1 .

INTRODUCTION

Over the past few decades enormous quantities of industrial pollutants have
been released into the environment. Due to high releases of wide variety of pollutants there
has been increase in number of environment related problems. These xenobiotic compounds
are usually removed slowly and they tend to accumulate in the environment. Due to the high
degree of toxicity, their accumulation can cause severe environmental problems. With
increasing public concern about deteriorating environment water quality, stringent regulations
are being enforced to control pollutants. Also with the increase in world population,
exploitation of natural resources to meet the growing demands has increased and this has
accelerated the release of pollutants in the water streams. The wastewater so produced has
posed a tough challenge as it leads to contamination of freshwater bodies (both surface and
groundwater).

Filtration is one of the most important treatment processes used in water and
wastewater treatment. Conventional wastewater treatments have various drawbacks such as
start-up cost, operation cost, efficiency etc. In addition to these drawbacks many by-products
released during the wastewater treatment facilities have negative impacts on the environment
in terms of contamination of water and soil. Traditionally used physicochemical treatment
methods encompass problems of secondary pollution or recompartmentalization of pollutants
and cost intensiveness. The secondary pollution pertains to inevitable by-products and final
products generated during the treatment process can be even more toxic than precursors. On
the contrary, biological treatment processes generate environmentally benign secondary
pollutants (sludge biomass) compared to physicochemical methods. The biological treatment
methods posses many advantages like stabilization of organic matter, reduced operational and
maintenance cost, wider range applications (sustain broader organic loading range),
manageable secondary pollution (sludge produced thereof can be disposed of in an eco-
friendly manner) and above all sustainable treatment of wastewater (practical and eco-
friendly manner). The main purpose of biofiltration is to produce effluent of high quality so
that it can be reused for various non-potable purposes.

Originally, biofilter was developed using rock or slag as filter media, however at
present, several types and shapes of plastic media are also used. There are a number of small
package treatment plants with different brand names currently available in the market in

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which different shaped plastic materials are packed as filter media and are mainly used for
treating small amount of wastewater (e.g. from household or hotel). Irrespective of its
different names usually given based on operational mode, the basic principle in a biofilter is
the same: biodegradations of pollutants by the micro-organisms attached onto the filter
media.

2. INDUSTRIES WHERE BIOFILTRATION IS USED:

Biofiltration is primarily used for large flow rates, low solvent concentrations and
when there are odour problems. They are usually implemented in the following areas:

 Chemicals and Petrochemical industry.

 Synthetic resins
 Oil and gas industry
 Paint and ink
 Waste and waste water treatment
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Slaughter houses
 Soil and ground water remediation
 Plastic production
 Gelatine and glue plants
 Agricultural and meat processing
 Sewage treatment
 Flavour industry
 Tobacco, cocoa and sugar industry

3. COMMERCIAL MARKETS FOR BIOFILTRATION

Commercial markets for biofiltration include the following:

(1) Treatment of odours

(2) Treatment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

(3) Treatment of petroleum hydrocarbons.

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3.1. Odour Treatment:

Odour treatment is a significant portion of the marketplace. Industries that

produce odorous emissions include wastewater treatment plants, composting and sludge
treatment facilities, foundries, pulp and paper plants and tobacco products manufacturing
plants. In recent years, communities have begun to encroach near the fence lines of
wastewater treatment plants. Wastewater treatment plants are treating increased flows,
thereby increasing odour loads at the plant. Further, since flows are being pumped from
greater distances, the age of the wastewater and its septicity is increasing, resulting in greater
amounts of reduced nitrogen and sulphur compounds. In addition, water conservation has
resulted in decreasing water flow rates with increased strength, which results in greater odour
production. Many wastewater treatment plants have begun to implement odour control
strategies, and biofiltration plays a major role in many such cases.

3.2. Volatile Organic Componds (VACs):

Biofiltration of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is an important problem in

the wood products, pulp and paper, and surface coating operation industries. In the case of
surface coating operations, exposure of workers to organic chemicals, such as styrene, is an
important issue. While attempts are being made to develop low VOC emitting solvent
formulations, some worker exposure is inevitable, and the use of biofiltration systems on the
shop floor can reduce concentrations of organics in the ambient air.

3.3. Petroleum Industry:

Petroleum hydrocarbons are released during refining, transfer operations, from

storage tanks, etc. Most of these hydrocarbons consist of aliphatic and aromatic compounds,
which are easily biodegraded in biofilters. Leaking underground storage tanks pose another
environmental hazard, where the hydrocarbon contaminant can be separated from the soil
and/or groundwater table using air sparging, bioventing or vapour extraction. The volatile
hydrocarbons are transferred into the air phase, wherein they can be effectively treated using
biofiltration.

As the knowledge on biofiltration increases and more pilot-scale studies are

conducted, the market for biofiltration is expected to increase in the near future.

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4. BIOFILTRATION OF WASTEWATER:

Biological filtration or biofiltration is a wastewater treatment process that can

effectively remove organic matter which is not able to be removed from treated sewage
effluent by conventional sewage treatment. The biofiltration process mainly relies on the
activities of the community of microorganisms that are attached on to the filter media. The
activities of microbes determine the performance of biological filtration. Microbes oxidize
organic matter in wastewater to produce energy and therefore available nutrients sources in
the influent are essential for their development. In addition, the parameters such as hydraulic
loading rate, back washing techniques, temperature and pH etc can affect the biomass in the
filter. Moreover, biofiltration is economical and safe for environment. Biofiltration is more
suitable than other methods in terms of removing organic matter.

The basic reaction in the biofitration process is:

Organic waste + living microorganisms + Oxygen C02 + H20 + more organisms
Hence, from the equation it can be seen that most of the biofiltration process is aerobic.

4.1. Fundamentals of Biological Process:

In a biofiltration system, the pollutants are removed due to biological
degradation rather than physical straining as is the case of normal filter. With the progression
of filtration process, microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative bacteria, fungi,
algae, and Protozoa) are gradually developed on the surface of the filter media and form a
biological film or slime layer known as biofilm. The development of biofilm may take few
days or months depending on the influent organic concentration. The crucial point for the
successful operation of a biofilter is to control and maintain a healthy biomass on the surface
of the filter. Since the performance of the biofilter largely depends on the microbial activities,
a constant source of substrates (organic substance and nutrients) is required for its consistent
and effective operation.
Biofilm is a complex consortium, comprising either a single or multiple species
of microorganisms which affixes, survives, and grows on animate and inanimate surfaces.
Biofilms occur frequently inside various engineered systems for wastewater treatment, may
be suspended or attached. The formation of biofilm on support media is the essential part of

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attached growth processes. The microbial communities and their metabolic pathways are
distinct in aerobic and anaerobic processes, resulting in their peculiar mechanisms of
pollutants removal. For supporting microbial film, in these systems different synthetic and
natural materials have been employed. Biofilm support media is one of the most critical
factors by providing surface to biomass growth and also microbial attachment and contact
with contaminants for removal. To design and control the biofilm systems more efficiently, it
is necessary to understand the relationships between the growth supporting media, microbial
community succession and structure, and the process performance. The properties of the
carrier materials significantly influence the early microbial attachment and growth which
thereby affect the performance of the biofilm reactors. However, carrier media have been
mostly chosen due to their less biodegradable nature in the challenging environmental
conditions and its availability.
There are three main biological processes that can occur in a biofilter:
(i) attachment of microorganism,
(ii) growth of microorganism
(iii) decay and detachment of microorganisms.
As the success of a biofilter depends on the growth and maintenance of
microorganisms (biomass) on the surface of filter media, it is necessary to understand the
mechanisms of attachment, growth and detachment on the surface of the filter media.
4.1.1. Attachment of microorganisms:
The mechanisms by which microorganisms can attach and colonize on the surface of the
filter media of a biofilter are:
(i) transportation
(ii) Initial adhesion
(iii) firm attachment, and
(iv) colonization
The transportation of microorganisms to the surface of the filter media is further controlled
by four main processes:
(a) Diffusion (Brownian motion)
(b) Convection,
(c) Sedimentation due to gravity, and
(d) Active mobility of the microorganisms.

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 As soon as the microorganisms reach the surface, initial adhesion occurs which can be
reversible or irreversible depending upon the total interaction energy, which is the sum of
Van der Waals force and electrostatic force. The processes of firm attachment and
colonization of microorganisms depend on influent characteristics (such as organic type and
concentration) and surface properties of the filter media.

4.1.2. Substrate utilization and biomass growth:

A biofilm is an accumulation of microorganism onto a surface. Since the
microorganisms are attached to the surface, the supply of organics or substrate (food) to the
microorganisms in a biofilm is mainly controlled by the bulk and surface transport
phenomena. The substrate must be transported from the bulk liquid to the biofilms outer
surface where it has to diffuse into the biofilm for its metabolism. The factors that influence
the rate of substrate utilization within a biofilm are:
(i) substrate mass transport to the biofilm,
(ii) diffusion of the substrate into the biofilm,
(iii) utilization kinetics within the biofilm.

4.1.3. Detachment of biomass

The success of a biofilter mainly depends on the efficient maintenance of biomass
attached to the filter media. Biomass detachment is one of the most important mechanisms
that can affect the maintenance of biomass in a biofilter. Erosion, abrasion, sloughing,
grazing or predation, and filter backwashing are the mostly observed and literally discussed
detachment mechanisms. Erosion of biomass occurs due to the fluid shear whereas abrasion
of biomass is the process of scraping the biocell off the surface by collision of external
particle. Similarly, large patches of biomass are detached by sloughing, and a part of biomass
especially on the outer surface of the biofilm may be lost due to the grazing of protozoa.
Evaluation of the biomass loss due to filter backwashing is very important in operational
point of view. Backwash bed expansion, mode of backwash such as air scour, filter effluent
or chlorinated water back- wash may affect biomass during backwashing. However, previous
studies have shown that the effective biomass which is mainly responsible for the organic
removal is not lost during normal filter backwash.

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4.2. Microorganisms Used In Biofiltration:
Selection of microbial culture for biofiltration is usually done as per the
composition of the wastewater and the ability of the microorganisms to degrade the organic
matter present in it and sometimes, a single microorganism is enough to degrade the
contaminants and sometimes a consortium of microorganisms is used for catabolism. Over
the past few years, there has been extensive research on the versatility of the microorganisms
used in biofiltration. Diverse microbial communities such as bacteria, actinomycetes and
fungi are involved in biofiltration as they are indigenous to the biomedia such as soil and
compost. Most of the research has been focussed on bacteria; however, fungi have also been
exploited in biofiltration. Compost has been reported to house bacteria belonging to the
group, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Fermicutes. An efficient
biofiltration system always depends on its heterotrophic microbial population that use organic
compounds as energy and carbon as its source.
4.3. Microbiology:
Since biomass is the “engine” of the biofiltration process, the knowledge of its
behaviour, the kinetics of its metabolism, and the laws governing its growth rate have to be
investigated.
4.3.1. Carbon and energy source:
Microorganisms in a biofiltration equipment are mainly aerobic and heterotrophs.
Aerobic microorganisms utilize oxygen as electron acceptor for their own metabolism. In a
bioreactor for wastewater treatment, since a fresh wastewater stream containing oxygen is
continuously fed, only few regions could be under anaerobic conditions. It mainly occurs
when biofilm thickness increases to much, limiting oxygen diffusion throughout it to the inner
biofilm layers. Anaerobic metabolism is slower than the aerobic one and the energy produced
by the organic compound degradation is several times lower. When microorganisms consume
organic matter as carbon source, they are called heterotrophs. Organic matter also constitutes
the electron donor of the biooxidation and its degradation provides energy for the synthesis of
new cellular material. Sulphur oxidizing microorganisms are instead autotrophs, because they
use CO2 as carbon source and H2S (or other sulphur containing hydrocarbon) as electron
donor. Some compounds, especially chlorinated organics, cannot be employed by cells as an
energy source. Thus, microorganisms require some secondary substrate to induce the
production of enzymes capable of degrading such pollutants. This particular transformation is
called co-metabolism and the additional substrate is called co-metabolite.

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4.3.2. Nutrients:
For cell growth and maintaining biomass requires some nutrients. Microorganisms
consume nutrients for the synthesis of lipids, proteins and polysaccharides, which constitute
the cellular matter. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, magnesium
and potassium are considered macronutrients and they are needed in concentration higher
than 10−4 M. Micronutrients are required in concentration lower than 10−4 M, as trace
elements: Fe, Cl, Mo, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, Na, vitamins, growth hormones are common
micronutrients.
4.3.3. Cellular growth and kinetics:
Microorganism growth is very important in biofiltration processes. Indeed, an excessive
increase in microbial population may strongly reduce biofilter efficiency. That is because
biofilm thickness increases reducing the cross sectional area, causing clogging, by-pass flows
and generating higher pressure drop. The most important biofiltration microorganisms are
bacteria and fungi. Bacteria mainly reproduce with a binary fission, with a generation time
that can vary from days to some minutes depending on the species. Fungi can both reproduce
by budding or by a sexual mode, with the presence of spores. Growth rate depends on the
substrate availability, on temperature, pH and the presence of toxics or inhibitory substances.
Biomass yield Y relates the amount of biomass generated to the amount of substrate
consumed for its generation:
Y =dX / dS Eq (1)
where X is the biomass concentration and S the substrate concentration. Yield is typical
for the bacteria species and for the particular substrate.
If substrate S is the growth-rate limiting parameter, Monod’s equation may be written,
where the specific growth rate µ is related to the substrate concentration:
µ = µmax × (S / (KS + S)) Eq (2)
where µmax is the maximum growth rate and KS the Monod’s half-velocity constant for the
substrate
Combining equations (1) and (2) an expression can be obtained where the rate of substrate
consumption rsu is related to substrate and biomass concentration:
rsu= − dS/dt = − µ·X/Y = − µmaxXS / (Y (KS + S)) Eq (3)
Monod’s kinetic is the most employed model to define microbiological oxidation in
wastewater treatment and in biofiltration processes as well.
Microbial growth is affected by temperature as well. Every microorganism has its
specific temperature range at which its activity reaches an optimal value. Cells are called
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mesophiles if such an optimum temperature range is between 30◦C and 45◦C. However,
mesophiles microorganism can work even out of this range, from 10◦C to around 50◦C. Since
biofiltration is a process working at room temperature, mesophile biomass is the most
common inside bioreactors.
For wastewater treatment, a correlation may be written to relate substrate
consumption to the temperature:
rT = r20◦ ·θ(T−20◦) Eq (4)
where r20◦ is the substrate rate at 20◦C and θ is characteristic of the treatment technique. For
trickling filters, for example, θ may vary from 1.02 to 1.08, with a typical value of 1.035.
4.3.4. Endogenous decay:
Endogenous decay is an important term to be considered in the study of growth and
kinetics, and it is related to the death of cells. It is supposed to be directly proportional to
biomass kinetics, so that the decay rate rd can be expressed as follows:
rd = −kdX Eq (5)
where kd is the endogenous decay coefficient.
4.3.5. Microbial population:
Biomass inside a bioreactor may be constituted by a sole species or by a microbial
consortium. For some specific purpose, a single species may grant higher removal efficiency,
but it has also revealed lower stability to variations in organic load, in temperature and pH.
For full-scale plants, therefore, a microbial consortium is preferred. Biomass can be provided
to the system by a specific inoculum or directly by an organic carrier. Compost, soil and
wood chips may contain a wide variety of microorganisms that can adapt to the new
particular conditions and select the more adequate microbial species to treat the incoming
pollutants. Fungi and bacteria are the most common microorganisms inside a bioreactor.
Some protozoa can also be present and they are often required: indeed, they can use simpler
microorganisms as nutrient, removing them from the reactor and controlling biomass growth
(protozoa predation). Comparing with fungi, bacteria have higher growth rate and higher
substrate consumption rate. However, fungi can operate with a wider range of pollutants and
have revealed higher resistance to starvation periods and different moisture and pH
conditions. Attached biomass constitutes the biofilm. Biofilm is a layer of cells, bonded by
extracellular polymers, which covers the carrier. It is characterized by a strong heterogeneity,
along its thicknes and also along the reactor tank.

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5. EQUIPMENTS USED FOR BIOFILTRATION OF WASTEWATER

There are three main equipment variations in biofiltration technology are:

 BIOTRICKLING FILTER
 BIOFILTER

5.1. Biotrickling Filter:

Biotrickling filters are those in which the supporting media used are synthetic
material like ceramics, plastic, etc, with active bacteria immobilized on the surface in the
form of synthetic support media are in wastewater treatment, gas absorption towers, catalytic
reactors etc. They are fixed biofiltration systems. These biofilm reactors can be employed for
treatment of different industrial effluents, for the removal of carbonaceous, sulphur and
nitrogenous compounds from wastewaters. Because of their simple design, small foot prints,
easy and reliable processing, these systems provide an additional advantage over suspended
growth systems. They help to achieve high biodegradation due to more contact time between
biofilm and wastewater, less washout of biomass and more stable operation.

Trickling biofilter system consist of three parts i.e. distribution system for
monitoring hydraulic load rates, filter media for development of biofilm and underdrain
system for collecting treated wastewater and solids (sludge) from filter. The core part of TBF,
biofilm, is basically the population of microbial cell that grows on the surface of media, and
is enclosed in a formless extracellular matrix. Distribution system is used to spray wastewater
over filter media, and the wastewater trickles through filter media supporting biomass, under
the force of gravity.

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 Fig1: Biotrickling Filter

The biomass consists of aerobic and anaerobic sub-layers that remove

pollutants by aerobic oxidation, anaerobic digestion, absorption and adsorption from the
wastewater and provide treated effluent. A thorough understanding of microbial profile is
essentially required to develop operating strategies and to further improve process
performance.

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 Fig 2: Typical Biotrickling Filter

5.1.1. Advantages of biotrickling filters:

 The biotrickling filter has no height limitation, and hence could be used as a tower
with reasonable diameter.
 The media has not to be replaced periodically.
 In biotrickling bed filters, pH can be controlled by adding buffers in the nutrient flow.
 The biodegradation rates are much higher than other compost beds. This is because of
higher surface area and increased concentration of immobilized microorganisms in
biotrickling filters.
 Biotrickling filters are much lighter, since the support media is synthetic and has a
large void fraction. The foot print of biotrickling filter is much smaller and can be
easily installed on building roof.
 In biotrickling filters, the synthetic media is very open, and high wastewater velocities
can be maintained, the oxygen transfer is much higher, and anaerobic regions are not
formed. The problem with the formation of anaerobic region is that sometimes
anaerobic microorganisms thrive and creates acid by products and thereby, decreasing
the pH of the filter. Thus this problem is ruled out in the case of biotrickling filter.

5.1.2. Disadvantages of biotrickling filters:

 High capital cost.

 Requires expert design and construction, particularly, the dosing system.
 Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel.
 Requires a constant source of electricity and constant wastewater flow.

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  Not all parts and materials may be locally available.

5.2. Biofilters:

Biofilters are reactors in which wastewater is allowed to pass through a porous

packed material immobilized with suitable microbial culture. As the wastewater passes
through the filter medium, the contaminant in the wastewater transverse to the liquid face
surrounding the biofilm in the medium where they are degraded to CO2, H20, inorganic salts,
and biomass by microorganisms.

The main function of the biofilm is to bring microorganisms into contact with the
organic matter present in waste water. The filter material is the breeding ground for the
microorganisms. Microorganisms fixed to a porous medium are used in the biofilters to break
down pollutants present in the wastewater stream. The microorganisms growing in a biofilm
on the surface of the medium or are suspended in the water phase surrounding the medium
particles. The filter bed medium consists of relatively inert substances which ensure large
surface attachment areas and additional nutrient supply. The overall effectiveness of a
biofilter is largely governed by the properties and characteristics of the support medium,
which include porosity, degree of compaction, water retention capabilities and the ability to
host microbial populations. Critical biofilter operational and performance parameters include
the microbial inoculation, medium pH, temperature, the medium moisture, and nutrient
content.

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 Fig 3: Biofilter

5.2.2 Advantages of biofillter:

 Low investment and operational cost.

 Simple construction
 Effective removal of biologically degradable compounds (also water soluble
components like xylene, styrene).
 Low pressure drop.
 Little waste water (percolate water).
 Little waste material (only replaced material).

5.2.3. Disadvantages of biofilter:

 Large surface area needed (but this can be reduced by placing the biofilters on top of
each other though it increases the cost aspects).
 The filter material can be periodically replaced.
 It is difficult to check the humidity and pH of the filter material.
 Few configuration parameters to improve efficiency.
 Risk of blockage due to dust.
 Fluctuation in concentration have big fluctuations in efficiency
 The bed must be continuously aerated to avoid anaerobic conditions.

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6. ADVANCED BIOFILTRATION:

6.1. Fixed Biofilters With Artificial Immobilization:

These are fixed bed type biofilters, incorporating support medium with actively
metabolising biofilm. In these systems the biomass is distributed into two fractions: the major
part immobilized as biofilm on support medium and the minor part suspended in the void
volume of the biofilter. The immobilization of biofilm is caused by formation of covalent
bonds among variety of reactive groups on microbial membranes and different ligends on the
bedding material. Normally these reacting groups on microorganisms and different ligends on
bedding material are inactive and are usually activated by different coupling agents. Some of
the most commonly used coupling agents are glutaraldyde, carbodiimine, isocyanate and
aminosilane. As a consequence, the microorganisms are exposed to potent reactive groups,
which could exert toxic affects and thereby hamper the performance of the biofilter.
Moreover, normal metabolic processes like cell growth and division could result in escape of
cells from the bedding material.

Formation of bedding material without any type of support is possible by covalent

cross linking, which involves the amalgamation among microorganisms to form a lodge,
complex confirmation.

6.2. Entrapment Within Polymer:

In this method, microorganisms are trapped within some inert polymer beads. The
matrix confining microorganisms are porous, allowing passage of only pollutants (substrates)
and metabolic products and not the microbial cells. The inert polymeric matrix adopted for
facilitating immobilization of microbial cells could be either natural or synthetic. However in
both cases, the support material must be hydrophilic, so that the substrates and various
metabolic products should readily diffuse through the beads.

Presently, synthetic materials, polyacrylamide, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),

polypropylene glycol, etc are used as entrapping agents and also commonly used natural
polymers, eg alginate and carrageenan. Gill and ballesterors have mentioned few emerging
technologies that could revolutionize bioimmobilization; biological polymer composites-
organic, inorganic and hybrid organic- inorganic polymers in which the biological substance

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(cells, enzymes etc) is permanently encapsulated as an integral component of a covalently
formed confirmation. These techniques utilize metal-oxides, silicates, and organosiloxane
matrices formed under ambient conditions and are loaded with biological.

6.3. Microencapsulation:

In this method droplets containing microorganisms are encapsulated within a thin

membrane envelope. Eventually, the microorganisms move freely within the
envelope/capsule, consuming substrate that penetrates through the enclosing membrane
surfaces. Nylon and cellulose nitrate have proven to be most popular in constructing these
microcapsule, because of their cost, mechanical strength and inert nature. Typically, their
diameter ranges from 10-100 micrometre, roughly 10-100 times the diameter of an average
microbial cell.

In contrast to entrapment within polymeric beads, the main advantage of this technology
is low diffusion restriction to the thin membrane. However, the toxicity of membranes in
many cases causes the loss of catalytic activity within the immobilized microorganisms.
Additionally, growth, cell division, or gas produced during biofiltration may cause the
mechanical rupture of the membrane.

7. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

The parameters that can affect the performance of a biofilter are the characteristics
of filter media, hydraulic and organic loading rate, and filter backwash techniques. Other
factors that can influence the performance of a biofilter are the temperature and the presence
of oxidants, i.e. O3, H2O2, Cl2, and NH4Cl etc. in the influent. These factors should be
carefully studied before designing a biofiltration system.

7.1. Filter Media:

The economical and efficient operation of a biofilter highly depends on the
characteristics of its filter media. While selecting the filter media, one should also consider
the source and concentration of targeted pollutants. For the treatment of primary wastewater,
the right choice of the filter media can be the blast furnace slag or granite or synthetic media
depending upon the volume of wastewater, whereas for the treatment of tertiary wastewater,
the biofilter media should provide:
(i) a suitable surface for quick biomass growth,

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 (ii) larger surface area for biomass growth, and
(iii) good surface texture to hold biomass against shear and sloughing.

Fig 4: Effect of types of filter media on the performance of biofilter

7.2. Empty Bed Contact Time:

The contact time, usually expressed as empty bed contact time (EBCT), is a key
design and operating parameter of a biofilter. Zhang and Huck [1996] have introduced the
concept of dimensionless contact time incorporating, specific surface area of the medium,
substrate diffusivity and rate of biodegradation. Usually the percentage removal of organic
substances increases with increase in contact time up to an optimum value. Both the filter
depth and hydraulic loading can be changed to increase the EBCT.

Fig 5: Effect of EBCT on the performance of biofilter (Chabrol model)

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7.3. Filter Backwash:
It is important to select an appropriate filter backwashing technique for successful
operation of a biofilter. The biomass attached to the filter media has to be carefully
maintained during backwashing. Previous researches have shown no major loss of biomass
during backwash of the biofilter. Servais et al backwashed the GAC biofilter with air scour
and water routinely every 50-100 hours of continuous run, but no significant difference in
vertical biomass profiles before and after backwash was observed.
7.4. Temperature:
The effect of temperature on the bacterial activity on the biofilter and hence the
performance of the biofilter can be seen in fig. The activities of bacterial community adapted
at 10 degC and 20degC were found to increase with increase in temperature in range of 10-30
deg C.

Fig 6: Percentage of bacterial activity with respect to temperature

8. BIOFILTER STATE VARIABLE PARAMETERS

8.1. Substrate:
Biofilters are used for many purposes. It can be used for the treatment of primary
wastewater, tertiary wastewater or for the treatment of potable water. Measurement of
biofilter state variable parameters depends on the purpose of the use of the biofilter. If the
purpose of the biofilter is to treat the primary wastewater, then the parameters that should be
measured are BOD, COD, SS etc. However, when the biofilter is used for the tertiary

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wastewater treatment, then the organic level such as TOC could be an appropriate parameter
to be measured.
8.2. Biomass growth:
The performance of a biofilter depends on the biomass attached to the filter
media. The biomass growth and its maintenance over the surface of the filter media, on the
other hand, depend mostly on the surface characteristics of the filter media itself. As
mentioned earlier, different media can have different biomass growth rate and biomass
retention capacity. GAC, sand, anthracite, blast-furnace slag and floating polypropylene
pellets are some of the common biofilter media used in the water and wastewater treatment.
Other factors that can affect the biomass accumulation are the filtration rate, filter
backwashing techniques, and the organic content of the influent wastewater. Most of the
studies with natural surface water showed that 3-months period is required for a GAC filter to
retain maximum amount of biomass. The biomass concentration profile thus appears to be the
most critical parameter in the design of biofiltration system.

Fig 7: Biomass accumulations in the GAC biofilter

9. MAINTENANCE OF BIOFILTERS:
Wastewater treatment plants operating on the biological filtration process require
regular inspection, monitoring and preventative maintenance if they are to operate and
function effectively. To maintain plant operation at optimum conditions i.e. the basis on
which the plant was approved, the following maintenance operations are to be done:

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  Regular tests and adjustments must be carried out by a competent person.
 Details of maintenance and test results must be kept by the operator on a plant
maintenance record.

10. CASE STUDY: DOMESTIC WASTE WATER TREATMENT BY

BIO-FILTRATION (VERMIFILTRATION):
A small scale Bio-filter plant was set up for treating of 30 m3/day of domestic
wastewater in the campus of Gharda Institute of Technology, by Transchem Agritech Ltd,
Vadodara. Size of the bio-filter plant is 9 m x 5 m x 1.75 m. At the bottom of the plant the
earth soil is rammed well and 100 mm PCC and 150 mm RCC bed is layered above the soil.
The bottommost layer is made of gravel aggregates (rubbles) of size 75–100 mm. The depth
of the layer is 300 mm, above this lay the aggregates of 40 to 60 cm sizes filled up to another
400 mm. On the top of this is the 350 mm layer of aggregates of 8-10 mm sizes mixed with
sand. The topmost layer of about 650 mm is Biofilter media which consists of pure soil and
wooden chips along with cow dung in which the earthworms are released. As the earthworms
play the critical role in wastewater purification their number and population density
(biomass) in soil, maturity and health are important factors.
The Bio-filter plant was put into operation in third week of January 2014. The
sewage waterfrom the residential building is collected in the underground tank. The influent
water isuniformly distributed by sprinklers over the bed of the bio-filter. The wastewater is
percolated down through various layers in the bio-filter passing through the soil layer
inhabited by earthworms, the sandy layer, and the gravels and at the end was collected from
the bottom of the system.
Influent and effluent samples are being collected once in a week. After measuring
temperature and pH, samples are analyzed for Dissolved Oxygen, Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), three-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).

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RESULT:
Table 1: Characteristics of influent.

SN PARAMETER VALUE
1 Odour Unpleasant
2 Temperature 30-35 deg c
3 pH 7-7.8
4 Total Dissolved Solids 129-289ppm
5 Dissolved Oxygen 5.6-8ppm
6 Biological oxygen Demand 10-95ppm
7 Chemical oxygen demand 114-382ppm

pH:
Results indicate that the average value of pH of the treated wastewater is 7.42. The
effluent is neutralized by the earthworms in the bio-filter plant. The temperature of the treated
wastewater ranged from 28 to 34 0C.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):
Total dissolved solids in the effluent were reduced and ranged from 40 to 228 ppm. On
an average, the percentage reduction in TDS is 15.42 %. Results, thus, clearly suggested the
capability of earthworms to remove solid fractions of wastewater during vermi-biofiltration
processes.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
The BOD load in effluents from the bio-filter was significantly lower than the influent
levels. It can be seen that the percentage of reduction in concentration of BOD in the bio-
filter ranges from 46.67 to 88.24 %. The earthworm degrades the wastewater organic by
enzymatic action’ (which work as biological bringing the pace and rapidity in biochemical
reaction) and that is the reason for BOD removal in vermifilter.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Percentage of reduction in concentration of COD in bio-filter ranges from 36.84 to
85.71 %.

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CONCLUSIONS:
Biofiltration plays a major role in the treatment of organic matter in wastewater. The
high quality effluent produced can be disposed of in an eco-friendly manner. Biofiltration
process is environmental friendly, inexpensive, having low maintenance cost, and higher
shelf life, efficient at ambient atmospheric conditions of temperature, pressure, pH, moisture
and oxygen requirement. Biological treatment processes generate environmentally benign
secondary pollutants (sludge biomass) compared to physicochemical methods. Also
biofiltration system can be combined with physicochemical methods for more efficient
treatment of wastewater. Thus, biofiltration can be effectively used to remove organic matter
from wastewater.

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REFERENCES
1. Damodhar J Garkal, J V Mapara and Mandar Prabhune, (2015), “Domestic
wastewater treatment by bio-filtration.: A case study”, International Journal of
Science, Environment and Technology, Vol. 4, No 1, pp 40 – 145.
2. Durgananda Singh Chaudhary, Saravanamuthu Vigneswaran, Huu-Hao Ngo,
Wang Geun Shim and Hee Moon (2003), “Biofilter in Water and Wastewater
Treatment”, Korean Journal. Chemical Engineering, 20(6), pp 1054-1065.
3. K.Vijay kumar, V.Sridevi,N.Harsha, M.V.V.Chandana lakshmi, K.Rani (2013),
“Biofiltration and its application in treatment of air and water pollutants-A review”,
International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management
(IJAIEM), Volume 2, Issue 9, September 2013.
4. M. Verma, S. K. Brar, J. F. Blais, R.D. Tyagi, and R. Y. Surampalli, (2006),
“Aerobic Biofiltration Processes- Advances in Wastewater Treatment”,
ASCE Journal, Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Waste Management,
pp 264-276.
5. Luca Della Vendova (2008), “Biofiltration of industrial waste gases in trickle-bed
bioreactors”,www.paduaresearch.cab.unipd.it/354/1/Biofiltration_of_TCE_vapours.
pdf.
6. Dr Rajesh Govindh, “Biofiltration –an innovative technology for the future”,
www.prdtechinc.com/.../prdbiofilterr%26dmagazinepaper.pdf

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