Pressure Measurement

Unit 2

Chapter 19 – Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation

June, 2013

1
 Unit 2 – Pressure
Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation reference pages

• Pressure Theory p. 137 - 141

• Pressure Units p. 66
• Pascal’s Principle p. 142 - 145
• Absolute and Gauge p. 154
• Manometers p. 149 – 152, 1106 - 1111
• Mechanical Pressure Elements p. 1164 (oil filled bourdon)
• Accessories p. 1157 - 1185
• Differential Pressure Transmitters p. 1137, 1138, 1142
• Strain Gauge Sensors p. 1119 - 1123
• Capacitance Sensors p. 1124 - 1127
• Pressure Switches p. 505 - 509
 Theory
(Section 2.10.1, Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation)

• PRESSURE = FORCE / UNIT AREA

P = F/A
where P = pressure (Pascals, psi)
F = force(Newtons, lb)
A = area (m2, in2)

3
 Common Pressure Units
(Section 2.4.8, Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation)

• kPa std. Atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa

• psi std. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi
• atm 1 atm = 101.3 kPa
• bar 1 bar = 100 kPa
• Head Units in H2O / cm H2O / mm Hg /
in Hg / ft H2O / torr
• Std. Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mm Hg =
760 torr = 34 ft H2O = 30 in Hg

4
 Head Pressure Calculation
Calculate the pressure in kPa of a 30 cm deep pool of water at
10 oC. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 at 10 oC.
Solution: Consider a cylinder of water 30 cm high
where the water acts over 1 cm2 on bottom.
mass m=V
Force F=mg
Pressure P=F/A

Answer = 2.943 kPag

5
 Detailed Solution

m = 1000 kg x 30cm3 x 1 m3 = .03 kg

m3 1003 cm3

F = .03 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 0.294 N

P = 0.294 N x 1002 cm2 = 2943 Pa

1 cm2 m2 (2.943 kPa)

6
 Pascal’s Principle
(Page 142)

• Pressure in a closed
system must be
constant
• primary rule of
hydraulic equipment
(and many Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2
instruments) P = F1/A1 = F2/A2
F2 = F1 x A2
A1
7
 Absolute and Gauge Pressure
(Section 2.10.5)
Absolute Gauge
201.3 (29 psia) 100 kPa (g) Positive Gauge Press.
(14.3 psig)

101.3 (14.7 psia) 0 kPa (g) (0 psig)

Atmospheric Press.

0 kPa (0 psia) -101.3 kPa (g) Perfect Vacuum

(-14.7 psig)
8
 Vacuum Pressure
Absolute Vacuum
201.3 (29 psia) Positive Gauge Press.

101.3 (14.7 psia) 0 mm Hg

(0 in Hg) Atmospheric Press.

0 kPa (0 psia) 760 mm Hg vac. Perfect Vacuum

(30 in Hg vac.)
9
 Differential Pressure
• The difference between two pressures
• typically called PH (high pressure)
and PL (low pressure)
• P = DP = PH - PL

• many applications (tower trays etc.)

10
Differential Pressure Transmitter Application
Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation, Section 19.5

11
 Manometers
• Glass or plastic tube containing
– water or mercury, or red oil
PH PL U-Tube Manometer
P =  h g
P = PH - PL
h
 = density
h = manometer deflection
g = acceleration due to gravity
12
Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation, Section 19.1

13
 U-Tube Example
A U-tube is filled with process liquid with specific
gravity 1.4. The high side pressure is 3 kPa and the
low side pressure is 1 kPa. What is the manometer
deflection (head) in m?
Use ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.8 m/s2

Answer: h = 0.146m
14
 Well Manometer
P =  ( 1 + A1/A2) h g
where: A1 = the tube area
A2 = the well area

Inclined Manometer
P =  ( 1 + A1/A2) h g
where: h = L sin
 = tube angle from the horizontal
L = the deflection along the tube
15
Inclined and Well

16
 Well Manometer Example
A well manometer containing liquid with a
specific gravity of 1.3 has a liquid height of
90 cm. PL is open to atmosphere and A2 is
significantly larger than A1.
Calculate PH in kPag.

Answer = 11.5 kPag

17
 Inclined Well Manometer Example
An inclined manometer has the following
conditions:
SG = 2
P = 3000 Pa
A1 = 0.5cm2
A2 = 300cm2
Incline Angle = 30°
Determine the displacement, L.
Answer = 0.306 m
18
19
Another Inclined Example
An inclined water manometer with an angle of incline of
35o has a pressure of 1.34 kPag acting on the well side,
and 1.14 kPag acting on the tube side. What is the reading
in (mm)? The ratio of the area of the well to area of tube
is large enough to ignore:
Solution: P =  ( 1 + A1/A2) L sinα g
-but bracketed term becomes (1 + 0) = 1
(1340 – 1140) Pa = 1000 kg/m3 x 1 x L sin35 x 9.8 m/s2
200 Pa = (5621 kg/m2s2) L
L = 0.0356 m (35.6 mm)
Note: Pa is kg/ms2
20
Manometer Pictures

21
 Micromanometer
• Motion of air bubble in tube between wells
caused by difference in heads between wells
• Read position or air bubble on a scale
• Sometimes used for very slight pressure
differentials

Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation, P. 151

22
Mechanical Pressure Elements

23
 Metallic Diaphragms

• Thin metallic disks • Disks usually

• Motion Balance corrugated for added
small linear strength
displacements with • Materials
applied pressure – stainless steel
• Force Balance – phosphor bronze
– trumpet brass
Force developed by
– monel, inconel, and
disk due to pressure other alloys
and area
24
 Types

• To increase sensitivity of measurement

– use large diaphragm areas
– use diaphragm capsules

• Diaphragm capsules can be

– Convex
– Nested

25
 Use In Transmitters
And Indicators
(Handout)

• Figure 5.5h Motion balance gauge pressure

• Figure 5.5f Force balance absolute pressure

26
 Use In
Transmitters
and Indicators

Convex Diaphragm
Capsule

Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation,

p. 1137

27
 Non-metallic Diaphragms

• Teflon, neoprene, polyethylene, leather, and

other non-metallics
• Force balance spring to restrict motion

• Low pressure applications - water systems,

furnace draft pressures

28
 Bourdon Tubes
• Curved tube with non-circular cross section
(See Figure, next slide)
• process pressure connected to fixed socket
• forces acting tend to straighten tube under
pressure
• tip motion is related to pressure inside tube

29
Typical C-Shaped Bourdon Tube

30
• Tip motion is non-linear - uses a non-linear
cam to make readings on linear on scale

• Materials - most common stainless steel,

brass (beryllium copper) and bronze alloys,
monels…..
– accuracy fair at typically + 1%

31
Bourdon Tube Manufacture
Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
-xF7d0nuFTw&sns=em

32
 Bourdon Types
• C Bourdon - most common
• Spiral Bourdon element
• Helical Bourdon element
NOTE:
Spiral and Helical more sensitive due to
longer length - can also measure higher
press. as walls can be thicker.

33
• Source: Omega.com

34
 Bourdon Application
• Most common primary pressure element
found in dial face pressure indicators
– local readouts (Field use) for operators

• Limited use in force and motion balance

pressure transmitters

35
Oil Filled Bourdon Gauge
(P. 1164)

36
 Pressure System Accessories
(P. 1164)

Pulsation Dampeners (Snubbers)

– application where sudden shock pressures or
rapidly fluctuating pressures are expected
– reduces response speed to changes - averages
the response

37
• Liquid Seals
– a process compatible liquid is installed in the
leg lines between the process and instrument
– a “siphon” on a steam system is a liquid seal
against high temperature (“pigtail siphon”)
• Chemical Seals
– a metal diaphragm barrier between the process
and instrument fluid
– Different fill fluid types are available (Silicone
is most common)

38
Pigtail Siphon

39
Liquid Seal

40
 Reason For Applying Seal

To keep fluids out of leg lines that may:

– freeze, solidify or gel
– be corrosive to instrument
– be poisonous or noxious (less leak potential)
– be slurries that would plug leg lines

41
 Types Of Chemical Seals

• Fig. 5.2e Off-line Chemical seal

• Fig. 5.2f In-line Chemical seal

42
Remote Seal or Chemical Seal
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation,1168

43
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p. 1169, 1170

44
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation,1170

45
 3 Valve Manifolds
• Primary application
to flow installations
• Allow re-zeroing
meter on line without
shutting down the
process
• See p. 1157 – 1159
(Lessons In Industrial
Instrumentation)

46
3-Valve Manifold

47
Remote Sealing Diaphragm

48
Extended-Diaphragm Pressure
Transmitter

49
 Heat Tracing
• Impulse lines have the potential to freeze
• Depending on liquid in impulse line and weather
• Heat tracing prevents impulse line freezing
• Tracing is usually steam (low pressure) or
electrical
• Impulse line and tracing are insulated

50
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p.1181/1183

51
 Heated Enclosure
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p.1137

• protects transmitters and other instruments

from freezing

52
Differential Pressure Transmitter Designs
Pneumatic DP Cells
– increase in PH causes capsule to apply force
right
– top of force bar moves left
– flapper moves closer to nozzle
– increase in back pressure in nozzle tubing
increases small input pressure to relay
– relay amplifies signal to 3-15 psig (uses 20 psig
supply)
– Output is 3-15 - also goes to feedback bellows
to provide the force balance to force bar
53
Force-Balance Pneumatic
Pressure Transmitter

Lessons In Industrial
Instrumentation, p.1137

54
Force-Balance Electronic
Pressure Transmitter

Lessons In Industrial
Instrumentation, p.1138

55
 Torque Tube Type
• Figure 5.6i (handout)
• as PH increases on high side (or PL
decreases on low side)- center post turns a
torque arm
• fill fluid between the diaphragms

56
DP Transmitter

57
DP Transmitter
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p.1142

58
 Electronic Transmitter Types

• Strain gauge types

• Capacitance types

59
 Strain Gauge Types
• Metallic Strain Gauges
– as a metal wire is strained (stretched) the
resistance of the wire will increase
R=kL
A R - resistance in ohms
k - resistivity of metal
L - length of conductor
A - cross-sectional area of wire
60
Strain Gauge, Resistance and Output
Signal

R  1
A

• This means stretching a wire increases the

resistance.
• An increase in resistance results in an
increase in output from the transmitter
61
 Strain Gauge
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p.1119

62
 Metallic Strain Gauge Devices
• Constantan, Nichrome, Platnimum,…wire
• Bonded type (common) - subject to “creep”
over time as bond weakens
• Approx. 2 mV/V excitation of output is
produced
• http://www.rdpe.com/ex/hiw-sgpt.htm

63
Strain Gauge Bonded to Diaphragm
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p.1122

64
 Semiconductor Types
• Can be of bonded type as well
• Newer Technology is:
Diffused Semiconductor
– resistance elements diffused in a single silicon
chip
– chip (wafer) acts as diaphragm itself
– thickness of wafer determines pressure rating
– approx. 100 times more sensitive than metallic
65
Semiconductor Types
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p. 1122

66
 Technical Terms
Gauge Factor Wire Gauges
• each strain gauge • thin metallic wires
device is characterized
by manufacturer Foil Gauges
• Axial Strain = R/R • thin film of metallic or
GF semiconductor
– where R is unstrained materials
resistance
– R is change in resist.
67
 Bridge Circuits
• Strain gauges are mounted in a Wheatstone
Bridge circuit to balance temperature
affects.
• Note that R1, R2, R3, R4 orientation must be
correct
• Temperature compensating resistor corrects
for resistance changes due to temperature
change.
68
Wheatstone Bridge for Strain Gauge

69
 Capacitance Type
• Consists of two or three conductor plates
separated by a di-electric material, forming
a large capacitor
• Bridge excitation is high frequency A/C
oscillation (thus high capacitive reactance)
• Motion of sensing diaphragm changes gap
between capacitor plates, and thus the
capacitance changes
• Output converted to DC current or voltage
70
Capacitance Devices
Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation, p. 1125

71
Rosemount Capacitance Cell - uses a fill fluid to deflect
center diaphragm

Rosemount Capacitance Cell

Instrumenttoolbox.com (N.D.)
72
Capacitance DP
Transmitter

Lessons In Industrial
Instrumentation, p. 1127

73
 Pressure Switches
(Page 505 - 509)

Used to energize or de-energize electrical circuits

– NORMALLY CLOSED (NC) contact will open
– NORMALLY OPEN (NO) contact will close
(upon reaching set pressure)

Pressure switch terminology

NOTE: Differential is most often called DEADBAND
(p. 508)

74
75
 Pressure Switch Construction
• Primary element can be a diaphragm,
bourdon or bellows
• Contact activation switches can be
– mercury switches
– snap acting magnetic contacts
– mechanical micro-switches

76
77
78
 Pressure Instrument Installation
• Impulse Lines (a.k.a. leg lines)
– Purpose is to connect process piping to
instrument
– Usually stainless steel tubing or small bore pipe
– Different installation methods for different
services

79
 Liquid Service
Page 1177

• Mount instrument below primary (root) valve

• Primary valve from side of pipe

• Install leg lines to eliminate air pockets or low

collection points

80
81
 Steam Service

• Mount instrument below primary valve

• Primary valve from side of pipe
• Condensate pots mounted off of the primary
valve to allow condensate to form
• Condensate eliminates live steam contact with
the instrument

82
 Gas with a Liquid Seal

• Mount instrument below primary valve

• Primary valve from side of pipe

• The seal fluid pumped in from instrument

location to prevent condensation

83
 Gas without a Liquid Seal

• Mount instrument above primary valve

• Primary valve from top of pipe

• Any condensate should run back in to the

piping.

84
85
 Primary Shut-off Valves
(Root Valves)
• the first connection off the pipe
• Installed close to the pipe
• Usually gate valves
• Usually operated, tagged by operations
• Last isolation without shutting down
process

86