down the lunar landing module, an astronaut drops a tool while he was
5 m above the surface of the moon. If the acceleration due to gravity on the moon
is one-sixth of the acceleration due to gravity on earth, how long does it take to tool
to strike the lunar surface?

4. A child drops a cookie towards a group of ducks 12.0 m directly below the bridge he
was standing on. If he throws the cookie with a downward velocity of 5 m/s, with
what speed does the cookie strike the water? How many seconds will it take for the
cookie to reach the water surface?

5. A helicopter taking weather measurements hovers at a constant height above the

earth‟s surface when it releases a package of instruments.
(a) If the package hits the ground with a velocity of –73.5 m/s, how far did the
package fall?
(b) How long did it take the pack to fall?

C. Two-Dimensional Motion: Motion in a Plane

1. Projectile Motion
 The curved motion of an object that is projected into the air and acted
upon by the gravitational force of the earth.
 Motion is confined into a vertical plane (xy-plane) determined by the
direction of the initial velocity.

Definitions
a. Projectile
o An object thrown into the air that is allowed to move freely and is
influenced only by gravity
o Factors such as air resistance, earth‟s motion, and variation motion
of g with altitude may be neglected.
o A projectile undergoes both horizontal and vertical motion. The
horizontal motion does not affect the vertical motion; they can be
treated separately.
o Examples of objects undergoing projectile motion are: a basketball
on its way to the basket, a bullet fired from a gun, a stone cast from
a slingshot.
b. Range
o The horizontal distance covered by a projectile
 c. Time of flight
o Time in which the projectile is in the air
d. Trajectory
o The curve traced by the path of the projectile

 Key to the analysis of projectile motion is the fact that the horizontal (x)
and vertical (y) components of the motion can be treated separately.

Horizontal motion
The horizontal motion of a projectile is just constant velocity motion. Thus,
the equation defining the horizontal motion of a projectile is:

(11) Δx = v0x t ; Δx → horizontal

displacement
; v0x → horizontal
component
of the velocity
; t → time of flight

Vertical motion
For the vertical motion of the projectile, the acceleration is constant (g = –9.8
m/s2). Thus, to describe the vertical motion, we can use the following g
equations.

(12) vfy = v0y + gt ; g →

acceleration
due to gravity
; vfy → final velocity along
y

(13) y = y0 + v0y t + ½ gt2 ; v0y → initial

velocity along y
; t → time

(14) vfy2 = v02 + 2gΔy ; y → final position

; y0 → initial position

(15) ; Δy = y – y0 →
Δy= displacement

Sign Convention
Upward direction () as positive (+)
Downward direction () as negative (–)

 IMPORTANT POINTS
  The effects of air resistance is neglected.
 A negative (–) sign must always be used for the value of g to indicate
that the direction is always downward.
 A projectile‟s vertical acceleration is always –9.8 m/s2 at nay instance of
the flight. The horizontal acceleration is zero.
 The time it takes a projectile to reach its maximum height is half of its
total time of flight.
tup = tdown
 At maximum height, its vertical velocity is zero. However, its vertical
acceleration is still
–9.8 m/s2.
 When a projectile returns to the height at which it was launched, its
speed is equal to its initial speed but the direction of the y-component is
now downwards whereas the x-component remains the same.

Example 12: A stone is thrown horizontally at +10 m/s from the top of a
building 44m high. (a) How long does the stone take to
reach the ground? (b) How far from the base of the building
does the stone strike the ground?

Solution: a. Δy = v0yt + ½gt2 with v0y = 0

→ t = (2Δyy/g)1/2 = [2(–44m)(–9.8 m/s2)]1/2
= 3s
b. Δx = v0xt = (15 m/s)(3s) = +45 m

Example 13: A golf ball is struck by a club and is given an initial velocity
of 5 m/s at a 600 angle above the horizontal.
(a) How long did it take the ball to land?
(b) How far did the ball travel in the horizontal direction?

Solution: Components of the initial velocity:

v0x = v0 cos θ = 5 cos 600 = 2.5 m/s
v0y = v0 sin θ = 5 sin 600 = 4.33 m/s
a. Upon landing, the ball‟s height, y, is zero
Δy = v0yt – ½gt2 = 0
t = –2v0y / g = –2(4.33)/(–9.8) = 0.88s

b. Maximum height occurred at half of the total time of

flight in (a),
t = 0.44 s, and the ball‟s velocity along the y-direction
is zero at this height.
Vfy = v0y2 + 2gΔy
0 = 4.332 + 2(–9.8) Δy
Δy = 4.332/2(9.8) = 2.2 m

c. The range is given by

Range = v0x t = (2.5)(0.88) = 2.2 m

CHECK THIS OUT!

Find the required quantities.

1. A mountain biker bikes off the edge of a cliff. Just at the edge, he moves only a
horizontal velocity of magnitude 6.5 m/s. What is his (a) velocity and (b) position
after 1s?
2. A C-130 cargo plane drops a package of food supplies to refugees on the ground. It
travels at a speed of 100 m/s and at an elevation of 2000 m.
(a) How long will it take the package to reach the ground?
(b) How far does the package travel horizontally while falling?
(c) Find the horizontal and vertical components of the package‟s velocity just as it
strikes the ground.
3. A baseball struck by a bat leaves the bat at an angle of 400 above the horizontal
and is caught by an outfielder 200 m from the plate. If you assume that it is struck
and caught at the same height:
(a) What was the initial speed of the ball?
(b) How high did the ball rise above the point where it struck the bat?
4. A mortar fired its 25-kg shell to a maximum range of 2500 m when the shell was
launched at a 450 angle above the horizontal.
(a) What was the speed of the mortar shell as it left the barrel (muzzle speed)?
(b) What maximum height above the ground did the mortar shell reach?
5. A dart player throws a dart horizontally at a speed of +12.4 m/s. The dart hits the
board 0.32 m below the height from which it was thrown. How far away is the
player from the board.

2. Uniform Circular Motion

 An object can move along a circular path at a constant speed but it
cannot move at a constant velocity. At any point taken in its path, its
velocity is always tangent to the circle – it accelerates. This acceleration
is toward the center of the circle. Consequently, there must be a force
(toward the center) responsible for this acceleration.
 The acceleration toward the center is called centripetal acceleration (ac)
and the force is called the centripetal force (Fc).

Example 14:
a. A satellite in orbit around the earth can be considered to be moving
in uniform circular motion. It is accelerating toward the earth die to
the pull of the earth‟s gravity but it has enough tangential velocity
that it can keep on circling the earth instead of falling down.
b. A model plane tied to a string held by the owner‟s hand keeps on
circling due to the tension on he string.
c. A car rounding on a curve.

 The speed (assuming that it is constant) of an object moving in a circle

of radius R is:
(16) v = dist. traveled ; y → final position
; y0 → initial position
  The centripetal („center seeking‟) acceleration is given by:
 The centripetal force (unit in newtons) necessary to keep an object
moving in a circle is given by:

Example 15: A 0.1 kg mass is attached to a 0.9 m length of string. The weight is
swung in a horizontal circle, making one revolution in 1.2 s.
(a) Find the speed (tangent to the circular path) of the mass.
(b) What is its centripetal acceleration?
(c) What is the force that the string exerts on it?
Solution:

Find the required quantities.

1. The earth has a radius of 6.38 x 106 m and turns around once on its axis in 24
hours. What is the radial acceleration of an object at the earth‟s equator in units of
m/s2?
2. An electric fan rotates at 1000 revolutions per minute. A piece of chewing gum with
a mass of 5 g is stuck to a blade 25 cm from the rotation center. (a) Find the speed
of the gum. (b) What is the acceleration of the gum? (c) What force is needed to
hold the gum to the blade?
3. A coin is placed on a phonograph record turntable revolving at 33 1/3 revolutions
per minute. Find the coin‟s acceleration when it is placed 5, 10, and 15 cm from the
center of the record.
4. In a cyclotron, protons with amss 1.657 x 10–27 kg move in a circular path of radius
1.20 m in a large electromagnet. If the velocity of the protons is 2.0 x 10 6 m/s, find
(a) the time it takes the protons to complete one revolution; (b) the force the
magnet exerts on the protons.
5. One of the major objections during early times to the idea that the earth is spinning
on its axis was that the earth would turn so fast at the equator that people would be
thrown off into space. Show the error in the logic by calculating (a) the speed of a
person at the equator – the radius of earth is about 6400 km, (b) centripetal
acceleration of the person, (c) the force needed to hold a 97 kg person in place at
the equator, and (d) the force of gravity on such a person (weight).

III. LAWS OF MOTION

A. Definition of Terms

1. Mass
• Commonly known as the amount of matter in an object
• With SI unit of kilogram (kg)
• Two scientific definitions, based on Newton‟s laws of motion and gravitation

a. Gravitational Mass
o Mass determined by measuring the pull of gravity on the object
o Experimentally, it has been shown that the pull of gravity on an
object (weight) is proportional to the mass.
 b. Inertial Mass
o Mass determined by measuring an object‟s acceleration when a force
is applied to it.

NOTE: At low speeds, the gravitational and inertial masses are

equivalent.

2. Force
• A push or a pull. Examples of different kinds of forces are: weight or
gravitational force of attraction, friction, electromagnetic force, strong
nuclear force, and weak force.
• A vector quantity with SI unit of Newton (N = kg-m/s2)

Important characteristics of forces:

a. A net force or unbalanced force will change the state of motion of an

object.
b. Forces can be classified into two types:
o Contact forces
forces exerted by objects such as strings (tension), surfaces
(friction), etc., in direct contact with the body.
o Action-at-a-distance forces
forces which act over a space between the body considered and
the object exerting the force, e.g., gravitational force of
attraction, electric and magnetic forces
c. Forces always occur in pairs.
o when one object pushes or pulls on another object, the other object also
pushes or pulls on the other object
d. In each pair of forces, the two forces act in exactly opposite directions.

3. Free body diagram

• A useful diagram in determining the net force on an object
• Shows the object by itself, “free” of its surroundings and with vectors
drawn to show the forces applied to it by various bodies that interact with
it

B. Newton’s Laws of Motion

These laws, stated b y Sir Isaac Newton, explain why object smove, and define
the relationship between the external forces acting on a body – as well as
between two or more interacting bodies – and the motion that arises from the
action of these forces.

1. First Law of Motion

If the resultant of the external forces acting on a body is equal to zero (Fnet =
0):
a. A body initially at rest remains at rest (velocity is zero);
b. A body initially moving with constant velocity
 NOTE: Constant velocity means motion in a straight line at constant
speed.

 IMPORTANT POINTS
 Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of
motion.
 Mass is a measure of an object‟s inertia.
 Static equilibrium is the state of an object wherein two or more forces
act on the same point on an object and their resultant is zero (∑F = 0).

Example 1: The following forces act upon a stationary point A. Determine whether it
remains stationary or not. If not, find the force necessary to keep it stationary.

F1 = –12 N
F2 = +30 N
F3 = +10 N

Net force along x-axis:

Fx = –12 N + 10 = 2N

Net force along x-axis:

Fy = +30 N

Net forces along x and y are not zero, therefore body is not in equilibrium.
The required force F must have components that are negative of the resultant of the
applied forces:

Fx = +2 N
Fy = –30 N

F = (2)2  (30)2 = 30.07 N = 30 N

tan θ = Fy/Fx = 30/2  θ = tan-1(15)

= 860

Find the required quantities.

1. A net force of 100.0 N acts due west on an object. What single added force on the
object produces equilibrium?
2. Two competing teams pull at a rope in a game of tug-of-war. The opposing team
pulls with a combined force of 2000 N. What force should the other team exert in
order to end up with a tied game?
3. A 10-kg object is subjected to two forces F1 = 4 N, north and F2 = 3 N. west. A third
force F3 is applied so that the object is in static equilibrium. Find F3.
4. A 62.0-N force acting at 300 north of west and a second 62-N force at 600 north of
east act on the same point. (a) Determine the resultant force. (b) What is the
magnitude and direction of their equilibriant?
5. The following forces act on a cart lying on a level surface: F1 = 25.0 N, east; F2 =
75.0 N, northwest; F3 = 35.0 N, southwest. (a) Is the cart in static equilibrium? (b)
What added force at the same point on the cart produces equilibrium?

2. Second Law of Motion

For an object of constant mass, m:
If the resultant of the external forces acting on a body is not equal to zero
(Fnet ≠ 0), the body moves in the direction of the resultant force with an
acceleration a, proportional to the magnitude of the resultant force, Fnet.

Fnet = ma
where: Fnet = resultant of external forces
= kg – m/s2 (Newton, N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)

 One newton (N) is defined as the force that will accelerate a mass of 1 kg
at 1 m/s2.
 Motion is the result of an unbalanced force (non-zero resultant) force
acting on an object of mass m giving it an acceleration a directly
proportional to the force F applied; the acceleration increases by one unit if
the force applied increases by one unit.
F  a, for constant mass m

 For the same force F, the resulting acceleration a, for objects of different
masses m, is inversely proportional to the mass; a heavy object has a
smaller acceleration than a light object.
1
a  , for constant applied force F
m

Example 2: A 25,000-kg plane has to accelerate at 10 m/s2 in order to take

off. What force must be applied to reach this?
Solution: F = ma = (25 000 kg)(10 m/s2) = 250 000 N =
250kN

Find the required quantities.

1. What magnitude of force is required to give a 125-kg refrigerator an

acceleration of magnitude 1.60 m/s2?
2. World-class sprinters are able to accelerate out of the starting block with
an acceleration that is almost horizontal and with magnitude 15 m/s 2? How
much horizontal force does an 80-kg sprinter apply during a start to
produce this acceleration?
 3. A force of 15 N is applied to a mass m. The mass moves in a straight line
with its speed increasing by 10 m/s ever 2 s. Find the mass m.
4. A mass is pulled in a straight line along a frictionless level surface with a
constant force F1. The increase in its speed in a 10-s interval is 5 km/hr.
When a second constant force F2 is applied in the same direction in addition
to the first force, the speed increases by 15 km/hr in a 10-s interval. How
do the magnitudes of the two forces compare?
5. A certain force applied to a particle of mass m1 gives it a n acceleration of
20 m/s2. The same force applied to a particle of mass m2 gives it an
acceleration of 30 m/s2. If the two particles are tied together and the same
force is applied to the combination, find the acceleration.

3. Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction

 For every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.
 For every force (action force) on object there will always be an equal but
opposite force (reaction force) exerted by that object on the object
exerting the action force.
 An action-reaction pair must always act on two different bodies; they never
act on the same body.

NOTE: The following simplified statements may be used as aids in

understanding the third law.
o Forces are like shoes, they come in pairs.
o Forces are like hugs, they act on different objects.

Example 3: Action-Reaction Pairs

4. Gravitation and Weight

 Gravity is a force of attraction, which acts between two masses.
 The gravitational force of attraction Fgrav between mass m1 and m2 is
expressed as:

Gm1m2
Fgrav =
r2
where: m1 = mass of object 1
m2 = mass of object 2
r = distance between centers of m1 and m2
G = universal gravitation constant
= 6.67 x 10–11 N-m2/kg2

Example 4: A love-struck student had a crazy idea for „attracting‟ his crush.
After studying the law of gravitation, he resolved to increase the
„attraction‟ between them by increasing his and her mass, and by
always keeping close to her. He starts on an eating binge as well
as sending the girl her favorite chocolates and food. The boy
presently weighs 50 kg and the girl 40 kg. (a) What would be the
gravitational force of attraction between them if the boy is able to
stay within 1 meter of the girl? (b) If they both gain 10 kg after a
 month what would be the new gravitational force of attraction
between them for the same distance?

Gmboy mgirl Gmboy mgirl

Solution: a. F = b. F =
r 2boy  girl r 2boy  girl
= (6.67  1011 )(50)(40) = (6.67  1011 )(60)(50)
12 12
= 1.3 x 10–7 N = 2.0 x 10–7 N

 Weight is the term used to describe the gravitational force of attraction

exerted by a very massive object (e.g. Sun, earth or some other large
astronomical body) on a smaller mass on or near its surface
 The weight (W) of an object on or near a massive body‟s surface is:

W = mg
where: m = mass of the object
g = acceleration due to gravity
= acceleration given by the gravitational force of
attraction exerted by the massive body on m
= 9.8 m/s2 on Earth‟s surface

 The acceleration due to gravity g may vary due to factors such as:
a. Altitude
- g varies inversely with the square of the distance from the earth‟s
surface
- a body weighs slightly less at very high altitudes than it does at
sea level
b. Latitude
- g slightly varies with the latitude because the Eath is not perfectly
spherical but slightly flattened at the poles

Example 5: An austronaut has a mass of 75 kg. (a) What will be his weigh on
Earth?
(b) If he lands on Mercury, what would be his weight where the
acceleration due to gravity is 3.8 m/s2?
Solution: WEarth = mgEarth = (75 kg)(9.8 m/s2)
= 735 N
WMercury = mgMerc ury = (75 kg)(3.8 m/s2) =
285 N

Mercury is a good place to lose weight!

Find the required quantities.

1. On Mars, the acceleration due to gravity is 3.7 m/s2. A mango weighs 5 N on the
Earth‟s surface. What is its (a) mass and (b) weight on Mars?
 2. Superman throws a 3000-N boulder at Lex Luthor. What horizontal force must
Superman apply to the boulder to give it a horizontal acceleration of 24.0 m/s2?
3. A bowling ball weighs 71.2 N. A bowler applies a horizontal force of 21.4 N. What is
the magnitude of the acceleration of the ball?
4. What must be the distance between a 5.0-kg particle and a 25.0-kg aprticle in order
for the gravitational force of attraction to be 2.5 x 10–12 N?
5. Some people believe that the positions of the planets at the time of birth influence
(the destiny of) the newborn. Others ridicule this belief and claim that the
gravitational force of attraction exerted on a baby by the obstetrician is greater than
that exerted by the planets. To check this claim, calculate and compare the
gravitational force exerted on a 6-kg baby (a) by a 70-kg obstetrician who is 1
meter away, (b) by the massive planet jupiter (mJupiter = 2 x 1027 kg) at its closest
approach to Earth (6 x 1011 m) and (c) by Jupiter at its greatest distance from Earth
(9 x 1011 m).

C. Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. Equilibrium Problems: ∑F = Fnet = 0

 In a rectangular coordinate system, this translates to:
∑Fx = Fnetx = 0 and ∑Fy = Fnety = 0
The object has no acceleration (a = 0); it may be at rest (v = 0) or moving
with constant velocity (v = k)

Example 6: A cart rests on a slanted ramp leading to the back of a truck. Only a
cable attached to the cart and to the frame of the truck prevents the
cart form sliding downward. With the car‟s weight as W, what would be
the tension in the cable be, and the magnitude of the force with which
the ramp pushes. The direction of the normal force (FN) is designated as
the +y axis and the direction of the tension (T) is designated as the +x
axis.

Find the required quantities.

1. Find the tension in the rope in terms of the suspended equal masses m.
2. A student makes a sample Christmas décor and hangs it in his room‟s ceiling. The
two masses mstar = 3.5 kg and mhexagon = 4.5 kg are strung by a massless cord.
What is the tension in (a) the bottom cord and (b) the top cord?
3. Find the tension in each cord (TL = tension on left; TR = tension on right) if the
weight of the suspended lamp is 10 N.
4. A man is pushing a crate of fruits with a mass of 150.0 kg at constant velocity up a
ramp inclined 350. If the applied force is parallel to the incline, calculate the
magnitude of the force. Neglect friction.
5. A large wrecking ball is held in place by two steel cables. If the tension T A in the
horizontal cable is 460 N, what is (a) the tension TB in the other cable that makes
an angle of 400 with the vertical? (b) the mass of the wrecking ball?
2. Non-Equilibrium Problems: ∑F = Fnet ≠ 0
 In a rectangular coordinate system, this translates to a situation where the
net force in one axis is zero but not in the other, or there can be an
unbalanced force in both axes:
 a. ∑Fx = Fnetx ≠ 0 and ∑Fy = Fnety = 0
b. ∑Fx = Fnetx = 0 and ∑Fy = Fnety ≠ 0
c. ∑Fx = Fnetx ≠ 0 and ∑Fy = Fnety ≠ 0

Example 7: An ice skater stands on an ice skating rink which can be considered as a
frictionless surface. What constant horizontal force must be applied to
give the skater a velocity of 4.0 m/s in 2.0 s? The mass of the skater is
75 kg.

Solution: The skater must have an acceleration in the horizontal direction:

v f  vo 4.0  0
ax = = = 2.0 m/s2
t 2
Since there is no friction, the net force in the x-direction is just applied
force F
Fnetx = F = max = (75)(2.0) = 150 N

Solve for the needed quantities.

1. A 4500-kg helicopter accelerates upward at 2 m/s2. What lift force is exerted by the
air on the helicopter blades?
2. A block of ice released form rest at the top a 4.00 m long ramp slides to the bottom
in 2.20 s. What is the angle between the ramp and the horizontal?
3. The maximum force of a grocery bag can withstand and not break open is 250 N. If
20 kg of groceries are lifted from the floor to the table with acceleration of 5 m/s2
will the bag hold?
4. A bullet has mass of 0.02 kg. The bullet is fired from a gun and leaves the muzzle
with a velocity of +770 m/s. The gun barrel is 1.0 m long. (a) What force is exerted
on the bullet while it was in the gun barrel? (b) What acceleration was given to the
bullet by the force?
5. A “sun yacht” is a spacecraft with a large reflective sail that is pushed by sunlight.
Although such a push is tiny in everyday circumstances, it can be large enough to
send the spacecraft outwards from the sun in a low-cost but slow means of
propulsion. Assuming that the spacecraft has a mass of 900.0 kg and receives a
push of 20.0 N, (a) what is the magnitude of the resulting acceleration; (b) how far
will it travel in 30 days; and (c) how fast will it be moving?

3. Friction
 The force that opposes the motion of two surfaces that are in contact.
 The direction of the force is parallel to the surface and opposite the
direction of motion.
 Friction (ƒ) is directly proportional to the normal force (FN) pressing the
two surfaces together:
ƒ = µ FN
 Friction depends on the nature of the materials in contact and smoothness
of their surfaces; this dependence is quantified in the form of the
coefficient of friction µ (a dimensionless quantity).
o Static friction (ƒs) – force that opposes the start of motion between two
surfaces:
ƒs = µs FN, where µs = coefficient of static friction
 o Kinetic friction (ƒk) – force that opposes the motion between two
surfaces that are in relative motion (sliding or rolling):
ƒk = µk FN, where µk = coefficient of kinetic friction ƒ = µ FN
 Kinetic friction is usually less than static friction; it is easier to keep an
object moving that to start it moving.
 Friction is practically independent of the area of contact.
 Kinetic friction is practically independent of speed.

Example 8: A 500-N crate lies on the floor. To get it started moving, a horizontal force of
300 N needs to be applied. Once it starts moving, it can be kept moving at a constant
velocity with only a 250-N force. What are the coefficients of static and kinetic friction?
a. Just before the crate starts to move, F = 300 N:
Fnety = FN – W =0 FN = W = 500 N
Fnetx = F – ƒs = F – µs FN =0 µs = F/FN =
300/500 = 0.6
b. At constant velocity, F = 250 N:
Fnety = FN – W =0 FN = W = 500 N
Fnetx = F – ƒk = F – µk FN =0 µk = F/FN =
250/500 = 0.5

Example 9: A smooth wooden block is placed on a smooth wooden floor. A force of 14.0 N
is needed to keep the 40.0 N block moving at constant velocity. (a) What is the coefficient
of sliding friction for the block and table? (b) What force will be required to keep the block
moving with constant acceleration
2
2.0 m/s ?
ƒk = µk FN  µk = ƒk/FN
a. For motion with constant velocity, acceleration is zero.
Fnety = FN – W =0 FN = W = 40 N
Fnetx = 14 – ƒk =0 ƒk = 14 N
µk = ƒk/FN = 14/40 = 0.35
b. For motion with constant acceleration a = 2.0 m/s2.
Fnety = FN – W =0 FN = W = 40 N
Fnetx = F – ƒk = ma  F = ma + ƒk = (40/9.8)(2.0) + 14.0
F = 2.2 N

Solve for the needed quantities.

1. A worker pushes a small crate with mass 8.75 kg on a horizontal surface with a
constant speed of 4.50 m/s. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and
the surface is 0.20. (a) What horizontal force must be applied by the worker to
maintain the motion? (b) If the force applied is (a) removed, how soon does the
crate come to rest? (c) What was its acceleration? (d) How far did it travel before
coming to rest?
2. A 200-kg crate is pushed horizontally with a force of 700 N. If the coefficient of
kinetic friction between the crate and the surface is 0.0, calculate the acceleration of
the crate.
3. A 50-kg sled is pulled by a carabao along a wet, grassy field. The static coefficient
of friction is 0.30, and the sliding coefficient friction is 0.20. (a) What force is
needed to keep the sled moving? (b) What force is needed to keep the sled moving
 with constant velocity? (c) Once moving, what force F must be applied by the
carabao to accelerate it to 3.0 m/s2?
4. (a) If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the tires and a dry cement road is
0.80, what us the shortest distance in which an automobile can be stopped by
locking the brakes when traveling at 65 km/hr? (b) On a wet road the coefficient of
kinetic friction may only be 0.25. How fast should one drive in a wet pavement in
order to stop for the same distance in (a)?
5. A 68-kg crate is dragged across a floor by pulling on a rope inclined 150 above the
horizontal. (a) If the coefficient of static friction = 0.50, what minimum tension in
the rope is required to star the crate moving? (b) If the coefficient of kinetic friction
is 0.35, what force must be applied to get an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2?

IV. MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

A. Definition of Terms

1. Internal forces
 Forces that various particles of a system exert on each other

2. External forces
 Forces exerted on any part of the system by any body outside the system

3. Isolated system
 A system of particles that is not acted upon by unbalanced external forces.

4. Collision
 Any strong interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short
time.
 If internal forces are much larger than external forces, the system can be
modeled as an isolated system and the external forces can be neglected
completely.
 Examples are: cars striking another during an accident; billiard balls hitting
each other; impact of a meteor.

Example 1: A car with its passengers, for example, can be considered as an

isolated system. When a passenger pushes the car (from within
the car), he exerts an internal force. When he goes out and
pushes the car, he exerts an unbalanced external force.

B. Momentum
 The product of mass and velocity.
 Momentum is a vector that has the same direction as the body‟s velocity.
 Can be thought of as the “inertia of motion”; for the same mass m, a body
with a larger velocity is harder to stop than a body with a smaller velocity.
 A body moving with constant velocity (constant speed along a straight
path) has a constant momentum.
 The unit used for momentum is kg-m/s or Ns (newton-second)
Momentum (p) = mv
  The total momentum ptotal of any number of particles is equal to the vector
sum of momenta p of the individual particles:
ptotal = ∑p
px = ∑px
py = ∑py
| ptotal | = [px2 + px2]1/2 ; θ = tan– 1 (py/px)
 The total momentum of a system is constant whenever the vector sum of
the external forces in the system is zero.

Example 2: A tennis ball has a mass of 0.1 kg and was moving at +40 m/s.
(a) Find the momentum of the tennis ball. (b) Find the velocity at
which a bowling ball of mass 8 kg, would have the same
momentum as the tennis ball.

a. p = mv = (0.1 kg)(+40 m/s) = 4 kg-m/s

b. v = p/m = (4 kg-m/s) / (8 kg) = 0.5 m/s

Solve for the needed quantities.

1. A small car, mass 725 kg, is moving at +100 km/hr. (a) Find its momentum. (b) At
what velocity is the momentum of a bigger car with a mass of 2175 kg equal to that
of the smaller car?
2. A soccer ball of mass 0.420 kg is traveling with a speed of 4.50 m/s at an angle of
20.00 counterclockwise from the + x-axis. What are the ball‟s x- and y-components
of momentum?
3. A baseball of mass 0.145 kg is moving in the + x-direction with a speed of 1.20
m/s, and a tennis ball of mass 0.0550 kg is moving in the – x-direction with a speed
of 6.20 m/s. What are the magnitude and direction of the total momentum of the
system?
4. A golf ball of mass 0.045 kg is moving in the + y-direction with a speed of 5.00
m/s, and a baseball of mass 0.145 kg is moving in the – x-direction with a speed of
2.00 m/s. What are the magnitude and direction of the total momentum of the
system?
5. A bullet fired from a gun travels at 700 m/s while the same bullet thrown by hand
travels at 3.5 m/s. How much bigger is the momentum of the bullet thrown (p hand)
than the bullet fired (pgun)?

C. Impulse
 The product of the force and the time through with the force acts.
 Impulse is also a vector.
 The impulse (J) imparted to an object whose mass remains constant is
equal to the change in its momentum (impulse-momentum theorem).
J = FΔt = mvf – mvi = Δp
 A large change in momentum leads to a large impulse. A large impulse
arises from either a large force acting over a short time, or a smaller force
acting over a longer time as shown in the figures on the next page.
 The area under the F-t curve corresponds to the impulse.

Example 3: Impulse-Momentum Theorem in Car Collisions

Consider the situation of a 500-kg car traveling at 75 km/hr (21 m/s) that
crashes into a tree. A force is needed to bring the car to a stop. These
collisions are by nature short, lasting only a few seconds. Such a large change
in the momentum over a short period of time results in large forces that is
often fatal to the passengers.

The magnitude of the change in momentum:

| Δpcar | = | 0 – (500)(21) | = 10500 kg-m/s

If the car is brought to a stop in 0.5 s, it experiences a stopping force:

p 10500
F = = = 21000 N
t 0.5

The various safety features of a car aim to prevent or shield the passenger
from experiencing these large momentary forces.

a. Seatbelts
After the ar has stopped, Newton‟s first law dictates that a passenger
unrestrained by a seatbelt will continue to move with a speed of 75 km/hr
until the turn collides with a part of the car‟s interior. The steering wheel or
dashboard can exert this decelerating force over a short period of time with
potentially fatal results.
For a 75 kg passenger:
| Δppassenger | = | 0 – (75)(21) | = 1575 kg-m/s

If this momentum change occurs in 1s, the passenger experiences a

stopping force:
p 10500
F = = = 10500 N
t 1
This is approximately equal to being struck by a mass of:
m = 1575/9.8 = 160.7 kilograms;
approximately twice the passenger‟s mass. The seatbelt restrains and
slows the passenger and prevents his flying-off from his seat and hitting
the rigid interior of the car.

b. Airbags
Airbags cushion the impact by increasing the contact time between the
passenger and reducing the decelerating force for the same change in
momentum. Airbags are designed to deploy quickly when sensors within
the car note a sudden deceleration.

Although generally lifesaving, airbags have also been the cause of injuries
and even death because of the rapid deployment of an airbag. These may
be particularly fatal to children in the front seat who may be pinned down
and choked by the bag.

c. Crumple zones
 Crumple zones in cars are designed to be less rigid and so be significantly
deformed during collisions giving the car more stopping distance.
Alternatively, they can be viewed as dissipating the car‟s kinetic energy
during the deformation of the crumple zone.

Example 4: A rubber ball of mass 0.4 kg is thrown horizontally at +38 m/s. After a bat
hits it, it moves –38 m/s.
a. What impulse did the bat give to the ball?
Impulse = FΔt = Δp = m(vf – vi) = (0.4 kg) [–38 m/s –(+38 m/s)]
= –30.4 kg-m/s
= 30.4 kg-m/s, in the direction of the batted ball

b. If the bat and ball were in contact for 0.003 s, what was the average force
exerted by the bat on the ball?
F = Δp/Δt = (–30.4 kg-m/s) / 0.003 s = –10 133 N
= 10 133 N in the direction of the batted ball

c. What is the average acceleration of the ball during its contact with the bat?
F = ma
a = F/m = –10 133 N / 0.4 kg = –25 332 m/s2
= 25 332 m/s2 in the direction of the batted ball

Solve for the needed quantities.

1. A 1.50 kg block of ice is moving on a frictionless horizontal surface. At t=0 the block
is moving to the right of the velocity of magnitude 5.00 m/s. Calculate the velocity
of the block (magnitude and direction) after each of the following forces has been
applied for 5.00 s: (a) a force of 5.00 N directed to the right; (b) a force of 7.00 N
directed to the left.
2. A 0.0450-kg golf ball initially at rest is given a speed of 50.0 m/s when struck by a
club. If the club and the ball are in contact for 2.00 x 10–3 s, what average force was
exerted on the ball?
3. A 95-kg athlete is running at 4.2 m/s. What impulse will stop him?
4. A cue stick strikes the cure ball, exerting an average force of 50 N over a time of 10
ms. If the ball has a mass of 0.20 kg, what speed does it have after the impact?
5. A car moving at 40 km/hr crashes into a barrier and stops in 0.25 m. (a) Find the
time required to stop the car. (b) If a 40-kg child is to be stopped at the same time
as the car, what average force must be exerted? (c) Approximately, what is the
mass of an object whose weight equals the force from (b)?

V. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

A. Work
 When a force acts on an object, the work (W) done is the product of the force
and the displacement (the distance through which the object moves in the
direction of the force). Work is the measured in joules (J).
Work = FΔx
 Work is positive if the displacement is in the same direction as the force; work
is negative if the displacement is in the opposite direction as the force.
  A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement.
 For a force that is not parallel to the force, only the component of the force in
the direction of the displacement does work.
 Work can be though of as the transfer of energy by mechanical means.

Example 1: The force applied to lift a box on the floor and keep it at a constant height
while moving the box around the room does no work. The lifting force is vertical whereas
the motion of the box as it moves around the room is horizontal. The applied lifting force
does work only when the box is lifted from the floor.

Example 2: A boy lifts the box filled with toys that has a mass of 5 kg. The box is lifted to
0.5 m. How much work did the boy do?

Solution: Work = FΔx where the force F applied must equal the weight of the box
 F = W = mg = (5 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 49 N
Work = (49 N)(0.5 m) = 24.5 N-m

Example 3: A worker pulls a box along the floor using a cable at an angle of 600 above the
horizontal. How much work does the workman do if he pulls at the rope with a force of
250 N and drags the box along the floor for 30 m.

Only the component along the direction of motion (along the x-axis) does work:
Work = (Fcos60) Δy = (250 N)(cos60)(30 m) = 3750 J

Solve for the needed quantities.

1. An airline passenger carries a 215-N suitcase up the stairs with a displacement of

4.20 m up and 4.60 m horizontally. How much work against gravity does the
passenger do?
2. How much work does the force of gravity do when a 25-N object falls a distance of
3.5 m?
3. A rope is used to pull a wooden chest 15.0 m across the floor. The rope is held at an
angle of 46.00 with the floor and a force of 628 N is used. How much work does the
force of the rope do?
4. A water-skier is pulled by a towrope behind a boat. She skis off to the side, and the
rope makes an angle 200 with her direction of motion. The tension in the rope is 120
N. How much work is done on the skier by the rope during a displacement of
150.0 m?

B. Power
 The rate at which work is done or how fast work is done.
 It is measured in watts (W); often expressed in kilowatts (kW) or in
horsepower (hp):
1 kW = 1000 watts
1 hp = 746 watts = 0.746 kW
 One watt is one joule per second.

Example 4: An electric motor is used to power a winch that lifts a load of bricks weighing
1000 N to the top of a building 100 m high. From the ground up it takes 25 seconds for
the bricks to reach the top. (a) What is the power of the motor in watts? (b) What power
is needed to bring the bricks up in 10 seconds?

a. P = W / t = FΔy / t = (1000 N)(100 m) / 25 s

= 4000 W = 4 kW
b. P = W / t = FΔy / t = (1000 N)(100 m) / 10 s
= 10 000 W = 10 kW
Solve for the needed quantities.

1. A man whose mass is 80.0 kg walks up to the third floor of a building. This is a
vertical height of 12.0 m above street level. If he climbs the stairs in 20.0 s, what
was his rate of working in watts?
2. The hammer of a pile driver has a weight of 4800 N and must be lifted at constant
speed up a vertical distance of 1.80 m in 3.00 s. What engine horsepower rating is
required to accomplish this?
3. The engine of a car delivers 20 hp while moving at 30.0 m/s. If the car is pushed at
the same speed, what force must be applied?
4. An electric motor develops 65 kW of power as it lifts a loaded elevator 17.5 m in
35.0 s. How much force does the motor exert?
5. A 575-N box is lifted distance of 20.0 m straight up by a rope and pulley system.
The job is done in 10.0 s. What power is developed in watts? kilowatts?
horsepower?

C. Energy
 Energy is defined as the capacity to do work or the ability o produce a change
in itself or its surroundings.
 An object can have energy due to its position or motion.
 Energy is scalar with the same unit as work, joule (J).

Types of Energy:

1. Potential Energy
 The energy of an object due to its position within a system

a. Gravitational Potential Energy (PEgrav)

o The energy of an object due to its position relative to the Earth
PEgrav = mgh ;m  mass
;g  acceleration due to gravity
;h  height of the object relative to a
reference point
o Gravitational potential energy is relative to some reference point
where the potential energy is zero.

Example 5: A book lying on a table has a gravitational potential energy if our reference
point is the floor. The same book, however, has no gravitational energy relative to the
table.
b. Elastic Potential Energy (PEs)
o Energy-stored when an elastic object is stretched or compressed
 1
PEs = k x 2 ;k  force constant of the spring (N/m)
2
; Δx 
extension / compression
(displacement) of the spring (in
meters) from its uncompressed
state.
o The relationship between the extension of a spring and the force it
exerts is:
F = –kΔx the (–) sign indicates that the force is always
opposite to the direction of the opposite to the ;
direction of the displacement.

2. Kinetic Energy
 The energy of an object in motion
1
KE = mv 2 ;m  mass
2
;v  velocity

3. Mechanical Energy
 The sum of the kinetic and potential energy
ME = KE + PE the (–) sign indicates that the force is always
opposite to the direction of the opposite to the ;
direction of the displacement.
 In an ideal energy system, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy, or
the mechanical energy remains constant.
KE1 + PE1 = KE2 + PE2
 This says that kinetic energy can be transformed into potential energy and
vice-versa, but their sum remains constant.
 In an ideal system, only conservative forces (gravitational and elastic
forces) are involved.
 Friction is not a conservative force since it dissipates some of the
mechanical energy of a system in the form of heat; the system loses some
of its energy.

Example 6: A 12.0-kg block 2.00 m above the ground. Use the conservation of energy to
find: (a) the speed with which the clock strikes the floor; (b) the speed it hits the ground
when it is thrown with an initial downward velocity of 5 m/s. (c) How much a spring on
the ground (k = 1000 N/m) will compress when the block falls on it?

a. MEtop = MEroof
mgh = ½ mv2
v = [ 2gh ]1/2 = [2(9.8)(2.00)]1/2 = 6.3 m/s

b. MEtop = MEfloor
 ½mv2 + mgh = ½mv2
 vf = [ 2(½v2 + gh)]1/2 = [2{½(5)2 + (9.8)(2.00)}]1/2
= 8.0 m/s

c. MEtop = MEspring
mgh = ½kΔx2
 Δx = [ 2mgh/k]1/2 = [2(12)(9.8)(2.00) / 1000]1/2
= 0.685 m = 68.5 m
Find the needed quantities.

1. A woman lifts a mass of 2.00 kg from the floor to a table 0.80 m high. Using the
floor as the reference point, what potential energy does the mass have because of
this change of position?
2. A meteorite weighing 1860 N strikes the Earth with a speed of 45.2 m/s. What is its
kinetic energy?
3. A spring has a force constant of k = 300 N/m. How far must the spring be stretched
for 80.0 J of potential energy to be stored in it?
4. A 1.20-kg book is dropped from a height of 0.40 m onto a spring with a force
constant k = 1960 N/m. Find the maximum distance the spring will be compressed
using the idea of conservation of energy.
5. A 0.150-kg baseball is thrown straight up in the air, giving it an initial upward
velocity of magnitude 20.0 m/s. Use the conservation of energy to find how high it
goes up, ignoring air resistance.