electrical installation practice

according to IEC
international standards
D
1. rules and regulations EMC1

2. electromagnetic disturbances
2.1 disturbances by conduction EMC2
2.2. radiation EMC8

3. cabling of equipment and systems

3.1 earthing EMC9
3.2 masses (non-conducting metal parts) EMC11
3.3 attenuating effects EMC15
3.4 installation and cabling rules EMC16
3.5 EMC components and solutions EMC17

G
4. local network problems EMC20

low-voltage service connections

Appendix- D581
EMC
1. rules and regulations

EMC
Legislation on EMC throughout the world is
broadly divided into two philosophies. In
"liberal" countries, any parasitic interference
with radio reception is illegal, but no
emission-level limit for the source of
interference is imposed. However, in cases of
litigation the methods of measuring, and the
limits of emission level laid down by the
CISPR, serve as reference. For example,
Japan is a "liberal country" in which the VCCI
standards (that correspond technically to the
international publications of CISPR) assumes
that the attitude of civic responsibility
prevailing is adequate at the present time.
For countries more rigidly "regulated",
emission levels exceeding a standardized
limit are illegal. For example, in the U.S.A.,
Automatic Data Processing (ADP) systems
are protected by obligatory emission-level
standards defined by the Federal law FCC
part 15. Checking procedures differ,
depending on whether the level for class A
(procedure for "compliance") or class B is
concerned. In the case for class B (domestic
environment), certification is then required.
European regulations are effectively placed
between the two foregoing attitudes. The
parasitic-emission level and an excessively-
sensitive reception device are both illegal.
Compliance with the EMC standards,
although only constituting a presumption of
conformity to the essential requirements, is,
nevertheless, the preferred means of
checking. Moreover, the European
regulations are applicable to all apparatuses,
systems and commercialised installations,
without exception.

Appendix EMC - 1
 2. electromagnetic disturbances
EMC
Problems of EMC (ElectroMagnetic
Compatibility) often arise when equipment,
which is highly sensitive to extraneous
electrical disturbances (commonly referred to
as "interference" or "parasites") is located in
an environment subject to electromagnetic
disturbances.
Since sources of electromagnetic disturbance
are numerous and inevitable, and
desensitizing an equipment (generally
electronic) to counter the effect of
disturbances is difficult to achieve,
consideration of the physical layout of the
sensitive equipments and related cabling,
relative to the sources of disturbance,
becomes necessary.
This is the principal means of ensuring a
satisfactory degree of immunity for the large
majority of sensitive electronic devices.
There are two recognized modes of
electromagnetic interference:
c conducted disturbances propagated along
cables, wires, etc.
c radiated disturbances by stationary
induction (magnetic or electrostatic fields*)
and/or by electromagnetic (radio) waves
2.1 disturbances by conduction
2.1.1 Disturbances by conduction: modes
of propagation
Electrical energy, whether useful signals or
power, or unwanted parasites, propagate
along a 2-wire circuit in one of two modes
only, viz: in differential mode or in common
mode.
Differential mode
The differential mode is the normal way of
conducting current through a 2-wire circuit.
This mode is sometimes referred to as series
mode, normal mode, or symmetrical mode.
In the differential mode the current flowing in
one conductor is in exact phase opposition to
that in the other conductor, i.e. flowing in the
opposite direction at every instant.
The voltage is measured between the two
conductors.
I I
U equipment
I
fig. EMC-1: signal or disturbance in the
differential mode.
Differential mode disturbances are the most
severe at low frequencies. By low
frequencies (LF) it is understood in EMC
studies to concern all frequencies lower than
9 kHz. This convention means that a very
large number of electrical disturbances are
considered as being LF phenomena.
In electrical power networks disturbances in
the differential mode are numerous. One may
cite, for example, interruptions of supply of
short or long duration, voltage fluctuations
and dips, phase instability, lamp flicker,
variations of frequency: harmonics and
voltage spikes. The effect of an electromagnetic
disturbance depends largely on its duration.
Permanent (maintained) disturbances
principally affect analogue-type circuits, while
transient and impulsive disturbances interfere
especially with digital circuits.
2 - Appendix EMC
travelling in space.
The magnitudes of electromagnetic
disturbances are expressed by four
parameters: two for the conduction mode and
two for the radiation mode.
For the conduction mode, measurements are
made in the traditional quantities, viz: volts
(U) and amps (I). For the radiated
electromagnetic waves the electric and
magnetic field strengths are measured in
volts per metre (E) and in amperes per
metre (H), respectively.
The frequency is one of the principal features
that characterise an electromagnetic wave.
In EMC studies the solutions adapted differ
according to whether the disturbance is at low
frequency (LF) or at high frequency (HF).
* Stationary (but changing in magnitude) magnetic and
electric induction fields generally, are only significant in
close proximity to the sources and are easily countered by
placing sensitive equipment at a suitable distance from
them. A notable exception is the case where some tens of
thousands of amps, i.e. short-circuit fault currents, flow in a
power cable.
Common mode
The common mode is parasitic. It is
sometimes also referred to as parallel mode,
longitudinal mode or asymmetrical mode.
Common-mode currents pass through all the
conductors of a cable in the same direction.
The return path for such currents is via the
earth, earth-bonding connections and the
protective earthing conductors, cable
sheaths, etc. Since the earth is no longer
used as a conducting medium for telefax,
useful signals are no longer transmitted in the
common mode through the associated
cables. A potential difference in common
mode is measured between the mass (local
zero voltage reference terminal) and the
mean value of potential of all the conductors
of the cable circuit being tested. It may be
present in the absence of any current flow.
2
equipment
I U
2
fig. EMC-2: disturbance in common
mode.

Electromagnetic disturbances couple readily
with cables in the common mode, particularly
at high frequencies (HF), since they act as
radio antennae. Several kinds of coupling
between neighbouring circuits can occur.
The problems of common mode recur
frequently in EMC cases. A conducting
environment is always good for EMC,
due to it equipotential quality.
Only disturbances in the differential mode can
be filtered locally, cable by cable.
As indicated by its name, the common mode
is common to all the cables of a given
equipment. Common mode problems at HF
are particularly critical in an insulated
environment, or where the mass (the zero-
voltage refernce for all electronic circuits) is
"floating" with respect to earth (i.e. insulated
from the earth).
A common mode voltage is always
detrimental. If it cannot be reduced, it is
important, at least, to prevent it from
developing into a differential mode
disturbance.
2.1.2 LF disturbances by conduction
LF disturbances include all types of parasitic
interference of which the range of significant
frequencies is lower than 9 kHz. The
frenquency of 9 kHz is a conventional upper
limit, below which electrical phenomena may
be analysed in simple terms, using customary
equivalent linear circuit techniques, based on
resistances, inductances (self- and mutual-)
and capacitances. By definition, a LF
disturbance exists for a relatively "long" time
(at least a hundred microseconds). The
energy level of a conducted LF disturbance
can be considerable and is very easily
measured.
The impedance of a cable at very low
frequencies is practically equivalent to its
resistance only. At several kiloherz most
cables of small cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.)
and even at 50 Hz (for cables of large c.s.a.)
the lineal inductance of a conductor is of the
order of 1 µH/m, and its impedance increases
linearly with frequency. For example, large 1-
core cables at 50 Hz, installed in trefoil, have
a lineal impedance of approximately
0.3 Ω per km. This feature is important when
considering harmonic frequencies in a
network.
Selecting a c.s.a. larger than 35 mm2 for a
protective conductor would effectively reduce
the heating of the conductor when carrying
fault current (since its resistance would be
lower) but would have a negligible effect on
the equipotential distribution: the inductance
of a cable being (as noted above) practically
independent of its c.s.a.
EMC
This is the role of insulated and/or
symmetrical connections.
A galvanic insulation is only effective at low
frequencies. A symmetrical connection, also
referred to as "balanced", can remain
effective up to high frequencies. The
dissymmetry of a differential connection
originates mainly from its end circuits. An
imbalance at an end circuit can be caused by
an electrical and/or geometric dissymmetry.
In any case, a connection by simple coaxial
cable to transmit signals at low frequencies is
not recommended.
Correcting measures which may produce
harmful secondary effects must be combined
with other precautions in order that the
system effectively counters the entire range
of disturbances (LF and HF, of large and
small amplitudes). The combination of the
different corrective measures (galvanic
separation, symmetrical connections and
overvoltage protection) is referred to as
coordinated protection.
Interruptions (long or transitory)
An interruption is a total disappearance of the
power-supply system voltage. In the case of
a fault occurring on the HV network of a
power-supply system, a consumer will
normally experience a "voltage dip"
sometimes followed by a brief interruption.
This interruption will occur only if the HV
system is an overhead-line (O/H line) system,
and the consumer is being supplied from the
section of line on which the fault has
occurred. So-called "fleeting faults" on
overhead lines are very common, and consist
of flashovers (of insulators) to earthed metal
by momentary overvoltage due to lightning or
a short-circuit through a large bird, or again,
directly to earth through, for example, a wet
tree branch, etc.
In more than 80% of these incidents such a
fault will disappear during the brief period of
automatic interruption, and normal supply will
be restored.
The automatic sequence for the elimination of
fleeting faults on O/H lines is included in the
protection scheme for the line. The
interruptions in these schemes are normally
limited to less than 0.5 seconds. An
underground cable supply network reduces
the number of interruptions to about 10% only
of those of O/H line systems, but
underground cable faults are not self-
clearing, so that lengthy shutdowns are
necessary to locate the fault and to effect
repairs.
Appendix EMC - 3
 2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Flicker
Flicker describes a condition of small but
frequently recurring voltage dips caused by
loads which require relatively heavy current
for brief and regularly repeated periods.
The impedance of a LV network is made up
mainly of cable impedance and the
impedance of the HV/LV transformer
supplying the network. The greater the kVA
rating of the transformer, the lower its
effective impedance. In public power-supply
systems the flicker problem is more common
on rural systems, particularly at the end of
long lines. It is a problem on a line which is
supplying arc furnaces, arc-welding machines
and, generally, where heavy loads are
frequently switched.
Flicker creates an objectionable annoyance
for persons working under incandescent
lighting. The effect is purely physiological, no
dysfunctioning of electronic equipment will
occur due to flicker.
Flicker is objectionable only where heavy
overloads and frequent switching are
combined, or where the impedance of the
system is high. Standardized parameter limits
and a flicker meter are described in IEC
publications 1000-3-3 and 1000-4-15.
∆U/Un in %
3 nominal voltage, and its duration in
2
1
0,5
0,3
.5 .7 1 10 100 1000
fig. EMC-3: number of variations per
minute.
For industrial installations subject to flicker, a
modification to the installation is sometimes
necessary. Among the possible corrective
measures available, the most effective
include: separate cables for heavy loads
preferably with each large load supplied
through an individual HV/LV transformer,
division of the load, increase the time lags in
automatic control systems, reduction in the
work-cycle rate, time-wise staggering and
spreading of operations which require
impulsive power demands, together with the
installation of a static reactive-power
compensator. Technically, a reduction in the
source impedance is an excellent solution.
In final general-distribution circuits at LV, the
3-phase symmetrical short-circuit current is
usually within the 500-5,000 A range. In
industry, the short-circuit current at LV may
exceed 10 kA on a circuit of large c.s.a. close
to the source substation. This value never,
however, exceeds 100 kA.
Fluctuations and voltage dips
A fluctuation of voltage is a rapid change of
supply voltage not exceeding + 10% (the
generally accepted limits at distribution level)
during normal operation. A "dip" is a sudden
4 - Appendix EMC
drop of voltage, caused principally by
switching loads which, at the instant of
energization, require a greater current than
the normal rated value, e.g. small-motor
starting currents, the switching on of large
resistive heating devices and incandescent
lamps, etc. Such dips are transitory only, but
are often more severe than those classed as
flicker, generally exceeding 10%. The duration
of a "dip" lasts from 10 ms to approximately 1 s.
Voltage reductions which exceed 10% and
1 s, due, for example, to starting large motors,
or, as previously described, due to system
faults, are simply referred to as "voltage drop"
and the extent of the drop and its duration are
specified. Voltage fluctuations have little
effect on electronic circuits generally.
Sensitive, precision electronic-control devices,
electronic calculators of early design, and
electronic (HF) fluorescent lighting tubes,
however, may be adversely affected.
A well-designed electronic device can
tolerate, without difficulty, voltage fluctuations
up to + 8%.
A voltage dip at a point on a HV system is
generally due to a short-circuit fault
elsewhere on the same network. The closer
the fault to the point in question, the more
severe the dip. The severity of the dip is
defined by two parameters: the magnitude of
the drop as a percentage of the system
milliseconds.
Voltage dips are generally due to wind-blown
debris (tree branches, etc.), electric storms,
or faults on the lines (broken insulators) or
occur on the installation of a neighbouring
consumer.
Ueff.
most influenced beetween the
400 V three phase to phase voltages
360 V
depth
(% de Un)
clearing
10 time
= 0,3 s
duration time
= 0,4 s
fig. EMC-4: caracteristics of a voltage dip.
Faults on VHV (very high voltage)
transmission lines are rare and are usually
due to lightning, or to exceptionally severe
cold weather.
The consequence of voltage dips (when
followed by an interruption) is a complete loss
of supply to electronic (and power) devices.
Relays will drop out and motors controlled by
electronic speed-variation and regenerative-
braking devices will be deprived of brake control.
Even if there is no supply interruption, a large
and long (up to 1 second) voltage dip may
cause similar malfunctions.
Means of countering these problems at the
least cost requires individual analysis of each
case. To overcome the voltage-dip problem,
many low-power electronic equipments have
individual power packs with an autonomy of
several hundred milliseconds for 100% loss
of supply voltage.
For heavy-duty power supplies, the period of
autonomy amounts only to approximately
20 milliseconds, the limiting factor being the
size of the energy-storing capacitors required.
Rotating machines (motor/generators) have

sufficient autonomy to cope with voltage dips.
Finally, uninterruptible power supply units can
suppress voltage dips, and maintain the
power supply during a period of complete
interruption.
Unbalance
The amplitude of an ac voltage is expressed
by its rms (root-mean-square) value. The
voltage between a phase conductor and the
neutral is referred to as the phase voltage,
while that measured between any two phases
is called the line voltage. The line voltage
equals etimes the phase voltage, on a
normally balanced 3-phase system
(e= 1.732). A 3-phase system may be
defined simply by the amplitude of 3 voltages,
either line or phase values.
In order to define a sinusoidal system which
is in an unbalanced state, however, the
values of current and voltage of each phase
are then, in the general case, the sum of
3 rotating vector components. The three
components of each phase are known as:
c the positive phase-sequence component
c the negative phase-sequence component
c the zero phase-sequence component.
A balanced 3-phase system is composed of
positive phase-sequence components only.
An unsymmetrical system is said to be
unbalanced; its negative- and zero-phase
sequence components are generally both
present, together with the positive phase-
sequence component.
A common cause of imbalance is that of
different levels of loading on the 3 phases.
Unbalanced loading results in unbalanced
voltages being applied to 3-phase motors.
Increased losses occur in the rotors of the
motors, and in cases of excessive imbalance,
motors can be destroyed by overheating.
Single-phase (line-to-line) loads are not
normally adversely affected by imbalance.
Small degrees of imbalance (0.5-1%) are
inevitable on LV 3-phase 3-wire networks,
and up to 2 or 3% can be tolerated for several
minutes by all loads.
When an imbalance of voltage is considered
to be excessive (> 2% for example), it is
advisable to correct the balance of phase
loading. Where it is not possible to improve
the balance, the situation may be eased by
increasing the fault level at the circuit
concerned by changing the supply
transformer.
An average HV/LV distribution transformer
(> 100 kVA) has a short-circuit voltage of
5-6%. Special transformers are available with
interlaced windings which limit the leakage
reactance to give a short-circuit voltage of
approximately 2%.
A low short-circuit voltage effectively means a
low source impedance (with higher fault-
current level) a situation which improves the
voltage balance, and (incidentally) improves
the form of the voltage wave (if it happens to
be distorted) by reducing the harmonic
content of the wave. A modern method of
improving a condition of imbalance, though
presently rather costly, is to install a static
compensator. It consists of a system which
stores energy in an inductor or capacitor, and
restores this energy to the system at the
appropriate instants.
An active filter constitutes one of the
preferred solutions for limiting disturbances
generated by arc furnaces during the start-up
phase.
EMC
Frequency variations
The European network performs, in practice,
as an infinite system as far as frequency
stability is concerned, in that load changes do
not sensibly affect the frequency. On smaller
private systems, and especially on single
generators, where the rotational inertia is
small and the regulating system of the prime
mover is generally rudimentary, the frequency
will vary (within reasonable limits) each time
the load changes abruptly. Diesel engine
prime movers are less stable, in terms of
frequency, than turbines. Frequency
variations do not unduly disturb electronic
equipments. Converters based on current
chopping principles are insensitive to
frequency changes. All modern devices and
components should be capable of correct
performance during frequency changes of
+ 4% throughout a 10 minute period.
Only very large systems with transformers
operating at the limit of saturation may, when
the system voltage is at its maximum, be
subjected to overheating by a long-term low-
frequency condition. AC motors (locked to the
frequency) will experience speed variations
corresponding to those of the frequency. On
the other hand, the inertia of motors tends to
smooth out other sudden disturbances
occurring on a network.
Harmonics
Any non-linear load (fluorescent lamp, Graetz
bridge, arc furnace, etc.) takes a non-
sinusoidal current from the network. Such a
current is composed of a sinusoidal
component at the frequency of the system
and is known as the fundamental component,
together with other sinusoidal components
which are whole-number multiples of the
fundamental frequency. These latter are
referred to as harmonic components.
Conventionally, harmonics up to the rank of
40 only are considered in power systems,
i.e. 2 kHz for 50 Hz systems and 2.4 kHz for
60 Hz systems. Supplies to electronic circuits,
power regulators based on Graetz bridge,
and fluorescent lighting equipment, are rich in
harmonics.
Distortion of a voltage waveform is onerous
for associated equipments; it is expressed as
a percentage. It is proportional to the
harmonic content of the current and to the
impedance of the source. The effect of
distortion is to increase the heating losses in
motors. In an ADP environment, a distortion
of 5% may be considered to be normal. All
electronic components can tolerate a global
factor of distortion including possible inter-
harmonics of at least 8%. An inter-harmonic
current has a frequency which is not a whole-
number multiple of the fundamental (i.e.
system) frequency. A distinction is made
between "true" inter-harmonics generated at
discrete frequencies, and those forming part
of a continuous spectrum.
Even-numbered harmonics are generated
only by asymmetrical rectifiers and load
currents which contain a dc component. A dc
component can readily saturate a power-
supply transformer. Most non-linear loads
(satured transformers, fluorescent tubes,
power supply circuits which use current-
chopping techniques, etc.) only generate
odd-numbered harmonics.
Appendix EMC - 5
 2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Balanced 3-phase loads supplied from
a 3-phase 3-wire system (i.e no neutral wire)
do not generate 3rd harmonic currents or
multiples of 3rd harmonic currents. A Graetz
bridge or a hexaphase thyristor-controlled
regulator behave as current generators,
which are practically independent of the
voltage distortion.
Third harmonic currents and multiples of
them (known as "triplen" currents) when
generated in the phases of a 3-phase 4-wire
system, present a particular problem in that,
being of zero-phase sequence (i.e. in phase
with each other), they add arithmetically and
complete their circuit through the neutral
conductor. The current in the neutral
conductor due to this cause is at 150 Hz and
can exceed, in unfavourable circumstances,
the current flowing in the phase wires. This
aspect should be borne in mind when
considering supplies to ADP loads and loads
made up of fluorescent lighting tubes. If the
neutral is not distributed, i.e. the system is
3-phase 3-wires, then 3rd harmonic currents
cannot flow. A transformer with a delta-
connected primary winding, however, allows
the circulation of 3rd harmonic currents, a
feature that practically negates the distortion
of the LV voltage wave, which would
otherwise contain a large 3rd harmonic
component.
Reduction of the source impedance is not
always effective in reducing distortion :
power-factor correcting capacitors can cause
a problem, if, together with the source
impedance (which is predominantly inductive)
the combination should form a resonant (or
partially resonant) circuit at one of the
harmonic or inter-harmonic frequencies.
The parallel combination of inductive
reactance L and capacitive reactance C can
present a high impedance at its resonant
frequency, particularly at low-load periods.
The distortion can therefore become
excessive due to the amplification effect of
the resonance.
A harmonic filter is a series LC circuit
connected in parallel with the source and acts
as a short-circuit to currents at its resonant
frequency. The capacitor and inductor must
be capable of carrying the maximum value of
the harmonic current, while the capacitor
must withstand the elevated harmonic
voltage plus the system normal-frequency
voltage. The inductor is adjusted to cause the
combination to resonate at the exact
frequency of the harmonic in question. It must
not saturate or overheat. The rating of a
harmonic filter varies according to the size of
the installation from some kvar to several
Mvar.
A problem with harmonic filters is that their
resonant frequencies change from one point
on the network to another due to cable
inductance. The longer the cabling, the lower
the frequency at which the filter resonates.
It is advisable moreover, to check that the
currents in a number of paralleled filters are
satisfactorily shared.
A modern means of limiting distortion is by
the use of active filters. These filters are
inverters based on PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) techniques, together with
reactive-energy storage.
6 - Appendix EMC
The role of an active filter, triggered by an
error function, is to inject into the network a
harmonic current exactly equal, but in phase
opposition, to that produced downstream.
The principle of operation is comparable to
that of a static compensator, but at a
considerably higher chopping rate. An active
filter can be called upon to compensate not
only first (i.e. lower) harmonics, but also
reactive power (var) and flicker ; it is simply a
question of dimensioning.
Overvoltages
Overvoltages that affect industrial-supply
power networks in the differential mode
(between phases) can occur for numerous
reasons.
The energizing of a bank of capacitors can
generate an overvoltage transient associated
with an energy level of several hundred
Joules. The inductance of the system and the
capacitance of the bank behave as a series
LC circuit which oscillates transiently at its
natural frequency, typically below 1 kHz.
The value of the first peak (the sum of the
transient and system peaks) can reach
almost twice the value of the power system
peak voltage, i.e. the transient can have a
peak value almost equal to the system peak.
A second cause of overvoltage may occur on
the blowing of a wire-type fuse. A sudden
release of the magnetic energy stored in the
system inductances can be as much as a
thousand Joules, which, when converted into
electrostatic form in the system capacitances,
can raise the voltage sufficiently to damage
associated equipment. The effect is
considerably less with cartridge fuses or with
a circuit breaker.
Any manœuvre on a power transmission
system (opening or closing a circuit breaker,
isolating switch, etc.) results in an operational
disturbance. The energization of a
transmission line is characterized by a wave
front of voltage which (at approximately the
speed of light) propagates and reflects along
the line to produce a voltage-doubling
phenomenon.
The frequency of this highly-damped short-
duration oscillation varies between 10 kHz
and 1 MHz. The phenomenon is related to
that of energizing a capacitor, but the
frequency in this case is much greater
(depending on the length of the line) while the
energy level is lower. The risk of damage to
equipment from this phenomenon is much
less than that from overvoltages of longer
duration, but the risks of malfunctions are
greater.
Overvoltages have little effect on
electrotechnical equipments, but can disturb,
weaken and even destroy electronic
equipments. A LF overvoltage in common
mode has no effect on supply circuits that are
galvanically isolated, provided that the
isolating dielectric can withstand the voltage
stress without rupturing. At HF, principally by
its common-mode component, an
overvoltage can disturb (i.e. interfere with)
sensitive electronic systems. The solution is
simple: filter each equipment with respect to
its own mass (metallic structure of the
equipment).

The installation engineer has practically only
one way to protect the installation against
overvoltages, and that is to install overvoltage
limiting devices on the supply-circuit
conductors. Overvoltages occurring on public
LV distribution networks are lower in energy
than those occurring in heavy-current
industrial networks: the energy on public
networks rarely exceeding 100 Joules.
The only really dangerous case is that of a
lightning stroke on a line close to the
installation.
2.1.3. HF disturbances by induction
At HF i.e. conventionally above 1 MHz,
interference phenomena become
considerably more complicated. Power
conductors become efficient antennae,
electromagnetic fields, even when weak,
produce considerable interference, all cables
are affected, and some may resonate, etc.
HF phenomena are severe, frequent, difficult
to analyse and are cause to reconsider the
established practices in electronics cable
installation.
The inductance of cables becomes more of a
problem at HF than at low frequencies. The
lineal inductance of any conducting structure
following a sensibly straight route is
approximately 1 µH/m. Furthermore, an
interconnection of a length exceeding a
thirtieth (1/30) of a wavelength becomes
practically incapable of ensuring
equipotentiality between the two
interconnected masses. Beyond λ/30, a
conductor becomes an effective radiating
antenna but, if radiating, it fails to perform
correctly as an equipotential conductor.
The wavelength λ corresponding to a
frequency of 1 MHz is 300 metres. The
distance between any equipment and the
main earth bar being generally greater than
10 metres, one may deduce that the nature
and the quality of the earthing is of no
consequence at frequencies exceeding
1 MHz. A simple dictum: a large conductor is
good, but a short conductor is better.
HF disturbances by conduction in common
mode through cables are, in fact, considered
to be the principal problem for EMC
specialists. The reduction of common mode
disturbances at HF through cables can be
achieved by one or more of the following
three stratagems:
1 - attenuation effects: close interconnection
(networking) by equipotential conductors of
"masses" and/or screened cables
2 - filters between conductors and
mechanical mass of each equipment
3 - ferrites on "problem" cables.
An electronic circuit, e.g. a card supporting
chips, etc., should never be allowed to "float"
relative to its conducting envelope, a
condition which is to be avoided at all costs in
the presence of HF interference. The natural
(so-called "stray") capacitances of the card
components, less than a pico-farad, can be
sufficient to cause interference with an
electronic circuit. To limit rapidly varying
voltages between an electronic circuit and its
environment, the connecting of the filter 0 V
(reference voltage) terminal to an enveloping
metallic housing, connected to earth or not, is
an excellent preventive measure.
EMC
New overvoltage surge arresters based on
the use of varistors of high energy-dissipation
ratings allow an effective protection of all LV
systems and equipments downstream of the
point of arrester installation.
Failure of the zinc-oxide varistor will cause a
thermal fusing element (which is connected in
series with it) to blow, and open the circuit,
thereby avoiding a short-circuit to earth via a
faulty or damaged arrester. The cable from
this device must be connected by the
shortest possible route to the mass of the
distribution board, i.e. the common earthing
bar, and not to the earthing electrode, which
is generally too far away (see Sub-clause
L 1.4).
HF spikes
The range of frequencies which presents the
greatest difficulties, both in radiation and in
protection against the radiated energy, is the
VHF band from 30 to 300 MHz, also referred
to as the "metric" band. Almost all electric
arcs, sparks, electrostatic discharges and
starting contacts (such as dry contacts,
starting contact for striking an arc in
electroluminescent tubes, operation of circuit
breakers and other switching devices on HV
systems) generate impulses (spikes) which
are conducted in common mode and
radiated. The radiation spectrum covers the
range of the above-mentioned VHF band.
The amplitude of the HF current spikes can
attain a peak of several tens of amperes.
Digital circuits are particularly vulnerable to
such spikes. Respecting the standard for
immunity IEC 1000-4-4 is a highly-
recommended means of achieving
satisfactory protection and EMC of an
installation.
Maintained HF disturbances
Frequency converters, electronic speed
controllers, Graetz bridges and electric-motor
commutating brushes also generate common
mode HF disturbances. The peak value of
these disturbances can reach and even
exceed 1 ampere. One solution is to install an
efficient filter at the supply-source and/or at
the disturbed equipment. Another solution is
the use of power cables that include a
screen, which is earthed at both ends.
For sources of heavy interference, it is
recommended to form a network of
equipotential interconnections of all masses
in the neighbourhood of the offending source,
in particular all metallic cable ways, ducts,
trays, etc.
Appendix EMC - 7
 2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.2 radiation
Electrical energy propagation is not only
confined to conductors. It can also propagate
in space without material support. Such
propagation is referred to as electromagnetic
fields or waves, or Hertzian waves. Such a
wave is made up of an electric component E
in volts per metre, and a magnetic
component H in amperes per metre.
These radiated fields, when encountering a
2.2.1 LF magnetic fields
At low frequencies, only the magnetic field
may cause problems. Whether it is impulsive
(short-circuit, lightning, electronic flash...) or
maintained, the field H is generally produced
in close proximity to the affected equipment.
Measurement of the field strength requires an
oscilloscope and a loop probe only. The
magnetic field at low frequency does not
propagate, but remains in the close proximity
of its origin (a transformer or an induction
motor, for example) and its field strength
initially decreases rapidly with distance from
the source according to 1/D3.
At greater distances, the rate of decrease is
slower and approaches 1/D2. This latter value
is often used when considering the field
surrounding busbars or an overhead line. The
magnetic-field strength of a rectilinear current
with a return path at infinity (such as that due
to lightning) decreases according to 1/D.
Severe sources of magnetic fields are the
zero-phase sequence currents in supply
cables of a TN-C scheme. Loops formed
between the phase conductors and currents
diverted from the neutral conductor (through
equipotential bonds) are sometimes very
2.2.2 HF electromagnetic fields
At high frequencies, the E and H fields unite
to form indivisible electromagnetic waves in
space. At more than a sixth of a wavelength
from a point source, the ratio E/H tends to a
value of 120 π = 377 ohms. It is sufficient,
therefore, to give the value of one component
in order to deduce the field strength.
Numerous industrial, scientific or medical
apparatuses use radio frequencies, most
often in the 1 MHz to 3 GHz range. Radio
transmitters have power-radiation capabilities
ranging from several milli-watts for radio-
control devices, to several mega-watts peak
for radar systems.
Walky-talkies, which can be used for
transmission very close to electronic
equipment, are sources of disturbance,
particularly for low-power analog circuits.
An effective way to reduce radio-transmitter
field strength, as "seen" by sensitive
electronic equipments, is to use antennae as
remote from the equipments as possible, and
located at the greatest height attainable.
Since this principle cannot be applied to
portable transmitters, their use must be
restricted to areas sufficiently remote from
sensitive equipments to ensure trouble-free
operation of the latter.
8 - Appendix EMC
conductor (which acts as a receiving
antenna), give rise to minute emfs and
currents in the conducting material, i.e. in the
form of disturbance by conduction. For cable
circuits, these disturbances are in common
mode. It is therefore possible to protect
against these radiated fields by means of a
Faraday cage arrangement or by (very often)
low-pass filters.
large; such currents can amount to several
amperes. The undesirability of the TN-C
scheme (in buildings) for this reason is shown
in fig. F14 Chapter F, of the main text. During
a short-circuit fault, the disturbance is
evidently greater to a degree that depends on
the fault-current magnitude.
The most common consequence of a LF
magnetic field is a distortion of the image of a
cathode ray tube (jumps and wave-like
movements of the image, and even changes
of colour). A magnetically unscreened CRT
(cathode-ray tube), an electron miscroscope,
a mass spectrometer or a magnetic reading
head, barely tolerates 1A/m at LF. Moreover,
the "stray" loops formed through equipotential
connections to masses are associated
(naturally) with corresponding voltages.
Magnetic screening from/of a magnetic field
is very difficult at frequencies less than
10 kHz. The easiest solution is simply to
place the sensitive equipment out of range of
the offending field. Screening the sensitive
equipment with a thick magnetic shield can
reduce the field strength by a factor of the
order 10.
Electronic equipments are rarely affected by
a field-strength of less than 1 volt per metre.
Field strengths exceeding 10 volts per metre,
however, very often cannot be tolerated. The
range of frequencies giving the most severe
effects is, again, in the VHF band.
At HF a common-mode current in a cable
always produces a radiated wave. The
reciprocal case is also true, i.e. the arrival of a
HF wave will produce a common-mode
current in a cable. The methods of protection
against HF fields are the same as those
adopted against disturbances by conduction
at the same frequencies.
The antenna effect of cables carrying HF
current by coupling in common mode
constitutes the principal problem in EMC.
3. cabling of equipment and systems
In order to cable an electronic system
correctly or to correct an unsatisfactory
installation, it is often sufficient to apply some
simple elementary rules. From experience,
the most important factor is a clear
understanding of the phenomena and the
recognition of their limits. The strict
observance of traditional rules for correct
installation and cabling has become
necessary. This is the price to pay for the
3.1 earthing
The expressions "earth", "earth electrode",
"earth plate", "earth rod" all refer to a
conductor which is buried, and in intimate
contact with the soil. The word «mass» refers
to metal parts of equipment (electrical or not -
for example, water pipes) which, under
normal conditions, are not intended to carry
current. Bonding conductors, which are used
to interconnect masses are also referred to
as "mass". Although all masses in normal LF
installation practice are connected to earth,
the two words, "earth" and the above-noted
equivalents should not be confused with
"mass". "Mass" is commonly called "ground"
in some countries.
3.1.1 the role of earthing
The basic role of an earth electrode is to
maintain all masses in an installation at a
voltage close to zero, whether the power
source is earthed or not. This is achieved in a
properly designed installation, regardless of
whether a faulty condition (which would
otherwise raise the voltage of the installation
masses) occurs in the installation circuits or
on the power-supply network, or other
sources external to the installation.
The role of earthing, therefore, is that of the
protection of persons against the dangers of
electrocution. The severity of an electric
shock is a function of the current which
passes through the body, and equally
important is the path of the current flow
through the body. Established IEC rules of
protection against electric shock set safe
limits of voltage (referred to as conventional
voltage limits) above which masses are
considered to be unacceptably dangerous.
For normal 50 Hz or 60 Hz power systems,
these values are 50 Vrms for dry locations
and 25 Vrms for wet locations, for example
bathrooms and laundries (see Chapter L of
the main text for more details).
It is recognized that a low contact resistance
of an earth electrode with the mass of the
earth cannot always be obtained.
Furthermore, its value is rarely constant,
depending largely on soil humidity (and so
prone to seasonal changes). An essential
factor in maintaining safety to personnel in
the event of a high earthing resistance, is that
of the equipotential concept. If, for example,
all masses are at a common (even normally
dangerous) potential, and the earth below the
building is at a similar potential, a person can
touch any or several masses at the same
time without danger. This is why electrical
appliances with long leads (hedge trimmers,
lawn mowers, etc.), which allow the user to
leave the equipotential environment of the
house, must be of Class II insulation level
(i.e. doubly insulated).
So-called normal leakage currents (no
insulation is perfect) also include the minute
capacitive currents of the wiring to earth.
EMC
achievement of EMC in modern electronic
systems. Many practices which are
satisfactory at LF have proved to be poor or
even catastrophic at HF. Certain cabling
options can be chosen with confidence.
The interconnection of all the non-functional
earths of a single site is one example.
Factors which are always favourable should
become standard practice.
These currents, and short-circuit-to-earth fault
currents, flow mainly through the protective
earthing PE conductors (coloured with yellow
and green stripes) and finally back to the
source substation, via the earth (TT system)
or via the earth path and (mainly) through the
neutral conductor in parallel (TN system).
Since, in the TN case, practically all of the
fault (and leakage) currents return to the
source via the neutral conductor, the
resistance of the installation earth electrode is
not of primary importance (unless lightning
arresters are to be connected to it).
For the protection of electronic equipments, it
is strongly recommended that common-mode
currents entering the building from external
cables be diverted to earth at the point of entry.
A simple galvanic isolation is often
insufficient: the overvoltage withstand
capability of a galvanic isolation transformer
is typically less that 10 kV. This value is
insufficient on days of intense electrical
storms.
The installation of non-linear voltage-limiting
devices then becomes a necessity.
It is important that all incoming metallic pipes,
ducts, trunking, etc., be connected to earth at
their entry into the building. This policy can
avoid the circulation of currents (from outside
the building) in the conductors bonding the
masses.
The installation of overvoltage-protection
devices must be carried out with the
minimum possible common impedance
between the external circuit and the circuit to
be protected. The length of conductor in
series with the voltage limiter must,
consequently, be the shortest possible.
The residual voltage "seen" by the protected
equipment is then independent of the
impedance of the earth.
Even with a "bad" earth, it is possible to
protect an equipment effectively against
external overvoltages: it is necessary and
sufficient to connect the voltage limiter to the
mass of the equipment using the shortest
practical length of cable.
electric-power line
protected
voltage
limiter electronic
earthing conductor equipment
yes
protected
electronic
equipment
no
fig. EMC-5: a voltage limiter must be
connected to the mass and not to earth.
Appendix EMC - 9
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.1 earthing (continued)
When a voltage limiter is correctly connected An electronic equipment is not affected by the
to the mass, the impedance of the earth value of earth resistance. At worst, there is a
electrode is immaterial. risk of exposure to overvoltages from an
A direct lightning stroke on the supply line external cable, if its protection is insufficient,
close to the installation requires the or is badly cabled. So that the role of the
dissipation of (typically) 10 kA to 100 kA of masses is essential, and more important than
stroke current, most of which passes to earth that of the earthing. The only requirement for
through lightning arresters on the line a satisfactory performance of the electronic
external to the installation. Overvoltages equipments is a high degree of
within an installation where external arresters equipotentiality.
are provided rarely exceed 6 kV due to It is evident that two earths are always less
atmospheric causes. equipotential than one. Any separate earth,
even if said to be «interference free» is
always detrimental to equipotentiality, and so
direct-stroke current
to the safety of persons and to the
satisfactory functioning of interconnected
lightning protection equipments. Two non-functional earth-
conductors electrode systems on a common site should
internal equipments must always be interconnected.
be maintained at In practice, care must be taken that there is
equipotential no touch-voltage existing when working on an
electronic equipment interconnection
between two buildings (video, access control,
local network, information technology (ADP)
fig. EMC-6: the entire equipotential devices...) if the earthing systems of the two
"cage" will be at a high absolute potential buildings are not solidly interconnected. It is,
during the brief flow of stroke current. as already noted, not possible to be sure of
the equipotentiality of two separate earths.
For transmission and distribution lines at high * This statement is not true in certain circumstances, notably
in rural areas, where a small transformer supplies an
voltage, the fault current for one phase to isolated community, for example. The neutral earth
earth returns to the source through the earth electrode must necessarily have the lowest possible
and (where provided) through the shielding resistance in such cases. If not, potential gradients on the
surface of the ground can be dangerously high in the vicinity
conductors above the phase conductors of of the electrode during an earth fault.
the lines. Animals are frequently killed due to this cause.
The provision of an equipotential condition on
the surface of the ground at the base of
transmission towers and, more importantly, at
substations (the source of the fault current) is
a primary concern of design engineers. The
principle of equipotential bonding is identical
to that required for a low-voltage installation
in a building.
A functional earth means an earth electrode
which is designed to pass load current
through the earth, i.e. the earth path acts as
one of the circuit conductors. There are
several installations around the world that
utilise this method. In some countries, d.c. is
used in this (economic) way to operate a
service of facsimile transmission.
It may be of interest to note that when
telephone cables (which use paper insulation
on the conductors) have a high degree of
leakage current and consequently doubtful
symmetry, a low earth resistance allows the
quality of the transmitted signals to be
preserved. Although the magnitude of
telephone signals is low (millivolts to less
than 1 volt), the quality of modern cables
overcomes the constraints of a "good" earth.
To summarise, the protection of persons does
not depend directly on a low value of earth
resistance*; it is rather the establishment of a
condition of equipotential between masses
that is of prime importance. Thus, an aircraft
in an electric storm presents no danger to the
passengers, who are in a metallic envelope
which is (within a few volts) perfectly
equipotential. For persons or animals, the
danger is not the magnitude of the absolute
potential, it is the difference of potential
between metal parts which can be touched
simultaneously that is dangerous.

10 - Appendix EMC

3.2 masses
The majority of malfunctions in
electromagnetic devices, sometimes wrongly
imputed to software problems or human error,
are found to be due to an insufficient level of
equipotentiality between interconnected units
(probes, cards, actuators).
There are two differences between a buried
conductor and a mass conductor. A buried
conductor will dissipate its common mode
currents, but it is always too far from the
equipments to be effective at HF.
A mass conductor above ground level
presents two essential virtues to the good
performance of electronic systems, viz: it is
physically close to the circuits, and it is
accessible.
The equipotentiality of equipments and their
masses is a functional objective.
As long as interference signals circulate in
the masses and not in the electronic circuits,
they are harmless. On the other hand, if the
masses are not all equipotential and are
connected to earth in star*, for example, HF
interference currents will circulate through
any available path, i.e. via signal cables.
Some circuits will therefore be subjected to
interference and even be destroyed.
Networking the mass conductors to form a
closely-connected low-impedance bonding
system is the only economical way to ensure
a satisfactory level of equipotentiality to install
all sensitive equipments in a "Faraday cage"
arrangement (a room enclosed in a mesh of
conductors) would be technically ideal, but is
generally not economically justified.
By definition, a "mass" is any conducting
material which can be touched by any part of
a human body, that is not normally alive, but
which may become alive as the result of a
fault. Two masses which are accessible and
within human reach must present a potential
difference, under any conceivable fault
condition, that does not exceed the IEC-
recommended conventional voltage (UL)
3.2.1. loops of mass and between masses
A loop of mass is the area included between
a working cable (metering cable, control
cable, power-supply cable, local-network
system cable) and the mass conductor
(generally the nearest PE conductor). There
are, therefore, as many loops of mass as
there are cables. This is inevitable, whether
the conductors are galvanically isolated or
not. A galvanic isolation reduces the
circulation of LF currents without, however,
reducing the area of the loop. A loop can
oscillate strongly at HF, so that large-area
loops constitute the major problem in EMC.
equipment 1 equipment 2
signal
cable
mass
loop
nearest mass conductor
fig. EMC-7: there is an inevitable mass
loop per cable.
EMC
safety limit (of 50 Vrms in dry locations and
25 Vrms in wet conditions for ac systems).
These values are the maximum allowed that
can exist indefinitely in specified conditions of
external influences.
A dangerous touch voltage can arise during a
fault if the resistance of the equipotential
conductors is not sufficiently low. In some
cases, it is necessary to install supplementary
equipotential conductors in parallel with
existing conductors to satisfy the UL criterion.
It should be noted that access to two (or
more) masses is illegal, even if they are
associated with different installations, if they
are connected to different earthing systems
which are not interconnected.
The respect of safety rules is obligatory but
not sufficient, in themselves, to ensure
satisfactory EMC of an installation. In fact, the
risk of electrocution only exists by a voltage
of a high value and relatively long duration
appearing between adjacent masses.
An electronic equipment is sensitive to an
extensive range of frequencies, or to very
brief impulses. An electrostatic discharge, for
example, is generally of no consequence for
its source, but it could be catastrophic for an
electronic device. Normal earths, commonly
connected in «star» (i.e. radial) configuration
for example, guarantee the safety of persons
when the relevant standards are respected,
but not the satisfactory operation of an
installation which includes sensitive electronic
components.
It is certain that more and more electronic
equipments are, or will be, connected to other
apparatuses and devices for the exchange of
information. The best way of ensuring a
successful and durable installation
performance is to establish a high degree of
equipotentiality throughout the entire
installation.
* i.e. by one of a number of conductors radially connected to
the main earth bar, the ensemble resembling a "star".
If a current circulates around a mass loop,
such a current in common mode may either
superimpose «noise» (interference) on useful
signals (in differential mode, by conversion
from common mode to differential mode) or
disturb the electronic circuits at each
extremity.
The risk is equally present for radiation from a
loop as for reception of interference by the
loop. The output stages of electronic circuits
are as sensitive to interference as the input
stages, and are more difficult to filter.
The areas enclosed by mass conductors
must not be confused with those referred to
above as "mass loops". It is preferable to
allow parasitic currents to propagate in the
masses rather than in the signal cables.
These loops between mass conductors are
called "loops between masses".
equipment 1 equipment 2
signal
cable
mass conductor
loop between masse
mass conductor
fig. EMC-8.
Appendix EMC - 11
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
If two neighbouring masses are not
connected together, the differential potential
difference between them may be significant.
A direct connection from one to the other will
always improve the equipotential condition.
At least, the masses of all equipments which
exchange data between them should be
interconnected by mass conductors. An even
more certain way of improving the state of
equipotentiality is to interconnect all
equipment masses, whether they exchange
data or not.
"Mass loops", also called "ground loops",
should never be confused with «loops
between masses». A mass loop is never
favourable, and its area must be reduced to
the minimum attainable, to reduce as far as
possible the interference effects of disturbing
fields. On the other hand, it is always good
practice to increase the number and reduce
the areas of loops between masses.
3.2.2 unity of the mass network
The mass must be unique to be equipotential.
There are three methods of connecting
masses which preserve this unity.
1 - Earthing connections in "star": each
equipment has its own earthing cable, which
terminates with all other individual earthing
cables on a unique earthing bar.
earth cables
inevitably long
authorized method, but costly and not
good for EMC, particularly for
interconnected equipments
earth cables radiating from the main earth bar,
figuratively similar to a star
fig. EMC-10.
The justification of such a philosophy is over-
simple: when an equipment develops a leakage
current to mass, the remaining equipments
are assumed to remain at earth potential.
But "earth" potential has no real meaning in
practical electronics, all potentials are relative
one to another, the concept of absolute zero
potential (i.e. "remote earth") is abstract.
It is often assumed that the "star" configuration
of earthing overcomes the problem of
common impedance. It is, in fact, quite the
opposite! Earthing in the "star" configuration
increases the common impedance (that is,
forms a point of common coupling) between
interconnected equipments.
high value of
differential
potential
equipment 1 difference equipment 2
disturbance (d.p.d.)
on cable
I mc
signal
PE cable PE
high impedance if the
Z
conductor is long
I ADP environment, it is reasonable to use the
fig. EMC-11.
12 - Appendix EMC
The more this policy is developed, the more
effective is the resulting state of
equipotentiality, both at LF and at HF.
Connecting the masses to a mesh of
interconnecting mass cables is always
beneficial, regardless of the nature of the
equipments concerned.
equipment 1 equipment 2
greater immunity
against
radiation fields by
reduction
of area of the mass loop
greater immunity from conducted
interference by multiplication and reduction
in area, of loops between masses.
fig. EMC-9.
Earthing in "star" can create a common
impedance between two interconnected
equipments.
It is sometimes also assumed that the "star"
system of earth connections suppresses the
mass loops. Between two interconnected
equipments, it is evidently not the case; the
area enclosed by the mass loop can, in fact,
be considerable. An electromagnetic field
due, for example to a lightning discharge, will
induce voltage in the mass loop greater than
that occurring in any other method of
earthing.
strong
equipment 1 equipment 2
d.p.d.
signal
cable
electro-
magnetic
wave large area
fig. EMC-12.
This long-established "star" earthing method
is now only possible for an equipment which
is, and will remain, isolated from any other.
The method can be suitable only for
electronic analog systems (as opposed to
digital systems) with floating sensors, and the
electronic circuits completely isolated from
any other. Such cases are becoming
increasingly rare.
With the generalisation of information-data
transmissions over great distances, local
networks, shared peripherals and, in general,
the exchange of signals between
equipments, the "star" method of earthing
must be abandoned. Moreover, even if the
earth connection of each equipment by an
individual conductor is not detrimental, it still
remains a costly method that requires large
amounts of copper and many hours of
installation work.
The only reasonable application for the "star"
arrangement of earthing (in fact, connection
to mass) is the connecting cable between an
equipment and power-supply socket-outlet, or
the nearest distribution board. Thus, in an
green-and-yellow PE conductor of the power-
supply circuits to connect each equipment to

the general distribution board, located in the
room. From the common earth bar of the
board, a single protection cable is taken to
the main earth electrode for the installation.
This conductor can be common to other
devices, and may, with advantage, be
connected to neighbouring masses.
PE conductor for
other installations
sensitive
main distribution equipments
board
earth bar
main earth
terminal
local mass
earth-electrode
system
fig. EMC-13: a good earthing-system
arrangement.
Even if a strong source of interference is
installed in the same environment as
sensitive equipment, a separate earthing
system for the sensitive equipment is
detrimental and not recommended. At the
most, it is desirable to supply the two
incompatible systems on separate cables
from the power-supply network. In any case,
mesh-connecting the masses is favourable.
Such a mesh of PE conductors has the merit
of avoiding involuntary loops which can
become catastrophic if not successfully
countered.
"Star"-system earthing can be accepted only
for low-frequency installations that are, and
will remain, independent and isolated from
any other installation.
2 - Connection to the nearest PE
conductor: a unique protection (PE)
conductor, associated with several
equipments.
a single PE conductor
fig. EMC-14.
By using this cabling scheme, the mass loops
have a small area and the common
impedance between interconnected
equipments is less than that with a "star"-
connected earthing scheme. This economic
method is also recommended for safety
reasons. It is easy to prove that the touch
voltage between two masses connected to
the same PE conductor remains less than the
conventional (UL) value. The risk of using the
same PE conductor for earthing two systems,
one "noisy" and the other sensitive, is not
negligible. Although the low impedance of the
PE conductors and the good level of
immunity to LF interference in common mode
together limit the risks, the HF currents
generated by strongly polluting sources
(power converters in particular) cannot be
dissipated efficiently by a single PE
conductor. In such cases, it is necessary to
install additional (supplementary) PE
conductors in the form of a meshed network.
EMC
3 - The shortest connection to the nearest
mass.
This third method of connection to the
nearest mass is better than those previously
described. It is based on the mesh
connection of masses. The areas of mass
loops are reduced to the strict minimum and
the degree of equipotentiality of the masses
is excellent.
structures of adjacent masses
(mass grid, conducting false floor, cable trays,
ducts, troughs, etc)
fig. EMC-15.
Note: concerning the safety of persons, this
type of local connection is not generally a
substitute for PE conductors. It is appropriate,
therefore, to superimpose the methods 2 (or
even 1) for the safety of persons, and n° 3 for
EMC.
Mesh connecting the masses is even more
important as the area covered by the
installation increases, with long
interconnecting cables, or when the
equipments are divided between several
storeys.
The mesh connecting of masses does not
reduce the favourable policy of supplying
sensitive equipments by different supply
cables than those used to supply strongly
polluting loads. However, the use of different
supply cables does not signify "star" -
connected masses.
The lengths of protective conductors (PE)
mean that, at HF, their impedance is
generally too high to effectively improve the
equipotential situation. For example, a PE
conductor 100 metres long is incapable of
passing significant currents at frequencies
exceeding 100 kHz.
The PE conductors and earthing conductors
alone are not sufficient to ensure the EMC of
an installation. Additional conductors and
short inter-mass connections are also
necessary.
PE cables, even long, and short-circuited at
one end by a mass grid, function correctly at
LF for the protection of persons. No
interconnection between masses and no
protective conductor should ever be
removed, even if they appear to have
become redundant following a careful
meshing (close interconnection of
equipments and other masses to form a
"mesh") of all adjacent masses.
A PE conductor is not to be considered as an
earthing conductor but as a "bonding"
conductor, or "earth-bonding" conductor, the
principal function of which is to ensure that UL
(i.e. the maximum allowable touch voltage) is
never exceeded.
Furthermore, there should never be more
than one earthing system per installation (i.e.
per site) similarly for the mass system which
must be unique, and connected to the unique
earthing system. If this policy is not adopted,
then EMC problems will certainly be
experienced via the inevitable links between
adjacent installations (entry controls, video,
alarms, safety measures, etc.).
Appendix EMC - 13
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
In practice, any conductor can be included Except for the installation of a (very costly)
usefully in the equipotential network of the "Faraday cage" type of enclosure, the mesh
masses: metallic tubes, pipes, drains, cable- connecting of masses is the only practical
trays and ladders, structural members way to guarantee a sufficient level of
(girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc.). Such equipotentiality to counter effectively all types
a mesh of interconnected metal improves of electromagnetic interference.
considerably the EMC of systems, as well as The notion of equipotentiality is more and
favouring the measures for safety of persons. more localised as the frequency increases.
The nature of the conductors has little The equipotential condition is only obtained at
importance in equipotentiality. A steel HF by the free circulation of the common-
conductor at HF has approximately the same mode currents in all directions, i.e. by
inductance as a copper conductor of dispersion.
equivalent cross-sectional-area and length. Thus, in an industrial environment, it is
These connections to any and all masses in recommended to connect routinely all
buildings are authorized and desirable. conducting structures to neighbouring
It is simpler, and ensures the best results, to conducting parts of the building by the
interconnect all masses of every kind shortest possible "bonding" conductors and,
routinely, rather than to limit the where appropriate (e.g. in multi-storey
interconnections to the masses of the buildings) in three dimensions. This is the
equipments and devices, of the electrical and most economic way to improve the
electronic systems only. In this way a "mesh equipotentiality of an installation at all
of masses" or a "mass grid" (both terms are frequencies, despite some inevitable currents
used) is formed. It is rarely useful to install an in the masses.
electrical conductor; it is sufficient to simply Only desk-top equipments in an office
interconnect, at as many points as possible, environment and not connected to a network
all metallic pipes, tubes, ducts, structural have no need be connected to a mass grid.
girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc. It is They must, on the other hand, be very
recommended to connect every large rack, carefully screened.
frame, or structure, to the mass grid at
intervals of approximately 1 metre.
In conclusion, an effective equipotential
condition of all masses favours the
satisfactory performance of any electronic
system, especially for rapid or highly-polluting
digital systems. Whether it be for the
improvement in immunity from
electromagnetic interference, or for the
reduction of radiation from the equipments of
the installation, the mesh connection of
masses affords a simple, relatively
inexpensive and efficient solution for
frequencies up to several tens of megahertz.
If the public power-supply system benefits
from 3-phase star-connected operation, it is
because the supplies are (and must remain)
galvanically isolated each one from the
others. It should be understood that factors
which are favourable for phase conductors,
are not necessarily so for the masses.
A HF current cannot flow easily through a
phase conductor: it is only possible at low
frequencies. To divide the inevitable HF
common-mode currents through the multiple
paths of numerous conductors of a mass grid
is a guarantee of protection for the signal
cables. Experience shows that when a
system functions correctly in the absence of
HF interference, regardless of the cabling
philosophy of its masses, the routine meshing
of masses has no adverse effect on the
correct operation of the system; on the
contrary, it often decisively improves the
system performance.

14 - Appendix EMC

3.3 attenuation effects
The attenuating effect of a conducting
structure (mass) is defined by the amplitude
of the common-mode interference appearing
on a cable installed at a location remote from
any masses, with respect to the amplitude of
the interference on the same cable due to the
same disturbance, but with the cable installed
in close proximity (i.e. clamped firmly) to
mass, throughout its length.
victim cable
10 V
I
mass conductor
victim cable
I 2V
fig. EMC-16: example of attenuating
effect (in this case equal to 5).
The attenuating effect is one of the key
factors in EMC, being effective and not too
costly. In order to exchange signals in good
conditions, i.e. in limiting the interference
picked up by the signal cables, it is important
to reduce common-mode coupling.
Any metallic structure, close to, i.e. in contact
with, and longitudinally parallel to a signal
cable, from one end to the other, can provide
two favourable effects:
1 - A more effective meshing of the masses.
For d.c. currents, the mesh does not act as
an attenuator; its role is to reduce the
resistance between masses, not to provide a
shielding effect. The galvanic effect of the
mesh is independent of the proximity of the
signal cables with the mass.
2 - An attenuation (shielding) effect. The
effect of proximity adds to that mentioned in
above, if the word "impedance" replaces
"resistance". It is achieved by connecting
equipments, which are interconnected to the
mass of conducting structures which are
close to the signal cables. The benefit is an
efficient shielding which is practically cost-
free. The attenuation effect being directly
attributed to mutual induction, there is no
attenuation of d.c. interference, as noted in 1.
It should be borne in mind that any cable is
potentially an excellent wide-band antenna,
especially in the metric range. In order to
reduce its radiation ability, a simple, efficient
and inexpensive method consists in placing
the cable as close as possible to a mass
structure throughout its length, i.e. close to a
mass cable, metal ducting, structural girder,
etc. The attenuation effect produced by a
mass conductor close to a signal cable is
simply explained, as follows. On the occurrence
of an electromagnetic-wave disturbance, a
current is induced in the mass conductor.
This current generates, according to Lenz’s
law, a magnetic field which acts in the
opposite sense to the field that produced the
current. A signal cable close to the mass
conductor will therefore be affected by the
difference only of the original field and the
reactive field of the mass-conductor current.
The resulting field affecting the signal cable is
known as the residual field and is evidently of
EMC
lower strength than that of the original field.
A cable in close proximity to conductive mass
from end to end is therefore less exposed to
the most severe type of interference, viz: that
of common mode.
Attenuation effects can be made more
effective by arranging the mass, where
possible, to envelop the conductors to be
protected. In this way, a woven metallic
screen, incorporated in signal cables and
connected to mass, protects the envelopped
conductors above a frequency of 1 MHz with
an attenuation factor of at least 300.
It is difficult and expensive to shield all the
interconnections in a installation, but it is
often easy to select cable routes which
provide good attenuation. To benefit from the
attenuation effect, it is sufficient to fix cables
on conductive mass throughout the entire
cable length. Such masses must be carefully
bonded together electrically and to all nearby
structural framework. The quality (i.e. the low
impedance) of interconnecting bonds is of
primary importance. The most efficient is a
direct contact of sheet metal on sheet metal.
dB attenuation effect of a perforated steel sheet
metal, type "dalle marine"
direct contact, sheet metal on sheet metal
40
(same connection
at 2 extremities)
20
metal flexible-connection
tresses
10
cable
frequency
(MHz)
0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100
fig. EMC-17.
Electrical continuity from one end to the other,
and the correct connection to mass at
extremities, guarantee an effective
attenuation factor. It is recommended to
connect cable ways to conductive building
structures at intervals along the cable route.
The attenuation factor is not reduced by
these additional contacts between masses,
but the mass mesh is improved. In a single
cable tray, in order to limit "cross-talk", power
cables or, for example, cables of speed
controllers should not be placed beside small-
signal cables.
The ideal, in an industrial environment, would
be to install three separate cable trays, i.e.
one for measurements and similar functions,
one for control and indication circuits, and
one for power cables.
A copper conductor provides an attenuation
factor of the order 5 if it is installed throughout
the entire length close to the protected signal
cable. It is therefore an advantage to
associate signal cables with interconnecting
earthing cables in a common cable way (for
instance, between two buildings). This is still
true even if the earths are interconnected
elsewhere. It is always possible to add a
mass cable adjacent to a particularly
sensitive signal cable if necessary. The mass
cable is then referred to as a "cable of
accompaniment".
A buried cable which is passing an a.c.
current in common mode creates a magnetic
field in the surrounding soil. This (concentric)
field gives rise to (Foucault) currents in the
earth and the magnetic energy is dissipated
in the form of heat. The common-mode
Appendix EMC - 15
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.3 attenuation effects (continued)
currents are damped by this effect, which is
not exactly the same as that of the
attenuation described above, but is rather
analogous to the action of a transformer with
a resistive load. This damping action is
3.4. installation and cabling rules
To resolve the majority of EMC problems, it is
sufficient to respect (rigorously) a few
elementary cabling rules. The first
requirement is to decide to which group each
cable belongs. The following classes of cable
groups cover most practical installations.
Group n° 1 - Measuring circuits (low-level
analog signals) and supplies to analog
probes. This group is sensitive.
Group n° 2 - Digital circuits. This group is
also sensitive (especially to impulses and
bursts). It can also interfere with the circuits
of Group n° 1.
Group n° 3 - Control and indication
circuits, including «all-or-nothing» (AON)
relays. This group will interfere with Groups
n° 1 and n° 2.
Group n° 4 - Power-supply cables. These
are power cables from the public distribution
network, or from a private generating source
(emergency power supply for example).
Currents at this level are switched and
chopped (by various power-electronics
equipments, rectifiers, inverters, and so on...).
In normal operation these functions generate
HF current and voltage components, in and
on the supply conductors. Such currents and
voltages constitute a highly-polluted
environment for Groups n° 1, n° 2 and n° 3.
It is recommended that the cables and wires
of each Group have a distinctive and different
colour to the other Groups.
Rule n° 1 - The "go" and "return"
conductors of any circuit must always be
placed as closely together as possible.
This general rule applies also to power-
supply cables. Do not supply in "star" (i.e.
radially) two circuits that are not isolated,
which exchange signals.
It is necessary, even for the signals of AON
relays with one common conductor, to
"accompany" the active conductors with at
least one common conductor per cable or per
multi-core cable. For analog or digital signals,
the use of two-core cables (or paired
conductors) is the basic minimum precaution.
printed no printed yes
circuit circuit
_U+ _U+
fig. EMC-18.
Rule n° 2 - All internal-circuit
interconnecting conductors, cables, etc.
should be fixed in close contact with
equipotential structures constituting the
electrical mass. This measure ensures the
benefit of interference attenuation previously
described, at practically no cost. Ensure that
unused wires, or cables or free cores are not
16 - Appendix EMC
particularly effective where the interference is
due to repetitive trains of transient damped
oscillations (i.e. "bursts"). The Foucault
currents in the soil increase the degree of
damping.
allowed to move unduly in an equipment.
Rule n° 3 - It is recommended to use
screened cables for noisy and for
sensitive circuits.
Screening is an effective protection against
HF noise, provided that it is connected to
mass at least at each end of the cable. It is
quite possible to juxtapose two cables of
different groups, provided that at least one
(but preferably both) cable(s) is (are)
screened and connected by a flexible woven
metallic tress to mass at each extremity.
Screened cables properly installed are
immune to "cross-talk".
Rule n° 4 - Only conductors of the same
Group can be routed together in a cable,
or in the same bundle.
For flat ribbon-type multi-core cables, the
conductors carrying analog signals should
separated from those carrying digital data by
at least two conductors mass-connected to
the reference voltage of each card. For digital
conductors, connecting one wire out of two,
of a flat ribbon-type cable, to the zero voltage
at each end, reduces the HF cross-talk
between lines by a factor of 5-10. Moreover, it
is detrimental to use one multi-core
connecting cable link for different Groups. In
practice, spacing the cables by approximately
30 cm is generally sufficient, even in an
isolated environment, to reduce the cross-talk
to an acceptable level. Crossing two cables
from different Groups provides the lowest
possible mutual coupling if the two cables
cross at 90°. This practice should therefore
be carried out routinely.
Rule n° 5 - Any free (i.e. unused)
conductors of Groups n° 2 or n° 4 should
always be connected to the mass of the
chassis at both ends. By this means, the
attenuation effect can often reach a factor
exceeding 2. These connections to mass
must be easily removed to free any cores
which may be needed at a later date. For
Group n° 1 (at very low voltage and
frequency) such a connection could be a
disadvantage and is not recommended.
Noise at the industrial frequency could cause
unacceptable interference.
Rule n° 6 - The cables of Group n° 4 need
not be screened if they are filtered.
It is generally necessary to filter power-supply
cables at the point of entry of an equipment.
On the other hand, it is difficult to filter power
cables supplying speed-change controllers,
especially when the peak current is high.
It then becomes necessary to screen the
cables by flexible metallic tresses or by a
continuous metal tube connected to the mass
at each end.
The opposite case is also true: a cable which
is well screened does not need filtering. In a
common plinth, a screened signal cable has
practically no problems of interference from
neighbouring power-supply cables.

Rule n° 7 - Noisy equipments should be
supplied by separate power cables.
This rule will minimize the supply-system
noise in differential mode. The rule should not
be confused with the practice of radial
connections of the masses previously
discussed. The neutral conductor should not
be connected to the mass, except at a single
point. This is the fundamental difference
between a neutral conductor and a PE
(Protective Earth) conductor*.
* The TN-C scheme for power installations uses one
conductor only for both PE and neutral functions. For
obvious reasons, the TN-C scheme is never used where
EMC is important.
∆ transformer ∆ ∆
noisy sensitive
plant equipment
to be avoided ! better ! excellent !
fig. EMC-19.
Since the equipments receive their power
supplies individually and are isolated one
from the other, supplying different equipments
by separate power lines is a prudent
precaution. In any case, it is advantageous
3.5 EMC components and solutions
The EMC of systems requires the use of
specific components. The following is an
analysis of the conditions of use and the
performance of such specific components,
viz: electromagnetic screens, filters,
overvoltage limiters, and screened cables.
3.5.1 electromagnetic screens
An electromagnetic screen serves to isolate
two regions of space: one requiring to be
shielded from sources of electromagnetic
radiations originating in the other.
Electromagnetic shielding is always
composed of a conducting envelope, which is
generally metallic.
At low frequencies, the fields E and H are
rarely coupled. Shielding against the field E is
always effective, even a conductive ink is
sufficient. A field H however is very difficult to
shield against at LF. It requires the use of
materials of very high magnetic permeability
µ (soft iron, mumetal) and/or low-resistant
metals (copper or aluminium). In any case,
magnetic screens have to be thick to be
effective. For d.c. systems, protection can be
afforded only by using magnetic materials.
The screen must be placed as close to the
item to be protected as possible, and the
thickness of the screen must be augmented,
the greater its volume. It is for shielding
against HF disturbances that screens are
most widely used.
All microcomputers, and from now on all
video games, are fitted with EMC shielding.
The role of the screen is to limit the radiation
from the digital circuits to the antennae of the
radio receivers in the neighbourhood.
A screen being a passive linear bilateral
EMC
that the masses (chassis) of the equipments
are all maintained at the same potential:
radial network for power supplies, mesh-
connected network for masses.
The connection of the main earth bar at the
main distribution board of an installation (see
below) to the mass grid should preferably
have an inductance of less than 1 micro-
Henry (the lower the better). A single
conductor of 50 cm or two parallel conductors
(not too close) of 1 m each, etc.
main distribution
board L1 L2 L3 N
∆
PE
conductor
transformer main
earth
bar
mass grid (equipotential mesh)
earth electrode
fig. EMC-20.
Power supply and connections to masses
of an electrical equipment
For supplies to an installation, it is an
advantage to locate the transformer as
closely as possible to the items of load,
while taking account of the effect of static
magnetic-induction fields.
device, its action is perfectly reciprocal:
its efficiency at a given frequency is identical
whether protecting its inner space from
external radiations or vice-versa.
The primary action of an EM screen is that of
a mirror by reflecting EM energy back
towards its source. It is then, the reflection
phenomenon. The part of the EM energy not
reflected (no reflector is perfect) is
propagated in the screening material, where it
is dissipated as heat : this phenomenon is
called absorption. If one, or other (or both) of
these two features is (are) good, then the
screen is fulfilling its purpose.
A HF screen must be an efficient conductor
(low resistance) but must, above all, present
negligible leakage. «Leakage» used in this
context refers to the penetration through the
screen of radiated EM energy. A leak can be
thought of as a small crack in the screen.
The higher the frequency of the radiation, the
shorter the wave-length, and the smaller the
size of cracks which can be tolerated.
Contrary to a widely-held belief, the nature of
the materials used for shielding is of little
importance at HF. The only feature which
must be of the highest quality concerns the
low resistance and electrical contacts: great
care must be taken to avoid oxydation or
other types of corrosion. For this reason,
contacts are normally either tin- or nickel-
Appendix EMC - 17
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.5 EMC components and solutions (continued)
plated. An electromagnetic shield need not
necessarily be earthed to be effective. For a
magnetic field simply its presence is
sufficient. For electric fields, it is enough that
the screen acts as potential reference for the
input and output circuits. It may be concluded
that a shield prevents the fields from
penetrating the protected space, but also,
and especially, prevents parasitic currents
from entering. Thus, shields and filters are
not rivals, but are complementary, one with
the other.
If a screen is of excellent quality, with no
leakage, it is possible to install input and
3.5.2 EMC filters
An EMC filter is a protection against
interference by conduction and is generally
made up of a combination of capacitors and
inductors. Its role is to allow the passage of
energy or signals within the band of useful
frequencies and to reject parasitic
frequencies.
Filters in the power-supply circuits are all low-
pass filters which allow power-frequency
currents to flow, but which suppress currents
of higher frequencies. For an interconnecting
coaxial cable, a high-pass filter is anti-
parasitic: it allows the HF signal to pass, but
rejects any LF interference current.
The cable can then be connected to mass at
both ends without any difficulty. A filter at the
input to a radio receiver is a band-pass filter
which rejects signals outside the band of
frequencies required (as well as any
interferences). Finally, a harmonic filter is a
notch filter, which is tuned to act as a short-
circuit (generally phase/phase) at a harmonic
frequency, usually two or more filters for the
first several odd-numbered harmonics above
the fundamental frequency, since these
invariably have the greatest magnitude.
An EMC filter being a linear circuit as long as
the inductors remain unsaturated) and
passive, is also bilateral. It is equally effective
at a given frequency from the interior to the
exterior, as in the opposite sense. A filter
functions firstly by reflection, i.e. by sending
the energy back towards the source, due to a
mismatch of the filter/line impedances, then
by absorption, i.e. loss of energy in the form
of heat, as it passes through the filter.
Since inductors are low-loss components at
LF, the L-C filters function principally by
reflection. The effectiveness of a filter also
depends on the upstream and downstream
impedances. If these impedances vary, the
efficiency of the filter referred to as "insertion
losses", will vary. Remark: if a filter can
mismatch a line, there is the possibility that it
may also match a line. This is a phenemenon
which may be observed on LF power-supply
line filters: a resonance (even partial) of the
filter results in a deterioration, at LF, of the
level transmitted, compared to that when no
filter is present.
It should be verified that the resonant
frequency of the filter is not likely to be a
problem (it should be below that of the
current-chopping frequency, for example).
Filters in power-supply circuits usually use
inductors in common mode, also called
"current-compensation coils" or
"compensated inductors".
18 - Appendix EMC
output connectors at any convenient point. If,
on the contrary, a screen performs badly, with
excessive leakage (display, keyboard,
printed-circuit board or disk reader) then, it is
an advantage to group all the input and
output connectors on a common chassis,
remote from the leakage, the role of this
chassis being that of a reference-potential
point. It may be noted that all modern
microcomputers have their cables grouped at
the rear face, remote from the disk units
which are mounted on the front face.
Such filters evidently present different
degrees of effectiveness in common mode
than in differential mode.
If the inductor of a filter is saturated by the
current flowing through it, the effectiveness of
the filter is greatly impaired.
In order to respect the EMC standards, a filter
is practically obligatory in power-supply
circuits. Where no filter has been installed, it
is often necessary to select one having an
efficacity in the order of 30 dB in common
mode at 100 MHz. A power-supply filter must,
in order to perform efficiently at HF, be
installed according to three rules:
1 - Screw the filter sheet-metal to sheet-metal
in order to limit its impedance to the mass.
2 - Arrange the supply cable to enter the filter
at the opposite face to that of the output
circuit, in order to limit common-mode
upstream/downstream coupling.
3 - Fix the cables firmly (i.e. clamped) against
the sheet-metal of the unit to limit radiation
from the upstream conductors affecting the
downstream circuit.
Preferred practice is to install all filters of an
equipment on the same metal base which
serves as the potential reference. The notion
of equipotentiality at HF is local: each
equipment has to provide, by means of its
conducting envelope, its own potential
reference to the input and output filters and to
shielded connection cables.
The signal filters are often R-C combinations.
A simple resistor of the order of 1 kΩ in series
with a sensitive line can suffice to reinforce its
immunity. Small inductors in common mode
can also be used, with 2, 4, or more, wires
wound "two wires in hand".
It is interesting to note that these components
reduce common-mode interference, without
affecting the useful signals transmitted in
differential mode.

3.5.3 overvoltage protection
The role of an overvoltage limiter, sometimes
referred to as "surge diverter" or "lightning
arrester" (depending on its intended location)
is to reduce the risk of destruction to
components or entire equipments by
interferences which may occur at excessive
voltage levels.
An overvoltage limiter is generally a non-
linear unilateral device: it limits the peak value
of voltage at a level which is much lower than
that of the incoming surge. This reduced level
being, in principle, lower than the rated
impulse withstand capability of all
downstream plant and equipment.
The limiting of the voltage peak, however,
does not reduce the HF radiation field
strength. Conversely, a low-pass filter does
not limit the voltage peak, the duration of
which, at half-peak level, considerably
exceeds the response time of the filter.
Thus, an efficient filter which suppresses
frequencies above 10 kHz would have a rise-
time of about 35 µs. This filter cannot limit an
overvoltage due to lightning, the tail-time of
which to half-peak is standardized at 50 µs.
The first voltage limiters used in telephone
systems were gas-filled discharge devices.
A gas-filled glass envelope contains two
electrodes separated one from the other by a
calibrated space. An overvoltage ionizes the
gas which allows a discharge to occur
between the electrodes, thereby reducing the
potential and allowing the gas to de-ionize.
Such a component is robust and has only a
small parasitic effect.
Its occasional failure, often by short-circuiting
of the electrodes (i.e. following an
overvoltage discharge, the ionized gas
sometimes provokes a short-circuit at normal
working voltage) means that its reliability
cannot be guaranteed. In order to protect a
EMC
public service supply line, the low arc-voltage,
several tens of volts, requires the installation
of a varistance in series, to extinguish the arc
when the surge has been dissipated.
Analogous components exist at high voltage
("horned spark-gaps" for example). At low
voltage, "silicon spark-gaps" such as "Trisil"
of Thomson (a triac controlled by a Zener
diode in the trigger circuit) are well adapted to
the protection of telecommunication lines and
circuits.
The highly non-linear metal-oxide varistance
components are well adapted to the
protection of supply-circuits. A disk of zinc-
oxide becomes conductive when the voltage
applied to its two faces exceeds a
"knee-point" value. That voltage, proportional
to the thickness of the disk, varies from some
tens of volts to several kilovolts. The energy
that a component can tolerate depends on
the volume of the disk: from tens of Joules to
some tens of thousand Joules. The main
drawback of varistances is their degradation
during periods of conduction.
Zener diodes of very low dynamic resistance
have a precise knee-point voltage and a short
response time. Their low energy handling
capacity, of a fraction of a Joule to several
Joules, limits the use of these components to
the protection of signal circuits. Failure of
such a diode always occurs as a short-circuit,
a condition that guarantees "fail-safe"
protection for the circuits.
In all cases, an overvoltage device in
common mode should be connected directly
at the mass of the item to be protected, and
not, as is still often the case, by a long cable
connected radially from a distant earth bar.
The response time of an overvoltage limiting
device depends on the length of its
connections.
Appendix EMC - 19
 4. local network problems
EMC
Local networks present at least one particular
problem: the numerous equipments are
spread out, relatively distant one from
another, and are installed for user
convenience rather than for EMC
coordination considerations, are often
supplied from different lines, and
interconnected by conventional wiring
practices.
signal cable
control unit peripheral
supply
cable
field H
supply cable
fig. EMC-21: interconnection of
equipment forms loops with earthed
conductors.
Such an installation invariably creates a
number of mass loops of very large area.
The interconnection of equipments creates
large mass loops. One of the most serious
dangers for local networks is the magnetic
field in the areas of the mass loops, created
by the current from a lightning stroke. It may
be noted that a surge induced in the interior
of a building, on average once a year, gives
rise to an overvoltage which can attain, or
exceed, 100 volts per square metre of loop
area.
The meshing of masses should be carried out
in the three dimensions (laterally and
vertically), especially in multistorey buildings
with network equipments on several floors.
Two adjacent floors must be meshed together
by all conducting metal work which passes
through the intervening floor. The
multiplication of these conductors affords the
following advantages:
1 - Improvement of the "vertical
equipotentiality" of the building by effectively
reducing the value of loop inductances, and
connecting them in parallel.
2 - Improvement of the "horizontal
equipotentiality" of the building and the
symmetrical flow of surge current directly to
earth.
3 - Reduction of induction from the magnetic
field in the interior of the building. At a point
midway between two parallel conductors
passing equal currents in the same direction,
the magnetic field strength H is zero.
Experience has shown that if the masses are
ineffectively meshed, and interconnecting
cables are without attenuation effects, some
printed-circuit boards can be expected to be
destroyed by the induction of even a distant
lightning stroke. On the other hand, if the
masses are reasonably well interconnected,
with conducting cable trays screwed firmly to
the equipment metal frames, a lightning
stroke (even direct) produces minor
interference, and causes no destruction of
electronic circuits. In a badly-meshed
environment, only equipments completely
disconnected or well shielded are out of
danger from lightning.
20 - Appendix EMC
∆I/∆t = 100 kA/µs
signal cable protected
electronic
equipment
∆H
∆t
aera ≈ 300 m2
400 m
protected
electronic
equipment
insulation
stressed by 15 kV
fig. EMC-22: lightning produces
interference more often by induction than
by a direct-stroke current.
The current induced in a mass loop by the
magnetic field of a lightning stroke has the
same form as that of the stroke current; it can
exceed 100 A in the case of a large loop.
The best solution for limiting the risks of
destruction is to bring together, for example in
a common tray, the signal cables and the
power-supply cables. A shielded cable, with
its screen properly connected to mass at
each end is free from cross-talk interference.
The presence of a mass cable in intimate
(e.g. clamped) contact with a cable (signal or
power-supply) reduces typically by a factor of
3 or 4 the interference caused by lightning,
provided that the mass cable is connected to
mass (at least) at each end. A bolted metal
cable duct throughout the entire route of a
cable has an attenuation factor of the order
30.
The woven metal screen of a shielded cable,
with short, direct connections to mass at both
ends, reduces the induced voltage by a factor
of about 100.
Local networks processing large amounts of
data require that the characteristic impedance
of interconnecting signal cables be matched
to the input/output impedances of the
interconnected equipments, in order to avoid
losses by reflections due to mismatched
impedances.
If one of the two matching units of a long line
is disconnected, transmission becomes
impossible.
A frequent problem on local networks, apart
from software parameters, is the loss of
availability caused by electromagnetic
interference. The software "filters" errors, but
the useful output is sometimes severely
reduced. The user only notices these
problems in the rare cases of permanent
interference. The simple observance of the
serveral EMC installation rules cited in the
foregoing text is sufficient to resolve these
problems.
list of "cahiers techniques"

EMC
N° CT English French Spanish
114 Residual current devices X X X
141 Les perturbations électriques en BT X X
144 Introduction to dependability design X X
145 Etude thermique des tableaux électriques BT X X
147 Initiation aux réseaux de communication X
numérique
148 High availability electrical power distribution X X
149 EMC: Electromagnetic Compatibility X X
150 Development of LV circuit breakers X X X
to standard IEC 947-2
152 Harmonics in industrial networks X X X
154 LV circuit breaker breaking techniques X X X
155 MV public distribution networks X X X
throughout the world
156 Sûreté de fonctionnement et tableaux électriques BT X X
158 Calculation of short-circuit currents X X X
159 Inverters and harmonics X X X
(case studies of non-linear loads)
160 Harmonics upstream of rectifiers in UPS X X
161 Automatic transfering of power supplies X X
in HV and LV networks
162 Les efforts électrodynamiques X X
sur les jeux de barres en BT
163 LV breaking by current limitation X X
166 Enclosures and degrees of protection X X X
167 Energy-based discrimination X X X
for low-voltage protective devices
172 Earthing systems in LV X X X
173 Earthing systems wolrdwide and evolutions X X X
179 Surtensions et parafoudres en BT, X
Coordination de l'isolement en BT

Appendix EMC - 21