PREVENTION OF WING TIP STALLING

Wing-Tip stalling is an undesirable feature because it can lead to control

difficulties. It can be prevented or its likelihood reduced by the inclusion of any
one or more of the following design features in the construction of the wing:
1. WASHOUT
The wing is constructed so that the angle of incidence decreases from root to tip;
in this manner the wing is slightly twisted. This ensures that the wing root
reaches the critical stalling angle of attack before the wing tip for un swept
wings.
2. ROOT SPOILER.
The leading edge of the wing root is constructed so that it is much sharper than
the rest of the wing leading edge. Consequently, it is more difficult for the airflow
to follow the leading edge and separates before the rest of the wing. A stall
inducer, stall strip or root spoiler can be fitted to the inboard section of the
leading edge of the wing so that at high angles of attack the airflow over the wing
is spoilt and this induces the wing root to stall first.
3. CHANGING CAMBER.
The camber of the wing is constructed in such a manner that it gradually
increases from the root to the tip. Thus, the tip produces proportionately more
lift than does the root, which delays the stall of the tip behind that of the root.
4. SLATS AND SLOTS.
The inclusion of a slat or a slot in the design of the outer portion of the wings
effectively increases the stalling angle of the wing tips to greater than that of the
wing root. The use of slats significantly increases the stalling angle and Clmax of
the whole wing.
5. ASPECT RATIO.
High aspect ratio wings reduce the strength and size of the wing-tip vortices and
cause an increased Clmax, it also causes the stalling speed to increase and the
stalling angle decrease to be less than that of a low aspect ratio wing. Induced
drag is inversely proportional to the square of the aspect ratio. If the aspect ratio
is doubled then the induced drag is halved.
 PREVENTION OF AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
ANTI-ICING SYSTEM
• Anti-icing system is a system which is employed to prevent the formation of
ice on an aircraft structure.
• Anti-icing in an aircraft is usually carried out by three methods. They are:
1. Thermal anti-icing system
2. Electric anti-icing system
3. Chemical anti-icing system

THERMAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

• The thermal anti-icing system uses engine’s heated compressor bleed air as
a source of air supply in the turbine powered aircraft.
• This compressor bleed air is then routed to the anti-icing control valves and
finally to the wing leading edges through a duct.
• The portions of the aircraft where the hot air is supplied for anti-icing is
usually provided with overheat sensors.
• When overheat conditions are formed, the overheat sensors turns ON the
warning light in the cockpit and close the anti-icing valves which shuts off
the supply of heated air.
• When the duct temperature drops to an allowable range, the overheat light
will go off, and the anti-icing valves are again opened and the hot air is
again made to flow through the duct.
• In the case of reciprocating engines, combustion heaters are used to heat
the air for anti-icing purposes.

ELECTRIC ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

• In this system of anti-icing, an electric heating element is provided in order
to generate heat to prevent ice deposition.
• The electric anti-icing system is usually employed on pitot heads, wind
screens, cockpit windows and on engine intakes.
• The electric heaters can be switched ON/OFF by the pilot.
• When the heaters are switched ON, the heating element gradually becomes
hot and disperses the impinging water droplets so that the ice is not
formed.
• The electric heaters provided for anti-icing purposes are not usually
switched ON while the aircraft is on the ground except for the testing
purposes.
 • Large transport aircraft that have flush toilets and lavatories have electric
powered heating elements to prevent the drains and waterlines from
freezing.

CHEMICAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

• Certain surfaces and components of an aircraft may be coated with either
isopropyl alcohol or a mixture of ethylene glycol and alcohol.
• Either of these chemicals lowers the freezing point of the water at the
surface of the aircraft, and at the same time makes the surface stick to
prevent ice from getting a good grip on the surface.
• Chemical anti-icing is normally done to the carburetors, the propellers and
to the windshield.
• Ground chemical anti-icing on aircraft is done by spraying all the surfaces
with ethylene glycol before the aircraft takes-off.
• Rubber de-icer boots are often sprayed with a silicon spray that gives the
rubber an extremely smooth surface so the ice cannot adhere to it.
• Propeller anti-icing uses isopropyl alcohol which is sprayed on to the
leading edges of the propeller blades, preventing icing.
• The chemical used for anti-icing is stored in a tank from which it is pumped
when needed.
• By controlling the pump speed through the rheostat, the pilot can control
the amount of alcohol flowing on to the aircraft structure.
• The length of the time this system can be used is limited by the amount of
alcohol the tank can carry.

DE-ICING SYSTEM
• De-icing is the process of removal of ice from the aircraft structure after it
has formed.
• De-icing is usually carried out by any one of the following methods.
1. Pneumatic de-icing system
2. Thermal de-icing system
3. Electric de-icing system
4. Chemical de-icing system

PNEUMATIC DE-ICING SYSTEM

• The pneumatic de-icing system mainly consists of rubber de-icing boots,
engine driven air pump, safety valves, oil separator, combination regulator,
unloading valve and oil separator, suction regulation valve, solenoid
distribution valve and an electronic timer.
 • The pneumatic de-icing system uses rubber de-icer boots attached to the
leading edge of the wing and stabilizers.
• The de-icer boots are composed of a series of inflatable tubes.
• During operation, the tubes are inflated with pressurized air and deflated in
an alternating cycle.
• The inflation and deflation causes the ice to crack and break-off and the ice
is then carried away by the airstream.
• De-icer boots are inflated by an engine driven air pump or by air bled from
gas turbine engine compressor.
• The inflation sequence is controlled by either a centrally located distributor
valve or by solenoid operated valves.
• The safety valve exhausts excessive air at high rpm when a pre-determined
pressure is reached. The safety valve is pre-set and is not adjustable.
• The oil separator is installed in the system for separating the oil that may be
present in the pressurized air that is being supplied.
• The purpose of the suction valve is to maintain the de-icer system suction
automatically.
• The purpose of the pressure regulator is to reduce the pressure of the
turbine bleed air to the de-icer system pressure.
• The purpose of the ejector is to provide the vacuum necessary to keep the
de-icer boots deflated.
• The air pressure and suction relief valves and regulators maintain the
pneumatic system pressure and suction at the desired settings.
• An electric timer is used to control the operating sequence and the time
intervals of the de-icing system. The electronic timer controls the operating
sequence of the distributor valves.

THERMAL DE-ICING SYSTEM

• De-icing system by thermal method uses hot air for eliminating ice from the
aircraft.
• The sources of air supply for thermal de-icing system includes engine bleed
air, engine exhaust heat exchangers and ram air heated by a combustion
heater.
• The thermal de-icing system incorporates an automatic temperature
control which maintains the temperature in the system within the pre
determined range.
 • An over-heat and thermal cycling switch provided in this system allows the
heaters to operate at periodic intervals, and they also stop heater operation
completely if overheating occurs.
• De-icing system used in fixed wing aircraft is usually provided with a
balance control to maintain equal heating in both wings.
• The thermal de-icing system is also provided with a duct pressure safety
switch which interrupts the heating ignition circuit if ram air pressure falls
below a specified amount.
• Check valves are provided in the cross-over duct to prevent the reverse
flow of heated air and to prevent cold air from entering the de-icing system
from the inoperative engine.

ELECTRIC DE-ICING SYSTEM

• The electric de-icing system utilizes an electric heater in order to generate
heat to disperse the accumulated ice.
• The electric heaters can be switched ON/OFF by the pilot.
• When the heaters are switched ON, the heating element gradually becomes
hot and dissipates the accumulated ice.
• The electric de-icing system is usually employed on pitot heads, wind
shields, cockpit windows and on engine intakes.

CHEMICAL DE-ICING SYSTEM

• In systems of this types, the de-icing fluid is drawn from a storage tank by
an electrically driven pump and fed through micro filters to a number of
porous metal distributor panels.
• As the fluid escapes, it breaks the bond between ice and the outer skin of
the aircraft. The de-icing fluid and the ice together are directed rearward by
the airflow.
FORCES IN CLIMBS
• For all practical purposes, the wing’s lift in a steady state normal climb is
the same as it is in a steady level flight at the same airspeed.
• Though the airplane’s flight path has changed when the climb has been
established, the angle of attack of the wing with respect to the inclined flight
path reverts to practically the same values, as does the lift.
• There is an initial momentary change, however, as shown in figure given
below. During the transition from straight-and-level flight to a climb, a
change in lift occurs when back elevator pressure is first applied.
• Raising the airplane’s nose increases the angle of attack and momentarily
increases the lift. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and the
airplane starts climbing. After the flight path is stabilized on the upward
incline, the angle of attack and lift again revert to about the level flight
values.
• If the climb is entered with no change in power setting, the airspeed
gradually diminishes because the thrust required maintaining a given
airspeed in level flight is insufficient to maintain the same airspeed in a
climb.
• When the flight path is inclined upward, a component of the airplane’s
weight acts in the same direction as, and parallel to, the total drag of the
airplane, thereby increasing the total effective drag.
• Consequently, the total drag is greater than the power, and the airspeed
decreases. The reduction in air speed gradually results in a corresponding
decrease in drag until the total drag (including the component of weight
acting in the same direction) equals the thrust.
• Due to momentum, the change in airspeed is gradual, varying considerably
with differences in airplane size, weight, total drag, and other factors.
• Generally, the forces of thrust and drag, and lift and weight, again become
balanced when the airspeed stabilizes but at a value lower than in straight-
and-level flight at the same power setting.
• Since in a climb the airplane’s weight is not only acting downward but
rearward along with drag, additional power is required to maintain the
same airspeed as in level flight.
• The amount of power depends on the angle of climb. When the climb is
established so steep that there is insufficient power available, a slower
speed results. It will be seen then that the amount of reserve power
determines the climb performance of the airplane.
FORCES IN DESCENTS
• As in climbs, the forces acting on the airplane go through definite changes
when a descent is entered from straight-and-level flight. The analysis here
is that of descending at the same power as used in straight-and-level flight.
• When forward pressure is applied to the elevator control to start
descending, or the airplane’s nose is allowed to pitch down, the angle of
attack is decreased and, as a result, the lift of the airfoil is reduced.
• This reduction in total lift and angle of attack is momentary and occurs
during the time the flight path changes downward.
• The change to a downward flight path is due to the lift momentarily
becoming less than the weight of the airplane as the angle of attack is
reduced. This imbalance between lift and weight causes the airplane to
follow a descending flight path with respect to the horizontal flight path of
straight-and-level flight.
• When the flight path is in a steady descent, the airfoil’s angle of attack again
approaches the original value, and lift and weight will again become
stabilized. From the time the descent is started until it is stabilized, the
airspeed will gradually increase. This is due to a component of weight now
acting forward along the flight path, similar to the manner it acted rearward
in a climb. The overall effect is that of increased power or thrust, which in
turn causes the increase in airspeed associated with descending at the same
power as used in level flight.
• To descend at the same airspeed as used in straight and- level flight,
obviously, the power must be reduced as the descent is entered. The
component of weight acting forward along the flight path will increase as
the angle of rate of descent increases and conversely, will decrease as the
angle of rate of descent decreases. Therefore, the amount of power
reduction required for a descent at the same speed as cruise will be
determined by the steepness of the descent.
FORCES IN TURNS
If an airplane were viewed in straight-and-level flight from the rear, and if the
forces acting on the airplane actually could be seen, two forces (lift and weight)
would be apparent, and if the airplane were in a bank it would be apparent that
lift did not act directly opposite to the weight—it now acts in the direction of the
bank. The fact that when the airplane banks, lift acts inward toward the center of
the turn, as well as upward, is one of the basic truths to remember in the
consideration of turns.
An object at rest or moving in a straight line will remain at rest or continue to
move in a straight line until acted on by some other force. An airplane, like any
moving object, requires a sideward force to make it turn. In a normal turn, this
force is supplied by banking the airplane so that lift is exerted inward as well as
upward. The force of lift during a turn is separated into two components at right
angles to each other. One component, which acts vertically and opposite to the
weight (gravity), is called the “vertical component of lift.” The other, which acts
horizontally toward the center of the turn, is called the “horizontal component of
lift,” or centripetal force. The horizontal component of lift is the force that pulls
the airplane from a straight flight path to make it turn. Centrifugal force is the
“equal and opposite reaction” of the airplane to the change in direction and acts
equal and opposite to the horizontal component of lift. This explains why, in a
correctly executed turn, the force that turns the airplane is not supplied by the
rudder.
An airplane is not steered like a boat or an automobile; in order for it to turn, it
must be banked. If the airplane is not banked, there is no force available that will
cause it to deviate from a straight flight path. Conversely, when an airplane is
banked, it will turn, provided it is not slipping to the inside of the turn. Good
directional control is based on the fact that the airplane will attempt to turn
whenever it is banked.
This fact should be borne in mind at all times, particularly while attempting to
hold the airplane in straight-and-level flight.
Merely banking the airplane into a turn produces no change in the total amount
of lift developed. However, as was pointed out, the lift during the bank is divided
into two components: one vertical and the other horizontal. This division reduces
the amount of lift which is opposing gravity and actually supporting the
airplane’s weight; consequently, the airplane loses altitude unless additional lift
is created. This is done by increasing the angle of attack until the vertical
component of lift is again equal to the weight. Since the vertical component of lift
decreases as the bank angle increases, the angle of attack must be progressively
increased to produce sufficient vertical lift to support the airplane’s weight. The
fact that the vertical component of lift must be equal to the
weight to maintain altitude is an important fact to remember when making
constant altitude turns.
At a given airspeed, the rate at which an airplane turns depends upon the
magnitude of the horizontal component of lift. It will be found that the horizontal
component of lift is proportional to the angle of bank—that is, it increases or
decreases respectively as the angle of bank increases or decreases. It logically
follows then, that as the angle of bank is increased the horizontal component of
lift increases, thereby increasing the rate of turn. Consequently, at any given
airspeed the rate of turn can be controlled by adjusting the angle of bank.
To provide a vertical component of lift sufficient to hold altitude in a level turn,
an increase in the angle of attack is required. Since the drag of the airfoil is
directly proportional to its angle of attack, induced drag will increase as the lift is
increased. This, in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in proportion to the angle of
bank; a small angle of bank results in a small reduction in airspeed and a large
angle of bank results in a large reduction in airspeed.
Additional thrust (power) must be applied to prevent a reduction in airspeed in
level turns; the required amount of additional thrust is proportional to the angle
of bank.
To compensate for added lift, which would result if the airspeed were increased
during a turn, the angle of attack must be decreased, or the angle of bank
increased, if a constant altitude were to be maintained. If the angle of bank were
held constant and the angle of attack decreased, the rate of turn would decrease.
Therefore, in order to maintain a constant rate of turn as the airspeed is
increased, the angle of attack must remain constant and the angle of bank
increased.
It must be remembered that an increase in airspeed results in an increase of the
turn radius and that centrifugal force is directly proportional to the radius of the
turn. In a correctly executed turn, the horizontal component of lift must be
exactly equal and opposite to the centrifugal force. Therefore, as the airspeed is
increased in a constant rate level turn, the radius of the turn increases. This
increase in the radius of turn causes an increase in the centrifugal force, which
must be balanced by an increase in the horizontal component of lift, which can
only be increased by increasing the angle of bank.

SLIP
In a slipping turn, the airplane is not turning at the rate appropriate to the bank
being used, since the airplane is yawed toward the outside of the turning flight
path. The airplane is banked too much for the rate of turn, so the horizontal lift
component is greater than the centrifugal force. Equilibrium between the
horizontal lift component and centrifugal force is re-established either by
decreasing the bank, increasing the rate of turn, or a combination of the two
changes.

SKID
A skidding turn results from an excess of centrifugal force over the horizontal lift
component, pulling the airplane toward the outside of the turn. The rate of turn
is too great for the angle of bank. Correction of a skidding turn thus involves a
reduction in the rate of turn, an increase in bank, or a combination of the two
changes.
To maintain a given rate of turn, the angle of bank must be varied with the
airspeed. This becomes particularly important in high-speed airplanes. For
instance, at 400 miles per hour (M.P.H.), an airplane must be banked
approximately 44° to execute a standard rate turn (3° per second). At this angle
of bank, only about 79 percent of the lift of the airplane comprises the vertical
component of the lift; the result is a loss of altitude unless the angle of attack is
increased sufficiently to compensate for the loss of vertical lift.
 LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
• An airplane is designed and certificated for a certain maximum weight
during flight. This weight is referred to as the maximum certificated gross
weight.
• It is important that the airplane be loaded within the specified weight limits
before flight, because certain flight maneuvers will impose an extra load on
the airplane structure which may, particularly if the airplane is overloaded,
impose stresses which will exceed the design capabilities of the airplane.
• Overstressing the airplane can also occur if the pilot engages in maneuvers
creating high loads, regardless of how the airplane is loaded.
• These maneuvers not only increase the load that the airplane structure
must support, but also increase the airplane’s stalling speed. The following
will explain how extra load is imposed upon the airplane during flight.
• During flight, the wings of an airplane will support the maximum allowable
gross weight of the airplane.
• So long as the airplane is moving at a steady rate of speed and in a straight
line, the load imposed upon the wings will remain constant.
• A change in speed during straight flight will not produce any appreciable
change in load, but when a change is made in the airplane’s flight path, an
additional load is imposed upon the airplane structure. This is particularly
true if a change in direction is made at high speeds with rapid forceful
control movements.
• According to certain laws of physics, a mass (airplane in this case) will
continue to move in a straight line unless some force intervenes, causing
the mass (airplane) to assume a curved path.
• During the time the airplane is in a curved flight path, it still attempts,
because of inertia, to force itself to follow straight flight.
• This tendency to follow straight flight, rather than curved flight, generates a
force known as centrifugal force which acts toward the outside of the curve.
• Any time the airplane is flying in a curved flight path with a positive load,
the load the wings must support will be equal to the weight of the airplane
plus the load imposed by centrifugal force.
• A positive load occurs when back pressure is applied to the elevator,
causing centrifugal force to act in the same direction as the force of weight.
• A negative load occurs when forward pressure is applied to the elevator
control, causing centrifugal force to act in a direction opposite to that of the
force of weight.
 • Curved flight producing a positive load is a result of increasing the angle of
attack and consequently the lift.
• Increased lift always increases the positive load imposed upon the wings.
However, the load is increased only at the time the angle of attack is being
increased.
• Once the angle of attack is established, the load remains constant.
• The loads imposed on the wings in flight are stated in terms of load factor.

• Load factor is the ratio of the total load supported by the airplane’s wing to
the actual weight of the airplane and its contents; i.e., the actual load
supported by the wings divided by the total weight of the airplane.
• For example, if an airplane has a gross weight of 2,000 pounds and during
flight is subjected to aerodynamic forces which increase the total load the
wing must support to 4,000 pounds, the load factor would be 2.0
(4,000/2,000 = 2). In this example, the airplane wing is producing “lift” that
is equal to twice the gross weight of the airplane.
• Another way of expressing load factor is the ratio of a given load to the pull
of gravity; i.e., to refer to a load factor of three, as “3 G’s,” where “G” refers
to the pull of gravity. In this case the weight of the airplane is equal to “1 G,”
and if a load of three times the actual weight of the airplane were imposed
upon the wing due to curved flight, the load factor would be equal to “3 G’s.”

LOAD FACTORS AND AIRPLANE DESIGN

• All airplanes are designed to meet certain strength requirements depending
upon the intended use of the airplanes.
 • Classification of airplanes as to strength and operational use is known as
the category system.
• The category of each airplane can be readily identified by a placard or
document (Airworthiness Certificate) in the cockpit which states the
operational category or categories in which that airplane is certificated.
• The category, maneuvers that are permitted, and the maximum safe load
factors (limit load factors) specified for these airplanes are listed in the
given figure.
• It should be noted that there is an increase in limit load factor with an
increasing severity of maneuvers permitted.
• Small airplanes may be certificated in more than one category if the
requirements for each category are met.
• This system provides a means for the pilot to determine what operations
can be performed in a given airplane without exceeding the load limit.
Pilots are cautioned to operate the airplane within the load limit for which
the airplane is designed so as to enhance safety and still benefit from the
intended utilization of the airplane.

EFFECT OF TURNS ON LOAD FACTOR

• A turn is made by banking the airplane so that lift from the wings pulls the
airplane from its straight flight path.
• In any airplane at any airspeed, if a constant altitude is maintained during
the turn, the load factor for a given degree of bank is the same.
• For any given angle of bank, the rate of turn varies with the airspeed.
• In other words, if the angle of bank is held constant and the airspeed is
increased, the rate of turn will decrease; or if the airspeed is decreased, the
rate of turn will increase.
• Because of this, there is no change in centrifugal force for any given bank.
Therefore, the load factor remains the same.
• The load factor increases at a rapid rate after the angle of bank reaches 50°.
The wing must produce lift equal to this load factor if altitude is to be
maintained.
• The load factor increases at a rapid rate after the angle of bank reaches 50°.
The wing must produce lift equal to this load factor if altitude is to be
maintained.
• The load supported by the wings increases as the angle of bank increases.
The increase is shown by the relative lengths of the white arrows. Figures
below the arrows indicate the increase in load factor. For example, the load
 factor during a 60° bank is 2.00, and the load supported by the wings is
twice the weight of the airplane in level flight.

• At an angle of bank of slightly more than 80°, the load factor exceeds 6,
which is the limit load factor of an acrobatic airplane.
• The approximate maximum bank for conventional light airplanes is 60°
which produces a load factor of 2. An additional 10° of bank will increase
the load factor by approximately 1 G, bringing it dangerously close to the
point at which structural damage or complete failure may occur in these
airplanes.

(LOAD FACTOR AND STALL SPEED CHART)

• At an angle of bank of slightly more than 80°, the load factor exceeds 6,
which is the limit load factor of an acrobatic airplane.
• The approximate maximum bank for conventional light airplanes is 60°
which produces a load factor of 2. An additional 10° of bank will increase
the load factor by approximately 1 G, bringing it dangerously close to the
point at which structural damage or complete failure may occur in these
airplanes.
EFFECT OF LOAD FACTOR ON STALLING SPEED
• Any airplane, within the limits of its structure and the strength of the pilot,
can be stalled at any airspeed.
• At a given airspeed, the load factor increases as angle of attack increases,
and the wing stalls because the angle of attack has been increased to a
certain angle.
• Therefore, there is a direct relationship between the load factor imposed
upon the wing and its stalling characteristics.
• When a sufficiently high angle of attack is reached, the smooth flow of air
over an airfoil breaks up and tears away, producing the abrupt change of
characteristics and loss of lift which is defined as a stall.
• A rule for determining the speed at which a wing will stall is that the
stalling speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor.
• Since the load factor squares as the stalling speed doubles, tremendous
loads may be imposed on structures by stalling an airplane at relatively
high airspeeds. An airplane which has a normal un-accelerated stalling
speed of 50 knots will be subjected to a load factor of 4 G’s when forced into
an accelerated stall at 100 knots. As seen from this example, it is easy to
impose a load beyond the design strength of the conventional airplane.
• Reference to the red Stall Speed line in figure 1-34 will show that banking
an airplane just over 75° in a steep turn increases the stalling speed by 100
percent. If the normal un-accelerated stalling speed is 45 knots, the pilot
must keep the airspeed above 90 knots in a 75° bank to prevent sudden
entry into a violent power stall.
• This same effect will take place in a quick pull up from a dive or maneuver
producing load factors above 1 G. Accidents have resulted from sudden,
unexpected loss of control, particularly in a steep turn near the ground.
• The maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely stalled is the design
maneuvering speed.
• The design maneuvering speed is a valuable reference point for the pilot.
When operating below this speed, a damaging positive flight load should
not be produced because the airplane should stall before the load becomes
excessive.
• Any combination of flight control usage, including full deflection of the
controls, or gust loads created by turbulence should not create an excessive
air load if the airplane is operated below maneuvering speed. (Pilots should
be cautioned that certain adverse wind shear or gusts may cause excessive
loads even at speeds below maneuvering speed.)
• Design maneuvering speed can be found in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook
or on a placard within the cockpit.
• It can also be determined by multiplying the normal un-accelerated stall
speed by the square root of the limit load factor.
• A rule of thumb that can be used to determine the maneuvering speed is
approximately 1.7 times the normal stalling speed. Thus, an airplane which
 normally stalls at 35 knots should never be stalled when the airspeed is
above 60 knots (35 knots x 1.7 = 59.5 knots).
• A knowledge of this must be applied from two points of view by the
competent pilot: the danger of inadvertently stalling the airplane by
increasing the load factor such as in a steep turn or spiral; and that
intentionally stalling an airplane above its design maneuvering speed
imposes a tremendous load factor on the structure.

EFFECT OF SPEED ON LOAD FACTOR

• The amount of excess load that can be imposed on the wing depends on
how fast the airplane is flying.
• At slow speeds, the maximum available lifting force of the wing is only
slightly greater than the amount necessary to support the weight of the
airplane.
• Consequently, the load factor should not become excessive even if the
controls are moved abruptly or the airplane encounters severe gusts, as
previously stated. The reason for this is that the airplane will stall before
the load can become excessive.
• However, at high speeds, the lifting capacity of the wing is so great that a
sudden movement of the elevator controls or a strong gust may increase the
load factor beyond safe limits. Because of this relationship between speed
and safety, certain “maximum” speeds have been established. Each airplane
is restricted in the speed at which it can safely execute maneuvers,
withstand abrupt application of the controls, or fly in rough air. This speed
is referred to as the design maneuvering speed, which was discussed
previously.
• Summarizing, at speeds below design maneuvering speed, the airplane
should stall before the load factor can become excessive. At speeds above
maneuvering speed, the limit load factor for which an airplane is stressed
can be exceeded by abrupt or excessive application of the controls or by
strong turbulence.

EFFECT OF FLIGHT MANEUVERS ON LOAD FACTOR

• Load factors apply to all flight maneuvers. In straight-and-level un-
accelerated flight, a load factor of 1G is always present, but certain
maneuvers are known to involve relatively high load factors.
o Turns—As previously discussed, increased load factors are a
characteristic of all banked turns. Load factors become significant both
 to flight performance and to the load on wing structure as the bank
increases beyond approximately 45°.
o Stalls—The normal stall entered from straight-and-level flight, or an
un-accelerated straight climb, should not produce added load factors
beyond the 1G of straight-and-level flight. As the stall occurs, however,
this load factor may be reduced toward zero, the factor at which
nothing seems to have weight, and the pilot has the feeling of “floating
free in space.” In the event recovery is made by abruptly moving the
elevator control forward, a negative load is created which raises the
pilot from the seat. This is a negative wing load and usually is so small
that there is little effect on the airplane structure. The pilot should be
cautioned, however, to avoid sudden and forceful control movements
because of the possibility of exceeding the structural load limits.
• During the pull-up following stall recovery, however, significant load factors
are often encountered. These may be increased by excessively steep diving,
high airspeed, and abrupt pull-ups to level flight. One usually leads to the
other, thus increasing the resultant load factor. The abrupt pull-up at a high
diving speed may easily produce critical loads on structures, and may
produce recurrent or secondary stalls by building up the load factor to the
point that the speed of the airplane reaches the stalling airspeed during the
pull-up.

EFFECT OF TURBULENCE ON LOAD FACTOR

• Turbulence in the form of vertical air currents can, under certain
conditions, cause severe load stress on an airplane wing.
• When an airplane is flying at a high speed with a low angle of attack, and
suddenly encounters a vertical current of air moving upward, the relative
wind changes to an upward direction as it meets the airfoil. This increases
the angle of attack of the wing.
• If the air current is well defined and travels at a significant rate of speed
upward (15 to 30 feet per second), a sharp vertical gust is produced which
will have the same effect on the wing as applying sudden sharp back
pressure on the elevator control.
• All certificated airplanes are designed to withstand loads imposed by
turbulence of considerable intensity. Nevertheless, gust load factors
increase with increasing airspeed. Therefore it is wise, in extremely rough
air, as in thunderstorm or frontal conditions, to reduce the speed to the
design maneuvering speed.
 • As a general rule, when severe turbulence is encountered, the airplane
should be flown at the maneuvering speed shown in the FAA-approved
Airplane Flight Manual, Pilot’s Operating Handbook, or placard in the
airplane. This is the speed least likely to result in structural damage to the
airplane, even if full control travel is used, and yet allows a sufficient margin
of safety above stalling speed in turbulent air.
• Placarded “never exceed speeds” are determined for smooth air only. High
dive speeds or abrupt maneuvering in gusty air at airspeeds above the
maneuvering speed may place damaging stress on the whole structure of an
airplane. Stress on the structure means stress on any vital part of the
airplane. The most common failures due to load factors involve rib
structure within the leading and trailing edges of wings.
• The cumulative effect of such loads over a long period of time may tend to
loosen and weaken vital parts so that actual failure may occur later when
the airplane is being operated in a normal manner.

DETERMINING LOAD FACTORS IN FLIGHT

• The leverage in the control systems of different airplanes varies; some
types are balanced control surfaces while others are not. (A balanced
control surface is an aileron, rudder, or elevator designed in such a manner
as to put each side of its hinged axis in balance with the other side.)
• Therefore the pressure exerted by the pilot on the controls cannot be used
as a means to determine the load factor produced in different airplanes.
• Load factors are best judged by feel through experience. They can be
measured by an instrument called an accelerometer, but since this
instrument is not commonly used in general aviation type airplanes,
developing the ability to judge load factors from the feel of their effect on
the body is important. One indication the pilot will have of increased load
factor is the feeling of increased body weight. In a 60° bank, the body
weight would double. A knowledge of the principles outlined above is
essential to estimate load factors. In view of the foregoing discussion on
load factors, a few suggestions can be made to avoid overstressing the
structure of the airplane:
o Operate the airplane in conformance with the Pilot’s Operating
Handbook.
o Avoid abrupt control usage at high speeds.
o Reduce speed if turbulence of any great intensity is encountered in
flight, or abrupt maneuvers are to be performed.
 o Reduce weight of airplane before flight if intensive turbulence or
abrupt maneuvering is anticipated.
o Avoid turns using an angle of bank in excess of 60°

FLIGHT ENVELOPE
• The flight operating strength of an airplane is presented on a graph whose
horizontal scale is based on load factor. The diagram is called a Vg
diagram—velocity versus “g” loads or load factor.
• Each airplane has its own Vg diagram which is valid at a certain weight and
altitude
• The portion of the V-N/V-G diagram that is bounded by the accelerated stall
lines, the limit load factors and redline airspeed is called the safe flight
envelope.
• The V-n diagram or V-G diagram is a graph that summarizes an airplane’s
structural and aerodynamic limitation.
• The horizontal axis is indicated airspeed, since this is what we see in the
cockpit. The vertical axis of the graph is load factor, or Gs.
• The V-n diagram represents the maneuvering envelope of the airplane for a
particular weight, altitude, and configuration.
• Accelerated stall lines, or lines of maximum lift, represent the maximum load
factor that an airplane can produce based on airspeed. (The accelerated
stall lines are determined by CLmax AOA. They are the curving lines on the
left side of the V-n diagram.)
o If one tries to maintain a constant airspeed and increase lift beyond
the accelerated stall lines, the airplane will stall because we have
exceeded the stalling angle of attack.
o As airspeed increases, more lift can be produced without exceeding
the stalling angle of attack.
• The limit load factors and ultimate load factors, both positive and negative,
are plotted on the diagram. (These lines represent the manufacturer’s and
the military’s structural limitations.)
o Any G load above the limit load factor will overstress the airplane.
o Any G load above the ultimate load factor is very likely to cause
structural failure. (Notice that the positive and negative limit load
factors are different.)
o Since the pilot cannot sustain a negative acceleration much greater
than three Gs, the designer can save some structural weight by
 reducing the airplane’s ability to sustain negative Gs. For this reason,
most maneuvers are performed with positive accelerations.
o If the airplane is flown at a positive load factor greater than the
positive limit load factor, structural damage will be possible. When
the airplane is operated in this region, objectionable permanent
deformation of the primary structure may take place and a high rate
of fatigue damage is incurred. Operation above the limit load factor
must be avoided in normal operation.
• The point where the accelerated stall line and the limit load factor line
intersect is called the maneuver point.
o The IAS at the maneuver point is called the maneuver speed (Va) or
cornering velocity. (It is the lowest airspeed at which the limit load
factor can be reached.)
o Below the maneuver speed, we can never exceed the limit load factor
because the airplane will stall before the limit load factor is reached.
• The vertical line on the right side is called the redline airspeed, or VNE
(Velocity never-to exceed). (Redline airspeed is the highest airspeed that an
airplane is allowed to fly.)
o Flight at speeds above VNE can cause structural damage. VNE is
determined by one of several methods:
1. Critical Mach Number (MCRIT)
2. Airframe temperature
3. Excessive structural loads
4. Controllability limits.
• If an airplane reaches its critical Mach number (MCRIT), and is not designed
to withstand supersonic airflow, the shock waves generated may damage the
structure of the airplane. Redline airspeed for these aircraft will be slightly
below the airspeed at which they will achieve MCRIT.
• Redline airspeed may also be used to set limits on airframe temperature. As
airspeed increases, the airplane encounters more air particles producing
friction which heats up the airframe. This heating can be extreme and
hazardous at high speeds. Once the temperature becomes excessive, the
airframe may suffer creep damage.
• Excessive structural loads may be encountered on components other than
the main structural members. Control surfaces, flaps, stabilizers, and other
external components are often not able to withstand the same forces that
the wings or fuselage can withstand. Deflecting control surfaces at very high
airspeeds may create sufficient forces to twist or break the wing or stabilizer
on which they are located.
• Controllability may determine the redline airspeed on aircraft with
conventional control systems. At high airspeeds, dynamic pressure may
create forces on the control surfaces which exceed the pilot’s ability to
overcome. Or, due to the aero elasticity of the controls surfaces, full
deflection of the cockpit controls may cause only small deflection of the
control surfaces. In either case, the pilot will be unable to provide sufficient
control input to safely maneuver the airplane.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SAFE FLIGHT ENVELOPE
• The portion of the V-n diagram that is bounded by the accelerated stall
lines, the limit load factors and redline airspeed is called the safe flight
envelope.
• The five major factors affecting the safe flight envelope are gross weight,
altitude, configuration, asymmetric loading, and gust loading.
o The gross weight of an airplane will affect the airplane’s limit load
factor and ultimate load factor. (An increase in weight will also cause
the accelerated stall lines to sweep to the right since an increase in
weight increases an airplane’s stall speed. This causes the maneuver
speed to increase Weight generally does not affect redline airspeed.)

o As altitude increases, the speed of sound will decrease and TAS will
increase for a given IAS. (With an increase in altitude the indicated
redline airspeed must decrease in order to keep a subsonic airplane
below MCRIT TAS.) Since the limit and ultimate load factors are
structural limits, they do not change with altitude. Since the
horizontal axis is indicated airspeed, the accelerated stall lines will
not change.
o Another factor that affects the safe flight envelope is configuration.
When the landing gear and high lift devices are extended, the envelope
is substantially reduced in size. (This is mainly due to the relatively
weak structure of the landing gear doors and the deployed high lift
devices. High airspeeds could possibly tear the landing gear doors off
or bend the flaps. An airplane in the landing configuration does not
need to maneuver at high speeds and create high G loading. Changing
the configuration by adding external stores, such as weapons or drop
 tanks, may also reduce redline airspeed because the higher air loads
imposed may tear them from the airplane)

o Asymmetric loading refers to uneven production of lift on the wings of

an airplane. (It may be caused by a rolling pullout, trapped fuel, or
hung ordnance.) The V-n diagram may reflect limits that are imposed
because of this condition.
When an airplane is rolling, the up-going wing is producing more lift
than the down-going wing. If the airplane performs a rolling pullout,
the up-going wing may become overstressed even though the
accelerometer in the cockpit shows a G load at or below the limit load
factor. This would be aggravated even further if there were an
imbalance of ordnance or fuel on the wings. For this reason, in all
maneuvers requiring a pullout at higher than normal loading, one of
the first steps is to always level the wings. (Because asymmetric loading
is cumulative with pilot induced loading, the limit load factor due to pilot
induced loads should be reduced to approximately two-thirds of the
normal limit load factor.) This will ensure that one wing is not over
stressed, while the other wing is stressed least.
o Gust loading refers to the increase in the G load due to vertical wind
gusts. The load imposed by a gust is dependent upon the velocity of
the gust. The higher the velocity, the greater the increase in load. If an
airplane were generating the limit load factor during a maximum
performance turn and hit a vertical gust, the gust would instantaneously
increase the angle of attack of the airfoils and increase the lift on the wings
enough to raise the G load above the limit load factor.
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
• Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting
surfaces (wings) of the aircraft.
• The shape of the normal wing is designed to give enough lift to support the
aircraft in cruise.
• Consequently when the aircraft is flying at lower speeds, during take-
off and landing, it needs more lift.
• Lift augmentation is usually achieved by changing the shape of the
aerofoil and by delaying the Separation.
• This is obtained by using so-called high lift devices.
• The high lift devices will increase lift and as a result, reduce the stalling
speed.
• The change in the shape of the aerofoil results in an increase in higher co-
efficient of Lift values.
• Delay in separation results in higher stalling angles, and consequent higher
co-efficient of lift values.
• Consequently the landing speed, (about 1.3 times the stalling speed), will
also be reduced, since drag is also increased with large angles of trailing
edge flap deployment.
• The devices which are commonly incorporated in order to increase co-
efficient of lift are flaps (generally on the trailing-edge, but increasingly
common on the leading-edge as well), slats and slots (typically on the
leading-edge), and systems which allow some control of the boundary-layer
behavior.(Boundary layer control methods-Suction method and Blowing
method)
• These are divided generally into leading edge devices and trailing edge
devices.
• The leading edge devices include Slots, Slats and Kruger flap.
• The trailing edge devices include Plain flap, Slotted flap and Fowler flap.
• Additionally, on a few aircraft, ailerons designed to 'droop' when the
trailing edge flaps are lowered to certain positions, act as additional plain
flaps.
• Roll control is retained, but extra lift (and drag) is generated during landing.
• These surfaces are usually referred to as Flaperons or sometimes called
droop ailerons.
 • The flaps and slats are operated together to increase lift(for that part of the
wing) by up to 120 percent and increase stalling angle to around 30
degrees.

HIGH LIFT DEVICES-SLAT

(LEADING EDGE DEVICES-SLAT)

• Slats are auxiliary airfoils fitted to the leading edge of the wing.
• Slats are usually fitted to the leading edge near the wing tips to improve
lateral control
• A slat is a small highly cambered section attached along a portion of the
leading edge of each wing near the wingtip on a swept wing.
• Its purpose is to increase the critical angle of attack thus enabling a higher
angle of attack to be maintained by the aero plane without stalling.
• Their purpose is to control the air passing over the top of the wing at slow
speeds.
• The angle of attack of the slat being less than that of the main plane, there is
a smooth airflow over the slat which tends to smooth out the eddies
forming over the wing.
• Some slat/slot systems also have the effect of increasing wing area thus
reducing wind speed and stall speed.
• In order to delay separation which is a feature of high angles of attack, it is
usual to modify the leading-edge in order to present the wing at a more
favorable angle.
• This can be achieved by leading-edge flaps or by slats (and may be slots).
• The airflow does not encounter such a strong adverse pressure gradient,
and so separation is delayed.
• Slats are separate small aerofoil, which can be fixed or retractable.

FIXED SLAT
• Fixed slats are usually found on light aircraft, where the complications of
weight, cost etc, can be balanced by the limitation of slightly higher drag
than a 'clean' wing.
• Fixed slat increases the lift by 60 percent and stalling angle to 20 degrees.
• The most efficient position for slats to be mounted on a swept-wing aero
plane is outboard of the wing-mounted engines to just inboard of the wing
tips.
 • At low angle of attack, the fixed slat has no value; it just increases drag and
thus degrades cruise performance.
• At high angle of attack, the higher pressure on the underside of the slat is
channeled through the slot, gaining velocity and energizing the boundary
layer flow over the upper surface of the wing — thus delaying boundary
layer separation, adding perhaps a 0.6 CL (Co-efficient of lift) increase and
increasing the stalling angle of attack to perhaps 20°.

AUTOMATIC SLAT MOVABLE SLAT

MOVABLE SLAT
• When extended, the slat introduces a small gap between itself and the
leading edge of the wing causing a Venturi effect through which the airflow
accelerates adding to the kinetic energy and re-energizing the boundary
layer.
• A movable slat may be automatic in operation or selected manually from
the cockpit and operated electrically,hydraulically or pneumatically.
• On larger aircraft, the retractable slats have their extension
interconnected with the trailing edge flaps.
• The moveable slats are interconnected to prevent asymmetric operation
of the port and starboard sections.
• If asymmetric operation was to occur in flight then a violent roll would
occur.
• Detectors are fitted to stop the system if this were to happen.

AUTOMATIC SLAT
• At normal operating angles of attack a slat is of little use but if it is not flush
with the leading edge of the wing it will increase the drag.
 • To minimize this disadvantage the slat is mounted on hinged, movable
supporting arms that are able to move between two positions, closed and
operational.
• This type of slat is fully automatic and does not require a separate control.
• Some slats operate when the trailing-edge flaps setting is altered because it
changes the position of the slats simultaneously.
• In automatic operation the slat is spring loaded in the closed position.
• At high angles of attack, they automatically move out ahead of the wing.
• At high angles of attack the negative pressure beign felt by the slat causes it
to pull out on a system of levers from the wing.
• The slat then directs the airflow over the top of the wing to sweep it clean of
any turbulence.
• When the angle of attack is decreased the negative pressure on the slat is
insufficient to hold it out and the spring will pull it back flush fitting to the
wing.
• When operated the increase in lift will be about 60 percent with an increase
in angle of attack to about 22 degrees.
• Large slats are nearly always the automatic type but some smaller slats that
cause negligible drag are fixed and are similar to slots.
• The slat system is capable of deploying asymmetrically if only one wing
approaches the critical angle of attack.

MANUAL SLATS
• The operation of the slats may be under the control of the pilot who can
extend them for take-off and landing, if so desired.
• They may be electrically or hydraulically operated and although the pilot
has control of this type of slat in normal circumstances.
• On large aircraft these slats are selected out for take-off and landing along
with the flaps.
• On some aircraft the flap selector also selects the slats.
• There is an over-riding automatic system that will extend the slats if the
angle of attack becomes dangerously high approaching the stall.
• This system is normally included in the design of aircraft that have to
operate at low speed and low altitude, such as crop sprayers, because they
often have to climb away steeply at very low speeds.
• Included in the design for such aero planes is an in-built safety protection
mechanism that prevents asymmetric slat deployment.
• They are mechanically interconnected and may be wound out using
hydraulic motors and are fitted with asymmetric detectors that stop the
movement immediately should asymmetryic operation be detected.
• For an aero plane fitted with both slats and flaps, after take-off it is
customary to retract the flaps first because the slats when extended
decrease the stalling speed by a large amount and produce very little drag.
• Therefore, it is prudent to leave their retraction until last, during the take-
off climb.

TYPICAL FLAP OPERATING SYSTEM

 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
DEVICES-SLOT
SLOT
(LEADING EDGE DEVICE
DEVICE-SLOT)

• Slots are passageways built into the wing a short distance from the leading
edge in such a way that, at high angles of attack, the air flows through the
slot and over the wing, tending to smooth out the turbulence due to eddies.
• The addition of a slot allows air from beneath the aerofoil to accelerate into
the airflow above the aerofoil thus adding to its energy, so delaying
separation.
• The slot accelerates air from below the wing and merges it with the
boundary layer above the wi wing thereby delaying the stall
• A slot is a suitably shaped aperture built into the wing structure near the
leading edge.
• Slots guide and accelerate air from below the wing and discharge it over the
upper surface to re-energize
energize the existing airflow.
• Slots may be fixed, controlled, automatic or blown.
• Slotted wing has a fixed slot in the wing.
• A leading edge slot is more effective than a slot in a flap
• At high angles of attack air from the under the wing surface rushes through
the slot and sweeps the top of the wing clear of any turbulent airflow.
• A fixed slot increases lift by 40 percent and increases stalling angle to 20
degrees.
• Aero planes equipped with slots can fly at much greater angles of attack
before stalling.
• The use of a slot has two important ad advantages:
1. There is only a negligible change in the pitching moment due to the slot.
2. No significant change in section drag at low angles of attack.
• The slotted section will have less drag than the basic section near the
maximum m lift angle for the basic section.
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES-DROOP AILERONS
(USED ONLY DURING LANDING PHASE FOR SMOOTH TOUCHDOWN)
• On a high lift aircraft, the ailerons are interconnected to the flaps.
• In this arrangement, as the flaps are extended, the ailerons droop to add
more lift and better control response at slower speeds.
• On a few aircraft, ailerons designed to 'droop' when the trailing edge flaps
are lowered to certain positions, act as additional plain flaps.
• Roll control is retained, but extra lift (and drag) is generated during landing.
• These surfaces are usually referred to as Flaperons or sometimes called
droop ailerons.
• Droop ailerons are usually fitted on high performance aircraft and are used
during the landing phase of the aircraft.

HIGH LIFT DEVICES-LEADING EDGE FLAPS

(LEADING EDGE DEVICES-FLAPS)
• Leading edge flaps are principally used on large high speed aircraft.
• When they are in UP position (or retracted) position, they fair in with the
aircraft wings and serve as part of the wing leading edge.
• When in the DOWN position (or extended) position, the flaps pivot on the
hinge points and droop to about 45 degrees or 50 degrees with the wing
chord line.
• Leading-edge flaps when extended perform a similar function to that of
slats except that they do not create a slot; instead they increase the camber
of the wing.
 • Because of this they do not increase the lift at all angles of attack and are
not as effective as slats at delaying the stall.
• Nevertheless, they do, to a lesser extent, increase the critical angle of attack,
increase the Cl (Co-efficient of lift) max and decrease the nose-down
pitching moment.
• However, when approaching the stalling angle they have the disadvantage
of reducing the stability of the wing.
• The most efficient position to mount leading-edge flaps on a swept-wing
aero plane is inboard of the wing-mounted engines at the wing roots.
• There are three types of leading edge flap, the plain Krueger flap, the
drooped leading-edge flap and variable camber Krueger flap.
• The leading edge flap is similar in operation to the plain flap; that is, it is
hinged on the bottom side, and, when actuated, the leading edge of the wing
extends in a downward direction to increase the camber of the wing.
• A leading edge flap which when hinged forward increases lift by 50 percent
and stalling angle to 25 degrees.
• Leading edge flaps are used in conjunction with other types of flaps.
• Kruger flaps are usually fitted to the leading edges of the wing at the
inboard sections where the effect of 'slats' or 'drooped leading edges' are
not as efficient.
DROOPED LEADING EDGE
• A drooped leading edge of a wing achieves a similar result to that of the
Krueger flap.
• The whole section of the leading edge of the wing can be depressed in a
controlled manner to progressively increase the lift and the stalling angle.
• It does prevent the trim changes experienced with the Krueger flap but has
the disadvantage that it requires extremely complex engineering to enable
it to operate.

PLAIN KRUGER FLAP

• The plain Krueger flap is a small flap on the inboard, leading edge, and
underside of a wing that is hinged at the leading edge of the wing and
extends forward.
VARIABLE CAMBER KRUGER FLAP
• With the variable camber Krueger flap the amount of downward extension
can be selected and controlled.
• For small angular deflections it reduces the amount of lift produced but
when fully extended it can increase the lift by approximately 50% and also
increase the stalling angle up to 25 percent.
• The pitching moment can vary considerably during extension but when
fully extended it will cause a nose-up pitching moment requiring
considerable changes of trim.

HIGH LIFT DEVICES-FLAPS

(TRAILING EDGE DEVICES-FLAPS)
FLAPS
• The flaps are mounted inboard of the ailerons and are probably the most
used lift device in service.
• They increase the lift capability of the airfoil to the maximum attainable.
• This means that an aircraft can become or remain airborne at lower speeds
with flaps extended.
• They also permit a shorter ground run on landing when used as airbrakes
by permitting the gliding angle to be increased without greatly increasing
the approach speed.
• Flaps are used change the shape of the wing.
 • When the flaps are extended, the curvature (camber) of the wing is
increased.
• They generally consist of a hinged trailing-edge to the main plane,
extending from just inboard of the ailerons, to the wing-root.
• They range from the simple plain flap to the multi section Fowler flap,
which moves rearwards at the same time as hinging downwards. (Hence,
the area increases as well as the co-efficient of lift value).
• The different types and their individual characteristics are shown in a later
diagram.
• Flaps also greatly increase the drag on the wings thus slowing the aircraft
down.
• Thus on take-off, flaps are partially deployed and the increase in drag is
overcome with more thrust, while on landing they are fully deployed for
maximum effect.
• The number and type of auxiliary wing flap surfaces on an aircraft vary
widely, depending on the type and size of aircraft.

PLAIN FLAP
• A plain flap is a simple hinged portion of the trailing edge that is forced
down into the airstream to increase the camber of the airfoil.
• Plain flaps are commonly used as ailerons, elevators and rudders.
• A plain flap changes the camber of a wing and thereby increases or
decreases lift.
• The most common (because of its simplicity) is the plain flap, which might
provide a 0.5 increase in Co-efficient of lift (max) with a large increase in
drag when fully deflected.

SIMPLE PLAIN FLAP

FOWLER FLAP
• The Fowler flap is similar to the split flap.
• The Fowler flap is used extensively on large airplanes.
• This type of flap moves rearwards as well as downwards on tracks, creating
slots, if more than one fowler is connected as part of the system.
• Thus, both wing camber and wing area are increased.
• Because of the large area created on airfoils with fowler flaps, a large
twisting moment is developed. This requires a structurally stronger wing to
withstand the increased twisting load and precludes their use on high
speed, thin wings.
• The greater the number of slots the higher is the value of CLmax (Co-efficient
of lift-maximum)

FOWLER FLAPS

BLOWN FLAP
• In the blown flap air bled from the engines is ducted over the top surface of
the flap to mix with and re-energize the existing airflow.
SLOTTED FLAP
• A slotted flap is similar to the plain flap, but moves away from the wing to
open a narrow slot between the flap and wing for boundary layer control.
• A slotted flap may cause a slight increase in wing area, but the increase is
insignificant.
• During the operation of the slotted flap, a gap or slot is formed between the
wing and the flap.
• Slotted flaps create an opening that allows air to escape from the lower
surface of the wing to the upper surface.
• This slot is shaped so that air passing through it accelerates.
• The air then combines with the boundary layer on the top surface of the
wing re-energizing it.
• We know that lack of energy in the boundary layer results in stalls at high
angle of attack.
• The slot therefore delays the stall allowing the wing to fly to a greater angle
of attack.

SLOTTED FLAP

SINGLE SLOTTED TRAILING EDGE FLAP DOUBLE SLOTTED TRAILING EDGE FLAP
 TRIPLE SLOTTED FLAP-UPPER VIEW TRIPLE SLOTTED FLAP-BOTTOM VIEW

DOUBLE SLOTTED FLAP-FULLY EXTENDED FLAPS FULLY LOWERED-CESSNA AIRCRAFT

SPLIT FLAP
• A split flap is a plate deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil.
• When the flap is lowered the top surface is unchanged thus eliminating
airflow breakaway which occurs over the top surface of the plain flap at
large angles of depression.
• The split flap provides slightly more increase in lift but a larger increase in
drag, and is more difficult to construct and thus probably not worth the
effort.
• This type of flap creates a lot of drag because of the turbulent air between
the wing and deflected surface.

PARTIALLY DEPLOYED SPLIT FLAP SPLIT FLAP

REFLEX FLAP
• Some aircraft are fitted with flaps that also can be deflected upward 5° or
10° above the normal neutral or stowed position in addition to the normal
downward deflection.
• Upward deflection of flaps is done at cruising speed, and increases the
maximum cruise speed perhaps 5% by reflexing camber and reducing drag,
and is often associated with aero foils that have good laminar flow.

ADVANTAGES OF USING FLAPS

• If flaps are fitted, small flap deflections- say 10°- might be used for safer
take-off, due to the lower lift-off speed available. But half to full flap
deflection is always used for landing to provide:
o lower safe approach and touch-down speeds
o a nose-down attitude for a better view of the landing area
o a steeper approach path (because of the degraded L/D) for better
obstacle clearance, which can be controlled at will
o a shorter 'float' after rounding out because of increased drag
o a shorter ground roll, if flaps are left fully extended until the aircraft
has exited the runway.
• And flaps enable the approach to be made with engine power well above
idle, which is beneficial to the engine, allows power changes to either
increase or decrease the rate of sink and provides better engine response in
case of a go-around
• Flaps are operated:
o Manually. Being connected by rods and levers to a handle in the cockpit,
similar to a car hand brake. (Usually on light aircraft)
o By electric actuators.
o By a hydraulic jack or jacks (Split flaps and Plain flaps)
o By hydraulic motors-Fowler type of flaps.

EFFECT OF FLAP ON LIFT/DRAG RATIO

• Lowering the flaps produces an increase in the lift co-efficient at a given
speed but at the same time the greater camber also causes an increase in
the total drag.
• The best lift-drag ratio is obtained with the flap at some angle between 15
degrees and 35 degrees, the exact angle depending principally on the
aerofoil section used and the type of flap employed and its area.
 • For a typical flap, as soon as the flap starts to lower, the lift and drag start
increasing
• Assuming the flap has angular movement of 90 degrees,
o For about first 30 degrees there is a steady rise in the co-efficient of lift
o During the next 30 degrees the co-efficient of lift increases at a
reduced rate.
o In the final 30 degrees stage, the co-efficient of lift increases at a
negligible rate.
• In conjunction with lift, the drag also increases during the first 30 degrees.
• For about first 30 degrees the drag increase is small and in the final 30
degrees a rapid rise in drag takes place.

EFFECT OF FLAP ON WING TIP STALLING

• Lowering of flaps may increase the tendency towards the tip stalling of
swept back wings.
• When the flaps are lowered the increased downwash over the flaps and
behind them induces a balancing up wash over the outer portions of the
wings at high angles of attack and this up wash may be sufficient to increase
the angle of attack at the tip to the stalling angle.
• On the other hand, because of the lowered flaps the higher suction effect
obtained over the inboard sections of the wing have the effect of restricting
outward flow of the boundary layer and thus avoiding the thickening the
boundary layer which will be a beneficial effect to avoid tip stalling.
• The practical outcome of these opposing tendencies is dependant on which
of the two has the greater effect.

EFFECT OF FLAP ON SWEPT BACK WINGS

• Where the flaps are mounted on a trailing edge that is sweptback wings, the
lowered flap is presented to the airflow in a sweptback attitude viewed
from the front.
• The greater the swept back, smaller is the frontal area of the flap exposed to
the effect of the on-coming air flow and hence the effectiveness of the flap is
reduced.
USE OF FLAP FOR TAKE-OFF
• The increased lift co-efficient when the flaps are lowered shorten the take-
off run, provided that the recommended amount of flap (as per pilot’s
notes) is used.
• The flap angle for take-off is that for the best lift/drag ratio that can be
obtained with the flaps in any position other than fully up.
• If large amounts of flaps are used, although the lift is increased, the higher
drag slows the rate of acceleration so that the take-off run, although
perhaps shorter than with no flaps, is not the shortest possible.

RAISING THE FLAP IN FLIGHT

• Shortly after the take-off while the aircraft is accelerating and climbing
slightly, the action of raising the flaps causes an immediate reduction in the
lift and the aircraft loses height, or sinks unless this is counteracted by an
increase in the angle of attack.
• The more efficient the flap the greater is the associated drop in the lift co-
efficient.
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES-FLAPERON
• A control surface that combines the functions of the flaps and the ailerons
is the flaperon.
• The control surfaces govern the roll or bank of the aeroplane in the same
manner as the ailerons but can be lowered simultaneously to perform the
function of the flaps.
• If they can be raised upward they are spoilerons and perform the same
function as spoilers.
• The inputs of the two controls are mixed either electrically or mechanically
when the pilot’s control column is used, however, the ability to separate the
functions of the two control surfaces is still retained.
• The control surfaces are individually mounted on the trailing edge of each
wing raised from the surface of the wing so that they are positioned in the
undisturbed airflow outside of the boundary layer, so as to maintain total
controllability.
• In some light aircraft designs, particularly those with short take-off and
landing [STOL] capability, it has been found expedient to incorporate the
aileron and a plain flap into one control surface that extends the full length
of the wing trailing edge.
• The different functional movements are sorted out by a control mixer
mechanism.
• Usually, the flaperon is not integral with the wing but bracketed to the
under wing to provide a slotted flap — acting like an external aerofoil flying
in close formation with the main wing.
• Although the Co-efficient of lift increase attainable might be 1.0, there are
drawbacks to this arrangement, which particularly exacerbate low speed
aileron drag.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES-BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
(METHOD ADAPTED TO AUGUMENT LIFT)
BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL- BLOWING METHOD

• This type of control of the boundary layer is confined to jet-propelled

fighter aircraft that have a high load factor on a small overall wing surface
area.
• Boundary layer control can also be accomplished by directing high-
pressure engine bleed air through a narrow orifice located just forward of
the wing flap leading edge.
• This directs a laminar flow (air in layers) of air over the wing and flaps
when the flaps have opened sufficiently to expose the orifice.
• The high-temperature, high-velocity laminar air passing over the wing and
flaps delays flow separation (the airstream over an airfoil no longer follows
the contour of the airfoil), hence reduces turbulence and drag.
• This result in a lower stall speeds and allows slower landing speeds.
• The operating method of this system is that a small amount of compressed
air is bled off from the compressor stage of the engine and fed through
pipes to the channels separated at intervals along the trailing edge of the
wing and exhausted through slots in the flaps when the flap reached a
specific angle.
• The air is forced out of the channel downward over the upper surface of the
flap and follows the flap profile re-energizing the boundary layer, thus
preventing it from stagnating until further along the flap.
• The overall effect is that the amount of lift produced is increased.
• At low airspeeds when the amount of flap deployed is large, the amount of
air delivered by this system is a significant portion of the overall airflow.
 • This importantly increases Cl max, (co-efficient of lift-maximum) almost
doubling the value of that attained without the use of the blown system of
augmentation.
• This also enables the landing speed to be safely decreased by a large
amount. Using the same method simultaneously with leading-edge slots
further enhances the maximum lift and decreased landing-speed benefits.

BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL -SUCTION METHOD

• Controlling boundary layer air by surface suction allows the wing to
operate at higher angles of attack.
• The effect on lift characteristics is similar to that of a slot, because the slot is
essentially a boundary layer control device ducting high-energy air to the
upper surface.
• Another method used to force the boundary layer of air to stay in contact
with the upper surface of the wing is suction.
• If the whole surface area were to be covered in a series of small slots
through which the entire boundary layer of air could be sucked then it
could be completely replaced by undisturbed air.
• However, the power required to perform such a function is enormous and
there is no overall benefit.
• Nevertheless, replacing the boundary layer over a small portion of the wing
is feasible and beneficial to the performance of the aero plane.
• The effect it has prevents separation by stabilizing and strengthening the
boundary layer.
• A vacuum sucks air through a porous surface area or through a series of
small slots running from the wing root out to the wing tip, at approximately
the 50% point of the chord line where the adverse pressure gradient is
marked and not where it is just starting.
• The air is then exhausted rearward through ducts or channels.
• In this manner the thickness of the boundary layer is decreased and permits
the air flowing over it to travel faster.
• The use of a porous surface area is generally more effective than the use of
slots.

AIRPLANE STABILITY
• Stability is the inherent ability of a body, after its equilibrium is disturbed,
to develop forces or moments that tend to return the body to its original
position.
• In other words, a stable airplane will tend to return to the original condition
of flight if disturbed by a force such as turbulent air.
• This means that a stable airplane is easy to fly; however, this does not mean
that a pilot can depend entirely on stability to return the airplane to the
original condition.
• Even in the most stable airplanes, there are conditions that will require the
use of airplane controls to return the airplane to the desired attitude.
• However, a pilot will find that a well designed airplane requires less effort
to control the airplane because of the inherent stability.
• Stability may be further classified as static and/or dynamic.
 o Static stability means that if the airplane’s equilibrium is disturbed,
forces will be activated which will initially tend to return the airplane
to its original position. However, these restoring forces may be so
great that they will force the airplane beyond the original position and
continue in that direction.
o Dynamic stability is a property which dampens the oscillations set up
by a statically stable airplane, enabling the oscillations to become
smaller and smaller in magnitude until the airplane eventually settles
down to its original condition of flight. Therefore, an airplane should
possess positive stability which is both static and dynamic in nature.

STATIC STABILITY
Static stability means that if the airplane’s equilibrium is disturbed, forces will be
activated which will initially tend to return the airplane to its original position.
However, these restoring forces may be so great that they will force the airplane
beyond the original position and continue in that direction.

Static stability is classified into three types:

1. Positive Static Stability
2. Neutral Static Stability
3. Negative Static Stability

POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY

Positive stability can be illustrated by a ball inside of a bowl. If the ball is
displaced from its normal resting place at the bottom of the bowl, it will
eventually return to its original position at the bottom of the bowl.

NEUTRAL STATIC STABILITY

Neutral stability can be illustrated by a ball on a flat plane. If the ball is displaced,
it will come to rest at some new, neutral position and show no tendency to return
to its original position.

NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY

Negative stability is in fact instability and can be illustrated by a ball on the top of
an inverted bowl. Even the slightest displacement of the ball will activate greater
forces which will cause the ball to continue to move in the direction of the
applied force. It should be obvious that airplanes should display positive
stability, or perhaps neutral stability, but never negative stability.
POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY NEUTRAL STATIC STABILITY

DYNAMIC STABILITY
Dynamic stability is a property which dampens the oscillations set up by a
statically stable airplane, enabling the oscillations to become smaller and smaller
in magnitude until the airplane eventually settles down to its original condition
of flight. Therefore, an airplane should possess positive stability which is both
static and dynamic in nature.

POSITIVE DYNAMIC STABILITY

Static stability reveals nothing about whether the object ever settles back to its
original equilibrium position. To study dynamic stability, we will first assume the
object to possess positive static stability. Consider a ball at the top of Figure
given below. After it is released, it will roll back to the bottom and up the other
side. It will roll back and forth, oscillating less and less about the equilibrium
position until it finally came to rest at the bottom of the bowl. It possesses
positive dynamic stability. Note that although the ball passes through the
equilibrium position, it is not in equilibrium again until it has stopped moving.
The motion described is damped oscillation
NEUTRAL DYNAMIC STABILITY
If the ball oscillates about the equilibrium position and the oscillations never
dampen out, it possesses neutral dynamic stability. The figure given below
depicts its displacement relative to equilibrium over time. This motion is
undamped oscillation

NEGATIVE DYNAMIC STABILITY

If, somehow, the ball did not slow down, but continued to climb to a higher and
higher position with each oscillation, it would never return to its original
equilibrium position. The figure given above depicts negative dynamic
stability. This motion is impossible with a ball, but occasionally aircraft behave
this way. This motion is divergent oscillation.
If an object does not have positive static stability, it cannot have positive dynamic
stability. If an object has positive static stability, it can have any dynamic
stability. In other words, static stability does not ensure dynamic stability, but
static instability ensures dynamic instability. If an object is dynamically stable,
the displacement from equilibrium will be reduced until the object is again at its
original equilibrium. It must have both positive static and positive dynamic
stability. If an object is dynamically unstable, the displacement may or may not
increase, but the object will never return to its original equilibrium.
 • Rotation about the lateral axis is called pitch and is controlled by the
elevators. This rotation is referred to as longitudinal control or longitudinal
stability.
• Rotation about the longitudinal axis is called roll and is controlled by the
ailerons. This rotation is referred to as lateral control or lateral stability.
• Rotation about the vertical axis is called yaw and is controlled by the
rudder. This rotation is referred to as directional control or directional
stability.
• Stability of the airplane then, is the combination of forces that act around
these three axes to keep the pitch attitude of the airplane in a normal level
flight attitude with respect to the horizon, the wings level, and the nose of
the airplane directionally straight along the desired path of flight.

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
• Rotation about the lateral axis is called pitch and is controlled by the
elevators. This rotation is referred to as longitudinal control or longitudinal
stability.
• Longitudinal stability of an aircraft can be divided into two ways.
o Stability when in steady level flight- This is a function of the static
stability characteristics.
o Stability when in accelerated flight- As the flight maneuvers; the
stability obtained is a function of dynamic stability characteristics.

FACTORS GOVERNING LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

There are three main factors that govern the longitudinal stability of an airplane.
They are:
1. Position of the centre of gravity of the airplane
2. Movement of centre of pressure
3. Design of tail plane and elevator

POSITION OF C.G
The forward limit of the centre of gravity is that at which the aircraft is most
stable. If a stable aircraft is trimmed in level flight at this C.G position and then
disturbed, it will return quickly to its trimmed position. If the forward position is
exceeded the aircraft may become excessively tiring to maneuver by reason of its
high stability which tends to resists disturbance and it may also become
uncontrollably nose heavy at low speeds.
 As the C.G is moved aft, the degree of stability decreases, and when disturbed
from a trimmed position with the C.G further aft, the aircraft returns less quickly
to its trimmed flight.
Eventually C.G position is reached at which the aircraft remain in the disturbed
position, with no tendency to regain the trimmed position. This is known as
neutral point of the C.G at which position neutral stability prevails.
Any movement of the C.G further aft produces instability and on disturbances the
aircraft will diverge further from the original position unless stopped by the
pilot.
When a stable aircraft is disturbed by the pilot from the trimmed position
into a nose-up attitude, the amount of pull required is proportional to the
stability.
For a neutrally stable aircraft there is negligible force required to hold the
aircraft in the disturbed position.
For an unstable aircraft, only a very slight pull force is required to change the
attitude.

MOVEMENT OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE

The movement of centre of pressure depends on the change in the angle of
attack. The centre of pressure moves forward as the angle of attack increases and
moves backward as the angle of attack decreases. The amount of movement of
centre of pressure depends on the aerofoil section used. Most symmetrical
sections have little or no movement of the centre of pressure. The centre of
pressure may also be disturbed by the alterations in the weight in flight, such as
consumption of fuel, movement of mobile loads within the flight and also by air
disturbances or due to transient disturbances like lowering the undercarriage or
flaps.
Lesser is the movement of centre of pressure more stable is the aircraft longitudinally
and vice versa.
DESIGN OF TAIL PLANE AND ELEVATOR
The function of the tail plane is to provide a countering force to any residual out-
of-balance couples existing between the four main forces. If the angle of attack is
increased by a disturbance, the wing lift is increased and the centre of pressure
tends to move forward. The result is to change the couple about the centre of
gravity set by the original value of lift and so the state of balance no longer exists.
The tail plane has been subjected to the same increase in the angle of attack. It is
designed so that the increase in the tail plane lift multiplied by the distance to the
C.G is greater than the unbalancing moment caused by the increased wing lift
multiplied by its distance from the C.G. The aircraft is then restored to its
trimmed position. The difference in the angle of incidence to which the main
plane and tail plane are set in the rigged position is known as longitudinal
dihedral. In heavily swept back wings the wing tips are given wash-out to
provide the same effect as longitudinal dihedral in a conventional aircraft. The
interaction between the C.G, C.P and the tail plane determines the degree of
longitudinal stability

FACTORS GOVERNING LATERAL STABILITY

Lateral stability of an aircraft is obtained by one or more of the following:
1. Dihedral angle
2. Sweep back of the wing
3. Placing most of the keel surface above the C.G
4. Using a high wing and low C.G position

DIHEDRAL
When an aircraft with dihedral angle is banked, the tilted lift vector through its
horizontal component set up a side-slipping velocity towards the lower wing tip.
The effect of the dihedral angle is to cause the airflow to meet the lower wing at a
large angle of attack than the higher wing; thereby increasing the lift on the
lower wing and set up a restoring moment to correct the positions of the aircraft.
The effect is aided, to some extent by the fuselage shielding.

SWEEPBACK
When an aircraft with a sweepback form is banked by a disturbance, the changed
direction of the airflow over the lower wing passing over a short effective chord
with a greater effective camber than that of the raised wing. As with dihedral the
upper wing may also suffer though being shielded. The final result is as before a
relatively greater amount of lift from the lower wing which restores lateral level.
The stabilizing effect is also increased by the effectively higher aspect ratio of the
lower wing and effectively lower aspect ratio of the upper wing. The difference
being caused by the change in the effective chord. On some aircraft with sharply
swept back wings the degree of inherent lateral stability is excessive and to
decrease the stabilizing effect the wings are set at an anhedral angle to partially
neutralize the restoring moment.
HIGH KEEL SURFACE
During a side slip considerable force is exerted on the side surfaces(keel surface)
on an aircraft and a turning moment above the C.G produces, a greater moment
than that below it, the result will be a corrective moment which will assist in
restoring the lateral level.
HIGH WING AND LOW C.G
With the wing in comparatively higher position in relation to the C.G a pendulous
effect arises when the aircraft side slips. During the side slip the drag of the wing
acting above the C.G allows it to swing down, until it is once more vertically
below the lift and the aircraft is laterally level.
FACTORS GOVERNING DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
The factors governing the directional stability are:
1. Fin area
2. Most keel surface behind the C.G

FIN AREA
For lateral stability, when the aircraft is disturbed directionally the airflow for a
moment continue to attack in the original direction. The fin, having been located
far behind the C.G when affected by this airflow, because of a long leverage
provides a correcting moment tending to bring the aircraft back into original
path.
MOST KEEL SURFACE BEHIND THE C.G
In the lateral stability the keel surface above the C.G level is considered, but in
the directional stability the amount of keel surface behind the C.G is to be
considered which is more than that of the earlier case. Greater the surface behind
the C.G more greater is the correcting moment applied when affected
directionally.
 DYNAMIC STABILITY
• When we discuss dynamic stability, we must realize that lateral and
directional stability are inter related.
• The relationship between the lateral stability and the directional stability is
known as cross-coupling.
• The motions of an airplane are such that a rolling motion causes a yawing
motion and vice versa.
• This cross-coupling between directional static stability and lateral static
stability causes several dynamic effects including spiral divergence, Dutch
roll, proverse roll, and adverse yaw.

DIRECTIONAL DIVERGENCE
• Directional divergence is a condition of flight in which the reaction to a
small initial sideslip results in an increase in sideslip angle.
• Directional divergence is caused by negative directional static stability.
• If the vertical stabilizer becomes ineffective for some reason (battle
damage, mid-air collision), directional divergence could cause out of control
flight.
• Most airplanes have very strong directional stability to prevent this from
occurring.

SPIRAL DIVERGENCE
• Spiral divergence occurs when an airplane has strong directional stability and
weak lateral stability.
• For example, an airplane is disturbed so that its wing dips and starts to roll
to the left.
 • Because the airplane has weak lateral stability it cannot correct itself and
the flight path arcs to the left.
• The airplane senses a new relative wind from the left and aligns itself with
the new wind by yawing into it (strong directional stability).
• The right wing is now advancing and the increased airflow causes the
airplane to roll even more to the left.
• The airplane will continue to chase the relative wind and will develop a
tight descending spiral.
• This is easily corrected by control input from the pilot.

DUTCH ROLL
• Dutch roll is the result of strong lateral stability and weak directional
stability.
• The airplane responds to a disturbance with both roll and yaw motions that
affect each other. For example, a gust causes the airplane to roll left,
producing a left sideslip.
• The strong lateral stability increases lift on the left wing and corrects it back
to wings level. At the same time, the nose of the airplane yaws left into the
sideslip relative wind.
• This leaves the airplane wings level, with the nose cocked out to the left.
• The weak directional stability now swings the nose to the right to correct
the nose back into the relative wind.
• This causes the left wing to advance faster than the right wing, a situation
which produces more lift on the left wing and rolls the airplane to the right,
creating a right sideslip.
• The strong lateral stability corrects the wings back to level, while the nose
yaws right into the sideslip relative wind.
• This leaves the airplane wings level, with the nose cocked out to the right.
• As the nose yaws left into the relative wind, the wings will roll left which
starts the entire process again. The airplane appears to be “tail wagging”.
• This condition can be tolerated and may eventually dampen out.
• However, it is not acceptable in a fighter or attack airplane when the pilot is
trying to aim at a target.
PHUGOID OSCILLATIONS
• Phugoid oscillations are long period oscillations (20 to 100 seconds) of altitude
and airspeed while maintaining a nearly constant angle of attack.
• Oscillations of pitch attitude do occur, but are often minor.
 • Upon being struck by an upward gust, an airplane would gain altitude and
lose airspeed. A large but gradual change in altitude and airspeed occurs.
• When enough airspeed is lost, the airplane will nose-over slightly,
commencing a gradual descent, gaining airspeed and losing altitude.
• When enough airspeed is regained, the nose will pitch up, starting the
process over.
• The period of this oscillation is long enough that the pilot can easily correct
it.
• Often, due to the almost negligible changes in pitch, the pilot may make the
necessary corrections while being completely unaware of the oscillation.
PILOT/AIRPLANE INTERACTION
A complete discussion of an airplane’s stability characteristics is not limited to
how the airplane reacts to various external forces, but must also consider the
interaction of the pilot and the airplane.
PROVERSE ROLL
• Proverse roll is the tendency of an airplane to roll in the same direction as it
is yawing.
• When an airplane yaws, the yawing motion causes one wing to advance and
the other wing to retreat.
• This increases the airflow on the advancing wing and decreases airflow
over the retreating wing.
• A difference in lift is created between the two wings, and the airplane rolls
in the same direction as it yawed.
• Proverse roll is even more pronounced on swept wing airplanes since the
advancing wing will have more chord wise flow and will produce more lift.
ADVERSE YAW
• Adverse yaw is the tendency of an airplane to yaw away from the direction
of aileron roll input.
• When an airplane rolls, it has more lift on the up-going wing than on the
down-going wing.
• This causes an increase in induced drag on the up-going wing that will
retard that wing’s forward motion and cause the nose to yaw in the
opposite direction of the roll.
• The aircraft produces adverse yaw each time the ailerons are deflected
(rolling into and out of a turn).
• We can do three things to overcome this problem.
o The first method is to use spoilers instead of ailerons. The spoiler is
deflected into the airstream from the upper surface of the wing. This
 spoils the airflow and reduces lift, causing the airplane to roll. The
spoiler increases the parasite drag on the down-going wing, offsetting
the induced drag on the up-going wing and helps reduce or eliminate
adverse yaw.
o The second method is to use a rudder input to offset adverse yaw.
o The third is actually a design method of building the aircraft with
differential ailerons.
PILOT INDUCED OSCILLATIONS
• Pilot induced oscillations (PIO) are short period oscillations of pitch attitude and
angle of attack.
• PIO or porpoising occurs when a pilot is trying to control airplane
oscillations that happen over approximately the same time span as it takes
to react.
• For example, a gust of wind causes the nose to pitch up. The natural
longitudinal stability of the airplane will normally compensate.
• However, if the pilot tries to push the nose-down, his input may coincide
with the stability correction, causing the nose to over correct and end up
low.
• The pilot then pulls back on the stick causing the nose to be high again.
Since the short period motion of PIO is of relatively high frequency, the
amplitude of the pitching could reach dangerous levels in a very short time.
• If PIO is encountered, the pilot must rely on the inherent stability of the
airplane and immediately release the controls, if altitude permits. If not, the
pilot should “freeze” the stick slightly aft of neutral.
ASYMMETRIC THRUST
• Any airplane with more than one engine can have directional control
problems if one engine fails. This is known as asymmetric thrust.
• If an airplane with its engines located far from the fuselage, has an engine
failure, the thrust from the operating engine(s) will create a yawing
moment toward the dead engine.
• This can happen even if the engines are relatively close.
• The farther from the longitudinal axis that the engines are located the
greater the moment created by the operating engine.
• The yawing motion may be sufficient to cause proverse roll.
• Full opposite rudder may be required to compensate for the yawing
moment, while opposite aileron should be used to correct the proverse roll.
• Every multi-engine airplane has a minimum directional control speed that
must be flown to ensure maximum effectiveness of the vertical stabilizer
following an engine failure.
SLIPSTREAM SWIRL
• The propeller imparts a corkscrewing motion to the air called the
slipstream swirl.
• This corkscrewing air flows around the fuselage until it reaches the vertical
stabilizer where it increases the AOA on the vertical stabilizer.
• When a propeller driven airplane is at a high power setting and low
airspeed (e.g., during takeoff), the increased angle of attack creates a
horizontal lifting force that pulls the tail to the right and causes the nose to
yaw left.
• Right rudder and lateral control stick inputs are required to compensate for
slipstream swirl.
P-FACTOR
• Propeller factor (P-factor) is the yawing moment caused by one prop blade
creating more thrust than the other.
• The angle at which each blade strikes the relative wind will be different,
causing a different amount of thrust to be produced by each blade.
• For practical purposes, only the up-going and down-going blades are
considered.
• If the relative wind is above the thrust line, the up-going propeller blade on
the left side creates more thrust since it has a larger angle of attack with the
relative wind.
• This will yaw the nose to the right. Note that this right yaw will result at
high airspeeds due to the slight nose-down attitude required in level flight.
• If the relative wind is below the thrust line, such as in flight near the stall
speed, the down-going blade on the right side will create more thrust and
will yaw the nose to the left.
• There are two basic requirements for P-factor to have a noticeable effect:
• The engine must be set to a high power condition, and the thrust axis must
be displaced from the relative wind.
• Since airplane designers want P-factor to be minimized during the majority of
flight, they align the thrust axis with the relative wind for cruise airspeeds.
 • Thus, P-factor will be most prevalent at AOAs significantly different from
cruise AOA, such as very high speed level or descending flight, and high
angle of attack climbs.

TORQUE
• Torque is a reactive force based on Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
• A force must be applied to the propeller to cause it to rotate clockwise.
• A force of equal magnitude, but opposite direction, is produced which tends
to roll the airplane’s fuselage counter-clockwise.
• One of the aircraft uses the elevator trim tabs to compensate for torque.
• If the elevator trim is set to zero, the left trim tab is approximately 4.5°
down from the elevator, while the right trim tab is approximately 4.5° up
from the elevator.
• A turbojet aircraft will not experience torque from its engines. Jet engines
do not push against the airframe in order to rotate, they rest on bearings
and push against the airflow to rotate.
• The torque in a turboprop is applied through its gearbox, not its engine.
GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION
• Gyroscopic precession is consequence of the properties of spinning objects.
• When a force is applied to the rim of a spinning object (such as a propeller)
parallel to the axis of rotation, a resultant force is created in the direction of
the applied force, but occurs 90° ahead in the direction of rotation.
• Pitching the nose of the aircraft down produces applied force acting
forward on the top of the propeller disk.
• The resultant force would act 90° ahead in the direction of propeller
rotation (clockwise), and cause the aircraft to yaw left.
• Gyroscopic precession often plays a large role in determining an airplane’s
entry characteristics into a spin.