LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS Symbols B Viscous friction coefficient, N-sec/m e, Back emf, v o Steady state error Applied force, N ooh Opposing force offered by mass of the body,N Opposing force offered by the elasticity of the body, N heh Opposing force offered by the friction of thé body, N Sampling frequency, Hz Conductance, mho zo ‘Transformation or operator i, Armature current, A Field current, A Moment of inertia, ke-m*/rad Complex operator Stiffhess of the spring, N-m / rad Acceleration error constant Back emf constant, V / (rad/sec) Derivative constant or gain Integral constant or gain Gain Margin Motor gain constant RRR RR RR Proportional gain Torque constant, N-m/A nK ‘Torque constant, Nm / A nm Velocity error constant re Armature inductance, Hait cs ERs = z o oS wo - wi” 4 ae 3A AAAS Field inductance, H Mass, kg Maximum overshoot Resonant peak Order of the system Type number Pole of a system Pole of compensator Forward path gain of K* forward path Charge Armature resistance, Q Field resistance, Q Complex variable Dominant pole Applied torque, N-m Electrical time constant Opposing torque due to friction, N-m Delay time Derivative time Field time constant Integral time Opposing torque due to moment of inertia, N-m Opposing torque due to elasticity; N-m Mechanical time constant Peak time Rise time Settling time Normalized bandwidthd6 dt ae dt oS 2 Normalized resonant frequency Armature voltage, V Field voltage, V Displacement, m Zero of a system Zeto of compensator Angular displacement, rad Angular velocity, rad/sec Angular acceleration, rad/sec? Undamped natural frequency, rad/sec Damping ratio Resonant frequency Bandwidth Phase margin Phase crossover frequency Gain crossover frequency Flux, weber Comer frequency Damped frequeney of oscillation Phase angle Frequency of maximum phase lag/lead Maximum lag/lead angle Additional phase lead Angle of asymptotes Angle of departure Angle of arrivalatv o Eigen value Impulse train Standard Input/Output signals c(t) otk) et) (kT) (kT). 1(t) r(k) u(t) a) Response in time domain Response of discrete signal Esror signal : Digital error signal Digital control signal Input in time domain Discrete time input signal Control signal (Analog) Impulse signal Matrices and Vectors A AX System matrix State transition matrix of discrete system Input matrix Output matrix Transmission matrix State transition matrix Identity matrix Jordan matrix Modal matrix or diagonalization matrix Transformation matrix Composite matrix for controllability Composite matrix for observability Input vectorUk) Input vector of discrete time system v Vander monde matrix X(t) State variable vector Xx, Initial condition vector x(k) State vector of discrete time system Y(t) Output vector ¥(k) Output vector of discrete time system a Grammian matrix Transform Operators and Functions ACs) Auxiliary polynomial E(s) Error signal in s-domain Gs) Open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) Loop transfer function H(s) Feedback transfer function £ Laplace transform L Inverse Laplace transform M(s) Closed loop transfer function T(s) Transfer function of the system z Z-transform x Inverse Z-transform Abbreviations BIBO Bounded Input Bounded Output LDS Linear Discrete Time System LTL Linear Time Invariant System ROC Region of convergence ZOH Zero Order HoldCHAPTER 1 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTROL SYSTEM 1.1 CONTROL SYSEEM Control system thedry evolved as an engineering discipline and due to universality of the principles involved, it is extended to various fields like economy, sociology, biology, medicine, etc. Control theory has played a vital role in the advance of engineering and science. The automatic control has become an integral part of modern manufacturing and industrial processes, For example, numerical control of machine tools in manufacturing industries, controlling pressure, temperature, humidity, viscosity and flow in process industry. When a number of elements or components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function, the group thus formed is called a system. Ina system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity, the system is called control system. The output quantity is called-controlied variable or response and input quantity is called command signal or excitation. OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output, is called an open loop system, or control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity are called open-loop control system. This means that the output is not fedback to the input for correction. Input_,} Open loop | Output oO 7 system (Plant) rc Fig 1.1 : Open loop system In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. But due to external disturbances the system output may change. When the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input to correct the output. In open loop systems the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Controt systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the desired output value are called closed loop systems, Error Detector omtemt c > up Reference _s{Connolier] p| Open loop system| : Input — lant) 1) o Fig 1.2 : Closed loop system.12 The open loop system can be modified as closed loop system by providing a feedback. The provision of feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to disturbances. Hence the closed loop. system is also called automatic control system. The general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in fig 1.2. It consists of an error detector, a controller, plant (open loop system) and feedback path elements. The reference signal ( or input signal ) corresponds to desired output. The feedback path elements samples the output and converts it to a signal of same type as that of reference signal. The feedback signal is proportional to output signal and it is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the error detector is the difference between reference signal and feedback signal. The controller modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce better control action. The modified error signal is fed to the plant to. correct its output. Advantages of open loop systems 1. The open loop systems are simple and economical. 2. The open loop systems are easier to construct. 3. Generally the open loop systems are stable. Disadvantages of open loop systems 1. The open loop systems are inaccurate and unreliable. 2. The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected automatically. Advantages of closed loop systems 1. The closed loop systems are accurate. 2. The closed loop systems are accurate even in the presence of non-linearities. 3. The sensitivity of the systems may be made smal] to make the system more stable, 4. The closed loop systems are less affected by noise. Disadvantages of closed loop systems 1. The closed loop systems are complex and costly. 2. The feedback in closed loop system may lead to oscillatory response. 3. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system. 4, Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care is needed to design a stable closed loop system. 1.2. EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM EXAMPLE 1 ‘OPEN. LOOP SYSTEM The electric fumace shown in fig 1.3. is an open loop system. The outputin the systems the desired temperature. The cemperature of the system is raised by heat generated by the heating element. The output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON. ‘The ON and OF F of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay. The temperature is measured by a sensor, which gives an analog voltage corresponding to the temperature of the furnace. The analog signal is converted to digital signal yan Analog -to - Digital converter (A/D converter).43 C0: Sensor 1 —S | Eleetic (7 AD | Digital urmace Converter; — Interface |-—* Display Lp I ot I 1 | Relay >—? | controi | AC supply Circuit} Heating element Fig 1.3 : Open loop temperature control system. ‘The digital signals given to the digital display device to display the temperature.-In this system ifthere is any changein output temperature then the time setting of the relay is notaltered automatically. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM ‘The electric furnace shown in fig 1.4 is @ closed loop system. The output of the systems the desired temperature and it depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON. Sensor i ' , Digital contro! Electric AD | circuit Fumacelt converter —»memace | iContratier (or) ey | | | CompuierMicro re — x processor 1 ing element f Rel: | ‘lay c 5 Control fe Amplifier te Dia le |__ Reterence input Circuit (Converter) (Desired temperatura) ac Supply Fig 1.4 : Closed loop temperature control system. ‘The switching ON and OFF ofthe relay is controlled by a controller which i a digital system or computer. The desired temperature is input to the system through keyboard or asa signal corresponding to desired temperature via ports. The actual ‘temperature is sensed by sensor and converted to digital signal by the A/D converter. The computer reads the actual temperature and compares with desired temperature. Ifitfinds any difference then it sends signal to switch ON or OFF the relay through D/A converierand amplifier, Thus the system automatically corrects any changes in output. Hence itis a closed loop system EXAMPLE 2 : TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Traffic control by means of traffic signals operated on a time basis constitutes an open-loop control system. The sequence of control signals are based on a time slot given for each signal. The time slots are decided based on a traffic study ‘The system will not measure the density of the traffic before giving the signals. Since the time slot does not changes accordin; to traffic density, the system is open loop system. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM ‘Traific control system can be made as a closed loop system if the time slots of the signals are decided based on th density of traffic. in closed loop traffic contro! system, the density of the trafficis measured on all the sides and the informatio is fed toa computer . The timings of the control signals are decided by the computer based on the density of traffic . Since th closed loop system dynamically changes the timings, the flow of vehicles will be better than open loop system.Ghapter (Mathematical Models of Control. L4 EXAMPLE 3 : NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEM OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Numerical control is a method of controlling the motion of machine components using numbers. Here, the position of work head tool is controlled by the binary information contained in a disk. Se 1 Output Reader >| DIA |—>| Amplifier} —»} Seve | 5 Cutter > FM pulse J motor | "| | Cool ¥ position) { ‘ - Magnetic disk Fig 1.5 : Open loop numerical control system. Amagnetic disk is prepared in binary form representing the desired part P (P is the metal partto be machined). The too! will operate on the desired part P. To start the system, the disk is fed through the reader to the D/A converter. The D/A converter Converts the FM (frequency modulated) output of the reader to a analog signal. Itis amplified and fed to servometer which Positions the cutter on the desired part P. The position of the cutter head is controlled by the angular motion of the servometer. This is an open loop system since no feedback path exists between the output and input. The system positions the too! for a given input command. Any deviation in the desired position is not checked and corrected automatically. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Amagnetic disks prepared in binary form representing the desirad partP (Ps the metal partto be machined). To start the system, the disk is loaded in the reader. The controller compares tho frequency modulated input pulse signai with the feedback pulse signal. The controlleris a computer or microprocassor system. The controller carries outmathematical operations on the difference in the pulse signals and generates an error signel, The D/A converter converts the controller output pulse (ertor signal) into an analog signal . The amplified analog signal rotates the servomotar to position the tool onthe job. The position of the cutterhead is controlled according to the input of the servomotor. The transducer attached to the cutterhead converts the motion into an electrical signal. The analog electrical signal is converted to the digital pulse signal by the A/D converter. Then this signal is compared with the input pulse signal. ifthere is any difference between these two, the controller sends a signal to the servomotor to reduce it. Thus the system automatically corrects any deviation in the desired output tool position. An advantage of numerical control is that complex parts can be produced with uniform tolerances atthe maximum milling speed. Tachometer —— Output (Tool | position) 1 i | L OA Servo | | pc Eur? Conttoller —* converter» Amplifier /—o| ere >a pulse ! Magnetic © | ak | Feedback signat [AyD Feedback signal L_“emheck sina | (Digital) (Analog) Fig 1.6 : Closed loop numerical control system.LS EXAMPLE 4: POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM USING SERVOMOTOR “The position control system shown in fig 1.7is @ closed loop system. The syste consists of a servorotor powered by a generator. The load whose position haste be controlled is connected to motor shaft through gear wheels, Potentiometers are used to convert the mechanical motion to electrical signals. The desired load position (0) is set on the input potentiometer and the actual load position (@,) Is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between the two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to generator field circuit. The induced emf of the generator drives the motor. The rotation ofthe motor stops when the error signalis zero, e. when the desired load position is reached. This type of control systems are called servomechanisms The servoor servomechanismsare feedback control systems in which the output is méchanical position (or time derivatives of position e.g. velocity and acceleration). Enor signal Amplifier [8 Generator field Lot | Input Feedback | potentiometer potentiometer Fig 1.7: A position control system (servomechanism). 1.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘A control system is a collection of physical objects (components) connected together to serve an objective. The input output relations of various physical components ofa system are governed by differential equations. The mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equations. The response or output of the system can be studied by solving the differential equations for various input conditions. ‘The mathematical model ofa system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and homogenity. This principle implies that if a system model has responses y,(t) and y, (t) to any inputs x, (t) and x, (8) respectively, then the system response to the linear combination of these inputs a,x, (f) +a, x, (1) is given by linear combination of the individual outputs a, y,(t)+a, y,(0), where a, and a, are constants. ‘The principle of superposition can be explained diagrammatically as shown in fig, 1.8. roan ) HG | FG Le | ty ha, EO Sysuem system an() +a) op G Leg) Tel 1 Tel) =a.c,(f) + a,0,0) 3 > ext z a : noe ie 1G Foo | Oo ie] then system Gis linear | er a Fig 1.8 : Principle of linearity and superposition.dle T= Matbeomatical Models of Control Systems 16 A mathematical model will be linear if the differential equations describing the system has constant coefficients (or the coefficients may be functions of independent variables). If the coefficients of the differential equation describing the system are constants then the model is /inear time invariant. If the coefficients of differential equations governing the system are functions of time then the model is linear time varying. ‘The differential equations of a linear time invariant system can be reshaped into different form for the convenience of analysis. One such model for single input and single output system analysis is transfer function of the system. The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions, Laplace Transform of output | | a | Transfer function = PSS “ESO Oo Laplace Transform of input |e eocauacoamom | wa ay The transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential equations governing the system with zero initial conditions and rearranging the resulting algebraic equations to get the ratio of output to input. 1.4 MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS The model of mechanical translational systems can be obtained by using three basic elements mass, spring and dash-pot. These three elements represents three essential phenomena which occur in various ways in mechanical systems. The weight of the mechanical system is represented by the-element mass and it is assumed to be concentrated at the center of the body. The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by a spring. The friction existing in rotating mechanical system can be represented by the dash-pot. The dash- pot is a piston moving inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid. When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system. The force acting on a mechanical body are governed by Newton’s second law of motion. For translational systems it states that the sum of forces acting on a body is zero. (or Newton’s second law states that the sum of applied forces is equal to the sum of opposing forces on a body). LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM x = Displacement, m < HW dx . =.= = Velocity, m/sec dt - dv . ; a = G77 ga = Acceleration, misec* Applied fore, N (Newtons) Opposing force offered by mass of the body, N Opposing force offered by the elasticity of the body (spring), N Opposing force offered by the friction of the body (dash - pot), N fi, M= Mass, kg K = Stiffness of spring, N/m B = Viscous friction co-efficient, N-sec/m Note : Lower case letters are functions of time |17 Gantt sjstemsTaginvering ~) FORCE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALIZED ELEMENTS, Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig 1.9 which has negligible friction and elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is proportional to acceleration of the body. Let, f = Applied force bx f= Opposing force due to mass g t—+ Mw 4 @x x Reference Here, fc i, -Moo . ores Im ae OF « Fig 1.9: Ideal mass element By Newton's second Jaw. | M— wn 1.2), Consider an ideal frictional element dashpot shown in fig 1.10 which has negligible mass and elasticity . Let a force be applied on it. The dash-pot will offer an opposing force which is proportional to velocity of the body, Le x Let, f = Applied force f, = Opposing force due to friction g Here, <2 or 4, =B% B Reference at at Fig 1.10: Ideal dashpot with | er By Newton's second law,| f= {, = B x | (13) one end faved to reference. ‘When the dashpot has displacement at both ends as shown in Lex, a fig L.L1, the opposing force is proportional to differential velocity. 4 f+ ———_| or fy wad (%; — x2) B Reference we A) Fig 1.11 : Ideal dashpot with displacement at both ends. Consider an ideal elastic element spring shown in fig 1.12, fox which has negligible mass and friction. Let a force be applied on it. The spring will offer ati opposing force which is proportional to f— ——*—_$ displacement of the body, K K e . Reference Let, f = Applied force Fig 1.12; Ideal spring with one end £, = Opposing force due to elasticity fixed to reference. Herefcx or f=Kx By Newton's second law, | f=f,=Kx |... (1.5) When the spring has displacement at both ends as shown in hex, fox g 1.13 thé opposing force is proportional to differential displacement. > 65H —— f, (Xp Xp) or f, = K(x, —x,) K Fig 1.13 : Ideal spring with displacement at both ends. poe _ [f= f, = K@xy=%,)Chapter T= Mathematical Models of Control Systems 18 | e Guidelines to determine the Transfer Function of Mechanical Translational System 1. In mechanical translational system, the differential equations governing the system are obtained by writing force balance equations at nodes in the system. The nodes are meeting point of elements. Generally the nodes are mass elements in the system. In some cases the nodes may be without mass element. 2. The linear displacement of the masses (nodes) are assumed as x, , X,, X,, ete., and assign a displacement to each mass(node) . The first derivative of the displacement is velocity and the second derivative of the displacement is acceleration. 3. Draw the free body diagrams of the system . The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass separately and then marking all the forces acting on that mass (node). Always the opposing force acts in a direction opposite to applied force. The mass has to move in the direction of the applied force. Hence the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass Will be in'the direction of the applied force. If there is no applied force then the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass will be in a direction opposite to that of opposing force. 4. For each free body diagram, write one differential equation by equating the sum of applied forces to the sum of opposing forces. 5... Take Laplace transform of differential equations to convert them to algebraic equations. Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and obtain the ratio between output variable and input variable. This ratio is the transfer function of the system. Note: Laplace transform of x(t) = L£{xt)}= Xs) | Laplace transform of - <{g xo} =5X(9) (with zero initial conditions) i s? X(s) (with zero initial conditions) | 2a 3 Laplace transform of £22 {& x0| de? dt EXAMPLE 1.1 \Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. and determine the transfer function. box, Lex K, B Cy | | M pM 9 s * Fig I. SOLUTION es” Inthe given system, applied force '{(t)' is the inputand displacement’ is the output. Let, Laplace transform of f(t) = £{f()} = F(s) Laplace transform of x = L(x} = X(s) Lapiace transform of x, = Lix,) =X(s)1g x Hence the required transfer function is s ‘The system has two nodes and they are mass M, and M,. The differential equations governing the system are given by force batance equations at these nodes. Letthe displacement of mass M, be x, The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces acting ‘on mass M, are marked as f,., fy. fy fy and f, fon» fas ax, - dx, . bx, f= M SG BR Lm ins : a ion §=BL(%—x); & =Kits-x) , By Newton's second law, M, f for thr th Hath = tf }J¢——f, 1M, BO 6 BL 6 a Koc, + Ke) = 0 OM Ge Brg TPG PRO AI Fig 2: Free body diagram Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero intial conditions we get, "288M, (nade 1) Mg?X,(s) + B,SX;,(8) + Bs DXi(s) — X(s)] + KX As) +K [X(s)=X(s)} = 0 X(s) [Mss? + (B, + B)s +(K, + K)]- X(s) [Bs +K]=0 Xs) (Ms? + (B, +B)s + (K, + K)] = X(s) (Bs +k] Bs +K . = wee 2X10 ° X00) Goes RaR (1) The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces acting on M, are marked as fp, ff, and. ax ft px fho=M, 5%; y= 8, & at ‘at ——_ 1) Q i br8a OR) = KK Xs) fee M, +— By Newton's second law, le 4, foe he + +f =) Kf, Fig 3 : Free body diagram 2, } My Shea, Beod (=x) K(x =x) Ft) of mass M, (node 2) j On aking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, M,8°X(s) +B,8X(s) +Bs[X(s) — X,(s)] + KPX(s) - X,(s)] = F(s) X{(6) [MS* + (Bz + B)s + K]- X,(s)[Bs +K] = F(s) ‘Subsfituting for X,(s) from equation (1) in equation (2) we get, 24 (8, + ee X(s) [M,s* + (B, +B)s+K]— X(s) Mss (B Bern f°)‘© Chapier I ilatbeniatical Models of Conirol Systems ~) 10 [M,s? +(B, +B)s +K} IMs? +(B,+B)s+(K, +K)]- (Bs +K)? xe) | * Mis? + (B48) 9 =(K+K) | Fe) X(s) i “ Fis) M (B,+B)s+(K, +1) + K)] [Mys* + (Bp + B)s +K]- (Bs + K)? (By+B)s+( RESULT The differential equations governing the systern are, ax, a ua +B) SBS 6-9) ++ Ke, —9) <0 1 Pee ee ee) ‘The transfer function of the systemis, X(8) Ms? +(B, +B) $+(K,+K) Fis) [Ms?+(B, +B) s+(K,+1)] [M,s* +(B, +B) 8+K]- (Bs +K)* EXAMPLE 1.2 YA) Determine the transfer function “2) ofthe ‘system shown in fo 1 Fs) SOLUTION Let, Laplace transform of f(t) = Lif(t)} = F(s) Laplace transform of y, = Lfy,} =Y,(s) Laplace transform of y, = Lfy,} =,(s) ‘The system has two nodes and they are mass M, and M,, The differential equations governing the system are the force balance equationsat these nodes. The free body diagram of mass M, is shovm in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked asf, fy f,, andf,, a g fr MM: ha BM: Hyman ¢ fe Heb ve) By Newton's second law, fay +, +f the =A) a 8 1M + BE Ky Kal, Ya) =f) nl) Fig 2. On taking Laplace transform of equation (1) with zero initial condition we get, Mys?¥\(8) + BS¥4(5) + K,¥4() + Ke1¥4(8)— Yo(S)] = F(S) YASIMs* + Bs +(K; +Kz)]—Yo(s)K2 = Fis) 2) The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces acting on M, are f,, and. d fog = Mo % ; Kol¥e-Ys) By Newton's second law, fxo + fig =0 feLit d Oe +Koly2-y) =0 few On taking Laplace transform of abs ati \n taking Laplace transform of above equation we get, ee M,s*¥2(8) + Ka[Yo(s)— Y46)] = 0 M. | . Yo{s) [M,s” +K,]- Ys) Ky = 0 fea ¥48) = Ys) Mae Substituting for Y,(s) from equation (3) in equation (2) we get, 2 vats) ea] [Ms® Bs (K,+K,)]- Yo(s) Kp = FOS) s ve) Mi tae 2a Sa) Fie) 2 ee [Mis? + Bs +(K, +K,)] [Mys? +K,]—K RESULT ‘The differential equations governing the system are, a 1 MGB 3h + Kiyh + Kali ~ Yo) = (0) e 2 MSP + Kye ¥9)= 0 The transfer function of the systemis, YAS) _ Ke Fis) [Ms?+Bs+ (K,+K,)][M,s* +K,]-K? EXAMPLE 1.3 Determine the transfer function, 2) ang X2lS) for the system shown in fig 4 F(s) F(s) 4) fl Poe A bp y +800 M+ 41 M, “BES 4 J K, Le Soo } S4E 5! B, t Fig 1. rs SOLUTION ph) fy Let, Laplace transform of ft) = Ltilt)} = F(s) Mbt, Fig2. Laplace transform of x, = £{x,} = X,(s) fre Laplace transform of x, = £{x,} = Xs)hapter I - Mathematical Models of Control Systems 112 ‘The system fias two nodes and they are mass M, and M,. The differential equations governing the system are the force balance equations at these nodes. The free body diagrarn ofmmass M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked a5, fy fayp and f,, dx, fos MS ha By Newton's second law, fri + for + foto + fer = ft) +B, 24g, SO) kx = At a at (On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, Ms°X,(s) + Bs Xi(s) + Bias Ki(s) ~ X(8)] + K.X,¢s) = F(s) X,(6) MS? +(By + By) S+Ky] ~BySXa( F(s) won) The free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked a F., oy fy. and fp Faas hs ax. Oxy ‘ha = M, : a la = Ma fo=Be d fio = Broa eX); ho = Kx 2 = Bioa (Ka—m) fe = Kok By Newton's second law, fra + foo +for2 + fg =0 dx, Be. oi MoGe 7 Be Gy t Be On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) with zero initial conditions we get, MS°Xa{8) + B,SXa(8) + By28 [Xp(S) — X,(8)] + KyX;(s) = 0 0 We =X) x =0 wel) X,(s) [M,s? + (Bz +Bz2) $+ Kz] ~ Biz 8 X15) 2 X,(s) [M,8* + (By + By) $+ Ka] = Biz $ X,(s) = Bs Xi) (3) *O)~ Ts? (Bp +Bg) 84K] ‘ ‘Substituting for Xs(s) from equation (3) in equation (1) we get, (B,8)° Xi(s) M,s? +(B, +By)S+K, X(6) [IMs? + (8, + Bra) 8+ Ki Mp8? + (Be + Bra) 8 +Kal~(Bre8)?] Fs) M,8? + (By +Byg) $+ Ky Xi(6) IMs? +(B,+ By) 8K; =Fis) - ls) _ M,s? +(B, +B.) 8+K, SF)” Ms? +(8,+8,,) 5+ 1] IM,s? +(B, +B.) 8+K,]-(8, 8)" From equation (3) we get, _ IMs? +(B, +By) sts) X18) a Bys Substituing for X,{s) from equation (4) in equation (1) we get, Xi(s) 2a) MS BeBe) S21 ye? (6,0) 84K ]-B 8 Xl) =F) .153 sag tagineving [M82 +B, + Brg) S+K_] Ms? +(B)+By) s+ Bg8)"] pp) ESS 1 Xol8) _ Bys -— Fle) Mas” + (By + By) 8+ Ka] [Ms* +(B, +B) s*Ki)- (Bs) X2(8) RESULT = Thedifferential equations governing the system are, ox, dx, x, — Xo) SB SB, Se Ky = SE 4B BEBE Kin, ax = x1) at 1M, @x, ax, 2 Magee Boge t Ba + KX = 0 ‘The transfer functions of the system are; XS) _ Ms? +(By +Byz) $+ Kp 1. F(s) IMS? + (B; + By) 8+ Kil [M.S + (B, +B) $+Kal- Bus)" 3, XelS) _ Buys F(S) (Mas? + (By + Biz) § * Ko) IM" + (By + Bz) §* Kil - (Bus) EXAMPLE 1.4 Write the equations of mation in s-domain for the system shown in fig 1. Determine the transfer function of the system. _ Lex) 4 a { f M (t) j 8S 1 >i) 5 77777 * Fig 1. SOLUTION Let, Laplace transform of x(t)= L(x} =X(s) Laplace transform of f(t) = £&tt)} = FOS) Letx, be the displacement atthe meeting point of spring and dashpot. Laplace transform ofx, is X,(s). The system has two nodes and they are mass M and. the meeting point of spring and dashpot “The differential equations governing the systomare the force balance equations atthese nodes. The equations of motion in the s-domain are obtained by taking Laplace transform ofthe differential equations. “The free body diagram of mass Mis shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked asf, f,,and fy. ax. dx d fee MGz | f= Brae 3 fe=8e ae) L»x By Newton's second law the force balance equation is, }— ft) fhe =H ae ax dx qd MS +8, 2B Sux) =f) tS aE Bat Beg x)=) On taking Laplace transform of the above equation we get, Fig 2. Ms? X(s)+B, s X(s) +B, $ [X(s) ~ X()] = Fs) [Ms? +(B, +B.) s] X(s) ~ Bz 8X) = Fis) Li The free booy diagram atthe meeting point of spring and dashpotis shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked as fand f,. fen BrS ts | 1 By Newton's second law, f, +f, =0 M=0 f bp—te ABS -aeKm= Fig 3. ‘Ontaking Leplace transform of the above equation we get, B, s [X\(s)—X(s)]+K X(s)=0 (By8+K) X{s)~-By 8 X/s) =0 nee) B28 Xi0)= SRE Xie) sl) Substituting for X,(s) from equation (2) in equation (1) we get, 2 =| X(s)=Fis) [Ms? +(6,+B,)s]X(s)-B,s (IMs? =@,+B,)s16, s+K)- (8, Pl x eee Bys+K Xs) _ B,s+K _ FS) Ms*+(6,+B,) 3] (6 s+K) ee ‘The differential equations governing the system are, a ,& 5 ¢ 1 Me eget Ba gem = d 2. Bam =x)+Kx,=0 The equations of motion in s-domain are, 1. [Ms*+(B, +B.) s] X(s)— By S Xs) = F(s) 2. (By $+K) X,(s)-B, s X(s)=0 ‘The transfer function of the systemis, Xs) _ Bysik Fis) (Ms? ~(B,+B,) s}(B)s+1)- (62 s* 1.5 MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three elements, moment of inertia [I] of mass, dash-pot with rotational frictional coefficient [B] and torsional spring with stiffness [K]. The weight of the rotational mechanical system is represented by the moment of inertia of the ass, The moment of inertia of the system or body is considered to be concentrated at the centre of ity of the body. The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by a spring (torsional spring). The friction existing in rotational mechanical system can be represented by the dash-pot. The dash-pot is 2 piston rotating inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid.LB CGoritrol Systems Engineering When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing torques due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torques acting on a rotational mechanical body are governed by Newton's second Yaw of motion for rotational systems. It states that the sum of torques acting on a body is zero (or Newton's law states that the sum of applied torques is equal to the sum of opposing torques on a body) UST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM © = Angular displacement, rad dO. a = Angular velocity, rad/sec Angular acceleration, rad/sec? = Applied torque, N-m Moment of inertia, Kg-me/rad = Rotational frictional coefficient, N-m/(rad/sec) = Stiffness of the spring, N-m/rad TORQUE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALISED ELEMENTS Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig 1.14 which has negligible friction and elasticity. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the arigular acceleration. Let, T = Applied torque. T,= Opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the body. T 9 Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig 1.15 which has negligible moment of inertia and elasticity, Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to the angular velocity of the body. Let, T =Applied torque. T, =Opposing torque due to friction. YA | 8 @ . eo T,«<—— T, =B_ B Beg oF B=Bo 79 ® Fig 1.15 : Ideal rotational dash-pot with By Newton's second law, a) os) one end fixed to reference. | When the dash pot has angular displacement at both ends as shown in fig 1.16, the opposing torque is proportional to the differential angular velocity. “ . ls 2 Fig 1.16 : Ideal dash-pot with (1.9) angular displacement at both ends. d d T#£,-9) oF T,=BS-O,-0) fe(Ghabler I =Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 416 Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig 1.17, which has negligible moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The torsional spring will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to angular displacement of the body. Let, T = Applied torque. \ T, = Opposing torque due to elasticity. 76 C& T,<8 or 1,=K@ Fig 1.17 : Ideal spring with one —r (10) end fixed to reference. By Newton's second law, [T % When the spring has angular displacement at both ends as shown in fig 1.18 the opposing torque is proportional to differential angular displacement. \ > -8,) or T,=K(6,-6) T™ 6! KO, a veo L1) Fig 1.18 : Ideal spring with angular 2) displacement at both ends. Guidelines to determine the Transfer Function of Mechanical Rotational System 1. Inmechanical rotational system, the differential equations governing the system are obtained by writing torque balance equations at nodes in the system. The nodes are meeting point of elements. Generally the nodes are mass elements with moment of inertia in the system. In some cases the nodes may be without mass element. 2. The angular displacement of the moment of inertia of the masses (nodes) are assumed as 0,, €,, 8,, etc., and assign a displacement to each mass (node). The first derivative of angular displacement is angular velocity and the second derivative of the angular displacement is angular acceleration. 3. Draw the free body diagrams of the system. The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each moment of inertia of mass separately and then marking all the torques acting on that hody. Always the opposing torques acts in a direction opposite to applied torque. 4. The mass has to rotate in the direction of the applied torque. Hence the angular displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass will be in the direction of the applied torque. If there is no applied torque then the angular displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass is in a direction opposite to that of opposing torque. 5. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of applied torques to the sum of opposing torques. 6. Take Laplace transform of differential equation to convert them to algebraic equations. Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and obtain the relation between output variable and input variable. This ratio is the transfer function of the system. Note = Laplace transform of 6 = £{0} = %s) Laplace transform of s = 42 = 6(s) (with zero initial conditions) i 2, 2 Laplace transform of % = eh =8°O(s) . (with zero initial conditions) ii itLIT EXAMPLE 1.5 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational systom shown in fig 1. Obtain the transfer function ofthe system. abe Be {Applied Torque) (Output) Fig 1. SOLUTION Inthe given system, applied torque Tis the input and angular displacement is the output, Let, Laplace transform of T = £{T}=T(s) Laplace transform of 0 = {0} =0(s) Laplace transform of 9, = £{0,}= 0,6) Hence the required transfer functionis #3 The system has two nodes and they are masses with moment of inertia J, and J,. The differential equations governing the system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes. Letthe angular displacement of mass vith momentofinertia J, be8, The ree body diagram of J is shown in ig 2. The opposing torques acting on J, are marked as T,, and, Tastee 5 Te=K(@,-9) By Newton's second law, T,.+ 7, =T hh Po oo JANN 14 K(0,-8)=T ve] T 4, 3,28 Ke, -KO=T (1) Fig 2+ Free body diagram of mass with ote moment of inertia J, On taking Laplace transform of equation (1) with zero initial conditions we get, J, 8? 4,(3} +K9,(s)—Ka(s) = T(s) (J, 8? + K) 0,(s)— K 6(s) = T(s) (2) The free body diagram of mass with moment of inertia J, is shown in fig 3. The opposing torques acting on J, aremarked as T, T,andT,. ao ce Tp=teaz i: T=BI i Tk=K0-6; e at 5 T= K0-0) — By Newton's secondlaw, T+, +1, =0 —— 4 “ os 7 a . de oe sage Bay tKe-a)=0 Fig 3 : Free body diagram of mass with moment of inertia J. 2 nie 8B sk KO, = On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zera initial conditions we gat, J,870(s) + Bs O(s) +KO(S)—K8,(s)= 0Chapter t ‘Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 118 (Jz 8? + Bs +K) €(8)—K0,¢s) = 0 (8? +Bs+K) 4 as) = Se (8) ‘Substituting for 6,(s) from equation (3) in equation (2) we get, (i,8? + Bs +) (Js? +K) z ‘8(s) — Ka(s) = T(s) Tus? + 2 _K2 [es K) is? +Bs +K)—K Jos)= L K 28) —K T(s) (Js? +K) zs? + Bs + K) —K? RESULT The differential equations governing the system are, de, 1 Jy a? -Ko=T 2, 2. bE Be Ke Ko, =0 The transfer function of he systems, oS) _ __K F(8) (ds? +K) (Us + Bs +K)—K? EXAMPLE 1.6 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system shown in fig 1. and determine the transfer function o(s)T(s). SOLUTION Inthe given system, the torque T is the input andthe angular displacement is the output. Let, Laplace transform of T= £{T} =T(s) Laptace transform ofé = £10} =6(s) 19,3 =06) Ss) Hence the required transfer function is ——— Te) . The system has two nodes and they are masses with moment of inertia J, and J, The differential equations goveming system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes. Laplace transform of 8, = Lethe angular displacement of mass with moment of inertia J, be 6,. The free body diagram of J,isshowninfig2. The soposing torques acting on J, are marked as T,,, Ty. and T, mre de, a Th th a 2 Toe BrgGer-8) 3 Te =K(0,-6) aol 1 BSS By Newton's second law, T,+ Ty + =T Fig a : Phe bea dag diagram of mass with moment of inertia J,ao, d #8 go We Beg ‘Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, (8,-8)+K(0,-0)=T J870,(s)+8 B;, [0,(s) -Os)] + K0,(s) - KO(s) = Tis) 0,8) US? + SB ie +K] 918) [88,2 +K] = TS) a ‘The free body diagram of mass with moment of inert J is shown in ig3. The opposing torques are marked as Ty, Ts T,andT,. ve Tp Tae Te T d I, ee Tow Bz Gy @- 6) ) VARA we J) TBR; K=KO-0) 3 Fig 3 : Free body diagram of mass with Tet T= 0 moment of inertia J. By Newton's second law, Tj + Toa ao d de de Ge 7 Be OO) + BG + KO 0) =0 a FBS + Bie, +B)+Ke KO =0 3S ate at Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, J,870(S) - B,80,(s) + $0(S) [B,2 + B] + K0(s)— Ko,(s) = 0 (8) [s7J, +8(B,, +B) +K]~0,(s) [88,, +K}=0 _ [s4uy+8(B +B) +KI 9 0 Be KI as) (2) ‘Substituting for@,(s) from equation (2) in equation (1) we get, 2 + ie? +s8,,+1q HS +882 +B) M08) gg. (68,,+K) Kk) @(s) = T(s) (Js? + SByz +K) [J287 + 8(Brz + B) + K]- (SByz + KY? - SSB + K) ame foe) TS) 86) (sBy +k) “T(s) (dis? + SBi2 +K) Ns” + 8(B,, + B)+K]- (6B,z +1)? RESULT ‘The ditterential equations governing the system are, / oe, d 1 Sage * Br yy O19) + K(0 1-8) = T ae do, _ do 2 JS 8, SSB, +8)= K-98) <0 arr at at (2 FB) + KO) The transfer function of the systemis, 9) _ (682 +K) (8) (Uys? + 8B + K) [W,8" + §(B,2 +B) + K]—(sBiy +K)?‘ehapier T= Mathematical Models of Control Systems 1.20 1.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS The models of electrical systems can be obtained by using resistor, capacitor and inductor. The current-voltage relation of resistor, inductor and capacitor are given in table-1. For modelling electrical stems, the electrical network or equivalent circuit is formed by using R, L and C and voltage or current urce. The differential equations governing the electrical systems can be formed by writing Kirchoff ’s current law equations by choosing various nodes in the network or Kirchoff’s voltage law equations by josing various closed paths in the network. The transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace ‘cansform of the differential equations and rearranging them as a ratio of output to input. TABLE-1.1 : [- Relati and € {Element Voltage, across the element Current through the element © oR v)=Ri) (= ~o We x) WL =L4 wet 1H v(t) =L- a iy pivoa vit) i - c _ w= Efi at (t= ch v(t) =XAMPLE 1.7 Obtain the transfer function of the electrical network shown in fig 1. SOLUTION In the given network, inputis e(t) and output is v,(t). Let, Laplace transform of a(t) = £fe()} = Eis) Laplace transform of v,(t)= Ltv,(0) =V,(s) The transfer function of the network is ae Transform the voltage source in series with resistance R, into equivalent current source as shown in figure 2. The network has two nodes. 1e node voltages be v, and v,. The Laplace transform of node voltages and v, are V,(S) and V,(s) respectively. The differential equations governing Senetwork are given by the Kirchof’s current law equations atthese nodes. Atnods-1, by Kirchoff’s current law (referfig3) Wood Mew 8 Mic Mi wee & R dat RR, Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, Me v/s R, 4. “se. _ Xefs) +CsV4s)+ vis welt +80, + aL eLal Ciara Sten rggearing tae aT Joo dv Fig 4. ‘At node-2, by Kirchaff's current iaw (refer fig 4) Yo-Vy GMa “241.0, S220 dt Ontaking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get, YOM cs veo[+ “ee Ri127 TABLE -1.3 : Analogous Quantities in Force-Voltage Analogy | Item Mechanical system Electrical system (mesh basis system) Independent variable Force, f Voltage, ¢, V (input) Dependent variable Velocity, v Current, i (ouput) Displacement, x Charge, q Dissipative element Frictional coefficient Resistance, R of dashpot, B Storage element Mass, M Inductance, L Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of capacitance, 1/C Physical law Newton's second law Kirchoff’s voltage law =rF=0 iv=0 Changing the level of Transformer independent variable aN & TABLE. Analogous Elements Force-Curtent Analogy Mechanical system Electrical system Input: Force Input: Current source Output: Velocity Output : Voltage across the element -—-— i¢ Rov Y~ - 109,< 1.28 TABLE-L5 : Analogous Quantities in Force-Current Analogy Item Mechanical system Electrical system (node basis system) Independent variable Force, f Current, i (input) Dependent variable Velocity, v Voltage, v (output) Displacement, x Flux, > Dissipative element Frictional coefficient Conductance G=1/R of dashpot, B Storage element Mass, M Capacitance, C Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of inductance, 1/L Physical law Newton's second law Kirchoff’s current law =f=0 Li=0 Changing the level of Lever Transformer independent variable fo Ny as nN 5. The mechanical driving sources (force) and passive elements connected to the node (mass) in mechanical system should be represented by analogous elements in a closed loop in analogous electrical system. 6. The element connected between two (nodes) masses in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two meshes in electrical analogous system. FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGY ‘The force balance equations of mechanical elements and their analogous electrical elements in force-current analogy are shown in table-1.4. The table-1.5. shows the list of analogous quantities in force-current analogy. The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical systems based on force-current analogy. 1. In electrical systems elements in parallel will have same voltage, likewise in mechanical systems, the elements having same force are said to be in parallel. The elements having same velocity in mechanical system should have the same analogous voltage in electrical analogous system. Each node (meeting point of elements) in the mechanical system corresponds to a node in electrical system. A mass is considered as a node. 4. The number of nodes in electrical analogous is same as that of the number of nodes (masses) in mechanical system. Hence the number of node voltages and system equations will be same as that of the number of velocities of (nodes) masses in mechanical system. 5. The mechanical driving sources (forces) and passive elements connected to the node (mass) in mechanical system should be represented by analogous elements connected to a node in electrical system. 6. The element connected between two nodes (masses) in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two nodes in electrical analogous system.1.29 EXAMPLE 1.8 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. Draw the foice-voltage and force-current ) [a a % electrical analogous circuits and verify by waiting mesh and nade Boj ee equations. : as i SOLUTION 'B, Fig I. The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). The differential equations governing the mechanical system are given by force balance equations at these nodes. Let the displacements of masses M, and M, be x, and x, respectively. The comesponding velocities be v, and v,. ‘The free body diagram of M, is shown in fg 2. The opposing forces are marked as * foe for fore and fy wc) t d, dx, br, fai My ot re Mf} >t, d }—# fire BeBe G Om) ff =KiK1—%) te By Newton's second law, fay + fy + fire + fy = f(t) Fig 2 ox, dx, d 2 My Ge Br ge * Biz yO Ka) # Klos Xa) = (9) all) The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 3.The opposing forces are marked 8 fa, fixe fy, aNd fg x ax, ax, d —pv, Se=Me fa= Ban 1 Toe = Bio Oe) pro fa =a - xX) 5 fe =Kox | ” Me > fre By Newton's second law, fxg + tye + fig + fare + Lys, a fe a Ren KGa m=O on (2) a M27 HF Kin ~ x) (2) Fig 3. ‘On replacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1) and (2) of the mechanical system we get, 2, 7 a * ; Sey andx= vat} MSE Biv Brlvy ve) + Kelis ve) a= sve 3) 2 «Bev, 1 Kelve dt+ Bry —v,)+ Kl vy = (4) FORCE-VOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force-voltage analogous electrical circuit will have twomeshes. The force applied to mass, M, is represented by a voltage source in first mesh. The elements M,,B,,K, and B,,are Connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elementin mesh-1 forming a closed path. The elements Ky, B., M,, K, and B, afe connectedto second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elemientin mesh-2 forming a closed path, The elements K, and B,, are common between node-1 and 2 and so they are represented by analogous element as ‘common elements between two meshes. The force-voltage electrical analogous circultis shown in ig 4 UC, yi, ML, B, 3 R, K> 1c, Yok By Ry L, R, SSW 88 Re R + 2 + TC c. Fig 4 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit. ] l+ Fig 6. ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4 are given below (Refer fig 5 and 6). di. ; 1. Lage Pt Ralf) +e JC tadat= ef ~6) a 1, tig 4 LG Rilo t Elle at+R,, deel iat =0 (6) Itis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming the mechanical system FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force-current analogous electrical circuit will have ‘wo nodes. “The force applied to mass M, is represented as a currentsource connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements M,, B,, K, and B,, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements K,, B,», M,, K,, and B, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements K, and B,, eré common between node-1 and 2 and s0 they are represented by analogous elements as common element between two nodes in analogous circuit. The force-currentelectrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 7. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. Yi) M, 3 C, B,> UR, K, 71, yoy, M, > C, B,> UR, Kota, v,>¥, B, > UR,L3t AT) vat a ~ w+ Live -wiat=0 svnl8) itis observed thatthe node basis equations (7) and (8) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming the mechanicalsystem. EXAMPLE 1.9 I Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. Ki A B Drawthe force -voltage and force-current alectrical analogous circuits and verify by writing — x mesh and node equations. * K, ‘f £0 SOLUTION t SOLUTION ve The given mechanical system has three nodes masses. The differential equations mo governing the mechanical system are given by force balance equations at these nodes. Let «8 eB, the displacements of masses M,, M, and M, bex,.x, andx respectively. The comesponding a! ys velocities be v,,v, and v,. a The free body diagram of M, is show in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked as Figl. four fae fy aNd fy jx, x, eX, — rt | M «—t, Lk, Fig 4,> 1.32 fa = Kz 0X2) 5 fia Ko By Newton's second law, fn + fyit feat fra = filt) Bx, dx Mae * BG + Keb ~X2)+ Kx = £() wend) Free body diagram of M,is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked asf. fy fi. fs a, ho Me i fe Ke 0X2) 3 fla = Ky Xs) By Newton's second law, fn2 + fs + fe ths = b(t) a, 4, ge 2 79) * Kala — %1 + Kala — a) = elt) (2) “The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 4. The opposing forces are markedas ff, and... ax. foo MG i hs Fis) 5 be= Kilts By Newton's second law, fs + fue + fig = 0 a a _ Maat + Ba Gp (M9 ~ Xa) + Kala ~ 2) = 0 _ 7” son) ‘Onrepiacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1), (2) and (8) governing the mechanical syste eget, (,, @x_dv. dx . [te wa and x= Jat Me By, +k, =f (4) Ge By Kyat = Kee, valet =F) vs MyM Bylvy v9) +Ke (ve W)Bt+ Kells Vt =f) 6) dvy , M; <2 +Ba(v, V2) +Kaf(vs—vo)dt = 0 at IOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has three nodes (masses), Hence the force-voltage analogous electrical cicuitwill have, Stree meshes. The force applied to mass, M, is represented by a voltage source in first mesh and the force applied to mass, M, ' represented by a voltage source in second mesh. The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to firstnode. Henos they are represented by analogous elementin mesh- { forming a closed path. The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous element in mesh-2 forming a closed path. The claments M,, K,and B, are connected to third node. Hence they are represented by analogous element in mesh-3 forming a closed path. The element K, is common between node-1 and 2 and so itis represented by analogous element as common element between mesh 1 and 2. The elements K, and B, are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous elements as common olemenis between mesh-2 and 3. The force-voltage electrical analogous circuit is shown in fig 5. The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. fre(0 voi, M,>L, B,->R, K,> 1G, £0 0,0) vi, M,> B,>R, K,>1C, vy iy ML, K,> 11,133 Fig 5 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit eo L —_—- ON 1 Ce Te ¢ 1 iL | OY Gea Fig 7. Fig 8 ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff’s voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 5 are given below (Refer fig 6, 7, 8). di, 1 ig ug Rare Git SIM iat = ef) J) -8) dis ng fl bs Gt Ralls ie) += I -iy)at = 0 (9) ttis observed that the mesh equations (7), (8) and (9) are similar tothe differential equations (4), (5) and (6) goveming the mechanical system, _ - FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has three nodes (masses). Hence the foree-current analogous electrical circuit willhave three nodes. ‘The force applied to mass M, is represented as a current source connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The force applied to mass M, is represented as a current source connected to node-2 in analogous électrical circuit. The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to nade-1 in analogous electrical circuit The elements M,, B,, K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elemants connected to nade-2 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements M,, B, and K, are connected to third node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-3 in analogous electrical circuit. The element K, is common between node-1 and2 and so itis represented by analogous element as common element between node-1 and 2 in analogous circuit, The elements B, and K, are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous elements as common elements between node-2 and 3. The forcs-current electrical analogous circuit isshownin fig 9. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. £010) yy, M,C, B, > UR, Ko 1, fi) VV, M,>C, 8,3 1R, Kom, Wy, M,C, KI,Ghapter 1 - Mathematical Models of ‘Control Systems 1A ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff's current aw for the circuit shown in fig 9. are given below. (Referfig 10, 11,12). = L 8 wok Fig 9 : Force-current electrical analogous circuit. 1 —](v¥,—v2)dt y, a! ve Ue (eee ie <— five —vp)dt Fig 12: (10) 11) dvs 1 1 Og 7 Hvs~ vale 0 +12) itis observed that node basis equations (10), (11) and (12) are similar to the differential equations (4), (6) and (6) jpveming the mechanical system.1.35 EXAMPLE 1-10 Ka Wie the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown ing, Lz} 3 Mol a fig 1.Draw forcs-voltage and force-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by > 3 K, & writing mesh and node equations. TOO M. SOLUTION O I B, ‘The given mechanical system has three nodos (masses). The differential 7 equations governing the mechanical systom are given by force balance equations at Fig 1 these nodes. Let the displacements of masses M, M,and M, bex,, x, and, respectively. * The corresponding velocities be v,,v,and v,, ‘The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked as ffs fy fy ANA, —>x a, ox, for MVS BGE Ba Km i e— Ff, d qd e-— f, fo =By=(Ks—-%2) ha =Bs—(X-X ; be = Ba grli=%2) # fy = Ba G(s %) u, i By Newton's second law, fay t f+ fa fo the = 0 —t1, le—+, ox 5 &, a d +B, PS Kony + BE) = Ba (1-5) = seul) Mapa + Br Get Kom Ba Geer %2) + Ba Gels 5) =0 ( Fig 2 “The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked aS fp, fyas fy fiay- PX ax, d -—>v, Ge fe Babe) — d — fra = Bas O—%9)! fen =KaalXe —%2) M, — By Newton's second law, fg + fad + fs + fezs =O ax, d gd My SoP + Bap ha Ho) Bas Ga ~ Ha) + Kain — Ma) = 0 (2) Fig 3. ‘The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 4. The opposing forces are marked aS ffs: za» ANd fe. | ?™ Loy tind . fro = Me Ge : d ea =Bas $e) | fas = Koala —%) By Newton's second law, fs + hs +23 + fs =0 | a&& 2 4 d MAGEE GOS IB GOH) Khe va)30 Fig 4. Onreplacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1), (2) and (3) governing the mechanical syster we get, dx dv dx . (ie ee -vanaxe a) MS Bik fut Bele, ve) +Byl¥e—¥4) =0 M.S + By(va v9) +Baal¥a “¥s)+ Kf —vs}at=0 qt Bae ) + Bag ¥s — Va) + Koo fly — Vayet = 0 Ma:GiapieF I Mathematical Models of Control Systems > SPCE-VOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical systein has three nodes (massés). Hence the force-voltage analogous electrical circuitwill have memeshes. 136 The elements M,, K,, B., B, and B, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by.analogous elements in =st-1 forming a closed path, The elements M., K,,, B,, and B, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented salogous elements in mesh-2 forming a closed path. The elements M,, K,,, 8, and B, are connected to third node. Hence =) 2'e represented by analogous elements in mesh-3 forming a closed path The elements K,, and B,, are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous element as Simon elements between mésh-2 and 3. The element B, is common between node-1 and 2 and soiitis represented by <22G0us element as comimon elementbetween mest-1 and 2. The element, is common between node-1 and 3and soitis erssented by analogous element between mesh-1 and 3. The force-voltage electrical analogous circuits shown in fig 5. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. vi, M,—L, K, S1C, B, +R, vi, Mol, Ky? 1/C,B, > Ry vy, Mol, BR, B,>Ry fw di, Roly Rolly ie) J Rp Oy TO | | i Fig 5 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit Fig 6. Ralls ~ hy) ny Rafle i) + a dz Fat Fig 7. | | | a Te. HE Ile-iadot Realy in) GY Sy * uly R, | Co Ry | wy Fig 8. The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the Circuit shown in fig 5 are given below. (Refer fig 6, 7 u di 1 . 1 z + Ret ee Lit + Pali —in)+ Pelli) = 0 BB + Ral) + Mla) Palle 1) = 0 2 (7)437 CGaaitrol systems Enginooring di 7 Ladheri A+ itis observed that the mesh basis equations (7), (8) and (9) are similar to the differential equations (4), (5) and governing the mechanical system FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has three nodes (masses). Hence the force-current analogous electrical circuft wilh throe nodes. “The elements M,, K,,B,,.B, and B, are connected tofrstnode. Hence they are represented by analogous element elements vonnected to nede-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements M,, K,,,B,, and B, are connected to second.no Hence thay are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical cit. elements M, K.,.B,, end B, are connected to third node. Hence they re represented by analogous elements 2s elem connected to node-3 in analogous electrical circu. ‘The elements K,, and B., are common between node-2 and 3 and so they are represented by analogous elemen common elements between nodé-2.and 3in electrical analogous circuit. The element B, is common between node-1 and2. soit is represented by analogous element as common element between node- 1 and 2 in electrical analogous circuit lament, js common between node-1 and and soitis represented by analogous elementas common element between n + and3 in electrical analogous circuit. The force-current electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 9. “The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. vy Y M, > K, > tL, 8, > UR, Vv, > Vy M, > Ky UL B, + 1/R, ye Ny M, > G, B, > UR, B,, > UR, 4‘Ghapler T-Matbeinatical Models of Control Systems > 138 ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff’s current law for the circuit shown in fig 9 are given below. (Refer fig 10, 11 p12). C Siege ivatt x ~waltgethws)=0 . n(10) iy 1 . CG Me Wt LL Ae volt give v) =0 4) it = Ra GE Oe wit ll wade Bote ms) 20 volt2) itis observed that the node basis equations (10), (11) and (12) are similarto the differential equations (4), (5) and (6) jpverning the mechanical system. EXAMPLE 1.11 ‘Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1. Draw the erce-voltage and force-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and node uations. SOLUTION “The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). The differential equations governing pe mechanical system are given by force balance equations atthese nodes. Let the displacement. gmasses M, and M, be x, and x, respectively. The corresponding velocities be v, and v,, The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 2. The opposing forces are marked asf, f,, and f,. de ~X2) 4:28, ” at ee OE : a= Ki = X2) By Newton's second law, fay + +f Ox, dexy— x0) “The free body diagram of M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked asf. fa. + Ky(x,— x2) = 0 (1) ax, dx, d fa MP i he BE 5 = Brg) fe=Kx, fa Kia) By Newton's second law, fro fhe + fe + fy tha = F(t) 2 Xe » Fig 3. On replacing the displacements by velocity in the differential equations (1) and (2) goveming the mechanical system dx, a Ba Get Kana + By ea — x0) + Klee =) = AO meget, =O _ vandx= jvdt dt’ dt MSE Bim veel r—valst= 0 8) My S22 a Bvs + Kel vast + Bp) + Ka Ma - wt= A ®139 : CGintral Systems Engineering” FORCE-VOLIAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force voltage analogous electrical circuit will he twomeshes. The force applied to mass, M, is representedby a voltage source in second mesh. The elements i, K, and B, are connected to first node, Hence they are represented by analogous element in mest forming a closed path. The elements M,, K,, 8, B, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented! analogous element in mesh 2 forming a closed path. ‘Theelements B, and K, are common between node 1 and 2 and so they are represented as common elements betwee mesh 1 and 2. The force-voltage electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 4. The eloctrical analogous clements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. fe) v, > i Moo Ly, K, > 1c, B, > R, vy, > i Mook Ko Me, BOR nok ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4. are given below, (refer fig5 and eft) L Fig 4 : Force-voltage electrical analogous circuit. Fig 5. tis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming th mechanical system. FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (masses). Hence the force-currentanalogous electrical circuit wil hay two nodes. The force applied to mass M, is represented as a current source connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circu The elements M,. K, and B, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements 2 elements connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuft. The elements M,, K,, B,, B, and K, are connected to secon ‘hode. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit‘Mathematical Models of Control Systems £40 The elements K, and B, is common to node-1 and 2 and so they are represented by analogous element as common elements between two nodes in analogous circuit. The force-current electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 7. ‘The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system are given below. fi) vy, M,C, B, > 1R, Kom, v,>%, M,C, B,> UR, Ko 1, ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff's current law for the circuitshown in fig.7, are given below, (Refer fig8 and 9). CML y,-v,)+7f.-v)at=0 soe (7) 4 uy . 1 vp CO, 2+ —y, Pat Ry 2 Itis observed thatthe node basis equations (7) and (8) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) governing the mechanical system, Jute» Live ude E five — wpa =i) res @) A jon-veat 4 Fig 8. 1.40 ELECTRICAL ANALOGOUS OF MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS The three basic elements moment of inertia, rotational dashpot and torsional spring that are used in modelling mechanical rotational systems are analogous to resistance, inductance and capacitance of electrical systems: The input torque in mechanical system is analogous to either voltage source or current source in electrical systems. The output angular velocity (first derivative of angular displacement) in mechanical rotational system is analogous to either current or voltage in an element in electrical system. Since the electrical systems has two types of inputs either voltage source or current source, there are two types of analogies: torque-voltage analogy and torque-current analogy. TORQUE-VOLTAGE ANALOGY The torque balance equations of mechanical rotational elements and their analogous electrical elements. in torque-voltage analogy are shown-in table-1.6. The table-1.7 shows the list of analogous quantities “in torque-voltage analogy.La Laat spsiemsingineering Mechanical rotational system Electrical system Input; Torque Input, : Voltage source Output ; Angular velocity Output : Current through the element B 7 hea * gay VARI . on i Ns ae Tepe I~ ae ye The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical rotational systems based on torque-voltage analogy. In electrical systems the elements in series will have same current, likewise in mechanical systems, the elements having same angular velocity are said to be in series. The elements having same angular velocity in mechanical system should have analogous same current in electrical analogous system. Each node (mécting point of elements) in the mechanical system corresponds to a closed loop in electrical system. The moment of inertia of mass is considered as a node. The number of meshes in ciectrical analogous is same as that of the number of nodes (moment of inertia of mass ) in mechanical system. Hence the number of mesh currents and system equations will be same as that of the number of angular velocities of nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system. The mechanical driving sources (Torque) and passive elements connected to the node (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system should be represented by analogous element in 3 closed loop in analogous electrical system. \ The element connected between two nodes (moment of inertia) in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two meshes in electrical analogous system.eee I Hiatbomalica Models of Control Systems > 1a TABLE-L7 : Analogous Quantities in ‘Torque-Voltage Analogy Item Mechanical rotational system Electrical system (mesh basis system) Independent variable Torque, T Voltage, 0, v Gnput) Dependent variable | Angular Velocity, «0 Current, i (output) Angular displacement, @ Charge, q Dissipative element Rotational coefficient Resistance, R. of dashpot, B Storage element Moment of inertia, J Inductance, L Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of capacitance, 1/C Physical law ‘Newton's second law Kirchoff’s voltage law IT=0 iv=0 Changing the level of Gear Transformer |. independent variable Tom ea _N | my a TORQUE-CURRENT ANALOGY The torque balance equations of mechanical elements and their analogous electrical clements in sorque-current analogy are shown in table-1.8. The table-1.9 shows the list of analogous quantities in corque-current analogy. The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical rotational systems based on Torque-current analogy. 1. In electrical systems the elements in parallel will have same voltage, likewise in mechanical systems, the elements having same torque are said to be in parallel. The elements having same angular velocity in mechanical system should have analogous same voltage in electrical analogous system. Each node (meeting point of elements) in the mechanical system corresponds to a node in electrical system. The moment of inertia of mass is considered as a node. ‘The number of nodes in electrical analogous is same as that of the humber of nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system. Hence the number of node voltages and system equations will be same as that of the number of angular velocities of nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system. The mechanical driving sources (Torque) and passive elements connected to the node in mechanical system should be represented by analogous element connected to a node in analogous electrical system. The element connected between two nodes (moment of inertia of mass) in mechanical system is represented as a common element between two nodes in electrical analogous system.LB Ciara SystemisTngincering ‘TABLE-L8 : Analogous Elements in Torque-Current Analogy Mechanical rotational system Electrical system Input : Torque Output : Angular velocity Input : Current source Output : Voltage across the element K pT ok T=K0=Kjodt fodt 6 \ a 0 do dt Analogous Quantities in Torque-Current Analogy Ttem Mechanical rotational system Electrical system (node basis system) Independent variable Torque, T Current, i (input) Dependent variable Angular Velocity, o Voltage, v (output) Angular displacement, ® Flux, Dissipative clement Rotational frictional coefficient of dashpot, B Conductance, G = 1/R Storage element Moment of inertia, J Capacitance, C Stiffness of spring, K Inverse of inductance, VL | Physical law Newton's second law ” Kirchoff ’s current law ET=0 di-0 Changing the level of Gear Transformer independent variable 1 |(Githabler FMatbematical Models of Conirol Systems ~) 14 XAMPLE 1.12 g Write the differential equations governing the mechanical otational system & ma EB shown in fig 1. Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous 7 g/L“ a cuits and verify by writing mesh and node equations. i > 7 TTT TITTTOT SOLUTION B, Fig. The given mechanical rotational system has two nodes (moment of inertia ofmasses). The differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes. Let the angular displacements of J, and J, be @, and 0, respectively. The corresponding angular velocities be ,ando, “The fee body diagram of Ji shown n fg 2. The opposing torques are marked as Typ Ted Ty dO, 8, Tah ET GE Ty KO.) \ FEY} }— ew Ll kK By Newton's second law, T,,+T,,*T=T T @, Tr Ta Ta Fig 2, 0, 0, —_ eget Bg TO 82) T (1) _ The free body diagram of J, is shown in fig 3. The opposing torques are marked as TT, T,,andT,,. oe, oe Type i ane Ge TL \ Ta=Ke ¢ Tan Ke) Hee By Newton's second law, T+ Tp +T p+ Ty, a, 2 Fig 3. Sir + Be G2 + Ka) + Ki(02 - 0) =9 ‘On replacing the angular displacements by angular velocity inthe differential equations (1) and (2) ‘governing the mechenical rotational system we get, (,. da _da_ 0 e, 22, Bie and 0=Joat| ae dt’ at J J BiB. +KJ(o;-o,)dt=T 3) doy 4 Lege Bata Kalenaat eK [@,-0,)dt=0 (4) TORQUE-VOLTAGE ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (J, and J.). Hence the torque-voltage analogous electrical circuitwill have two meshes. The torque applied to J, is represented by @ voltage source in first mesh. The elements J,, B, and K, are connected first node. Hence they are represented by analogous element in mesh-1 forming @ closed path. The clements J, B,,K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements in mesh-2 forming a closed path, ‘The element K, is common between node-1 and 2 and so itis represented by analogous element as common element between two meshes. The torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit is shown in fig 4, The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical rotational system are given below. T set) jo ky BR, kK, = 1c, o, i, beh 9 BOR K, > 1, 2, 1,Figs. Fig 6. ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchoff's voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4 are given below (Refer fig 5 and 6). ti, ae tay ug Rae STi (5) di, Tee ; La Git Ral + Jiatt+ fa inat=0 wee(8) itis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) goveming the mechanicalsystern. TORQUE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has two nodes (J, and J,). Hence the torque-current analogous electrical citcuitwill have two nodes. The torque applied to J, is represented asa current source connected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements J, B, and K, are connected to firstnode. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-t in analogous electrical circuit. The elements J., B,, K, and K, are connected to second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circuit The element K, is common between node-1 and 2. So itis represented by analogous element es common element between node-1 and 2. ‘The torque-current electrical analogous circuitis shown in fig 7. vs Lu ve Fig 7: Torque-current elecirical analogous circuit.Ghapiert Mathematical Models of Control Systems. 16 Fig 8. Fig 9. The electrical analogous elements forthe elements of mechanical rotational system are given below. Ti) BUR, 0,>y, 4,36, Kou, BUR, a, >%, 4,56, Kou, ‘The node basis equations using Kirchoff's current aw for the circuit shown in fig 7 are given below (Refer fig 8 and 9). OG ys Lit vadt itp (7) 1 1 eve 7 lvate Tle -v,)Jdt=0 (8) itis observed that the mesh basis equations (5) and (6) are similar to the differential equations (3) and (4) governing the mechanical system, EXAMPLE 1.13 Ky . . a od 7 K, White the differential equations governing the mechanical _\ | | a: HH} B, SL rotational system shown in fig. Draw the torque-voitage and Yi ‘+i. i ye ‘torque-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing * By mesh and node equations. Fig !. SOLUTION ‘The given mechanical rotational system has three nodes (moment of inertia of masses). The differential equations, i, Jb, B, > R, K, > 110, oy > i, bok B, > R, K, > 1c, o, > i Jy Ly i L, L L at Le SOS pe ce, eo =o, S ef mae R, a e(t) GY OY Ty | GY | : Rill, -i2) Sa, -j Fig 5 Torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit Fig 6.(Gapter 1 Mathematical Models of Control Systems Ralie—iS R Rv Rilla-i) - ~ GY Fig 7. ‘The mesh basis equations using Kirchott’s voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 5 are given below (Referfig 6, 7 2nd 8). Le Rid +L fll itt = et ol) Puli Pallet + fli =0 ) 1 Ralls h)+ Z finst=0 (9) Itis observed that the mesh basis equations (7), (8) and (9) are similar to the differential equations (4), (5) and (6) 2everning the mechanical system. RQUE-CURRENT ANALOGOUS CIRCUIT ‘The given mechanical system has three nodes (J,,J,and J,). Hence the torque-currentanalogous electrical circuit will save three nodes. The torque applied to J, is represented as a current source connected to node-1 in analogous electrical orcuit ‘The elements K,, J, and B, are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements aselements onnected to node-1 in analogous electrical circuit. The elements J, B., B and K, are connected to second node. Hence they ze represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-2 in analogous electrical circuit The elements J, B,, sod K, are connected to third node. Hence they aré represented by analogous elements as elements connected to node-3 in snalogous electrical circuit. ‘The elements K, and B, are common between node-1 and 2.and so they are represented by analogous element as Gammon elements between node-1 and 2. The element B, is common between node-2 and 3 and so itis represented as common #ement between node-2 and 3in analogous circuit. The torque-current electrical analogous circuits shown in fig 9. Wi-v2) og, aoe LJe—vant Ry Hie) Fe G c Bl Fig 9: Torque-current electrical analogous circuit.1.49 UR, K > 1, &:> Vy 49 8, > UR, K > 1”, o> vy, > G The node basis equations using Kirchoff’s current law for the circuit shown in fig 9 are given below (Refer fig 10, 1 and 12) ay 4 ty . Ora Ved flv) (10) dv, 1 1 1 Co Get Ma Wa vad Je at =0 eel 1) oN os Lvs) “ 0 (12) Itis observed that the node basis equations (10), (11) and (12) are similar to the differential equations (4), (5) and (6 governing the mechanical system. 1.11. BLOCK DIAGRAMS ‘A control system may consist of a number of components. In control engineering to show thi functions. performed by each component, we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram. A bloc diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and o the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the intertelationships that exist among the various components The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point. BLOCK Ina block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. Th functional block ot simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to th block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in th corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals Figure 1.25 shows the block diagram of functional block. The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the Input, A_[ Transfer | Output, B input, and the arrowhead leading away from the block represents | ee BoAGO the output. Such arrows are referred to as signals. The output signal from the block is given by the product of input signal Fig 1.25 : Functional block. and transfer function in the block.Chapter 1 Mathematical Models of Control Systems 1.50 SUMMING POINT Summing points are used to add two or more signals in the A AB system. Referring to figure 1.26, a circle with a cross is the symbol that adicates a summing operation. i The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether the signal s to.be added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the same dimensions and the same units. Fig 1.26 : Summing point. BRANCH POINT Branch point 5 A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block AP OLE Rake zoes concurrently to other blocks or summing points. A CONSTRUCTING BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS Fig 1.27: Branch point: A control system can be represented diagramatically by block diagram. The differential equations joverning the system are used to construct the block diagram. By taking Laplace transform the differential guations are converted to algebraic equations. The equations will have variables and constants. From the sorking knowledge of the system the input and output variables are identified and the block diagram for ich equation can be drawn: Each equation gives one section of biock diagram. The output of one section ill be input for another section: The various sections are interconnected to obtain the overall block Segram of the system. (AMPLE 4 Construct the block diagram of armature controlled demotor. SOLUTION ‘The differential equations governing the armature controlled dcmotorare (refer section 1.7), Vy=ieRe the f+0, ofl) T=Ki, sl) do as By Tad Gt Bo oe3) e =K,o Ad) i on 8 _ oes 8) Ontaking Laplace transform of equation (1) we get, Vols)=1(S) Rotts StF ES) (6) In equation (6), V,(s) and E,(s) are inputs and I,(s) is the output. Hence the V(sFEs) 2=eation (6) is rearranged and the block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 1. Vas) Va(6)~E,(8) = 1(6) [Re +5 La] L106) =e [MoE] “— MO) = Tory Mal)= Fig 1. On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) we get, WO) re? T(s)= KL (6) Fig 2 (7), 1,(s) is the input and T(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 2.Conttal En 151 On taking Laplace transform of equation (3) we get. we8) T(e)=Js o(s)+B ais) Inequation (8), T(s) is the input and a(s) is the output. Hence the equation (8) is rearranged and the block diagram o(s) bs this equation is shown in fig (3). Tis) = (Js +B) o(s) 1 ea _ On taking Laplace transform of equation (4) we get, (9) -.0(8)= E(S)=K ols) Inequation (9), o(s) is the input and E,(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 4. ‘On taking Laplace transform of equation (5) we get, o(s) #8 4(s) (10) {In equation (10), c9(8) isthe input and 6(s) is the output. Hence equation (10) is rearranged and the block diagram {ort “pias Fig 5. equation is shown in fig 5. 1 &s) = zals) . : “The overall block diagram of armature controlled demmotoris obtained by connecting the various sections shown in fig fig 5. The overall block diagram is showm in fig 6. Vss}-EXs) vss) TMs) 18) | 108) Os) Eds) Fig 6 : Block diagram of armature controlled de motor. EXAMPLE 1.15 Construct the block diagram of field controlled de motor. SOLUTION The differential equations governing the field controlled de motor are (refer section 1.8), ‘On taking Laplace transform of equation (1) we get, V4(s) = Ry W(s) +L 8 (8)452 ln equation (4), V,(s) is the input and |,(s) is the output. Hence the equation (4) is rearranged and the block diagram for =quation is shown in fig 1 v{s) 7 us) is) Jt | V(s)=44s) [P,+8t)] Rosh, ohe)= = vio) Fig L. (On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) we get, 1 Tis) = Ky Is) (8) “2 ge) In equation (5), |,(s) is the input and T(s) is the output. The block diagram for this Fig 2, pssonis shown in fig 2. Ontaking Laplace transform of equation (3) we get, T(s)=Js*0(s) + Bs0() ) of as) In equation (6), T(s) is input and 8(6)/s the output. Hence equation (6) is rearranged Js? + Bs) & Se block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 3. Fig 3 Tis) = (Js? + Bs) @(s) The overall block diagram of field controlled de motor is obtained by connecting the various section shown in fig 1 to The overall block diagram is shown in fig 4. 1_| Ms) Ts) 7 vis) > {s) Ry+sl; aK Js? Bs > 8(s) Fig 4 : Block diagram of field controlled de motor. K DIAGRAM REDUCTION The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function of the system. The following rules can be used =ieck diagram reduction . The rules are framed such thet any modification made on the diagram does not alter the input-output zor RULES OF BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA. Rule-1 : Combining the blocks in cascade AG, AGG, AG BS, a ASS > A A_yany 45° Combining Parallel blocks (or combining feed forward paths) AG, Gy, ie AG,+AG,= A(G,+G, > a yao (Ges) Ay Gl AG +G,) Rule-3 = Moving the branch point ahead of the block A ree AG A {] AG. A AG,153. Rule-4 : Moving the branch point before the block AG A AG Aa} ase : Moving the summing point ahead of the block 8 By mi86 \ G2 A AIB a (AXB)IG | : gh—> A AG AG + BG = (A+B)G Sool BS gy AO 4 Rule-6 : Moving the summing point before the block B BIG B HUG] > TT 4.8 = AGHB G AGHB A AG A 6 Rule-7 : Interchanging summing point B B Achy AtB AtB=C = A AC Bs ACABEAIE-C c c Rule-$ ; Splitting summing points 8 8 —] A & AtB-C = A ASB AtB-C ¢ | c Rule-9: Combining summing points B B & ASBC A & AB ee 3 A 4 ¢ ¢ J - Rule-10 : Elimination of (negative) feedback loop (R-CH) (R-CH)G R Ss R G ¢ c> —— -—> cH oe i+GH C=R-CHG 3 C=RG-CHG = C+CHG=RG Proof: Cc GS SCUFHG=RG > FT Gy ~ Rules11 : Elimination of (positive) feedback loop } R ah c(Models istems 154 EXAMPLE 1.16 Reduce the block diagram shown in fig and find C/R. 'G,+—_——, 2 fz] ©) + x O Yo SOLUTION Step 1: Move the branch point after the block. Step 2:Eliminate the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade. GH) G, 1+GH &)-[ G \(e=) GG, +Gy qi ‘The overall transter function of the system, c= ecGoniral Spstems Engineering | Step 1: Moving the branch point before the block 155 EXAMPLE 1.17 Using block diagram reduction technique find closed loop transfer function of the system whose block diagrams shor infig 1 , aa Fi Fig I. SOLUTION RChapter i Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 1.56 Step 5:Eliminating the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade c G 1+GHG2 - GGG, +6.) GiG,G, +6,G, 1 6G, = 14+ GH, = GGG, +G,G,_ 7 GGG) hy > TECH +GGH, TGR, 1+GGH, +G,G,H, + GH GGH, G 1+GGH, Step 7:Fliminating the feedback path —— R GE,6,166, | 1+ G,GH,+G.G.H2 + GH, ___ GG.G,+G,G, C__TGGH=GGH GH _ G,G,G,+6,G, R 4,__ 6S.6s+G6. TG GH, +G,GH, +G,H, +GG,G, +66, TG GH, +G.G,H, + GH; RESULT The overall transfer function is given by, cL GiG,G3+G,Gg R_1+G,G;H, + G.G,H, + GH, +G,G,G, + GG, AMPLE 1.18 Detesmine the overall transfer function at forthe system shown in fig 1157 SOLUTION ‘Step 1: Maving the branch point before the block (S) seis) ‘Siep 3 : Eliminating the feedback path ro Ris) yes) ‘Step 5: Combining the blocks in cascade 158 ‘Step 6 : Eliminating the feedback path RS) GGG, cs) Ty GxG,H, + GzGoHe ‘Step 7: Combining the blocks in cascade 15G,G,Hj+G: . GGG. x 15G,GH,+ 6,64, 7 G, cis) GGG. GLH, CELy ols) GG,G.G, R®) 1+ G,G,H,+ G,GH, +6,G,G,G, SULT The overall transfer function of the system is given by, Ks) _ GiG,G,G, RS) 1+ G,G,H, + G,GH, GGG. =XAMPLE 1.19 Forthe system represented by the block diagram shouim in fig 1. Evaluate the closed loop transfer function when the =cutRis (i) atstation-t (i at station-t { Station-Il 8 Station-| Si SOLUTION @ Consider the input Riis at station-| and so the inputat station-Hlis made zero. Lethe output be Cs. Since there isno inputat statior-Il that summing point can be removed and resulting block diagramis shown in fig 21.59 Step 1 : Shift the take off point of feedback H, beyond Gsand rearrange the branch points i f Gs Fig 2. ‘Step 2: Eliminating the feedback H, and combining blocks in cascade Cc, »iG) Hy ‘Step 3: Eliminating the feedback path R(CGiiapiter T= Mathematical Models of Control Systems > 1.60. Cis) _ GGG. Ris) 1+ GsH, + GH, + G,G,G,H, @ ——_Considerthe inputR atstatior-I, the inputat station-1is made zero. Let output be C,. Since there is no inputin stalion-I that corresponding summing point can be removed and a negative sign can be attached to the feedback path gain H,. The resulting block diagram is shown in fig 3. ‘Step 1:Combining the blacks in cascade, shifting the summing point of H, before G,and rearranging the branch points. Fig 3. ‘Step 2:\nterchanging summing points and combining the blocks in cascade. -GAGGH +H) (+ Gath)LOL Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path GGG, +H) | (14 GHy)Gp = G - G,(1+G,H,) ;-(AGGH+H)) G THGF,+GIGGH TH) ~ 146, +G(GG,H,+H,) 1+GH5 ° 1+G)Hy cG G,(1+ GH.) TR 1sGjHy+GGGH,+H,) RESULT ‘The transfer function of the system with inputat station-lis, GGG. R 14GH)+GH, +GiG,GH, ‘The transfer function of the system with input atstation-tlis, co Gs(14 Gots) R 1+G,+G,(GG,H,+4,) EXAMPLE 1.20 For the system represented by the block diagram shown in the fig 1, determine C,/R, and C./R, * ~) yg} eg} —_S SOLUTION & Case (i) To fina = Inthis case set R, =0 and consider only one output C,. Hence we can remove the summing point which adds R, and need not consider G,, since G, is on the open path. The resulting block diagram is shown in fig 2.Fe [Models of Control Systems 1 ‘Step 1:€liminating the feedback path c > Fig 2. ‘Step 2: Combining the blocks in cascade and splitting the summing point i x i G.GAH, 1G, xe1.63 ‘Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path GG,(1+G,) | G=G,)-GG.CHH, ___ GG(1+ G,) Ry G+6))-G.G.G.HH, GS 1, SGA) GG,(1+G,) GG.GHH, + GG, Ce GiG,G5(14 Ge) R, (1+ GiG,) (17+G,)-G,G,G,44, c, Case 2; To find = a Inthis case set R, = 0 and consider only one output. Hence we can remove the summing point which adds R, and need not consider G., since G, is on the open path. The resulting block diagram is shown in fig 3. ‘Step 1; Eliminate the feedback path,Chapler t= Maibematical Models: ‘of Control Systems) Step 2:Combining blocks in cascade and spliting the summing point | G.GsH, \__, [2.604] 1G, Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path GGiGH R, (+G,) G#G,G,) C, 7 SiG PS ~ (15G,) (+ GG.) Step 6:Combining the blocks in cascade R, | GEGH, a (4G) (14G,G))- GG,G.GH, Ge ___GGsGsGeH, _ Ry (1+G,) (+#G,G,)- G.GGAF,Le RESULT ‘The transfer function of the system when the input and output are. Rr and C: Is given by, c. GiG.G, (1+ Gy) R, 4+G,G,)(1+G,)- GG.GHH, The transfer function of the system when the input and output are Ri and C2is given by, & GG,G,G5 Hp RWG) 0+6,6,)-G.4.G,HH, EXAMPLE 1.21 ‘Obtain the closed loop transfer function C(s/R(s) of the system whose block diagram is shown in fig 1 | Hh SOLUTION ‘Step 7 Splitting the summing point and rearranging the branch points ‘Step 2: Eliminating the feedback path RS) Step 3 Shifting the branch point after the block. R(S)[= Mathematical Models of Control. LOG ‘Step 4 Combining the blocks in cascade and eliminating feedback path Step 6 : Eliminating forward path RS) GGG, ———— — Es 1+ GH, GG, CGH, | {Gu} . fs) GiG.G, “R(s) 1¢GH,+G,GH, - GG] G ULT ' pe GB.G a The transfer function ofthe system's () “7; GH =G,G,H, GGA, Ct =XAMPLE 1.22 ‘The block diagram of a closed loop system is shown in fig 1. Using the block diagram reduction technique determine the sesei loop transfer function C(sV/R(s). R(S) 6 c(s) SOLUTION ‘Step 1: Splitting the summing point. cs)167 ‘Step 2: Eliminating the feedback path. R(S) HAS); (Step 4 : interchanging the summing points and combining the blocks in cascade RS) G(s) cs) 14+ GAs)HAs) GAs) 1+Ga(s}H,(s) a 5 S28) G(s) Hs) l¢———_ * cael) 2 T+G,(s)t(s) Gi(s)H\(s) ‘Step 6 : Combining the blocks in cascade cs) Gls) _ GAs) (G(s) +1 Ris) 1+ GAs) HAs) + G,ls) Gals) H.(S) RESULT ‘The transfer function ofthe systems, cfs) _ Gals) [G4s)+7] Ris) GAS) TLS) Gis) GaliHal cal Models of Control: 18 EXAMPLE 1.23 | _- Using block diagram reduction technique find the transfer function C(s)/R(s) for the system shown in fig 1. = 4 Hil Fig le BO UTION Step 1 : Rearranging the branch points RIS) @ cs RE) go cs) Step 3: Moving the branch point after the block. R(S) + Gy. cs) " 71+ GHA,Lo Step 4: Moving the branch point and combining the blocks in cascade. RIS) ae pe dL cs) 1G.G:I-— TG HA, 1+G,HH, & Step 6 : Eliminating feedback path and interchanging the summing points. Ris) Hy(1+ G2) | GG. EEGs 1 GHH, enenen GGG ~ 17G,HH,— GGG, RS) cs) GGG, TE GHA, -G.G.G,H, Ha(t+ GatsHe) &, eee T.GHH, -6.G,GH, . 66.6.6, ____ GG,G.G, —\( He+GHH)) 1+ G.HH2- G2G,G.H, + GG H.C GHHe) TGHH,-G.G.6H,)( GG,( ahapiler T-Maiiematical Models of Control Systen 170 Step 8 :Eliminating the unity feedback path. RIS) 86,8,6, ' Gia + G.GH(1+ GF) GG,G,G, _O8)__ TGA, -G,6.6,4,+6.6.4,(1+GHHL) “RO) ay GG,G.Gy 1+ GyHH, — GG,G,H, + GiG,Hy(1+ G.HHe) = GGG, TV GHD — G,G,G Hy + GiGH,(1+ GH) = GG,G,G, GGGG; “THHAL(G, + 6,G,G,H,)+ GGx(H, + G:G,)- GGG) ESULT The transfer function of the systemis, ce) OB.8.G, Ris) THHHAG, + GG,G,H) + GGaH, = Gy) - GxG,G,Hy 4:12 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION USING MATLAB “RANSFER FUNCTION OF A SYSTEM Let, G(s) be the transfer function of a system, When the transfer function is a rational function of ~ then using MATLAB the transfer function can be obtained from the coefficients of the numerator and “sominator polynomials as shown below. Let, the general form of G(s) be as shown below. Mp sit bys) + bs" aps’ tas? +a,88? +. by St by #Oy 48+ ay a= First, the coefficients of the numerator and denominator polynomials are declared as two arrays as own below. [mumcoF > [bo 61 62. > MTs |dencof = [a0 al a2. «ands | Next, the transfer can be obtained using the following commands of MATLAB. 6 = tfC8"); G = ([numcof], [den_cof]) “RANSFER FUNCTION OF CASCADE / PARALLEL / FEEDBACK SYSTEM Consider two systems with transfer functions G,(s) and G(s). Let the two transfer functions be Scional function of "s" as shown below. bys + bys“ + bys" ays tas" +a,8 G)=17 Me agM! ed gh? dysM + dso! +d,s™74. ops +0587 + 0,857 4. GA) = When the two systems are connected as cascade / parallel / feedback system, then the overt transfer function of cascaded system / parallel system / feedback system can be obtained using MATLAl Inorderto obtain the overall transfer function, first the coefficients of the numerator and denominas polynomials of G,(s) and G,(s) are declared as arrays as shown below. [numcofi = [b0 bi bs]; | den_cofl = [a0 at an]; | numcof2 = [d0 di aM]; den_cof2 = [cO ci cn]; When the two systems are connected in cascade as shown below, then the overall transfer functia G(s) of the cascaded system can be obtained using the following commands of MATLAB. —+1G} +E] > —E] Gc = tf('s'); {num_cofc, den_cofc] = series(mum.cofl, den_cofl, numcof2, den_cof2); , Gc = ([numcofc], [den_cofc}) ‘When the two systems are connected in parallel as shown below, then the overall transfer functig G,(3) of parallel system can be obtained using the following commands of MATLAB. GP = tf('s"); [numcofp, den_cofP]=parallel(num_cofi, den_cofl, num.cof2, den_cof2); cp = ([num.cofp], [den_cofp]) j When the two systems are connected in feedback as shown below, then the overall transi function G,(s) of feedback system can be obtained using the following commands of MATLAB. Logs GF = tf('s'); [numcofF, den_cofr] = feedback(num.cofl, den_cofl, numcof2, den_cof2){ GF = ({num_cofF], [den_cofF])<[iiapier 7 itatbematical Models of Control Systems > 172 =ROGRAM 1.1 consider the transfer functions of the two systems given below, G,(s)=8/(s%42s+9) and G(s) =4/(s#6) write a MATLAB program to find the overall transfer function if the two systems are connected as cascade system, parallel system and feedback system. cle clear all Gl=tf(‘s"); G2=tf('s’); Gc=tf('s’);Gp=tf(‘s')iGr=tf(‘s num_cofi=[0 0 8]; den_cofile[1 2 9]; disp(‘system1’); G1=tf({numicofl], [den_cofl]) num_cof2=[0 4]; den_cof2=[1 6]; disp(‘system2'); G2=tf(Lnum_cof2], [den_cof2]) [num_cofc, den_cofC]=series(num_cof1,den_cofl, num_cof2,den_cof2); disp(‘cascade system’); ec-tf([numicofc], [den_cofc]) [num_cofP, den_cofp]=parallel(num_cofl,den_cofl,num_cof2,den_cof2): disp(‘Parallel system’); GP=tf([num_cofp], [den_cofr]) [num_cofF, den_cofF]=feedback(num_cofl,den_cofl, num_cof2,den_cof2) ; disp(‘Feedback system’); GF=tf({[num_cofF], [den_cofF]) DUTPUT systemi Transfer function: & saz +2549 system? Transfer function: 4 ste Cascade system Transfer function: SAP 4 8 S42 + 215 + 54 Parai7e] system Transfer function: 4sA2 +165 + 84 AZ +B SA2 + 215 + 54 Feedback system Transfer function: 8s +48 SAR + 8 5A2 + 21 5 + 861.73 113 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH The signal flow graph is used to represent the control system graphically and it was developed by S.J. Mason. | A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. By taking. Laplace transform, the time domain differential equations governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain. The signal flow graph of the system can bd constructed using these equations. It should be noted that the signal flow graph approach and the block diagram approach yield the same information. The advantage in signal flow graph method is that, using Mason's gain formula the overall guin of the system can be computed easily. This method is simpler than the tedious block diagrar reduction techniques. ‘The signal flow graph depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives the relationships among the signals. A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connect by directed branches. Each node represents a system variable and each branch connected between twi nodes acts as a signal multiplier. Each branch has a gain or transmittance. When the signal pass throug a branch, it gets multiplied by the gain of the branch. : In a signal flow graph, the signal flows in only one direction. The direction of signal flow ig indicated by an arrow placed on the branch and the gain (multiplication factor) is indicated along th branch | EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED IN SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH Node : Anode is a point representing a variable or signal. Branch : A branch is directed line segment joining two nodes. The arrow on the branch indicates the direction of signal flow and the gain of a branch is the transmittance. Transmittance : The'gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to another is called transmittance. The transmittance can be real or complex. Input node (Source) : It is a node that has only outgoing branches. Output node (Sink ) : It is a node that has only incoming branches. Mixed node : Itis a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches. Path : A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch arrows. The path should not cross a node more than once. Open path : A open path starts at a node and ends at another node. : Closed path : Closed path starts and ends at same node. Forward path + Itis a path from an input node to an output node that does not cross any nods more than once. : Forward path gam —: {tis the product of the branch transmittances (gains) of a forward path. Individual loop : [tis closed path starting from a node and after passing through a certain of a graph arrives at same node without crossing any node more than once, Loop gain : Itis the product of the branch transmittances (gains) of a loop. Non-touching Loops + Ifthe loops does not have a common node then they are said to be non- touching loops“Licieap iar I thatbomaticalitadels of Control Systems > LA SOPERTIES OF SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH The basic properties of signal flow graph are the following : (i) The algebraic equations which are used to construct signal flow graph must be in the form of cause and effect relationship. (i) Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems only. (iii) A node in the signal flow graph represents the variable or signal (iv) A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits the sum to all outgoing branches (¥) A mixed node which has both incoming and outgoing signals can be treated as an-output node by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance. (vi) A branch indicates functional dependence of one signal on the other. (vii) The signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and when it travels it gets multiplied by the gain or transmittance of the branch. (viii) The signal flow graph of system is not unique. By rearranging the system equations different types of signal flow graphs can be drawn for a given system. (AL FLOW GRAPH ALGEBRA Signal flow graph for a system can be reduced to obtain the transfer function of the system using =e following rules. The guideline in developing the rules for signal flow graph algebra is that the signal at is given by sum of all incoming signals. Rule J + incoming signal toa node through a branch is given by the product ofa signal at previous node and the gain of the branch. Example: x a, of en x x * a Xa, M7OX FAX Rule 2 : Cascaded branches can be combined to give a single branch whose transmittance is equal to the product of individual branch transmittance. Example: ab o—b—0 ro = o> x x % % % Rule 3: Parallel branches may be represented by single branch whose transmittance is the sum ~ of individual branch transmittances. Example: a+b ‘ a>: — emrantLB Rule 4 : A mixed node can be eliminated by multiplying the transmittance of outgoing brand (from the mixed node) to the transmittance of all incoming branches to the mixed node Example ; a x ac i x Se > : x x ,) (C* x xs be Rule § : A loop may be eliminated by writing equations at the input and output node and rearranging the equations to find the ratio of output to input, This ratio gives the gain of resultan: branch. Example ab ibe b x % To XRT 2 RK id i b i 6 o—$— be, ! Proof: x % % Xp = OX, $OKy 7 y= bey Put x; = ax; +x in the equation for x5. £X3=b (ax +Oq) => xy=abxytbexs => x;—bex,=abx, = x,(1—be)=abx, . X%}__ab “xy T-be ‘SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH REDUCTION The signal flow graph of a system can be reduced either by using the rules of a signal flow grapt algebra or by using Mason's gain formula. For signal flow graph reduction using the rules of signal flow graph, write equations at every no and then rearrange these equations to get the ratio of output and input (transfer function). The signal flow graph reduction by above method will be time consuming and tedious. $.J.! Masol has developed a simple procedure to determine the transfer function of the system represented as a sign: flow graph. He has developed a formula called by his name Mason's gain formula which can be directs used to find the transfer function of the system. MASON'S GAIN FORMULA : | The Mason's gain formula is used to determine the transfer function of the system from the signal flow graph of the system. Let, . R(s) = Infput to the system C(s) = Output of the system Now, Transfer function of the system, T(s) = s a ‘Mason's gain formula states the overall gain of the system [transfer function] as follows, snl Overall gain, T=— 2 PyAxGeib alibomahal Masel of Control Systems > 1.76 where, T = T(s)= Transfer function of the system Forward path gain of Ke forward path Number of forward paths in the signal flow graph 1 — (Sum of individual loop gains) . (= of gain products of all possible ) combinations of two non - touching loops, A = ‘Sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three non - touching loops, Ax = A for that part of the graph which is not touching K* forward path CONSTRUCTING SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS A control system can be represented diagrammatically by signal flow graph. The differential equations governing the system are used to construct the signal flow graph. The following procedure can be used to struct the signal flow graph of a system. 1, Take Laplace transform of the differential equations governing the system in order to convert them to algebraic equations in s-domain. 2. The constants and variables of the s-domain equations are identified. 3. From the working knowledge of the system, the variables are identified as input, output and intermediate variables. 4. For cach variable a node is assigned in signal flow graph and constants are assigned as the gain or transmittance of the branches connecting the nodes. 5. For each equation a signal flow graph is drawn and then they are interconnected to give overall signal flow graph of the system. PROCEDURE FOR CONVERTING BLOCK DIAGRAM TO SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH The signal flow graph and block diagram of a system provides the same information but there is no Sendard procedure for reducing the block diagram to find the transfer function of the system. Also the ‘ock diagram reduction technique will be tedious and it is difficult to choose the rule to be applied for mplification. Hence it will be easier if the block diagram is converted to signal flow graph and Mason's sain formula is applied to find the transfer function. The following procedure can be used to convert Jock diagram to signal flow graph. 1. Assume nodes at input, output, at every summing point, at every branch point and in between cascaded blocks. 2. Draw the nodes separately as small circles and number the circles in the order 1, 2, 3, 4, ..... etc. 3. From the block diagram find the gain between each node in the main forward path and connect all the corresponding circles by straight line and mark the gain between the nodes. 4, Draw the feed forward paths between various nodes and mark the gain of feed forward path along with sign 5. Draw the feedback paths between various nodes and mark the gain of feedback paths along with sign.177 Ragan Systm ginooring EXAMPLE 1.24 Constructa signal flow graph for armature controlled de motor. SOLUTION ‘The differential equations goveming the armature controlled de motor are (refer section 1.7). LR thet ey: T=Kias T=J 2sbo; e=Ko; o=d8/dt On taking Laplace transform of above equations we get, V{S)=1(9)R, +L, 81,6) +E(s) wed Tis) = KI(s) venl2) Ts) =Jso(s)*Bolsy ee (3) AO a 4 as) =50(s) 5) The input and outputvariables of armature controlled de motor are armature voltage V,(s) and angular displacemen 0(s) respectively, The variables Is), T(s). (8) arid o(6) are intermodiate variables. ‘The equations (1) to (5) are rearranged & individual signal flow graph are shown in fig 1 to fig 5. V,(s)— Ex(s)=h(s) [Ry +8 La] & 1 yo AS) = eT (Malo) te] VO. 7 38 Rar LO TS)=KY) WT) X Fig 1 Fig E,() T(s) =0(s) [Js +B] ; = 3 . 1 +0 , -0(8)= Tg 8) Te os) Fig? ‘o(s) EJs)=K,0(6) . ho ™ Fig 4 = 80 (8) . (s) (8) Vs (3) ; 2846)=0(6) oso Fig 5 ‘The overall signal flow graph of armature controlled dc motoris obtained by interconnecting the individual signal flow graphs shown in fig 1 to fig 5. The overall signal flow graph is shown in fig 6. 1 Ve) 4 Ts) JssB (8) is es) 0) Fig 6: Signal flow graph of armature controlled de motor. 178 =XAMPLE 1.25 Find the overall transfer function of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in fig 1. =H A(s). G Gg G, G, 1 o> > > > > ed 1 4 4 5 8 a, > G Fig SOLUTION . % Forward Path Gains ‘There are two forward paths. -. K=2 Let forward path gains be P: and P, Ris) 1 G, G, G, G, G, 1 Cs) os > ——— > _ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 38 Fig 2 : Forward path-I. Ris) 1 G, G, 1 C(s) Fig 3 : Forward path-2. Gain of forward path-1, P,= G, G,G,G,G, Gain of forward path-2, Ps GGG, Individual Loop Gain ‘There are three individual loops. Let individual loop gains be Py, Pri and Pa. Fig 4 : Loop-t. Fig 5 : Loop-2. Fig 6: Loop-3. Loop gain of individual loop-1, Pir Loop gain of individual loop-2, Pr Loop gain of individual loop-3, Par = -Gs Ha Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops ‘There are two combinations of two non-touching loops. Let the gain products of two non touching loops be Przand P22, 3 G 46 Gs 7 -H é Ge 7 7 NI Gs Hy Hs 4 5 Hs Fig 7: First combination of 2 non-touching loops. | Fig 8: Second combination of 2 non-touching loops. Gain product of first combination = PyPar = (CGpH,) (Get) = of two non touching loops | Pra= Pua = (Gath) Got) = GaGetiy Gain product of second combination atte non tousing ope } Pa =PePar=(-GrGeh) (Gils) = GaGiGiHHe179 IV. Calculation of A and A, AVS 1-(Pri+Pa+Pm) + (Pre+Pn) = 1 ¢G2H1- GeGsHe- Gots) + (GGsHiHs+ GG iGsH:H) = 14 Galli + GzGsHe + Gat + GeGsHsHy + GiGsGsHoHs A: = 1, Since there is no partof graph which is not touching with first forward path. «The part of the graph which is non touching with second forward path is shown in fig 9. 3 4 Ag = 4-Pi=1-(-GeHh) = 1+ G2Hr Ns? V._ Transfer Function, T i Fig 9 By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by, & T= iz Pebe =t (PA; +Ppz) (Number of forward paths is 2 and so K= 2) a G,G,G,G,G5 +G,G,G, (1+G,H,) 1+ GH, +G,G;H, + G.H, + GG.HH, + GG.GqH,H, . GG_G,G.G, +G,G.G, +G,G,G,G,H, 1+ GR, + G,G,H, + GH, + G,G,HA, ~ G,G,GH, G,G.G; [G,G, +G, 1G, + Get] 1 GH, = G,GoH, + GH, + G,G,H,H, + GG. -H. EXAMPLE 1.26 Find the overall gain of the system whose signal flow graph is R(s) 4 shown in fig 1. oe SOLUTION Letus number the nodes as shown in fig 2. 1. Forward Path Gains There are six forward paths. -. Lethe forward path gains be P1, Ps, Ps, Ps, Ps and Po. ve °8 7 8 Fig 3: Forward path-1, Fig 4 : Forward path-2.(Chaplet 1 Mathematical Models of Control Systems) 180 7 - Fig 7 : Forward path-5 Fig 8; Forverd paths Gain of forward path-1, P: = Gz Gs Ge Gain of forward path-2, G3GsGr Gain of forward path-3, Ps = G: Ge Gr Gain of forward path-4, Ps = Go Ge Ge Gain of forward path-5, Ps=-G:GsGrGeH: Gain of forward path-6, Ps =-G:GeGsGeHz Individual Loop Gain There are three individual loops. Hy Letindividual loop gains be Pn, Pai and Ps: +H, 7 8 Gc, Fig 9: Loop-1 Fig 10: Loop-2 Loop gain of individual loop-1, P11=-Gultt 7 8 Loop gain of individual loop-2, P= -GsHt2 Loop gain of individual loop-3, Pa = GiGshHe i. Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops G; Hy +H, Fig 1 : Loop-3 There is only one combination of two non-touching 4 caps. Let gain product of two non-touching loops be Px H, Fig 12 : Combination of 2 non-touching loops PPer= CGiH) -GsH.) = GiGsHH Gain product of first 1- (Gal) = 1+ GiH: ‘There is no part of the graph which is non-touching with forward paths 3, 4, 5 and 6 +H, V. Transfer Function; T Fig 4 By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by, T= + (z P, 4) (Number of forward paths is six and so K=6) z 1 ~ Em ar+ Peds Pads +Pae + Phy Pode) G,G.Go(1+ GH,)+ GxG,G_(1+ GH.) + GGG, +G,G,G, GsG,GH, - G,G,G,G5H, : 17 GH, + GH, -G.G.AH, +G,G,AR, EXAMPLE 1.27 Find the overall gain C(s)/R(s) for the signal fiow graph shown in fig 1. SOLUTION \__ Forward Path Gains ‘There are two forward paths. .. K=2. Letthe forward path gains be P, and P.. R@) <4, G, a GOs) o> 9 9 oo 4 2 3 4 5 Fig 2 : Forward path-1 RG) G, G cs) ° 1 2 3 4 5 Fig 3 : Forward path-2 @ Gain offorward path-1, P,=G,G,G,G, Gain of forward path-2, P,=G,G,G,* eee toop-1 Fig 6: loop-3 Gs _ . 4 Fig 7: loop-4 Fig 8 : loop-5 Loop gain of individual loop-1, P, Loop gain of individual loop-2, P,,=-H,G, Loop gain ofindividual loop-3, P,,= Loop gain of individual loop-4, P,, Loop gain of individual loop-5, P,, E -Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops There are two combinations of wo non-touching loops. Let the gain products of two non-touching loops be, and P,,. NJ? 0s 4 Fig 9 : First combination of Fig 10 : Second combination of two non-touching loops two non-touching loops Gain product of first combination Pag = PoP of two non touching loops Gain product of second combination] ,, _ of two non touching loops a | Calculation of A and A, (-GH,} (Gs) = G,G3H, "51 = (-G,GzH,) (Bs) = -G,G.GeHy, A212 (PyitPaePoy+PrrtPa (Pa +P) =1-(-G,G,H,-H,G, -G,G,G,H, +@, -G,G,H,) + CGH,G5 - G2G,G,Hs) Since there is no part of graph which is not touching forward path-1, A1= 1 ‘The part of graph which is not touching forward path-2 is shown in fig 11. 2 A= 1-Gs | Ssansfer Function, T y Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by, = z SPA, (Number of forward path is 2 and so K = 2) Figit[Padi + Prd] =< [G,6,6,6, «1+6,G,6,01-6,)] GG,G,G, +G,G,G,-G,G,G.G, 1+G,G,H, +H,G, + G,G,G,H, — G; + G,G,H; — G,H,G, — G,G,G,H, EXAMPLE. 1.28 Find the overall gain C(s)/R(s) for the signal flow graph shown in fig 1 Figt SOLUTION ‘ Forward Path Gains There is only one forward path. .. K= 1. Let the forward path gain be P, RS) 4 G G G, G. 1 CG) > > > > > oe 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fig 1: Forward path-1 Gain of forward path-1, P,=G,G,G,G, Il. Individual Loop Gain ‘There are three individual loops, Let the loop gains be P,,, P,P, & Ss + NU" Les “+H, 3 4 Fig 3: loop-1 Fig 4: loop-2 Fig $ : loop-3 Loop gain of individual loop-1, P,,=-G,G,H, Loop gain of individual loop-2, P,, Loop gain of individual loop-3, P,, Ill. Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops There are no possible combinations of two non-touching loops, three non-touching loops, etc. IV. Calculation of A and A, B=1-(P +P) +P) =1-(-G,G,H,-G,G.H, -GG,G,G,) =1+G,G,H, + G,G,H,+G,G,G,G, Since no part of the graph is non-touching with forward path-1, A,= 1.| Lifer F-Mitbonateal Models of Control Storis > 1.84 Transfer Function, T By Mason's gain tormula the transfer function, Tis given by, 1 | Ts Ret z Fade = Pri (Number of forward path isan 60 = 9) = GiG,G,G, 1+ G,G,H, + G,G,H, + GG,G,G, EXAMPLE 1.29 BeAMPLE 1.29 The signal flow graph for a feedback control system is shown in fig 1. Determine the closed loop transfer function IRIS). LUTION : Forward Peth Gains ‘There are two forward paths. =. K=2. Let forward path gains be P, and P,. RS), G G, Gq g 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Fig 2: Forward path-1 | S R&) g, G, Gg, Cs) 1 2 3 a 5 6 Fig 3 : Forward path-2 Gain of forward path-1, P:= GiG2 GeGe Gs Gain of forward path-2, P2= G:G2GsGs individual Loop Gain ‘Thore are four individual loops. Let individual loop gains be Pr, Par, Ps and Pas. G a i. 5 SS 5 A, H, H, H, Hy Fig 4: loop-1 Fig 5: loop-2. Fig 6; loop-3 Fig 7: loop-4 Loop gain of individual loop-1, P,, = GH, Loop gain of individual foop-2, P,,= GH, Loop gain of individual loop-3, P,, = GH, 6. Loop gain of individual loop-4, P,, = G,H,H, 22 -& 2 oo B. Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops N77 A, Thereis only one combination of two non-touching loops. Let the gain Fig 8: First combination of seriscts of two non-touching loops be P,,. two non touching loopsLe Gain product of first combination ] of two non- touching loops J Pre = (GH) (G.Ha) =G,G/HH, \V._ Calculation of A and A, A= 1— (Phy + Part Pat Pas) Phe, = AM(GiH, + GaHp + GH + GgHaH,) + GoG.HH5 = 1- GH, — GH ~ GH — GeH pH, + GG, Since there is no part of graph which is non-touching with forward path-1and2, 4,=A,=1 V. Transfer Function, T By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by, T -t Dd Pde = tea, +P,A,) (Number of forward paths is two and so K = 2) < . GG,G.G,G;+66,6,6, 1 GH, GH, — GAs — GH H, + GG. EXAMPLE 1.30 Convert the given block diagram to signal flow graph and determine C(s)R(s). Cs) SOLUTION ‘The nodes are assigned at input, output, at every summing point & branch point as shown in fig 2. 1. Forward Path Gains There are two forward paths. . K=2 Let the forward path gains be P, and,Fig 5 ; Forward path-2 Gain of forward path-1, Gain of forward path-2, G, FG, 1 l_ Individual Loop Gain Theres only one individual loop. Let the individual loop gain be P,,. NS? Loop gain of individual loop), P,,=-G,H. Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops There are no combinations of non-touching Loops. W. Calculation of A and A, Pl 214+GH Since there are no part of the graph which is non-touching with forward path-1 and 2, A= A=1 * Transfer Function, T By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by, _i zi 3 - GG -G, Tao Di Pade = SPP] = “Ga i EXAMPLE 1:31 Convert the block diagram to signal flow graph and determine the transfer function using Mason's gain formula. a SOLUTION The nodes are assigned at input, ouput, at every summing point & branch point as shown in fig 2.E87 The signal flow graph for the above black diagram is shown in fig 3, RS) 4 1 G, 1 G, Gg 1 1 CG) ° > > 1 & 9 1 10 Fig3 |. Forward Path Gains There aretwo forward paths... Ke2 Let the gain of the forward paths be P, andP,. Rs) 4 1 G, 1 Gq G, 1 1. & -—>—_ 0 —_ >——0- P——o- > >——o > o— > > 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g, 9 Gain of forward path-1, P,=G,G,G, Fig 5 : Forward path-2 Gain of forward path-2.. P,=G,G, idual Loop Gain There are five individual loops. Let the individual loop gain be P,,, P,.. Psy P,,8nd P,,. Loop gain of individual loop-1, P,, Loop gain of individual loop-2, P, "at Loop gain of individual loop-3, P,; Loop gain of individual loop-4, P, Loop gain of individual loop-5, P.,=-G,H, Fig 6 : loop-I. 1 & Fig 8: loop-3- Fig 9 : loop-74.188 Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops There are no possible combinations of two non-touching loops, three non-touching loops, et... Calculation of A and A, A=1-[P, AP, tPytPatPed = 1+G,GG,+G,GH,+G,G.H,+G,G,+G,H, Since no part of graph is non touching with forward paths-and 2, A,=A,=1. Transfer Function, T By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, T is given by, 1 1 T=—> RA, =—[PA,+ PA. TERM =HiPasePael = Bs +GiGy T1G,G,G, + GGH,+ G,G,H, + GG, GH, (MPLE 1.32 Convert the block diagram to signal flow graph and determine the transfer function using Mason's gain formula. BO_UTION ‘The nodes are assigned at input, output, at every summing point & branch pointas shown in fig 2. Earward Path Gains ‘There are two forward path, ~. Ke2 Let the forward path gains be P, and P,,(C Ganirol Sjstems ingineering RS) 1 1 G, G@ G, 1 1 Cs) — — > ~ do +9» 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Fig 4 : Forward path-1. RG) 1 1 Cs) ° ° ° ° 3 4 5 6 Fig 4 : Forward path-1 Gain offorward path-1, P.=G,G,G, Gain offorward path-2, P,=G, jual Loop Gain ‘There are three individual loops with gains P,,,P,, and P,, G, G =H, tot 1 $ 5 9 Hy Fig 6 : loop-1. Fig 7 : oop-2. Fig 8 loop-3. Gain of individual foop-1, P,,= G,G,H, Gain of individual ioop-2, P,,= —G;G,H, Gain of individual loop-3, P,,= —G,H, ll Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops ‘There are no possible combinations oftwo-non touching loops, three non-touching loops, ett... IV. Calculation of A and A, IV._Galculation of A and 4, A= 1-[P,,#P,+P,,] = 1-G,G,H,+G.G,H,+@H, Since no partof graph touches forward path-1, A, = 1 The partof graph non touching forward path-2 is shown in fig 9. 2A, = 1-[G,GH, -G,G,H,-GH,] = 1-G,GH,+G,G,H,+GH, V. Transfer Function, T By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by, T -t Y RA =t [P,41+PoA9] (Number of forward paths is 2 and so K = 2) 1 = 5 [GGrGa + Gi(1-GiG,H, +G.G.H, + GH,)] [G.G.G, + G,-G,G,G,H, + G,G,6,H, + G,G,H,] _ G,G,Gp + G,-G6,G,G,H, + G,G,G,H, +G,G,H, 1 GGH,+ G,GyH, + GA,190 =XAMPLE 1.33 Drawa signal flow graph and evaluate the closed loop transfer function of a system whose block diagram is shown d 7 tig 1. SOLUTION ‘The nodes are assigned atinput, output, at every summing point & branch pointas shown infig 2. Fig 2 ‘The signal flow-graph for the block diagram of fig 2, is shown in fig 3. a = Forward Path Gains 8 ‘There are four forviard paths, -. K=4 Let the forward path gains be P,P, P,and P,, 9 yo y ¥ > > »~—0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fig 4: Forward path-1. 1 1 * >—0 6 7 Fig 5: Forward path-2. 9 do yo Fig 7 : Forward path-4.Lo Gain of forward path-t, P= GG, Gain offorward path-3, P.= G,G,G,H, Gain offorward path-4, P,=-G,G,G,H, IL. - Individual Loop Gain There are two individual loops, let individual loop gains be P, and P,, -G, GG i 5 3 6 a 2 A, 8 Fig 7: loop-1 Loop gain of individual loop-1, P,,=—G,G,H,H, Loop gain of individual loop-2, P,,=G,G,H,H, I. Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops There are no possible combinations of two non-touching loops, three non-touching loops, otc... IV. Calculation of A and 4, A=1- [sum of individual loop gain]=1- (P,,+P,,) =1-[G,G.H,H,+G.G,H.HJ = 1+6,G,H,H,- .G.HH, Since no part of graph is non touching with the forward paths, A,= A,= A,= Ay V. Transfer Function, T By Mason's rin formula the transfer function, Tis given by, tai tz Ped = PPAF APs umber of forward paths is 4 and so K~ 4) : oa GG, +G,G.G,H, -~G.G,G,H, 1+ G,G.HH> — GGHH, _ GAGs-Gy)+ G.G.HAG-G,) _ Gy(Gy-G2\1+G.He) 1+GHH,(G3 — Ga) 1+ GHH,(G3— Ge) 14_ SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Qi1 What ts system? When a number of elements or components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function, the group thus formed is called a system. Q1.2 What is control system? Asystom consists of a number of components connected together to perform a specific function. In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity, then the systemis called control system. The output quantity is called controlled variable or response and input quantity is called command signal or excitation. Q1.3 What are the two major type of control systems? The two major type of control systems are open loop and closed loop systems. Q14 Define open loop system. The control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity are called open loop control system. This means that the output is not fedback to the input for. correction,Ghar Meaibornaical » sels of Control Systems) 192 Define closed loop system. The control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity In order to maintain the desired output value are called closed loop control systems. What is feedback? What type of feedback is employed in control system? The feedback is @ control action in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal is given to input for automatic correction of any changes in desired output. Nogative feedback is employed in control system. What are the components of feedback control system? The components of feedback control system are plant, feedback path elements, error detector and controller. error detector Open loop ystem (Plant) Controller Reference input Output Feedback @-2 Why negative feedback is invariably preferred in a closed loop system? The negative feedback results in better stability in steady state and rejects any disturbance signals, It also has low sensitivity to parameter variations. Hence negative feedback is preferred in closed loop systems. 29 What are the characteristics of negative feedback? The characteristics of negative feedback are as follows : () accuracy in tracking steady state value. (li) rejection of disturbance signals. (iil) “low sensitivity to parameter variations. (iv) reduction in gain at the expense of better stability. What is the effect of positive feedback on stability? - The positive feedback increases the error signal and drives the output to instability. But sometimes the positive feedback is used in minor loops in control systems to amplify certain internal signals or parameters. Ii. Distinguish between apen loop and closed loop system. 1B! ypen loop Open loop Closed loop 1.Inaccurate & unreliable. 1. Accurate & reliabie. 2.Simple and economical |2. Complex and costly. 3.Changes in output due to external |3. Changes in output due to extemal disturbances disturbances are not corrected automatically} are corrected automatically. 4.They are generally stable. |4. Great efforts are needed to design a stable system. € 12 What is servomechanism? The servomechanism is a feedback control system in which the output is mechanical position (or time derivatives of position e.g. velocity and acceleration). State the principle of homogenity (or) State the principle of superposition. ‘The principle of superposition and homogenity states that if the system has responses c,(t) and c,(t) for the inputs r,(t) and r,(() respectively then the system response to the linear combination of these input a,r,(t) + a, (2) is given by linear combination of the individual outputs a,c,(t) + a,¢,(t), where a, and a, are constants.1% Qn14 on1s Q1.16 Q117 Q1.18 OL Q1.20 Define linear system. Asystem is said to be linear, if it obeys the principle of superposition and homogenity, which states that the response of a system to a weighed sum of signals is equal to the corresponding weighes sum of the responses of the system to each of the individual input signals. The concept of linear system is diagrammatically shown below. a(t) 10 16 Leow 1) fa Pe System System ayn) + axtdt) }—» o,(t) r(t) oO > c(t) rt) >) a zal edt) = a,c) + ae(t) system ” Fig QI.14 : Principle of linearity and superpo: What is thme Invariant system? Asystemis said to be time invariant if its input-output characteristics do not change with time. A line: time invariant system can be represented by constant coefficient differential equations. (In line: time varying systems the coefficients of the differential equation governing the system are function time). | Define transfer function. The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Le transform of input with zero initial conditions. (It is also defined as the Laplace transform of t impulse response of system with zero initial conditions). What are the basic elements used for modelling mechanical translational system? ‘The model of mechanical translational system can be obtained by using three basic elements m: spring and dashpot. Write the force balance equation of ideal mass element, Let a force f be applied to an ideal mass M. The mass will offer an opposing force, f,, which proportional to acceleration Lex f—>M Hrite the force balance equation of ideal dashpot. Leta force f be applied to an ideal dashpot, with viscous frictional coefficient B. The dashpot will of an opposing force, f, which is proportional to velocity. | box bx | pe t= Se,-x,) reference | 8 B Write the force balance equation of ideal spring. Let a force f be applied to an ideal spring with spring constant K. The spring will offer an opposi force, {, which is proportional to displacement. g Lex ex g f— TO K Les COS K reference“Thai TMathemaiical Models of Control Systems > 194 p24 What are the basic elements used for modelling mechanical rotational system? The model of mechanical rotational system can be obtained using three basic elements mass with moment of inertia, J, dash-pot with rotational frictional coefficient, B and torsional spring with stiffness, K. Write the torque balance equation af an ideal rotational mass clement, Let a torque T be applied to an ideal mass with moment of inertia, J J. The mass will offer an opposing torque T, which is proportionalto. —T¥ wg, angular acceleration. tet ay oe i at? Write the torque balance equation of an ideal rotational dash-pot. Leta torque T be applied toa rotational dash-pot with frictional coefficient B. The dashpot will offer an opposing torque which is proportional to angular velocity | \ | \ o ~« ! g Par T=1,-B2% T 6 4 at B B T=7,-B 5-63) Write the torque balance equation of ideal rotational spring. Let torque T be applied to an ideal rotational spring with spring constant K. The spring will offer an opposing torque T, which is proportional to angular displacement. Name the two types of electrical analogous for mechanical system. The two types of analogies for the mechanical system are force-voltage and force-current analogy. Write the analogous electrical elements in force-voltage analogy for the elements of mechanical translational system, Force, fF > Voltage,e | Frictional coefficient,B > Resistance, R Velocity, v ~ Current.i | Stiffness, K —> Inverse of capacitance, 1/C Displacement, x Charge,q _| Newton's second law, 2f = 0-> Kirchoff’s voltage law, Ev = 0 Mass, M + Inductance, L Write the analogous electrical elements in force-current analogy for the elements of mechanical translational system. Force, f > Current, i Frictional coefficient, B > Conductance, G=1/R Velocity, v > Voltage, v Stiffness, K > Inverse of Inductance, 1/L Displacement, x + Flux, Newton's second law, f= 0 > Kirchoff’s current law, 2 Mass, M > Capacitance, C Write the analogous electrical elements in torque-voltage analogy for the elements of mechanical rotational system. Torque, T Voltage, e |Stitiness of spring, K —> Inverse of capacitance, 1/C Angularvelocity,@ —>Current,i [Frictional cosfficient,B_ > Resistance, R Moment of inertia, J —rInductance, L Newton's second law, ET = 0 > Kirchoff’s voltage law, Sv = 0. ‘Angular displacement, 0 > Chargo, q|19 Gartrol Systems tagincoring 21.29 Write the analogous electrical elements in torque-carrent analogy for the elements of mechanic rotatlonal system. Torque, T ~ Current, i | Frictional cosfficient,B > Conductance, G= 1/R Angular velocity, « — Voltage, v | Stiffness of spring, K > Inverse of inductance, 1/1: Angular displacement, © -> Flux,@ | Newton's second law, ST = 0 —» Kirchoff ’s current law, Si = Moment of inertia, J > Capacitance, C 21.30 What is block diagram? What are the basie components of block diagram? Ablock diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each componen of the system and shows the flow of signals. The basic elements of block diagram are block, brane: point and summing point. Q1.31 What is the basis for framing the rules of block dlagram reduction technique? ‘The rules for block diagram reduction technique are framed such that any modification made on the diagram does not alter the input output relation. Q1.32 Write the rule for eliminating negative feedback loop. Proof | R (R-CH)__ (R-CH)G C=(R-CH)G | “ , C=RG-CHG CH C+CHG=RG Cl + HG)=RG c_G R 1+GH Q1.33 Write the rute for moving the summing point ahead of a block. 8 —) 8G A (A+B)G = AG AG +.BG = (A+B)G Q1.34 What ts a signal flow graph? A signal flow graph is @ diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. By taking Laplace transform, the time domain differential equations governing a control system can b {transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-domain. The signal flow graph of the system can be constructed using these equations. Q1.35 What is transmittance? The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to another node in signal flow graph 91.36 What is sink and source? Source is the input node in the signal flow graph and it has only outgoing branches. Sink is a outpul Rode in the signal flow graph and it has only incoming branches. Q1.37 Define non-touching loop. The loops are said to be non-touching if they do not have common nodes. 21.38 What are the basic properties of signal flow graph? The basic properties of signal flow graph are, (@ Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems.‘—Ghapler Mathematical Models of Control Systems 1.96 (i) It consists of nodes and branches. A node is a point representing a variable or signal. A branch indicates functional dependence of one signal on the other. (ii) _ A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all outgoing branches. (v) Signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and when it travels it gets multiplied by the gain or transmittance of the branch. (v) The algebraic equations must be in the form of cause and effect relationship. 9.39 Write the Mason's gain formula. Mason's gain formula states that the overall gain of the system [transfer function] as follows, Overall gain, T=1 Peay Ak T-=T(s) = Transfer function of the system K = Number of forward paths in the signal flow graph P= Forward path gain of K" forward path L “ of wt + [ sum of gain products of all possible | loop gains combinations of two non- touching loops ‘sum of gain products of all possible . - [service of three non- touching tops] - ‘A for that part of the graph which is not touching K” forward path 31.40 For the given signal flow graph, identify the number of forward path and number of individual loop. Number of forward paths = 2 Number of individual loops = 4 4.15 EXERCISES For the mechanical system shown in fig E1.1derive the transfer function. Also draw the force-voltage and force-current analogous circuits. x For the mechanical system shown in fig E1.2 draw the force- voltage and force-current analogous circuits. = Tx Lowy, bow Fig EL. 70) » LS M is —| LE -W— 2, SBF By 1 Ba Fig E12 Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig £1.3(a) & (b). Also draw the force-voltage and force-current analogous circuit.LIT Fig E1:3(a) ™ Fig E1.3(b) 1.4 Consider the mechanical translational system shown in fig E1.4, Draw(a) force-voltage and (b) force. current analogous circuits. bev bows a cy pw oI B, Ls. whan paar Fig ELS Fig E14 E1.5 Wile the differential equations governing the rotational mechanical system shown in fig E1.5. Also draw the torque-voltage and torque-current analogous circuits. E16 In an electrical circuit the elements resistance, capacitance and inductance are connected in parallel across the voltage source E as shown In fig E1. Draw(a) Translation mechnical analogous system (b) Rotational mechanical analogous system. Fig E16 E1.7 Consider the block diagram shown in fig E.1.7(a), (b) (c) & (d). Using the block diagram reduction technique, find C/R. Fig E1.7(a) ffi} J A «——________| Fig El.7(6)1.98 Fig EL) Fig EL.(@) E 3 Convert the block diagram shown in fig E1.8 to signal flow graph and find the transfer function of the system. Fig E18 Consider the system shown in fig E1.9(a), (b), (c) & (d). obtain the transfer function using Mason's gain formula. 1 -—~o cs) An Aa As Fig E1.9(b) Xe199 Fig E190) Fig E1.9(d) Fig E110 Xs Xe E1.10 Consider the signal flow graph shown in fig E.1.10 obtain [4nd % 7 £1.11. Find the transfer functions of the networks shown in fig E1.11(a); (b), (c) & (@). R, R L yo ert Cc a) ga rn) ed) Fig El.11(a) R, l, L M55 [ CO % Ly e® °F ) RS tam — fem Rr, tet - | * Fig ELU(c) Fig E1.11(d) R, R, £1.12 Find the transfer function of the circuit shown in fig £1.12. 20} © uy) . ia) gu ett] ls “BIS Fig E112~~ The transfer function is ©) 1 F(s) (Ms? Bs 1K) 8S 1 | f oR Tt c | et ™ | Ait gL I | fe) MOL KOTG Qo MSO KOT yi «BOR vou BOR Force-voltage analogous circuit Force-current analogous cireult Bz OO RL, b a ee 4 Ti, re | _| £8, MOL, BOR BR ive, Mel KOU, Kom, vi BOR KU, Ka, vi, BOR, KC ur Force-voltage analogous circuit Force-current analogous circuit i) MS By, +8, ve) eK, [vet +Kflvr—vabdt= f(D d 2 MS +B,¥2 + B(vp — vy) + Ko] vodt + Kf (Ve — vd = F201) LR Rk uy “8 T W wr) +o $ et) 4M FF ™ T° bev R, C. R: Loo [i] We) Mol, BR, WoW MOC, BTR, voi, Mol Kc, VY, MC, Ko tL, v,7i, BR, K,>1C, v,>%, BUR, Kot, Force-voltage analogous circuit Force-current analogous circuit Bisib) MS ok, [vist Ka ov —vaddt + Ka fv vedet =f) Ka J v2 —vidt + Bly, — vs) =O; dy, Mae +B(V,-v,) HK Jy -v,)dt=0 Cc, v I ey ot 7 as 3 OY Oe) TL AS, Sb Ait) SC, FL. =o, te ; yy felt) ML, KC, fi) M>C, KM, vi Mol KC, yoy, MG, Koil, vp, BoR K-14, v,3¥, BOUR K,> 1, vy-> ly Vyas Force-voltage analogous circuit Force-current analogous circuit41.101 EL4 R, Ly NV 88° u R, a™ * R a" a(t) a) it) (! o FR ie ) iL 855" i) 00). Mol, B,>R, fi) M,C, vi, Mol, BOR, Woy, M,C, vp, ML, B,>R, vv, M,C. Y>h BSR Ko>1c MM BUR Force voltage-analogous circult Force-current analogous circuit do, es 4,22 PBK [(o- o,)dt = T(t); 2G + Baa + Kf (02 —0,)dt4 Kf (oy 3)dt 19% ao, fley-0-0 ve wv Te ee] 7 {| elt 1) Rg cC C, ‘Tey oye Tre] Ty i Toa Jol, B,+R, KC, TOI JC, By > 1k, K, > TL, ei, JO BR Koc, o,5y, Lo, BUR, Kan oi Jol BR, «31 o>¥, L9G BOR, 6. 5 Vy Torque-voltage analogous circuit Torque-current analogous circuit E16 Vs V2 Vs Bb B a) | \o] Oo Ly on M yj Lage K x Zé K Z J v Tt) es Bo ef) iv, iv, RoB WoT) io, io, RoB icv, CoM UC+K ve, LJ WK Analogous mechanical translational system — Analogous mechanical rotational system. GG, +G¥ ELT wee GH +G,+6GH,GGR, & cL GiG1+ G3) (Gi + G5) - Ro 1+(14+G,) (G, +G5) Hy +(1+ G,) (G, +G5) GH, @ S« GG, +GiG, Ro 1+GG,H,+G,G,+G,G, +G.H,+GH, w &- Sa, R 1+G,GjH +GiG,H,+G,G,G,1.102 is +G,+G,G,G,H,+G,GH, +6,G,G4 T+ GiGaH, + GA, + G/GHy Os) _ 6G.G, RS). 1 GG, + G,GH, +GG,G, C_ AAAs + AA Aun tApAmAuhas + ApAy Aes Ro T=Avghar Aaa + Aaglgs) + ApAareaes + AraAcraeAgs FAA agAseAgs) ~ (AraAzAaeAacAseAss) (a) (b) © _ GGG,G, (1+ GsGg + GgGz) + G,SsQgG7(1+ GG, + G,G5) © B°+GG,+G,G,+G,G, +G,G, +G,G,G,G, - G,G,G,G, +G,G,G,G, + G,G,G,G, ( Sa _ 16EGG1][1-(CrG2+ 6.6/5, +6) + G-GxGu] % 11G,G.Gp+ GpG,+G,G,G,G,G, + G,G,G,6,,+E,Giz 46,66; + Gx] +G,G,GeGp5 + GpB iG + G/GxGrg * =GG,G,6,+G6,6,4,+66.G,6,G, ; 2 G,G,6,G, @ FolS)__1+8 RC Es) 1+8(R)+R.)C Eu(s) _ 1 Ee SLC+sRC+1 w@ BE. ___ s&s E\(s) (S',C+SR,C+1 (S1,C+sR,C+1-1 @ Eal®) _ SRRO+Re E(s) sRR,C+(R,+R,) os) _ s*L,C : E(s) [sR,C+i][s*L,+L,)C+sR, C+1]-1CHAPTER 2 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS 2.1 TIME RESPONSE ‘The time response of the system is the output of the closed loop system as a function of time. Itis denoted by o(f). The time response can be obtained by solving the differential equation governing the system. Alternatively, the response c(f) can be obtained from the transfer function of the system and the input to the system. Co) _ I functi — = The closed loop transfer function, = Ta wey M(s) woe 20 The Output or Response in s-domain, C(s) is given by the product of the transfer function and the input, R(s). On taking inverse Laplace transform of this product the time domain response, ¢(t) can be obiained, Response in s-domain, C(s) = R(s) M(s) snn(2.2) Response in time domain, oft) = £'{C(s)} = £{Ris)x M(s)} ven2.3) where, M(s)= —@®)__ 1+G(s)H(s) The time response of a control system consists of two parts : the transient and the steady state response. The transient response is the response of the system when the input changes from one state to another. The steady state response is the response as time. t approaches infinity. RG) C(s) Ri {s) {>_> RO rep Input es} Response Meh (8) \(or Output). => M-—2®)_ His} 1+G@H@) Fig 2.1 : Closed loop system 2.2 TEST SIGNALS The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a system. Ii most of the systems the input signals are not known ahead of time and also it is difficult to express the input signals mathematically by simple equations. The characteristics of actual input signals are a sudden shock, 2 sudden change, a constant velocity and a constant acceleration. Hence test signals which resembles these characteristics are used as input signals to predict the performance of the system. The commonly used test input signals are impulse, step, ramp, acceleration and sinusoidal signals. The standard test signals are, 1. a) Step signal 2. a) Ramp signal 3. a) Parabolic signal b) Unit step signal b) Unit ramp signal b) Unit parabolic signal 4, Impulse signal 5. Sinusoidal signal.Time Re sts, 2.2 Since the test signals are simple functions for time, they can be easily generated in laboratories. The mathematical and experimental analysis of control systems using these signals can be carried out easily. The use of the test signals can be justified because of a correlation existing between the response characteristics of a system to a test input signal and capability of the system to cope with actual input signals. STEP SIGNAL ‘The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t= 0 and remains constant at A for t> 0. The step signal resembles an actual steady input to a system. A special case of step signal is unit step in which A is unity. r(t)a The mathematical representation of the step signal is, ri 320 tO (2.4) - 3 RAMP SIGNAL Fig 2.2: Step signal. The ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time *() from an initial value of zero at t = 0. The ramp signal resembles a constant velocity input to the system. A special case of ramp signal is unit ramp signal in which the value of A is unity. The mathematical representation of the ramp signal is, r()=At ; t20 : =0 5 tS0 00 (2.5) Or 2 ft Fig 2.3 : Ramp signal. PARABOLIC SIGNAL In parabolic signal, the instantaneous value varies as square of the.) time from an initial value of zero at t = 0. The sketch of the signal with respect to time resembles a parabola, The parabolic signal resembles a 4.54 constant acceleration input to the system. A special case of parabolic signal is unit parabolic signal in which A is unity. 2A The mathematical representation of the parabolic signal is, O.5Ab = 554 aes = 3 20 Fig 2.4 : Parabolic signal. =0 5 ¢<0 © 0 (2,6) [Note : Integral of step signal is ramp signal. Integral of ramp signal is parabolic signal, IMPULSE SIGNAL ‘A signal of very large magnitude which is (DO = B01 available for very short duration is called impulse *(t) = 5(2) A signal, Ideal impulse signal is a signal with infinite a magnitude and zero duration but with an area of A. => ‘The unit impulse signal is a special case, in which A is unity, The impulse signal is denoted by 3(t) and , ats > mathematically it is expressed as, Fig 2.5 : Impulse signal. 8) =; t=0 and focu-a myte0 (2.7)2.3 Gare Ssiemstagincerng) Since a perfect impulse cannot be achieved in practice itis usually approximated by a pulse of small width but with area, A. Mathematically an impulse signal is the derivative of a step signal. Laplace transform of the impulse function is unity. TABLE 2-1; Standard Test Signals Name of the signal Time domain equation Laplace transform of of signal, r(t) the signal, R(s) A Step A | a . 1 Unit step I i s i / A Ramp | At = | | 1 Unit ramp | t 2 2 A Parabolic a . 2 1 Unit parabolic 5 2 Impulse a 1 2,3 IMPULSE RESPONSE The response of the system, with input as impulse signal is called weighing function or impulse response of the system. It is also given by the inverse Laplace transform of the system transfer function, and denoted by m(t). Impulse response, m(t) = £' {R(s) M(s)} = £7 {M(s)} (2.8) sy’ : where, MO~ SHO R(s) = 1, for impulse Since impulse response (or weighing function) is obtained from the transfer function of the system, it shows the characteristics of the system. Also the response for any input can be obtained by convolution of input with impulse response. 24 ORDER OF ASYSTEM ‘The input and output relationship of a control system can be expressed by n® order differential equation shown in equation (2.9). a qt a a Fart) + aye) + a aeeP) +. d a Fn GPE) + ay p(t) = bog ad qm a 4 +b; ger) tbe U+ see Dn AO) + by a(t) wun(2.9) where, p(t) = Output / Response ; q(t)=Input / Excitation. The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the system. If the system is governed by 1! order differential equation, then the system is called mt order system.2.4 Altematively, the order can be determined from the transfer function of the system. The transfer funetion of the system can be obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential equation governing the system and rearranging them as a ratio of two polynomials in s, as shown in equation (2.10). eb stab, oe? Transfer function, Te) = 2 bos = bist bys. (9) ast as (2.10) where, P(s) = Numerator polynomial Q(s) = Denominator polynomial The order of the system is given by the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial, Q(s). Here, Q(s) =a, s*+a, 1 +a, 9" + taste, Now, n is the order of the system When n= 0, the system is zero order system When n= 1, the system is first order system. When n = 2, the system is second order system and so on. Note : The order can be specified for both open loop system and closed loop system. ‘The numerator and denominator polynomial of equation (2.10) can be expressed in the factorized form as shown in equation (2.11). 1(9 = PO _ StaNet er (2.1) Qs) (s+ p)(s+pa) where, 2, 2, z,, are zeros of the system. Ps Ps Now, the value of n gives the number of poles in the transfer function. Hence the order is also given by the number of poles of the transfer function. p, are poles of the system, Note : The zeros and poles are critical value, of s, at which the function I(s) attains extreme values 0 or 2. When s takes the value of a zero, the function T(s) will be zero. When s takes the value oj |a pole, the function T(s) will be infinite 2.5 REVIEW OF PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION The time response of the system is obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform of the product of input signal and transfer function of the system. Taking inverse Laplace transform requires the knowledge of partial fraction expansion. In control systems three different types of transfer function are encountered. They are, Case? : Functions with separate poles. Case2 : Functions with multiple poles. Case 3: Functions with complex conjugate poles. ‘The partial fraction of all the three cases are explained with an example. Case 1: When the transfer function has distinct poles K bel, T9)= OS Pi) (8+ Po)2.5 on Ss ns By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as, i -—_K—_-A._B_,_©¢ s(s+Pi)(S+P2) S$. S+Py S+P2 ‘The residues A, B and C are given by, A=) x9,_, B=T@ x +p) C= Ts) * G+ Pa) ban — Example 2 Let, Ts) <= oT) GID) By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as, tee BS Serra 8 stl sid A is obtained by multiplying T(s) by s and letting s 2 2 2 tol =1 A= 1) 4,247 S641) (+2) vl, GHG6DL__, 12 B is obtained by multiplying T(s) by ned letting s =—1. 2 2 TK +1 —— y= 2.» B=Tis)= +3} “geo xD). Ge, aI) | C is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +2) and letting s = -2. 2 2 2 1 +2) — x (542 fy | C= Tis) x +2) wpern S27 TeeD),, , BaD | 2 12 40 | “19=Saye@ry sgt 342 Case 2: When the transfer function has multiple poles rete has multiple poles bet T= aw (*P.)” By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be-expressed as, kK A, Be sG+p)G+P2) 8 S+P, tPs) +P) The residues A, B, C and D are given by. A=T(s) x3 B=T(s) x (s+p))| T(s)= =p . D= {fr x(S+P2 yl, =-0, | Example Let, T(s)= s(s+1) +2)? By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as, K A,B c D —f_ =A +t s(s+1) (8+2)" (stl) (s+2)? (s+2) Ts)=€ 2 Tine. ysis) 2.6 A is obtained by multiplying T(s) by s and letting s = 0, A=T(s) x4 — 4 -—_2_| = sre s(stiy(st2y eo (s#1)(s#2)"). 4 B is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +1) and letting s = -1. 2 B=T +) = st = (6+ Da * Zar ear 1 \ C is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +2)? and letting s = C=T)x (+2)"|_ = x(8+2) *S(6+l) =~ =I 3 2241) 2 8(8+1) (8+2)" = D is obtained by differentiating the product T(s) (s +2)? with respect to s and then letting s = —2. 220d) _ =22(-2) +1) aus , 241) 4 ay) -4{2 d= j,[Tex06+2y 1 > & (=a 3 2 2 1 15 a Ste SS s(sti)(st2 0s) stl (st2)? s+2 S(s+l (2 Ts) Case 3 : When the transfer function has complex conjugate poles Let, T(s) = — Ke stp) tose) By partial fraction expansion, T(s) can be expressed as, K LA Bs+C bstc) stp, #+bs+e Tis)= svon(2.12) (s+P,) The residue A is given by, A=T(s) x (s+ PJ], The residues B and C are solved by cross multiplying the equation (2.12) and then equating the coefficient of like power of s. Finally express T(s) as shown below, ty) = Aa Bste [arya sinyay? stp, s+bs+e Let us express, s? + bs, in the form of (x+y). This will require addition and subtraction of an extra term (b/2/. Bs+C A Bs+C ——+ ——> FF SP paanber(bh ec (B) *P (5b) fc-2) 22 a 2) \like power of s, tA, Bate Fest > ay GiD@istl) s+2 Sesel =F 4208e(3) «-(3] 1=A(? +541) +(Bs+O) (8+2) ry 2 * \2 4841) +Bs?+2Bs+Cs+2C -(s+3) (3) =(5+0.5) +0.75 § Example 1 Let, T() = 5 —— ~ (s+2)(s'+s+1) By partial fraction expansion, 1 A Bs+C Ts) = +--+, G+2)@+stl) s+2 Sts A is obtained by multiplying T(s) by (s +2) and letting s 1 were o7) ARTE) xG+2),_ 1 3 “ya ee To solve B and C, cross multiply the following equation and substitute the value of A. Then equate the 2 1-5 43414 Be +2Bs+C5+20 On equating the coefficient of #* terms, 0= is B; 1 On equating the coefficient of s terms, seopee : 1 3 3 dos ji S 4st] 38 3(+s+l) 3(s+s+]) 1 s wt 1 ~ 36405 40.75 3 (8405) +0.75 2.6 RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT The closed loop order system with unity feedback is shown in fig 2.6. R(s) / 1 +Q) a Fig 2.6 : Closed loop jor first order system. The closed loop transfer function of first order system, C= _1_ RG) 1+Ts cy ro ,[ 1 | og 1+Ts If the input is unit step then, 1(t)-1 and R)= = 1 11 «1 The response in s~domain, O(8) =R@F5= G5 ty ais)ar ET Resp gos > 28 By partial fraction expansion, _T A, BL fy) T. T. Ais obtained by multiplying C(s) by s and letting s= 0. 1 1 A=C()xd_, = sx} = -t =I T —L {s+2) sit T. 0 T 5-0 B is obtained by multiplying C(s) by (s+1/T) and letting s = -1/T. 4 T s fo BsC(s)xjsto VT. 1 C(9)= > - The response in time domain is given by, 1 -eT (2.13) c(t) = £'{C(s)} = £+ tL Sse | + vy) ‘The equation (2.13) is the response of the closed loop first order system for unit step input. For step input of step value, A, the equation (2.13) is multiplied by A. 7 «For closed loop first order system, Unit step response =1-e * ‘ | Step response = ali “| J When, t = 0, c(t) = When, 1 = 11, c(t) = When, t = 27, c(t) = When, t = 3T, c(t) = When, i = 4T, o(t) = When, t= ST, c(t) = When, t = ~, c(t) eel Here T is called Time constant of the system, In a time of ST, the system is assumed to have attained steady state. The input and output signal of the first order system is shown in fig 2.7.2.9 r(t) + o(t) 1 1 0.95 0.865} ~ 0.632) ---y oy ¥ 150 t i rr ree t Fig 27a: Unit step input. Fig 2.76 : Response for Unit step input. Fig 2.7 : Response of first order system to Unit step input. 2.7 SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ‘The closed loop second order system is shown in fig 2.8 a cl S) RQ) oR ©) COS + Oe Fig 2.8 : Closed loop for second order system. Ris) The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is given by, &) o% Rs) +2f0,8+0° where, ©, = Undamped natural frequency, rad/sec. = Damping ratio. The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to the critical damping. The response c(t) of second order system depends on the value of damping ratio, Depending on the value of ¢, the system can be classified into the following four cases, Case: Undamped system, c=0 Case2 : Under damped system, O1, 5,5 =-6o, todo 1 {peers ween ae 219) When0<<1, 5,.s)=~o,to,y@?-1 --Go, t0,4(-D 1-07) =-€0,20,0-1 1-0 - " Fig 2.9.0 + Input. Fig 2.9.6 + Response. Fig 2.9 : Response of undamped second order system for unit step input. Using equation (2.24), the response of undamped second order system for unit step input is sketched in fig 2.9, and observed that the response is completely oscillatory. | Note : Every practical system has some amount of damping. Hence undamped system does not exist in practice. The equation (2.24) is the response of undamped closed loop second order system for unit step input. For step input of step value A, the equation (2.24) should be multiplied by A. | ~. For elosed loop undamped second order system, Unit step response = 1 cos at Step response =A(1 — cos ot) 2.7.2 __ RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is, os) 8 Rs) s*42Co,s+@, For underdamped system, 0 < ¢ t Fig 2.10.0 : Input Fig 2.10. : Response. Fig 2.10 : Response of under damped second order system for unit step input. 2.7.3 RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is, C{s) a2 Rs) s?+2C@,s+@2 For critical damping ¢ = 1. - <9 _ oO a . = a (2.29) R@) s?+20,s+@2 (sto)? When input is unit step, r(t) = 1 and R(s) = 1/s. +. The response in s-domain, 2 o? eo? Cs) =R =1 Se =n (2.30) = ore S+O,) 8 (sta,) s(sta,)* G By partial sation expansion, we can write, oF A B c + 9) 3 (sto,) sto, A=sxC(s)),_ 0” Gro, B=(+0,)' «CO. = =-0, ™ lwa d 2 d{or _-03| _ c= <[s+0,) xo] a3} . FL =-1A OOS ero tere, 370, The response in time domain, (t= C@}= ell - 1 (s+o,) ao ot) = 1-0, teat erent e()=1-e™"(1+a,t) The equation (2.31) is the response of critically damped closed loop second order system for tinit step input. For step input of step value, A, the equation (2.31) should be multiplied by A. ~. For closed loop critically damped second order system, | Unit step response = 1-e"*"(1+0,t) | | Step response __= AfI-e**(1+0,t)] | Lp ee | Using equation (2.31), the response of critically damped second order system is sketched as shown an fig 2.11 and observed that the response has no oscillations. r(t) a 1 0 0 Fig 2.1.0 : Input. Fig 2.11.5 Response. Fig 2.11 : Response of critically damped second order system for unit step inpue. oy ov 2.7.4 RESPONSE OF OVER DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is, cy) 0} Ris) 2Co8+o; For overdamped system ¢ > 1. The roots of the denominator of transfer function are real and distinct. Let the roots of the denominator be s,,s,, Se )=~ Go, £0,461 [60,201] 232) Let j--sands--§ 2s) =Co,-o,y we(2.33) sate, to, nf234) The closed loop transfer function can be written in terms of s, and s, as shown below. Cos) oF CH (2.35) RG) 42%osror 645) (+5)2.15 For unit step input r(t) = 1 and R(s) = 1/s. 2 2C(s)= (2 = eee (s+3,) (S+5,) 8 ($+) (S+3)) By partial fraction expansion we can write, a A,B c (s)= ——*2 = 44 = + —_ 3645) GF) SHS, S+S 2 > A=sxC(S)kco= SX So On sGrHGtS), 85 = On - —=—= [sent [500+ Onye?=1 Co, -o a ) OD B=(s+9,)x C()|, s+) Tes, Fs) iB | “tn, soak 1 * [oak Ja NET & ot CHC(s)x(s+5)), = el sap _ @% o} = om 1 [-to,-0, fe -1+G0,-0Ne-1] [aoe] aga & f 7 lo 1 o 1 1 | o(t)= DN =-~— bee — + i 8 2-1 1% aay" 2-1 & (sts)| oft) = 1-— ae Let, tgs 2yC-1 % 2ye?-1 & em See ond 2.36 1 ( s & } where, s;=G0,-0,70?-1 FOOT The equation (2.36) is the response of overdamped closed loop system for unit step input. For ster input of valug, A, the equation (2.36) is multiplied by A. :, For closed loop over damped second order system, | fen i Unit step response = 1-—@2— 1 | £ where, 5; =Co,—o,¥C?-1 We=1 85 82 = 6, +@nyO =1 Step response = A 1-(i) et) > ~ t Fig 2.12.b : Response. 0 t Fig 2.12.4: Input Fig 2.12 : Response of over damped second order system for unit step input. Using equation (2.36), the response of overdamped second order system is sketched as shown in fig 2.12 and observed that the response has no oscillations but it takes longer time for the response to reach the final steady value. 28 TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS The desired performance, characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of time domain specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond instantaneously and will exhibit transient responses, whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances. The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be specified in terms of the transient response to a unit step input signal. The response of a second order system for unit-step input with various values of damping ratio is shown in fig 2,13. Os ©, 1 Ww ov Fig 2.13.0: Ingrut. Fig 2.13.b : Response. Fig 2.13 : Unit step response of second order system. ‘The transient response of a system toa unit step input depends on the initial conditions. Therefore to compare the time response of various systems it is necessary to start with standard initial conditions. The most practical standard is to start with the system at rest and so output and all time derivatives before t= 0 will be zero. The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillation before reaching steady state. A typical damped oscillatory response of a system is shown in fig 2.14. The transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input is specified in terms of the following time domain specifications. 1. Delay time, t, 2. Rise time, t, 3, Peak time, t, 4, Maximum overshoot, M, 5, Settling time, t,7, Allowable error 2% or 5% out t & t Fig 2.14 : Damped oscillatory response of second order system for unit step input. The time domain specifications are defined as follows. 1, DELAY TIME (¢,) + It is the time taken for response to reach 50% of the final value, for the very first time. 2. RISE TIME (t) 2 Tt is the time taken for response to raise from 0 to 100% for the very 3. PEAK TIME a 4. PEAK OVERSHOOT ™) first time. For underdamped system, the rise time is calculated from 0 to 100%. But for overdamped system it is the time taken by the response to raise from 10% to. 90%. For critically damped system, i is the time taken for response to raise from 5% to 95%, Itis the time taken for the response to reach the peak value the ver first time. (or) It is the time taken for the response to reach the peak overshoot, M,. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum peak value to the final value where the maximum peak value is measured from final value. Let, ¢(s) = Final value of c(t). o(tp) = Maximum value of c(t). Now, Peak overshoot, M, elt) =A) (O37 eo) % Peak overshoot, %M, = p=) 199 (238 o(~) S.SETTLINGTIME(t) = Itis defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay withir a specified error. It is usually expressed as % of final value. The usua tolerable error is 2 % or 5% of the final value. EXPRESSIONS FOR TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS Rise time (t) ‘The unit step response of second order system for underdamped case is given by, Att=t, oft) = c(t.) =1 (Refer fig 2.14).= sin(@,t, +8)=1 | Note : On constructing right | 1-¢? —— ws | angle triangle with Cand ji-E, sin(o gt, +8) =0 | we get i | Since ~e**s'r 40, the term, sin (w,t, +0) =0 | When, 6 =0,7,27,37... , sin 6=0 Sgt, +020 ot, =n-0 | +. Rise Time, t, = i 242.39) { a axl ag Here, @= tan! 2 og =0,f1-C (refer note) | | ~. Rise time, 1, = S insec | (2.40) 1-¢ | — 2 ld be measured in radian: Peak time (t,) To find the expression for peak time, t,, differentiate o(f) with respect to t and equate to 0. . ies FOlee, =o The unit step response of under damped second order system is given by, FS silos 8) yi-g Differentiating c(t) with respect to t. 5 = Jootot-0)0 ine a coat a) ee Co,) sin(o jt + only Put, oy =0,y1- cl an" ice os =o =e into +0) I= C wioss8] of (Go,) sin(o ,t+6)— Wat cos(ca yt +6) -¢ RE €r'[cos8 sin(wst-+0)—sin® cos(o,t+8)] (refer note) me en" [sin(@,t + 6) cos — costed gt + 9)sin8]2.19 Conirol Systems Engineering) e*** sin(@t) “ThE e*[sin((@,t+8)-@)] = i att=t,, say= 0 | Note ; On constructing right angle 1 ig! ig | cw, | wiangle with Sand fi-P, we get es"? sin(wgty) =0 | ® & . re We sind= fi-@ =F Since, e“°*"? +0, the term, sin(w tp) =0 080 =6 When @ =0, x, 22, 3x, sing =0 + @yty=m Thane Ot | -. Peak time, ,=— | | 4 | The damped frequency of oscillation, 4 =0,1-C? on (2.42) +. Peak time, tp Peak overshoot (M,) hae] %Peak overshoot, %M, = se x100 on 2.43) | oe) . where, o(t,) = Peak response at t= t, . 0(00) = Final steady state value. The unit step response of second order system is given by, erent vi-c et) = sin(o jt +8) Att=, oft) = (a) = MS sin(ogt+®) = 1-0 = 1 t oni Att=ty, oft)=c(t,)=1-5— sinfoost, +8) Vee oar 1 Og=0, yl-C =1- sin} @g—-+0 7 hoe toy sin (x +)=—sin9| oa aN gine +8) [Note : On constructing right angle ale with Cand 4fi-¢?, we get | vale sind= 1-2aera Rasps Ana 2.20 Aig) gg _ tte YP AI (20) 1 Percentage Peak Overshoot, %M, 100 aan (2.45) Percentage Peak Overshoot, %Mp Settling time (t. The response of second order system has two components. They are, € 1. Decaying exponential component, 2. Sinusoidal component, sin(og + é). In this the decaying exponential term dampens (or) reduces the oscillations produced by sinusoidal component. Hence the settling time is decided by the exponential component. The settling time can be found out by equating exponential component to percentage tolerance errors. For 2 % tolerance error band, at t For least values of € , eS"s's = 0,02 . On taking natural logarithm we get, ~C6,t,=10(0.02) => -to,t,=-4 => For the second order system, the time constant, T= Mp Settling time, .=—L-=4r (for 2% error) en(246) fo For 5% error, os = 0.05 On taking natural logarithm we get, —Goyt, = In(0.05) => -lo,t,-3 = fos | + Settling time, t, = = =3T (for S%erron)| (2.47) | ©, In general for a specified percentage error, Settling time can be evaluted using equation (2.48). : % 7 «Setting time, 4, = 202208) _ n(% error) Sn T2.21 EXAMPLE 2.1 baa the response of unity feedback systsm whose open oop transferfunction's G(s) = 4 5 on ‘and when the input isunitstep. SOLUTION Ris) ce Cis) The closed loop system is shown in fig 1. The closed loop transfer function, XS) - SiS) 1 Re) a 1+ is) Fig 1: Closed loop system. Cs)__s@+5) 55) 4 ~ 44 “Ris) 1,4 S(S+5)+4~ s(6+5)+4 «8745544 (544) (S#1) 3(8+5) (88) Teresponseins-domain, Cs) RS) aay Since the input is unit step, R(s)=—; — .Cls)= ince the input is unit step, FS) =~ 8) - SHED By partial fraction expansion, we can write, os)-——4+__- 4,8, o “s(set(era) s sti 844 4 | 44 Ax Ols) * 5 “SDEA,., bea 4 4 3(5+4)|,__, 1+ 4) B=C(s) x (s#1),_ 4 C=COs) x (+4), =a 3 The time domain response c(t) is obtained by taking inverse Laplace som of). (144 41 a 3s 3 oi 3 5+ + [fe*- Response in time domain, e(t)= £-'{C(s}}= £ RESULT Response of unity feedback system, c(t) = EXAMPLE 2.2 A positional control system with velocity feedback is shown in fig 1.. Whatis the response of the system for unit step input. SOLUTION The closed loop vansfer function, Cls)___ Gis) t lotse1 F(s)” 1+G(s) H(s) -, ves 100 Fig 1 : Positional control system. Given that, G(s)=——— and H(s)=O.1s +1 s(s+2) 100 100 Cs) _ s(st2) = s(s+2) = 100 _ 100 Ris) 100 © $(8+2)+1000.1S+1) s?+2s+10s+100 s*+12s+100 +( 2, Jorsen 3(8+2)Chapt ETime Response Analysis 22 Here (s? +128 + 100) is characteristic polynomial. The roots ofthe characteristic polynomial are, ae fies i00 =400 _ -12+j16 2 The roots are complex conjugate. The system is underdamped and so the response of the system will have damped oscillations. Su Sp 6+j8 The response in s-domain, C{s)=R(s) ———20 __ $74 1284100 Since input is unit step, R(s) -1 1 100 100 Cl) = = 557261100 ~ s(e*+ 12s +100) By partial fraction expansion we can write, 100 LA, Bs+C 3 (8*+128+100) 8 s*+12s+100 The residue A is obtained by multiplying C(s) by sand lettings =0. = 100 _ “100 - Cs)= The residue B and C are evaluated by cross muttiplying the following equation and equating the coofficients of like power of. 100 A, Bs+C Sistetaes 10) 6 a iaseT00 8 (8° +128+100) § s°+125+100 100 = A(s* +12s+100)+(Bs+C)s 100 = As* + 12As + 100A 4 Bs? +Cs On equating the coefficients of s*weget, O=A+B 2 BSA On equating coefficients of s we get, 0=12A+C 2 CS-12A=-12 2 14 s+12 _1__s+6+6 754252100 S74 128236464 9S (S46) +8 s+6 6 1 s+6 6 8 ” Breese (s+6+8 os (S46) +8" BB (S+6) +8" The time domain response is obtained by taking inverse Laplace transform of C(s).. Time response, c(t) = C'{C(s)} = of ited ws} s (s+6)?+8 8 (s+6)* ee =1-e'cos8t +4 @* sin8t= 1- «(3 singt cosa] The result can be converted to another standard form by constructing right angle triangle with Gand 1—¢? . The ‘damping ratio ¢ is evaluated by comparing the closed loop transfer function of the system with standard form of second order 100 0, =10