RESERCH METHADOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

SEMESTE: 3

PARDIGMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESERCH:

The meaning of science significantly shapes how we do social research. The meaning of
science can be defined in two ways:
1. What practicing scientists actually do and
2. How the institution of science operates.
What philosophers discuss as a core meaning of science in the 21st century and modern
philosophy is giving a very flexible picture of what science today.
There are several alternative approaches to science that is wider than theory or methodology
which includes epistemology or question about the theory of knowledge, the purpose of the
research, whether understanding explanation or normative evaluation.

Each of these alternatives helps us understand what constitutes the best form of research. This
helps in understanding diverse perspectives and gives an opportunity to make an informed
choice. These approaches operate on different assumptions principles and help in scientific
advancement to knowledge.
These abstract issues constitute what good social research involves and justify why we do
research related moral political values to research and guide ethical research behavior. The
scientific research rests on assumptions and principles from these two areas whether or not a
researcher acknowledges them.
Research methodology rest on a foundation of ontological and epistemological assumptions.
Researchers tend to master one of the specific techniques. Ontology concerned the issue of
what exists or the nature of reality. It has two basic positions - realists and nominalists.
Realists see the world being out there with pre existing categories for one to discover. The
realist world exists independently of humans and their interpretations. A subgroup of them
considers ideas subjectivity or cultural interpretations contaminating reality. Our experiences
with the real world are always occurring through a lens of inner subjectivity or subjective
cultural beliefs. We organise experiences in certain categories of patterns.
Epistemology is the issue of how we know the world around us or what makes a claim about
it true. It explains what we need to produce knowledge and what scientific knowledge looks
like one we have produced it. By a realist position, we make careful observations of reality
and the empirical world being out there exists apart from one's perceptions and thought. By
investigating the reality we can distinguish truth from myth and Illusion reduce objective
knowledge covering broad principles or laws to explain what reality is how it works. A
nominal analyst position making observations would not lead to knowledge about the reality.
According to a realist view, our interpretation and subjective views greatly influenced the
observation does it is impossible to separate the objective reality from one's interpretation and
its effect on the time/place in which it appears. The right way is to recognize our own
viewpoints and interpretations for clear knowledge. To conclude, to produce social science
knowledge, we must inductively observe, interpret and reflect what others are saying and
doing in specific social context while simultaneously reflecting on our own experiences and
interpretations.

PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

Scientific thinkers say that rigorous systematic observation of the social world combined with
careful logical thinking can provide a new, valuable form of knowledge to conduct scientific
research to study social reality. One needs to borrow from the natural sciences and copy
descriptions of research methods to the fullest. A number of researchers agreed with the
principles but it couldn't solve few problems - the scientific method is a little more than a
loose set of abstract principles with limited guidance: and the humans also have some
qualitative difference in ability to think to learn, etc.

The following approaches differ in outlook and have alternative assumptions about social
research. They have different positions in ways to observe, measure, and understand social
reality each of which is associated with different social theories and diverse research
techniques. Each has its own scientific paradigm that is a basic orientation to theory and
research.

Positivist Social Science Model:

Positivist social science is a widely used technique and positivism is an approach of the
natural Sciences. People believe that it actually is science. Turner (1992) observed positivism
no longer has a clear referent, but it is evident that being positivist is not a good thing. A
number of people know this approach as logical empiricism, post positivism, naturalism, and
behaviorism.
David Hume (1711-1776) in 'Treaties of human nature' and John Stuart Mill (1806 to 1873)
in 'A system of logic' lines the fundamentals of positivist science. August Comte (1798-1857)
also elaborated principles of Social Science positivism. It was associated with several social
theories and structural, functional, and exchange theory frameworks. Theory prefers
quantitative data and often uses experiments, statistics, and surveys. It tends to seek rigorous,
exact measures and objective research. In Positivism there is only one logic of science, to
which any intellectual activity aspiring to the title of science must conform. The difference
between social and natural sciences is due to the immaturity of social sciences and its subject
matter. The assumption is that one day all natural sciences will be equivalent to the most
advanced science - physics. To conclude, positive social science is an organised method for
combining deductive logic with empirical observations of individual behavior in order to
discover and confirm asset of probabilistic casual laws that can be used to predict general
patterns of human activity.

Ultimate Purpose of Research:

The ultimate purpose of research is to obtain scientific explanation to discover and document
casual laws of human behavior. These abstract laws of the social universe can be tested by
careful by the collection of data. The researcher needs to develop abstract principles and
models about invariant and timeless properties of the social universe. As per this model, the
humans can never know everything but God gave us the capacity for knowledge and it's one
duty to discover it.

Fundamental Nature of Social Reality:

Most positivists adopt a realist ontology which holds that reality exists out there and is
waiting to be discovered. Human perception may be flawed but the reality - the basic laws of
science are considered to be true, primary and certain because they are built into the fabric of
the natural world. The assumptions of realist ontology prevail in common sense thinking
especially in analog -european society. The assumptions of realist ontology also known as the
essential object with or an empirical realize about reality prevail in common sense thinking
especially in European society. It usually follows a 'what you can see is what you get'' or a
'show me' type of stance. Other PSS assumptions about the social reality are that it is stable
and a knowledge about reality is additive. With the flow of the time, the core regularity in
social reality does not change and the laws that we discovered today will have to mean in
future too. Does, over time we add more and more knowledge and we are expanding our
understanding of the world.
Basic Nature of Human Beings:

Considering the basic nature of human beings according to PSS, it assumes that humans are
self-interested, pleasure seeking, pain avoiding rational mammals. Certain events will have
the same effect on everyone and we can learn a lot about people by observing their behavior
in the external reality. PSS follows on mechanical models of a man or a behaviorist approach.
It claims that people respond to external forces that are as real as physical forces on objects.
This suggests that researcher want to observe external observable reality and not have to
examine the unseen internal motivation of humans.

View on Human Agency:

Considering the PSS view on human agency, it emphasizes the determinism of relationship
and looks for determining cause or mechanism that produce effects. PSS investigates how
external forces, pressures, and structures that operate on individuals, group and organizations
or societies produce outcomes. PSS down plays an individual subjective or internal reasons
and doesn't have any sense of free choice or volition. While individuals believe that they can
act freely and can make any decisions, positivists emphasize that powerful social pressures
and situations that operate on people shape most of one's actions. Some positivist who use
rational choice explanation also focus less on individual reasons and make choices than on
identifying the set of conditions that allow them to predict what people will choose. Some
positivist believe in a strict or absolute determinism claiming that they see people as a robot
or puppets who always act in similar ways in similar situations. Thus, under condition X
there is a 95% probability that a person will engage in a specific behavior as per positivists.

Relationship Between Science and Common Sense:

PSS sees the relationship between science and commerce science in a clear separation. Out of
the many ways of seeking the truth, science is the best way. Scientific knowledge has an edge
over the other ways and will eventually replace the inferior ways of gaining knowledge that is
- religion, astrology, personal experiences, and tradition. Science borrows some ideas from
common science and it replaces the sloppy, logically considered, and systematic or biased
ideas. The scientific community with its certain norms, specific attitude, and techniques can
regularly produce the truth. Positivist researchers should formulate new concept at the outset
and not rely on notions for precision.

Explanation of Theory of Social Reality:

The PSS explanation of the theory of social reality is nomothetic. It is based on a system of
general laws. Science explains what social life is by discovering certain casual laws. The PSS
explanation state the general casual laws that apply to all cover specific observations about
social life. Henceforth it is called the covering law model of explanation. The law of human
behavior should be universally is valid holding in all historical eras and all the cultures.

Determining Wheather an Explanation is True or False:

People can recognize truth and distinguish it from falsehood by applying reason and in the
long run, the human condition can improve through the use of reason and reach the pursuit of
truth. PSS believe that knowledge accumulates over time and sort out truth from false
explanations. PSS explanation must meet two criteria:
1. It should have no logical contradiction and
2. to be consistent with observed facts.
Replication of also needed because any researcher should be able to reproduce the result of
other researchers and put a check on the whole system for creating knowledge. This ensures
honesty.

What Good Evidence or Factual Information Looks Like:

Considering good evidence of factual information, PSS adopts a dualistic view which
assumes that the cold, observable facts are fundamentally distanced from ideas values of
thoughts. We can experience them by using our sense organs or the special instrument that
extends the senses such as telescope microscopes, etc. The knowledge of observable reality
obtained by using our sensors is superior to knowledge by intuition emotional feelings.
Positivism is assigned a higher position to empirical observation. Thus, factual knowledge is
not based only on one observation and subjective reasoning; it must be shared and
communicated to others. This is called intersubjectivity or the shared subjective
acknowledgment of the fact that are observable.

Relevance or Use of Social Scientific Knowledge:

As for positivists, is the social world works to enable people to exercise control over it and
make accurate predictions about it. Instrumental form of knowledge sees research results as
tool or instruments that people use to satisfy their desires of control of the social
environment. The relevance of knowledge is its ability to enable people to master or control
events in the real world. CSS model has a technocratic perspective to the application of
knowledge, where the researcher tries to satisfy the information needs of large-scale
bureaucratic organisations like hospitals business corporations and governmental agencies.

Where Sociopolitical Values Enter Into Science:

CSS bring the Socio political values in Science. PSS argues for objective and values free
science.
The term - objective can mean that observers agree on what they see or that scientific
knowledge is not based on values opinions attitudes or beliefs. The positivists see science as a
special distinctive part of the society that is free from personal religious political values of
any kind. Science operates independently of socio cultural forces affecting other human
activities because science involves applying rational thinking and systematic observation. In a
nutshell we can say norms and operations of the scientific community make science
objective. Thus the scientific community has an elaborate system of checks and balances to
gaurd values against bias. The role of a disinterested scientist is special in such a case.

Interpretive Social Science Model:

The interpretive Social Science model is founded under the German sociologist Max Weber
(1864 to 1920) and German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1833 to 1911) Dilthey argued that
two forms of science exist, the former rests on 'erklarung' or abstract explanation, while the
latter is rooted in an empathetic understanding or 'verstehen'. Weber believed that social
science should study social actions that have a purpose and thus embrace 'verstehen' He felt
that we must learn that personal reasons of motives and shape ones internal feelings and
guide decisions to act in certain ways. Integrated social science is related to hermeneutics - a
theory of meaning that originated in the 19th century. It emphasized conducting of very close
detailed reading of texts to acquire a very deep understanding of the meaning of the text.
While studying the text the researcher needs to observe or get inside the viewpoint the text is
presenting and then develop and understanding how each of the path relates to the whole. We
can only reach to the meaning by detail examination and study of the text and contemplating
its meaning and seeking the connection among its parts. Interpretive social science has
several varieties hermeneutics, constructionism, ethnomethodology, cognitive ideas,
phenomenological, subjectivist and qualitative sociology. ISS emerged as a form of
qualitative research because most interpretive researchers used participant observation and
field research. The interpretative researcher needs to develop mountains of highly detailed
qualitative data so that he or she can acquire an in-depth knowledge of how people create
meaning in there everyday lives. ISS concerns itself with how people interact and get along
with each other. It is therefore the systematic analysis of socially meaning full action through
the direct detail observation of people in natural sentence in order to arrive at understandings
and interpretations of how people create and maintain their social worlds.

Ultimate Purpose of Research:

According to ISS researches, the goal of social research is to develop an understanding of

social life and discover how people construct meaning in the natural settings. ISS researchers
want to know what is meaningful and relevant to the people he is studies how one experience
everyday life. The researcher wants to know in the most intimate way the feeling and
interpretations of people being studied through their eyes. ISS researchers study meaningful
social actions not just visible external behaviour. Social action is the action to which people
attach subjective meaning and its activity is with a purpose or intent. In a nutshell they want
to study what is unique to human social behaviour. For a social action other than having a
purpose one must attach subjective meaning to it and it must be directed toward the activities
of other people. Most human actions have little inherent meaning and they acquire meaning
in a social context among people who share meaning system. This system of meaning allows
people to consider or interpret their actions as being socially relevant.

Fundamental Nature of Social Reality:

As per the ISS model people intentionally create social reality with their purposeful actions of
interacting as social beings. It adopts nominalist ontology of the social life suggesting social
reality is largely what people perceive it to be and it exist as people experience it and assign
meaning to it. People construct social reality as they interact with others in ongoing processes
of communication and negotiation, but they people may also consider many untested
assumptions all knowledge about certain events. A Constructionist orientation in ISS
assumes that people construct reality out of their interactions and beliefs. Peoples socially
constructed does not make them illusionary or are unimportant. As people start considering
facts or reality their creations have very real consequences. Some Constructionist believe that
people take social world around them for granted and behave as if the social world was an
natural object part of a fixed reality. The construction of language as comprising social
constructions, saying that language has direct connection to essential reality and it contains a
world view that colours how we see and experience the world. The constructionists say that
language and habituated ways of thinking dictate the what people see. The interpretive social
science approach define social reality as consisting of people who construct meaning and
create interpretations through the daily social interaction.

Basic Nature of Human Beings:

As per the ISS model ordinary people are engaged in an ongoing process of creating system
of meaning to social interaction. These meanings are used to interpret the social values and
making sense of one's life. Behaviour is patterned resulting from evolving meaning systems
or social conventions that people generate as they interact socially. The interpretive social
scientists want to know what actions mean to people who engage in them. People have their
own reasons for their actions.
People have certain reasons for their own action and one needs to learn the reasons people
use. Individuals irrational or deep emotional judgements on beliefs and prejudices can also
influence actions. Some ISS social scientists say that the laws sort by positivists may be
found only after the scientific community understand how people create a news meaning
systems and how common sense and its usage develop. Other ISS researchers say that they do
not believe that research laws of human social life exist so searching for them is not correct.

View on Human Agency:

Considering view on human agency ISS emphasizes voluntary free choice called human
agency. ISS adopts volunteerism in says people have a sense of volition. Social settings and
the subjective point of view help to decide the choice a person makes but people create and
change the settings and have the ability to develop from a point of view. The importance of
considering individual decision making process of subjective feelings and way to understand
events is emphasized by ISS researchers.

Relationship Between Science and Common Sense:

ISS holds that ordinary people use common sense to guide their in daily life and common
sense is a stock pile of everyday theories that people use to organise and explained events in
the world. Thus, common sense helps in understanding the meaning that people use when the
engage in everyday routine social interactions. Interpretative researchers see both scientific
laws and common sense as being important in their own domain. We need scientific laws and
common sense in different ways for different purposes. Common sense is a vital source of
information for understanding people as common sense emergence from a parametric
orientation and sets of observations about ones world. People assume that common sense is
true because it helps them in accomplishing a variety of things, the interpretive philosopher
Alfred Schutz (1899-1959) called this natural attitude. This assumption could be understood
as the world existing before one arrived and continuing to exist as one departs. People
develop ways to maintain and reproduce a sense of reality based on systems of meaning that
they create in the course of social interaction with others.

Explanation of Theory of Social Reality:

The theory for ISS tells a story. It describes an interprets how people conduct their daily
lives. It may contain social science concept and some generalizations but does not largely
depart from the lived experiences and inner reality of people. ISS is an Ideographic and
inductive approach. Ideographic means that the approach provides a symbolic representation
or description of something else. An ISS research report is like a novel which is detailed in
description and limited in abstraction. The purpose of ISS theory is to provide an interpretive
explanation. ISS attempt to provide readers the feeling for another person's social reality by
revealing the meaning values interpretive schemes and rules of daily living. This theory
describes major typification that people use in a setting to recognise and interpret their
experiences. A typification is an information model steam or set of believes that people used
to categorise and organise the flow of daily events the experience. ISS theory resembles the
map that outlines a social world and describes local customs and norms. The theory and
evidence are interviewing to create a unified Hold and the concepts and generalisation are
wedded to their context.

Determining Wheather an Explanation is True or False:

In ISS, a theory is true if it makes sense to those being studied and if it allows others to enter
the reality of those being studied. The theory or description is accurate if the researcher
conveys a deep understanding of the way in which others reason, feel, and see. Prediction is
possible in a minute context. An interpretive explanation documents the actors for the
interview and translates it into a form that is intelligible to readers. Smart (1976) calls this the
postulate of adequacy.

What Good Evidence or Factual Information Looks Like:

Good evidence in ISS model sees the feature of specific contexts and meanings which are
essential to understanding the social meaning. Evidence about social action cannot be isolated
from the context in which it occurs all the meaning assigned to it by the social actors
involved. For ISS facts are fluid and embedded within the meaning system, they are not
impartial, objective or neutral and facts are contingent and content specific. One's behaviors
and statements have several meanings that can be interpreted in certain ways. In the flow of
social life, people are constantly making sense by reassessing clues in the situation and
assigning meanings until they know whats going on. People are able to assign an appropriate
meaning to an act or statement only if they considered the social context in which it occurs.
To ISS researchers, each person's interpretation of survey questions must be placed in a
context and the true meaning of a person's answer will vary to the interviewer or the
questioning context. When studying a setting or data interpretive researchers of the
ethnomethodological school often use bracketing. It is a mental exercise in which is a
researcher identifies and then sets aside taken for granted assumptions used in a social scene.
Bracketing reviews what everyone knows what people assume but rarely say. It makes visible
significant features of the social scene that make other events possible and is the underlying
scaffolding of understanding on which actions are based.

Relevance or Use of Social Scientific Knowledge:

Interpretive social scientist want to learn how the world works so that it can acquire an in-
depth understanding of what other people appreciate, the wide diversity of lived experience,
and better acknowledge shared humanity. ISS researchers try to capture the inner lives and
subjective experiences of ordinary people. According to ISS practical orientation, the
relevance of social science knowledge comes from its ability to reflect in an authentic and
comprehensive a how ordinary people do things in common place situations. It emphasizes
cooperating the social contexts of knowledge creating a reflective form of knowledge. ISS
research tend to apply a transcendent perspective towards the use and application of new
knowledge which means to go beyond ordinary material experiences and perceptions. This
means that resources should examine processes by which people activities transform and
construct existing conditions. ISS researchers try to engage and participate with the people
being studied as a way to gain an intimate familiarity with them. A transcendent perspective
emphasizes that resources and people being studied should work together to create mutual
understanding and effect conditions.

Where Sociopolitical Values Enter Into Science:

The ISS researcher argues that researchers should reflect on, re examine and analyze personal
point of views and feelings as a part of processes of studying others. The researcher at least
temporarily needs to empathize with and share in the social political commitments or values
of people whom he likes to study. Thus ISS adopts the positions of relativism with regard to
values. The interpretive resources adopt relativism and do not assume that anyone set of
values is better or worse and values should be recognized and made explicit.

Critical Social Science Method:

Critical social science is also called dialectical materialism, class analysis, and critical
structuralism. CSS mixes nomothetic and idiographic approach. It agrees with the number of
criticism that the integrative approach directs PSS but had some of its own disagreements
with ISS. This approach can be traced to Karl Marx (1818 to1883) Sigmund Freud (1856 to
1936) Theodor Adorno (1903 to 1969) Eric Fromm (1900 to 1980) and Herbert Marcuse
(1898 to 1979). Often CSS is associated with conflict theory, feminist analysis, and radical
psychotherapy and his side to the crucial theory first developed by Frankfurt school in
Germany in the 1930s. Critical social science criticizes positive science has being narrow,
anti democratic, and non humanist in its use of reason. CSS scientist who rejected both the
objective law, quantitative empirical approach of positive and the subjective volunteer rest
approach of ISS. They argued that social research must be reflective and is necessarily
political. The goal of the research is to uncover and demystify ordinary events. CSS criticizes
ISS for being too subjective and relative in treating peoples ideas as more important than
actual condition but believe that ISS focuses too much on localized, micro level, short term
settings while ignoring the broader and long-term structural conditions. It stated ISS is
immoral and passive as it failed to take a strong value position by helping people to see Falls
illusions around them.
CSS becomes important so that ordinary people can improve their lives. In general, CSS
define Social Science as a critical process of inquiry that goes beyond sulfur solutions to
uncover the real structures in the material world in order to help people change conditions
and build a better world for themselves.

Ultimate Purpose of Research:

In CSS the primary purpose of research is not to simply study the social world but to change
it. CSS researchers conduct researches to critique and transform social relations by revealing
the underlying source of social control, power relations, and inequality. CSS empowers
people especially those in society who are less powerful and marginalized. It wants to expose
myths, reveals hidden truths and assists people in improving their life. The ultimate purpose
of research is to explain or social order in such a way that it becomes itself the catalyst which
leaves to the transformation of the social order. The CSS researcher asks embarrassing
questions, exposes hypocrisy, and investigates condition to stimulate grassroots action.

Fundamental Nature of Social Reality:

CSS adopts a critical realist ontology that views reality has been composed of multiple layers
that are the empirical, real and the actual layers. It considered that the empirical reality is
independent of our perceptions and the focus that we construct what we take to be reality is
from subjective experiences, cultural beliefs, and social interactions. We can observe the
empirical reality using our senses and the surface empirical layer that we experience is
generated by deeper structures and casual mechanism operating at unobservable layers. We
can directly observe structures at the real level and can also involve and modify them. With
insight and careful investigation, resources can slowly see deeper structures but the task is
complicated because the structures can change. Structures at deeper levels do not produce a
direct immediate appearance at the empirical level and can lie in active or dormant and then
become activated and image on the surface layer. Various structures are not insulated from
one other counteracting structures may suppress the surface appearances of other structures.
The casual mechanism is operating at the actual level can have internal contradictions and
operate in a paradoxical manner creating structural conflicts. This mechanism is may contain
processes that are actually parts of a single larger process. Discovering and understanding
such paradoxical processes is a central task in CSS. As per CSS observations and experiences
with empirical reality are affected by ideas beliefs and interpretations or influences with what
and how we observe. CSS states that our experiences of empirical reality are always theory or
concept dependent and common sense and scientific sensitizers to particular aspects of
empirical reality inform what we recognise as being relevant in its an influence how we
categorise the and divide its features overtime new theoretical insights and concept enable us
to recognise more aspects in the sources empirical reality and to improve our understand of
deeper levels of reality. CSS state that there is a deeper reality that is free structures and not
invented by us does it existed before we experience or think about it and has real effects on
people. We also construct ways of seeing and thinking that shape our experience of empirical
reality. CSS notes that social change and conflicts are not always apparent or easily
observable. The immediately perceive characteristics of object events or social relations
rarely reveal everything and can often mislead. CSS state that old or subjective meaning is
important real objective relationship social relations.

Basic Nature of Human Beings:

CSS recognizes that people are rational decision makers who are saved by social structures
and creative being who construct meaning and social structures. Society exists prior to and
apart from Pipal and can exist only with their active involvement. Human beings exist within
an ongoing relational process. CSS notes that human can mislead and have an unrealized
potential. This can happen through reification which occurs when we become detached from
and lose sight of our connection or relationship to something that we created by ourselves. To
realize humans full potential people must look be on immediate surface appearance and
breakthrough what they reified to see how they possess the capacity to change situations.

View on Human Agency:

CSS blends determination and volunteerism to emphasize bounded autonomous or how
agency and structure cooperate. Bounded autonomy suggests that free will choices and
decisions making are not unlimited or open ended rather they either must stay within
restrictive boundaries of options or are confined within limits which can be cultural or
material boundaries. People make choices but the choices are confined to what they believe is
possible, determined by material factors and cultural subjective schemes. If a person's world
wide view defines an action as being impossible comma material resource has been
unavailable, the choice has been blocked, his or her free will choice is limited. Material and
subjective cultural factors interact. Under certain conditions, collective human actions can old
to Deep structures of the material conditions and cultural beliefs and this can expand the
range of volition.

Relationship Between Science and Common Sense:

CSS is common sense as containing false consciousness - the idea that peoples are often
mistaken and act against their own true best interest as defined in objective reality. Objective
reality lies behind myth and illusion. CSS states that social science researchers should be
studying subjective ideas and common sense because of this shape human behavior and yet
contained with an illusion which can mask an objective world. A researcher should use
theory to dig beneath the surface relations, to observe periods of crisis and intense conflicts,
to prove interconnections, to look at the past comma and to consider future possibilities.
Common sense tend to naturalized social phenomena and assume that what is must be.

Explanation of Theory of Social Reality:

CSS uses abduction to create explanatory critiques. Charles S. Peirce (1839 to 1914)
developed abduction by extending other forms of reasoning. Abduction tries on a potential
rule and asks what might follow from the rule. A researcher using abduction applies and
evaluate the efficacy of multiple frameworks sequentially and creatively re contextualizes
and describes both data and ideas in the process. Abduction means making the repeated
revaluation of ideas and data based on applying alternative rules and schemes and learning
from each. Explanatory critique begins with the premise that when we study social life we
study both the thing itself and how people think about or understand the thing we are
studying. An explanatory critique has practical moral and political implications but it can
differ from the prevailing beliefs. The explanatory critic reviews deep casual mechanism and
when's expose, people can learn how to influence the mechanism to change larger social
structures for taking action and achieving social change.

Determining Wheather an Explanation is True or False:

CSS test theory by accurately describing conditions generated by underlying structures and
then by applying that knowledge to change social relations. CSS theory in forms practical
action at the same time CSS theory is modified on the basis of using it. A CSS theory grows
and interacts with the world it seeks to explain. CSS separates good from bad theory by
putting the theory into practice and then uses the outcome of these applications to re
formulate the theory. Praxis means the explanation are valued when they help people
understand the world and to take actions that can change it. Critical Praxis tries to illuminate
the division between the researcher and the people being studied, the distinction between
science and the daily life.

What Good Evidence or Factual Information Looks Like:

The critical approach bridges the object subject gap. It says that the facts of material
conditions exist independently of subjective perceptions but that facts are not very neutral
instead facts require an interpretation from within the framework of value, theory, and
meaning. CSS resources look at the fact and ask who benefits and who loses. The theory
helps find critical resources, find new facts and separate the important from the trivial ones.
CSS note that only some theory is a useful fire finding and understanding key facts and some
values are better than the others. Thus, to interpret facts we must understand history, out of
the series of moral political values, and know where to look for underlying structures.

Relevance or Use of Social Scientific Knowledge:

CSS researchers learn how the world works, the relate subjective understanding with ways to
analyze objective conditions to reveal unseen forces and recognizes injustice. For CSS
knowledge is not an instrument for people to manipulate or capture and render for people in
subjective experiences, instead, knowledge means active involvement in the world. CSS
resources blend aspects of instrumental and practical orientations and bring duality of
positive is external empirical reality and in a subjective reality explained in ISS. It offers a
reflective knowledge to offer a third-way reflexive dialectical orientation. It represents a
stand point in its own right. It sees external and internal reality as two sides of a single
dynamic whole that are in a process of becoming. CSS adopts transformative perspectives
towards applying knowledge. The perspective goes beyond the surface level of reality to
realign subjective understanding with the external reality and then uses renewed
consciousness as a basis for engaging in actions that have the potential to modify external
conditions and future consciousness.

Where Sociopolitical Values Enter Into Science:

CSS has an activist orientation. CSS states that there is only one, or very few correct points to
view. Being objective is not being valued free as objectivity requires a nondistorted through a
picture of reality. It believes that some politics can increase the objectivity of science. It holds
the technician points of view that conduct Research and ignore the moral questions, satisfy a
sponsor, and follow orders. Research believes that science is a tool of instrument that anyone
can use. CSS believes that social science knowledge can be used to control people, and help
people take charge and control their lives.

Later Feminist Research method conducted by people holding feminist self identity took a
stride. Further, the Post Modern Research considering movement in arts, music and iterature
took a central position.

References:
-Chadha, N.K. (2009) Applied Psychometry. Sage Pub: New Delhi

-Neuman, W.L. (2006). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (6th Ed.)

-Gregory, R.J. (2006). Psychological Testing: History, Principles, and Applications (4thEd.).New
Delhi: Pearson Education.

-https://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html
-