Materials Technology

Duplex Stainless steela- a Review after DSS '07 held in Grado

Jacques Charles

ARCELOR MITTAL, Stainless R&D General Manager, 5-7, rue Luigi Cherubini, 93210 La Plaine Saint-Denis Cdx, France;
jacques.charles@arcelormittal.com

Duplex stainless have always been an exiting area of interest for researchers, stainless steel producers, fabricators and end users. They
present very diversified technical challenges and simultaneously attractive in-service properties at excellent cost/properties ratios,
particularly in critical markets including oil and gas, chemical industry, pulp and paper industry, water systems, desalination plants, pollution
control equipments, chemical tankers, etc. This explains why although they still remain a marginal production in the stainless steel business
(less than 1%) dedicated international conferences have been organised since about 25 years. The purpose of this paper is to present a
review of the 100 scientific contributions presented during the latest international duplex stainless steel conference witch took place in
Grado, Italy, on 18-20 June 2007. The main topics concerned microstructure and mechanical properties, weldability, corrosion resistance
and in-service properties. The "standard" duplex stainless steels, Le. the 2304, 2205, and the family of 2507 (Cu,W,oo.) grades were
confirmed as very valuable grades with outstanding performances proven in more than 20 years successful in-service applications. New
grades including the so-called lean duplex dedicated to volume oriented markets (possible replacement of 304/316 grades) and some
"niche" grades dedicated to very specific markets were presented. It was pointed out that the duplex grades start to be well established
products particularly suitable for corrosion resistance applications. They show a two-digit yearly growth thanks to the production of new
grades and production ranges (coils and bars) targeting the replacement of the more costly 300 series including 304 but also rusty carbon
steel in e.g. structural application.

Keywords: Duplex Stainless Steel, Markets and Applications, Chemistries, Metallurgy, Mechanical Properties, Corrosion Resistance
Properties, Weldability.

DOl: 10.2374/SRI08SP063-79-2008-455; submitted on 7 March 2008, accepted on 14 March 2008

Introduction and cost savings partially obtained due to the favourable

The first international duplex conferences (St
Louis/DSA/82 and The HaguelNL/86) were mainly
focused on "scientific" aspects like phase precipitations
(structures, kinetics), corrosion resistance, mechanical
properties. The world wide industrial production in that
time was almost marginal and standardization still had to
be implemented. The main applications concerned the oil
and gas Industry.
The conference in Beaune/France in 1991 was the first
duplex conference with a mix of scientific and market
focus. New grades with increased nitrogen additions were
presented [1]. Duplex grades gained in structure stability,
weldability and corrosion resistance properties. New
standards were proposed. The duplex family included the
popular 2205 grades with increased nitrogen additions
(0.16/0.l8%N instead of 0.12/0.15%N) and optimized Mo
contents. PREN values were proposed between 33 and 36
with a most common value of 34/35. Sigma free grades
were recommended as well as a minimum Mo level of 3%.
Grade 2304 was already developed but for marginal
applications. Several super duplex grades were also
promoted - SAF 2507, DR 52N+, Zeron 100... - for the
most severe applications including off-shore. Those super
duplex grades were also redesigned before the
BEAUNE'91 conference in order to have a PREN value
minimum of 40 and a nitrogen level minimum of 0.25 %.
The grades were mainly produced with EAF + VOD or
AOD and continuous casting devices. First extensive
applications were reported as well as new areas of
developments. The duplex grades won the end-users' trust
mechanical properties were expected. New codes for
duplex grades had to be established. The potential growth
of the grades was clearly emphasized. All this partially
explained the extremely wide audience of the
BEAUNE'91 conference.
The York'94, Maestricht'97 and Venice'2000 con-
ferences were also successful conferences with increasing
return of information on practical experiences [2-3]. Most
of the applications still concerned quarto-plates and tubing.
The first lean duplex grades appeared.
This paper is a review of the scientific and technical
contributions presented at the latest International Duplex
Stainless Steel Conference held in Grado, Italy, on 26-28
June 2007. With about 300 attendees and 100 con-
tributions the conference appeared to be an excellent mix
of outstanding scientific contributions and technical
presentations covering field experiences in many areas of
applications.
Stainless Steel Production and Consumption
The worldwide yearly crude steel production for flat
stainless steels has been booming at an average growth of
6% since more than 50 years. Nevertheless, stainless steel
production is less than 1% of that of carbon steel [4], the
304 grade being the most widely used. Today's biggest
geographic area of stainless consumption is Europe while
for the future most of the growth is expected to take place
in Asia. Production capacities are booming mainly in
China and a similar rise is expected to come in India. Asia

steel research int. 79 (2008) No.6 455

Materials Technology

which has since many years imported a part of its demand
will soon be able to export stainless steel due to possible
overcapacities. The booming demand in Asia particularly
in China and a certain lack of regulations made it possible
to develop new grades with less alloying elements. China
and India are the countries where the new 200 series were
developed. More recently China has used more than 1
million of tons of those new grades which are not subject
to any specific norm [5].
Austenitics remains the most popular grades thanks to
their unique combination of high ductility, high potential
of strengthening, weldability, toughness even at extra-low
material price. As a result, a rise of several thousands of
euros per ton has been observed for the 300 series prices
within a few years. Of course, ferritic steels are almost not
affected by those effects. Replacement of 304 and 316
grades by ferritic grades is nowadays the cost saving
solution. This concerns particularly thin gauge
applications since ferritics are difficult to weld in thicker
sections.
~""'£'''''~ 304L
8000
'~_316L

7000 Ni Mo Cr
temperatures and of course corrosion resistance. Ferritics 1 6 7 0,8
2101
_ _ 2304
represent about 25% of the total production. Due to 6000 2 10 17 1
........ 2205
3 14 35 1,5
welding aspects and toughness properties, they are 5000 4 30 40 1,5 _2507
restricted to thinner gauges even if they are often the cost 5 52 42 1,5 430
4000 439
saving grades. Duplex grades cover about 1% of the total 445
production [5]. 3000 --.434
_444
2000
" '.',,~
_ _ 204201
Duplex Stainless Steels - Market Applications 1000
175Cu
Most of the duplex grades in service are 2205 hot rolled 151 Cu

products. In the recent past strong demand and

developments have extended to cold finished flat products Figure 1. Evolution of raw material costs for stainless steel
and hot finished long products (rebar). The worldwide production from January through May 2007, in US$/ton.
production of duplex grades represents nowadays about
200 000 t, i.e. less than 1% of the total stainless steel
production although the duplex production has grown by
more than 100% in the latest decade. Most of the
production concerns the so-called quarto plates (i.e. plates
of more than 2000 mm width more than 6mm thickness).
For those products weight savings are often obtained
taking advantage of their advanced mechanical properties.
Most of the applications utilize the excellent corrosion
resistance properties, e.g. in the process industry (chemical,
petrochemical, off-shore, chemical tankers, pulp and paper
industry, pollution control equipments-FGD-, desalination,
sea-water applications...). In those applications 2205
grades have always been very competitive compared to the o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
317 (LMN) and 904 grades due to their reduced nickel Cr eqUivalent
Cr% + Mo% + 1,5 Si% + 0,5 Nb% + 5V% + 3 AI%
content and favourable high mechanical properties
compared to austenitics, which make it possible to reduce
thicknesses (quarto plates). Figure 2. Schaeffler diagram illustrating the areas of stability of
Superduplex grades (2507 Cu,W) represent about 10% stainless steel microstuctures.
of the total duplex volume and are designed to replace
6Mo austenitic grades in the most severe applications. Although the Ni price has recently been declining,
Lean duplexes including the 2304 and 2101 grades duplex grades start to be very cost competitive answers for
contribute to slightly more than 10% of the total duplex thicker gauges. Replacements of 316 grades by 2205
production. duplex grades are now to be considered: cheaper material
The booming market is extending to products recently but much better corrosion resistance properties and high
developed, i.e. new grades including lean duplex and new mechanical properties! The same results are observed for
production ranges (coils and bars). The lean duplex grades 2304 duplex versus 304 and 316. And the new lean
are expected to replace 304/316 in volume markets. If coil duplexes of 2101 type are even less alloyed in the
production can be achieved at high productivity and expensive elements Ni and Mo. This provides new
quality, duplex consumption will grow very fast. Another powerful driving forces for a further increased use of
potential booming market could be duplex for rebar. duplex grades in new applications.

Stainless Families and Alloying Costs Duplex Stainless Steels - Grades

The recent evolutions of raw material costs, particularly Although the Schaeffler diagram (Figure 2) is mainly
Ni, have a drastic impact on 304 and 316 alloy surcharges used for welded structures, it is very useful to roughly
(Figure 1). They are nowadays higher than the base illustrate the areas of stability of the different stainless

456 steel research int. 79 (2008) No.6

 Materials Technology

microstructures. Between the austenitic and the ferritic %N

N solubility limit
areas, we obtain a mixed ferrite + austenite microstructure: 0.40
the duplex area. Most of the duplex industrial grades have
.i Stability of T ~
a typical 50%ferrite/ 50%austenite microstructure. The 0.35 i not guaranteed ~ ~
three classical families of duplex grades are plotted in the i (Ms transiti~l'
Schaeffler diagram: the 2304 Mo free grades, the standard 0.30 i ~~
: ~
duplex type 2205 and the superduplex grades of 2507 type. : ~
As observed, it is almost impossible to develop duplex 0.25
grades having less than 20%Cr without possible formation
of martensite. Those grades that have an austenite/ferrite 0.20 ....'... ...
:r? , . "'N'standard duplex
....
First developments
Stability of a
microstructure even after quenching may undergo an ~. • 25Cr duplex difficultto achieve
0.15 • ~r. 32205 (intermetalliett
austenite/martensite transformation when plastic
deformation occurs. 0.10
With the extreme volatility of alloying element costs
(Figure 1) new grades have been introduced in the market 0.05
i 31803
(Table 1). The newly developed grades are on both sides ··32~04 4462
of the standard 2205 grade. The first family of grades 43$
concerns the so-called lean duplex, having less Mo and Ni o 25 30 35 Cr + Mo (%)
additions. Their phase stability may be achieved thanks to
Figure 3. Newly designed duplex grades with increased nitrogen
supplementary alloying of manganese, another austenitic content.
stabilizing element. These new grades also have an
increased nitrogen content since nitrogen additions (extra
low cost element) are known to improve the austenite and possible partial replacement of exclusive Mo additions
stability of the grades and localised corrosion resistance by mixed Mo+W additions. These types of alloying seem
properties (Figure 3). The main target of those grades is a to contribute to stabilise the respective grade, providing
partial replacement of 316 and even 304 austenitic grades less sensitivity to intergranular phase precipitations on
depending upon their properties related to the chemistry of heating. This concerns mostly the very high Mo content
the alloy. Some of those grades still have high Mo duplex grades.
contents combined with Ni additions.
When using the word "lean" for duplex grades we Microstructure Stability
should restrict our definition to almost Mo free grades and
nickel content lower than 3%. Grade 32003 is obviously Figure 4 schematically shows the phases and types of
less expensive in alloying elements than the 2205 .grade precipitations that may occur in duplex grades. Phase
but more expensive than the 2304. It should not be precipitations are clearly related to the Mo, Cr and W
considered as a lean duplex. additions. Alloying of Cr, Mo, W makes the grades more
On the other hand, some new more alloyed grades have prone to transform from the ferritic phase to intermetallic
been introduced as well. This concerns alloys having phases (sigma, chi ..), nitrides, carbides Or even, at lower
mostly higher corrosion resistance and structure stability temperature, to the alpha prime microstructures (Spinodal
than the 2507 type grades. They are often called decomposition). With copper additions complementary
hyperduplex grades. The driving forces are higher Cr precipitations of epsilon-Cu may occur in the 600/300°C
additions with simultaneously increased nitrogen additions range (Figure 5).

Table 1. Typical chemical compositions (in wt.%) of duplex stainless steels in comparison to the 300 series.

I FAMILY I USAI EURONORM~ OtherS~PRENWI

304L 18
300 316L
904LN
1.4307
1.4401
1.4339
18
17
20
°
2
4
9
11
25
1
1
1 °°
1,5 0,1
18
24
33
18
24
35
24
35

Standard
DUPLEX
S 32304
S 32205
S 32750
1.4362
1.4462
1.4410
23
22
25
°
3
3,5
4
6
7
1
1
1
0,13
0,17
0,27
23
32
37
25
35
41
25
35
41
(1996) S 32760 1.4501 25 3,8 7 1 0,7 0,27 0,7W 38 42 43
S 32520 1.4507 25 3,5 7 1 1,5 0,25 37 41 41
S 31500 18,5 2,7 5 1 0,1 27 29 29
S 32101 1.4162
New
S 32001
S 32003
21
20
20
°
0,3
1,7
1,5
1,7
3,5
5
5
2
0,3
0,2
0,15
0,15
21
21
26
24
23
28
24
23
28
DUPLEX
S 31260 27 3 7 1 0,5 0,16 0,3W 37 39 40
(EX)
S 39274 25 3 7 1 0,6 0,27 2W 35 39 42
S 32906 1.4362 29 2 6 1 0,4 36 42 42
S 32707 27 5 6,5 1 0,4 44 49 49

PRE =%Cr + 3.3%Mo ; PREN(W) =%Cr + 3.3%Mo + 16%N + (3.3(0.5%W)).

steel research int. 79 (2008) No.6 457

Materials Technology

MO,W,Si annealing temperatures produce higher ferrite contents and

1000·C ---~t'icarbide,Cr N nitride HAZ lower toughness [13].
1800·F , a phase
Cr ' Cr2 N nitride Step cooling, for example at 700°C, with or without
Mo ' X phase mechanical deformation, can lead to the precipitation of
W ' Y2 phase
Si ' M23 C6 carbide numerous small acicular austenite grains (gamma two),
, R Phase presenting a {Ill h//{11O} a Kurdjumov-Sachs relation-
••-- 7t phase ship. At lower temperatures an even finer structure may be
/' ' & phase (Cu)
Cr, Mo, Cu, ~ '. ~' ~h. ase formed ({l23} a habit plane with a Nishiyama-Wasserman
300·C ~hase ... orientation) [1].
600·F
Cr, Mo, Cu, W
Time High temperature precipitations. For the most
alloying duplex grades it has been confirmed that sigma
Figure 4. Typical phase precipitations which may occur in duplex phase issued from an eutectoid decomposition of austenite
grades. is the most common brittle phase observed. Its typical
chemical composition is 60Fe30Cr7M03Ni (2205). The
1800 sigma phase precipitates with the y2 phase, which is an
a Solidification
Possible primary austenitic phase having a lower PREN value than the
1600
carbides. nitrides matrix, typically 36 instead of 42 for a superduplex grade.

P
1400

1200
t The chi phase is often observed as an intermediate
precipitation before transforming into the sigma phase.
Sigma and Chi phases have a strong embrittlement
a ~ yl
...
:Q)
effect while y2 deteriorates the average corrosion
~ 1000 resistance properties of the respective grade.
~ 800 a ~ a+y3; a ~ y2 Models based on Avrami's equation are now available
E
{E. a ~
X. ~ cr+y3 ; G to predict the microstructure after both continuous and
600 SecondarY nitrides. carbo isothermal heat treatments of industrial grades. Typical
minimum cooling rates of 0.3°C/s are requested to avoid
400 sigma phase precipitations in a 2205 duplex alloy [14].
200
W additions are known to stabilise the sigma phase at
high temperatures. W containing grades require higher
0 - - - - - - ' 1 Y ~ Martensite (lean temperatures for solution annealing treatments. Some
30 20 10 %Cr duplex with defonnation
papers also underline the benefit of W additions in order to
a 10 20 %Ni
improve the phase stability of the duplex grade. After
Figure 5. Pseudo-binary phase diagram of the duplex grades long-term isothermal treatment the amount of sigma phase
2205/2507. is clearly reduced when comparing a Mo containing grade
with an equivalent Mo+W alloying where a part of the Mo
1000 is replaced by W additions. This seems to result from
900
r slower diffusion of big W atoms. Furthermore,

--- -------
Cr2N ,~ a-Phase
800 precipitation of the significant phases seems to be more
.... ~M2t:6 x-Phase
U 700 intragranular. Nevertheless, when looking at the first steps
0

...::s
(1)
600 of intermetallic formation, no clear evidence of W
additions is found, i.e. the first precipitations appear after
...
~ 500
the same holding time. As a result, no clear benefits of W
(1)
0.. \.~5·C- Embrittlemen additions on structure stability of duplex grades are
S
~
400
- observed.
On the contrary, the simultaneous increase in Cr (to
300
29%), decrease in Mo (2% instead of 3.5-4% ) and
increase in nitrogen (to 0.4%) is a good way to develop
2 6 20 60 180 600 1800 superduplex grades with higher structure stability [15]
time [min] (SAF 2906). The DP28W grade of Sumitomo has a similar
philosophy (27Cr, IMo, 2W, 0.35N) but with mixed W
Figure 6. TTT diagram of 2205 duplex steel. and Mo additions.
Newly developed "hyperduplexes", with PRENW
higher than 45, combine very high Cr+Mo+W additions
Most of the duplex industrial grades solidify in the with significant nitrogen additions (up to 0.4%). One
ferritic mode and undergo a partial transformation from example is the UNS 32707 grade (SAF2707) with 27% Cr
ferrite to austenite when cooling down. The volume and 5% Mo and another one is the UNS 39274 DP3W
fractions of austenite/ferrite are clearly linked to the grade (25% Cr, 3.3% Mo, 2.1% W). For those grades high
composition and temperature. (Thermocalc model is useful solution annealing temperatures are needed and they are
for such investigations). As a result, the room temperature more suitable for thinner gauges.
microstructures and properties are closely linked to the Cr-N and carbides (M7C3 , M23C6) are also expected to
solution annealing temperature, i.e. higher solution form during high temperature treatments (Figure 6). Clear

458 steel research int. 79 (2008) No.6


evidences have been observed. Nevertheless, the
detrimental effects of sigma/chi phase precipitations in the
superduplex grades as well as 2205 grades seem to
annihilate the effect from nitides/carbides precipitations in
most of the cases. On the contrary, thermal cycles at very
high temperatures (> 1300°C), which may increase the
volume fraction of ferrite, followed by fast cooling
treatments plus possible intermediate reheating (typical of
the HAZ of multipass welds) may cause significant
nitrides precipitations. This effect is due to excess nitrogen
in ferritic grains and lack of time for austenite
transformation and nitrogen diffusion [1, 16]. Carbides
precipitations are generally of secondary importance.
For the less alloyed grades, i.e. Mo free grades,
sigma/chi phase precipitations need much more holding
time (several 10 hours) and nitrides precipitations,
particularly in the newly designed grades with higher
nitrogen contents, which may be the main reason for
inferior corrosion and toughness properties when heated in
the 600/850°C range. Brittle behaviour has been reported
but for holding times by far exceeding the normal
industrial treatments.
The Mo-free duplex grades can be regarded as very
stable microstructure under standard heat treatments
including solution annealing treatments. Air cooling can
even be considered for some applications and very thick
products for the solution annealed and water cooled
conditions. In those lean duplex grades (2101) nitrides
precipitations have been found after a holding time of
45min in the 6501750°C range. This explains why
toughness properties worsen and values less than 50J are
observed in those conditions [16]. Typical microstructures
of duplex stainless steels observed after several heat
treatments are presented in Figure 7.
(a)
(d)
Figure 7. Duplex stainless steels after heat treatments: (a) Steel 2507 [8], ferrite and recrystallized austenite. (b) Steel 2507, 920°C, 10 min [9].
(c) and (d) Coral kind three-dimensional sigma phase precipitations [12]. (e) Steel 2507, 475°C, 100 h (11), TEM. (f) Steel 2205, 850°C, 1 h.
steel research int. 79 (2008) NO.6
Materials Technology
Phase precipitations in the 550/300120oC range with
ferrite hardening effects. At lower temperatures diffusion
mechanisms are slowing down and consequently the
formation of precipitates needs more time and finer
microstructures are generally found, which makes optical
investigations and phase identifications more difficult.
Since the solubility of nitrogen in ferritic grains
decreases with temperature, nitrides precipitates generally
occur at the ferrite/ferrite boundaries. Some complex
intermetallic phases like R, 1t, G, might also be formed
particularly in the Mo containing grades.
The most popular transformation is the Spinodal
decomposition of the ferrite into a' - demixing of the
ferrite into two phase with poor and high chromium
contents on a very small scale. This transformation is
known as the 475°C transformation (it occurs mainly
between 475 and 280°C). A subsequent hardening and
embrittlement of the ferrite is observed. This explains why
most of the applications are restricted to temperatures
lower than 250°C. Superduplex grades with 25%Cr are
very sensitive to this phenomenon. 2205 grades are also
sensitive but much less than the 2304 grade without Mo
although their Cr content of 22% is less than the 23% of
the 2304. The clear effect of Mo in this transformation is
not completely understood. Wand Cu additions have also
specific effects.
CU-E particles may precipitate in the ferrite grains after
heat treatment in the 550/300°C temperature range. A
hardening effect can be obtained.
The Mo free grades seem to be less prone to low
temperature hardening. Holding times of about 10h are
necessary to find a' precipitation. For the lower alloyed
grades (lean duplexes) martensitic transformation may
occur to a large extent under plastic deformation [16].
(c)
(e) (f)
459
Materials Technology

~ 16 r--------------------.
300 ~ 14 '=::::~~~I!!!!!!_=----------l
e; I
....
250 ~=12 •
t-------------"'jlilll.:,-------~

5: 200
i\ 8=10 t - - - - - - - - i 2205
..
'"
'"
ell
=
.:: 150
:\ ,-----
2205
938°e
.g~ 8 938°e
850oe......"'--------~..----------1
:1:j 6 7500e
~

e= l\ "\-: 850 0e
'3 4
E-<
100
~ 750 ~
0e
..E! Dissolution of sigma-phase

----~J;_---1
0e
50 Annealing temperature 1050
~~. ~2
0 "'0=
o 2345678 9 o 2 3 4

Intermetallic phase content [%1 Time [min]

(a) (b)

Plastic Strain Control • Coffin-Manson Curve (2fJ'C)

S3275~ • 20WC
Aep = u.3% 300 OIl 30WC
~ & 400°C
~

...-a
~
200
* 475°C
.... 500°C
550 •
-<
'"
'"
~ 40
S32750 Samples
10'
o 2000 4000 6000 8000
Number of Cycles, N 1000 10000
Number of Cycles to Failure, Nr
(c) (d)
Figure 8. (a) Effects of sigma phase precipitation on toughness properties of 2205 grade. (b) Annealing time and sigma phase dissolution
of 2205 grade. (c) and (d) fatigue crack propagation of 2507 grade.

250 I M"Yf, urit, in th.. ~ I.. "t 4H, .,.t.. , i7n ...
%
Toughness properties at -100·C 90
Irl?~~~ical
200 85
,tlllnl..YI
.,....,.. -rt TI
--
80 II I
.;e
~

150 75 A 11 UR45N
Industeel
() »: . /"...
70
~ Im~roved
;, 100 we dabilltv
U 60
~
1/
/' Ferrite ~ 70%
50
50
Cooling rate
0 40 7n 40 60 Rn 100 (CIs)
UR45N UR45NLF High heat input Low heat input

Figure 9. Improved low temperature toughness properties and improved weldability of 22Cr duplex steel after appropriate chemistry and
heat treatment.

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties
Several papers presented the links between mechanical
properties and microstructure. This includes the effect of
heat treatments and phase precipitations on mechanical
properties [10, 12, 13, 16-18]. It is confirmed that for the
2205 and 2507 grades only a few percentages of sigma
phase (1-2%) drastically deteriorate the toughness of the
grades even if the tensile properties are less affected.
Heat treatments of 5 minutes in the 1035/ 1050°C range
for the 2205 duplex grade are enough to restore the
austenite/ferrite microstructure. Lower heating tempera-
tures need longer holding time (Figure 8a and 8b).
The influence of those phase transformations on low
cycle fatigue tests was also presented (Figure 8c and 8d).
Results included heat treatments in the low temperature
range (Spinodal decomposition). It is concluded that
duplex grades, including the 2507 superduplex grade, are,
in the solution annealed condition, characterized by high
fatigue crack propagation resistance with crack
propagation micro-mechanisms that are mainly ductile.
Precipitations and heat treatments decrease the fatigue
crack propagation resistance and increase the fatigue crack
growth. The surface morphology is strongly affected.
Cleavage is commonly observed in the presence of
improper ferrite/austenite microstructure [19-23]. Smaller

460 steel research int. 79 (2008) No.6


grain sizes improve the crack propagation behaviour. TEM
investigations were presented and mechanisms discussed.
One of the authors even observed martensitic
transformation of the austenite in a 2507 alloy.
Some papers also investigated the stress distribution in
the 2304, 2205 and 2507 alloys. Elastoplastic behaviour of
both phases a -y were presented by using X-rays and
neutron diffraction methods [18,22].
For the Mo free duplex grades, including the 2101 grade,
nitride precipitates occurred after 20 minutes in the
6001750°C range. Toughness values lower than 50J were
reported in such conditions
One of the most interesting topics discussed in Grado
conference was the improvement of low temperature
toughness properties of duplex alloys by appropriate
chemistry and heat treatment presented by Industeel. As a
result very high toughness can be obtained in both base
metal and welded joint at -lOO°C. Furthermore, the very
unfavourable welding parameters of former 22Cr duplex
grades completely disappear; excellent mechanical and
corrosion resistant properties of welded structures can be
obtained very easily (Figure 9).
Applications
Oil and Gas. Several extended papers issued from Oil
& Gas companies (Total, Statoil, Shell... ) [26.29]
underline the very satisfactory behaviour of 22 and 25Cr
duplexes which have been experienced since more than 25
years in a large set of applications, i.e. top side, sub sea
piping, manifolds, umbilical components, wells applica-
tions, fire systems, etc.
Some failures have been observed. Most of them are
related to unintended service conditions including poor
design, high local stresses, overloaded conditions,
unexpected microstructure defects (sigma phase), local
saturated brine solutions (evaporation/condensation
phenomenon's associated with high temperature), and
some HISC cases.
In order to avoid HISC phenomena, the DNV RP Fl12
document has been prepared as well as possible
implementations. Clearly HISC results from a source of
atomic hydrogen (generally cathodic protection by
sacrificial electrodes), high local stresses (overload
phenomena associated with stress concentration factors
like surface irregularities) and possible improper
microstructures (sigma phase precipitations, high ferrite
contents in HAZ or welds, .. ).[30-31]. Castings and forged
products with big grain sizes seem to be more sensitive to
HISC phenomena.
A new improved test method for qualification of
stainless steels exposed to HISC under cathodic protection
in seawater was proposed [31]. The two key elements that
have to be controlled to obtain a specific hydrogen level
are the stress concentration factor and the net section stress
per yield stress. Of course, the most effective solution is to
decrease the risk of hydrogen pick-up, and special care
should be forwarded to the conditions of cathodic
protection (avoid too cathodic conditions).
Some interrelations in regard to crevice corrosion
phenomena were also discussed [32].
steel research int. 79 (2008) NO.6
Materials Technology
Yield
I 13%Cr
Strength
-
---
Corrosion
Resistance
Figure 10. Ranking of the austenite and duplex stainless steels in
regard to mechanical and corrosion resistance properties.
Kvaerner [4] pointed out the possible benefits of the use
of lean duplex steel in structural applications for platforms.
Pipe racks, pipe supports, architectural walls, insulation
claddings, cable trays could be typical applications where
carbon steel is replaced by lean duplexes. Typical cost
savings by 20 to 40% are considered when material costs
and welding plus corrosion resistant coatings are taken
into account Aluminium stairs and ladders are also
proposed to be made of lean duplex. In most of those
applications the existing 316 steel should be replaced by a
lean duplex. Special care should nevertheless be taken of
the material selection taking into account the in-service
conditions since among the lean duplex grades a wide
range of chemical compositions are proposed (PREN from
23 to 28).
A paper by Butting [33] provided technical information
concerning longitudinally welded pipe products (made
from strips) of both 2101 and 2003 grades. Girth welds
have also been produced successfully. It is concluded that
lean duplexes can meet the specifications of 13%Cr steels
for welded pipes (Figure 10) and that their corrosion
resistance is superior to that of martensitic grades.
Differences in corrosion resistance properties of the
duplex grades are observed and closely linked to the
chemistry of the grades.
Desalination and severe chloride containing environ-
ments. 1. Peultier [34] from Industeel presented an
overview of the utilisations of duplex grades in
desalination plants. It is concluded that recently some
engineering companies have completely shifted from
austenitic to duplex grades. 2205 grade is the cost saving
material bringing weight reductions and low maintenance
costs due to itsr excellent corrosion resistance properties.
More recently 2304 kind material has been introduced for
the less severe conditions.
For the most severe conditions the classical superduplex
is to be considered. The new "hyperduplex" grades seem
to offer improved properties [35-37] (Figure 11).
Linkages resulting from both pitting/crevice and stress
corrosion phenomena have been reported in many
industries dealing with hot concentrated saline solutions.
One typical case is the corrosion associated to brine solu-
tions/salt deposits resulting from sea water evaporation (sea
461
Materials Technology

_1r--------:-----"""T'---, proven to be of positive influence, as well as avoiding

~
w phase transformations, lower temperatures and moderately
~ ·\IDP3V'4 oxidising conditions.
~ 0.8 25~r Extensive tests were performed with a modified drop
J!l \ OS'S evaporation test that in the case of duplex 22Cr and 25Cr
'\
~ 0.6 220r \, grades subjects the material to wetting by sea water
OSS\ ~ (offshore platform). It was found that 70°C is the threshold
iii
:e 0.4 • temperature when local applied stresses are in the
G)
'0
~ 0.2 ,.....~"""""''"''''<£I'.'".,
e
\
....
'-. magnitude of 90% of the yield stress (at the temperature
investigated), see Figure 12. The critical temperature for
coating duplex products in offshore applications could

=
ii: 0 L . - _........_--...::~'.LL.c...c..tI.:...LLLLJj~"'_J
then be revised! In most of the cases microplastic
deformations are observed and as a result design
considerations and appropriate welding parameters are of
o 20 40 60 80
key importance. Of course, in closed loops with control of
Temperature (deg.C) the free oxygen, higher temperatures are feasible.
Figure 11. Pitting corrosion resistance of duplex grades versus
temperature [35]. Pollution control equipments / FGD. Extensive data
concerning the behaviour of stainless steels in FGD
scrubber conditions were presented by Peultier [42]. Guide

-
:::: 32506
50 C Half-Imm est. maps for material selection charts including chloride and
fluoride contents, pH, temperature were provided. It is

-e100000
5Cr3Mo
uplex
,
clearly confirmed that 2205 duplex grade behave much
better than the 317LN grade and is applicable in medium
severe environments (up to 30000 ppm chlorides at 55°C
and pH 6). The more corrosive conditions require
superduplex grades preferentially with Cu additions ( UNS
1000 32520) or even 6Mo super austenitic grades (80°C
applications).
530400 For such applications Ni based filler materials have been
successfully used to weld superduplex. Peultier provided a
very extensive list of projects where the stainless steels
10 L..-_-'-_....;.L.._----I_ _.L..-_....I-_....J
and in most cases duplex alloys were selected. Richard's
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 paper [43] clearly confirmed Industeel R&D results since
pH
he reported a 20-year success story with using 25Cu
superduplex grade in an Indiana power station (Figure 13).
22 CrOSS 25 CrSOSS
T(OC) Building and construction. Due to their cost advan-
Stress Stress Result Stress Stress Result
(MPa) (% (JO.2) (MPa) (% (JO.2) tages when considering weight savings (as a consequence
110 418 88 Fail 471 88 Fail of the high mechanical strength) and maintenance cost
110 395 83 445
savings (21/23%Cr providing better corrosion resistance
Fail 83 Fail
than 304 grades), lean duplexes are more and more
105 - - - 494 92 Fail considered for structural applications. Typically the Eiffel
100 335 70 Pass 494 92 Fail Tower should have been built up from lean duplex (e.g.
90 452 92 Fail 508 92 Fail
2304). At least 30% weight savings, tons of painting,
millions of hours for maintenance could be expected. The
80 - - - 507 90 Fail same story can be considered for the Golden Gate Bridge
70 461 90 Pass 518 90 Pass of San Francisco but 2205 duplex should then be
considered for marine environments purposes. Recently,
Figure 12. Behaviour of duplex stainless steel grades in brine the Millennium Bridge in York was designed and built in
solutions. Influence of pH and salt concentration [38] (top) and 2205 duplex. In front of the Guggenheim museum in
influence of temperature and applied stress [39] (bottom). Bilbao a 2304 footbridge was erected. Several Asian
applications are also reported.
Reinforced duplex bars are now specified for corrosion
water in contact with heated tubes). Wetting/heating cycles free bridges even in marine environments. Duplex grade
and/or drop evaporation tests have been developed. Some 2205 has shown no pitting corrosion and a completely
experiments were also conducted in autoclaves. Obviously passive behaviour over more than 900mV polarisation (reI.
damage results from complex interactions between to OCP) in Ca(OH)2 , pH 12.6, NaCl saturated solutions
chemistry, microstructure, temperature, local potential, whereas austenitic steel with 2.5% Mo suffered from
level of oxygen and level of stresses. SCC starts in the pitting [44-45]. The market for duplex reinforced bars is
microplastic deformation zones. Higher PREN values have evaluated to millions of tons!

462 steel research int. 79 (2008) NO.6

 Materials Technology

Experimental work has confirmed that MATERIAL OVERVIEW

duplex grades can be used in the most (w.r.t. Chromium Content), at 120/1300C, and 15-30ppm CI
Potential -v- % Reduction Of Area
critical cases for design and construction :g 90
(orthotropic decks 1 Messina, Soreboelt
bridges). Cost calculations for solid duplex
< 80
(5 70
bridges compared to carbon steel result in :5 60
an increase of the erection and building t;::;, 50
costs (including the welds) by 20% [46-47]. -g 40
F
Savings are expected from lower 0:: 30
maintenance costs. ~
o 20 A
More recent investigations confirm the
10
advantages of stainless steel in fire
conditions. Higher temperatures can be o
-400 -200 o 200
400 600 800 1000 1200
accepted without damages as well as wider Potential mV
safety margins. Having 30 minutes instead -+- A 12% Cr --C 18.5% Cr
--E 25% Cr --<J- F 25% Cr
of 20 minutes to escape a burning building --"-814.5% Cr
can make the difference! Once again,
duplex grades offer cost saving solutions <3 1800,....---------......".............................-""'T.ll"""""""":"---=----,
Cl • 15ppm Chloride
[48]. ~ 1500 • 100ppm
~ • 1000ppm Chloride
Other Applications. Other interesting III 1200 A 10000ppm

successful duplex applications were

> -- --Power (15ppm Chloride)
~ gOO· Poly. (1000ppm Chloride)
reported at the Grado conference. For some
of them 20/30 years of positive experience .flo 600 Test Environment:
••
130C ; 8PPM Dissolved .... ~
are available. The pulp and paper industry iii oxygen
~
is obviously one of them. Digester, pulp c 300 •
storage tanks, drums, bleaching ~ o ! _ -.~ L- -1

equipments, paper machines are made of

duplex steels. The use of lean duplex is
g' -300 Ep =0.64(PREN)-
== =O.47(PREN)2 - 3.75(PREN)-205
Ep
I
more and more considered for the less c:: -600 Jl==========::::i:::::;="'=::;=L...-_-_-_--1
corrosive conditions. This includes the o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 ~
PREN (% Cr + 3.3 %Mo +16%N)
utilisation of lean duplex in liquor tanks
and suction rolls [2, 3, 49]. Interesting Figure 12 continued. Influence of deformation and potential [40] (top) and effects
machining properties for the lean 2101 of chloride contents and PREN [41] (bottom).
duplex grade were reported by Bergkvist
[50].
Urea plants are a very specific market for
duplex grades even having 50%ferrite!
Specific grades have been developed for
the urea-carbamate stripper and condenser.
The austenitic steel 25Cr22Ni2Mo can be
replaced by highly alloyed duplex grades
[36-38].
In the end, one of the most versatile and
successful application of duplex grades is
found in chemical tankers. The 2205 alloy
is now the standard grade, able to transport
most chemicals [51]. For the less corrosive
applications (barges) 2304 is now also
considered.
Duplex stainless steels have also been
tested in more complex chemical industries,
55°C
e.g. the uses of super-duplex steels in F-<50ppm 1-_ _-----,- ,--- _ _----, ---. ,--- _ _----1
organic solutions [52]. pH 60000

6
Other Topics
5

The subject matters presented above are 4

only a part of all conference papers. Most
papers were of good quality, particularly
the presentations on the so-called Figure 13. Material selection chart for FGD scrubbersystems [42].

steel research into 79 (2008) No.6 463

Materials Technology
complementary products fabrication and to some aspects
the welding sessions.
Conclusions
Without doubt creatrvity is still prevailing and new
grades and applications are emerging. Among them are the
so-called lean duplexes targeting to replace the austenitic
steels 304 and 316. The Ni price increase is the best
argument to modify the habits! The cost savings become
very attractive although more activities have to be started
by the stainless steel producers to reduce production costs
and increase availability. More investigations are also
needed to clarify the true properties of each grade and
optimise material selection. Among the lean duplex grades
the PREN value can move from 22 to 32 [53], which
means that the range is wider that that between 304 and
316 grades. Negative effects of very low Ni additions
when considering crevice propagation and slightly
negative effects of Mn additions on the pitting corrosion
are reported in the literature. It is still to clarify how doe
lean duplex steels behave in solutions containing small
amounts of chlorides in the 50/90°C temperature range.
Are the grades totally immune to corrosion?
Without doubt, when properly specified, the com-
promise between high strength, improved corrosion resis-
tance and low alloying elements content must be a strong
incentive for success. Huge market applications are tar-
geted and a two-digit growth is expected for duplex steels
in the future. If thin gauges are available, a further strong
increase of the demand is expected since most of the actual
existing applications cover the heavy plate applications
(> 6 mm.). For the most critical conditions some
"hyperduplexes" have been recently designed. They are
considered for "niche" markets, mainly for seamless pipes.
After years, the positive advantages regarding corrosion
resistance but also and mainly structure stability, of
nitrogen applications has been confirmed. The newly
developed duplex grades have nitrogen contents close to
the solubility limit. No real negative effects on mechanical
properties have been reported, instead, improvements of
the HAZ microstructure have been found.
The newly designed duplex grades of the 2205 family
present improved microstructure stability, which makes
these steels appropriate for lower temperature applications
(even -100°C for welded structures), and a wider range of
heat input can be considered.
Finally positive field experiences concerning the
classical 2205 and 2507 (Cu,W) grades, over several
decades, in most of the corrosive environments, have been
presented and have confirmed the research work and
convictions of the duplex pioneers.
Acknowledgement
This paper was prepared to be presented and published
at the Stainless Steel Conference & Expo event which took
place in Maastricht - 2007. The author is grateful to
Stainless Steel World Journal for accepting to publish the
papers in the Revue Francaise de la Metallurgie and to
Prof. W. Nicodemi which gave to the author the honour to
co-chair the Duplex 2007 International Conference held in
464
Grado, Italy. Special gratitude also goes to the whole
conference team.
References
[I] J. Charles and S. Bernhardson: The duplex stainless steels: materials
to meet your needs. Duplex Stainless Steels '91 Conference, Beaune,
France, pp 3-48.
[2] J. Charles: Why and where duplex stainless steels. Duplex Stainless
Steel '97 Conf., Maastricht, the Netherlands, pp 29-42.
[3] 1. Charles: 10 years later, obviously duplex grades in industrial
applications look like a success story. Duplex Stainless Steels 2000
Conference, Venice, Italy, pp 1-12.
[4] O. Doble, T. Havn: Lean Duplex Stainless Steel for structural
applications. Duplex Stainless Steels '07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[5] J. Charles: Past, present and future of duplex stainless steels.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[6] J.C. Gagnepain, P. Soulignac: Why duplex usages will continue to
grow? Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[7] D. S. Bergstrom, J. 1. Dunn, D. R. Hasek: Benchmarking of duplex
stainless steels vs. conventional stainless steel grades. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[8] B. Holmberg, M. Liljas: Consequences on welding procedures when
changing material from austenitic to duplex stainless steel. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[9] P. Ferro, A. Tiziani, F. Bonollo, M. Bulla: Influence of post-
welding heat treatments on corrosion properties of duplex and
superduplex stainless steels - a comparison between furnace and
induction heat treatment. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[10] V. Di Cocco, E. Franzese, F. Iacoviello, S.Natali: Heat treatment
influence on the crack propagation in a 25Cr 7Ni superduplex
stainless steel. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[II] A. F. Arams, S. Herenu, S. Degallaix, F. Lovey: Temperature
influence on the cyclic behaviour of aged and unaged super duplex
stainless steels. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[12] O. Strorz, A. Ibach, M. Pohl: Morphology of sigma phase and its
effects on the mechanical behaviour of duplex-steels. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[13] L. Maines, A. Molinari, F. Colombari, P. Burlando: The effect of
solution annealing temperature on toughness and microstructure of a
329A duplex stainless steel. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf.,
Grado, Italy.
[14] P. Ferro, R. Cervo, F. Bonollo, R. Bertelli: Set up and
implementation of a numerical model of simulation of heat
treatment of duplex stainless steels. Duplex Stainless Steels'07
Conf., Grado, Italy.
[IS] J. 0 Nilsson, G. Chai: The physical metallurgy of duplex stainless
steel. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[16] I. Calliari, M. Zanesco, E. Ramous, R. Bertelli: Microstructure and
properties modifications after isothermal aging of a low nickel DSS.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[17] I. Calliari, E. Ramous, G. Rebuffi, M. Zanesco, G. Straffelini:
Investigation on the secondary phases effects on a 2205 DSS,
fracture toughness. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[18] R. Dakhlaoui, C. Braham, A. Baczmanski, S. Wronski, K.
Wierbanoski, E.C. Olivier Analysis of phase's mechanical
behaviour of duplex stainless steels by X-ray and neutron
diffraction. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[19] M.G. Moscato, M.C.Marinelli, S. Degallaix, I. Alvarez-Armas:
Short crack initiation during low-cycle fatigue in UNS 32750
duplex stainless steel plate. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[20] S. Sieurin, R. Sandstrom, E.M. Westin, M. Liljas: Fracture
toughness of welded commercial duplex stainless steel. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[21] O. Hechler, M. Feldman et al.: Fatigue of welded details made of
duplex stainless steel. Duplex Stainless Steels '07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[22] L. Ward, B. Gideon, D. Carr et al.: Residual stress determina-tion of
duplex stainless steel welds and their susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[23] V. Vignal, D. Kempf, H. Pelletier, J. Peultier: Micro-mechanical
behaviour of duplex stainless steels; effects of the microstructure on
steel research into 79 (2008) No.6

the surface microstrains and local stress-strain laws. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[24] F. Fanica, B. Bonnefois, J. C. Gagnepain: Welding duplex stainless
steels : recent improvements developments. Duplex Stainless
Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[25] M. Serriere, A. Fanica, B. Bonnefois, J. C. Gagnepain: Mechanical
and corrosion properties of superduplex UNS 32520 after PWHT.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[26] K. A. Johansson, O. Strandmyr, G. E. Eie, O. Hagerup: 25 years
with duplex, from Tommeliten to Gjoea. Duplex Stainless Steels'07
Conf, Grado, Italy.
[27] T. Cassagne, F. Busschaert: Experience with duplex stainless steels
in oil and gas production. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[28] L. Marken, G. Rorvik, I.M. Kulbotten: Duplex and superduplex
stainless steel in Norwegian petroleum industry. Duplex Stainless
Steels'07 Conf, Grado, Italy.
[29] S. Coelho, I. Abud, C. Barbosa, R. Centeno: Corrosion resistant
alloys for ultra deep water petroleum production application.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[30] I. Hannah, S. Paterson: Reducing risk of hydrogen induced stress
cracking (HISC) in duplex stainless steel for subsea applications.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf, Grado, Italy.
[31] R. Johnsen, B. Nyhus, S. Wastberg: New improved method for
HISC testing of stainless steels under cathodic protection. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf, Grado, Italy.
[32] E. E. Skavas, S. Karlsen, S.C.A. Sekne, T. G. Eggen: Crevice
corrosion of 25Cr duplex tubes in subsea umbilicals. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[33] L. Rommerskirchen, S. Lemken, R. Hoffmann: Lean duplex grades
as longitudinally welded pipes for linepipes in the oil and gas
industry. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[34] S. Jacques, J. Peultier, P. Soulignac: Desalination plants - why
using duplex stainless steels. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf.,
Grado, Italy.
[35] m. yamashhita, s. matsumoto, n. hirohata: Corrosion resistance and
properties of duplex stainless steels. Duplex Stainless Steels'07
Conf., Grado, Italy.
[36] m. I. nyman, u. kivisakk, m. holmquist, k. goransson: Performances
of SAF2707HD (UNS32707) in severe chloride containing
environments. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[37] P. Stenvall, M. Holmquist: Weld properties of Sandvik 2707HD.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[38] Y. Kobayashi, N. Koide: Corrosion resistance of duplex stainless
steels in hypochlorite solutions. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf,
Grado, Italy.
steel research int. 79 (2008) No.6
Materials Technology
[39] G. Hinds, A. Turnbull: Stress Corrosion cracking of duplex stainless
steels in evaporative conditions. Duplex Stainless Steels '07 Conf.,
Grado, Italy.
[40] J. R. Saithala, J. D. Atkinson: Stress Corrosion behaviour of duplex
stainless steels in dilute chloride solutions at 130°C. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[41] J. R. Saithala, J. D. Atkinson: Effects of temperature and chloride
concentration on the pitting behaviour of zeron 100, 2205,and
Ferallium alloy 255 duplex stainless steels. Duplex Stainless
Steels'07 Conf, Grado, Italy.
[42] J. Peultier, J. C. Gagnepain, P. Soulignac: Duplex and superduplex
stainless steel grades for wet desulfurisation systems. Duplex
Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[43] R. L. Richard: 20+ of successful FGD experience with superduplex
(UNS32550)at the Gibson generation station. Duplex Stainless
Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[44] T. Sourisseau, E. Chauveau, B. Demelin, C. Bourgin: A comparison
of the performance of 1.4362 and 1.4404 stainless steel grades for
concrete reinforcement. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[45] M. J. Correira, M. M. Salta, I. T. E. Fonseca, J. Teleggdi: Corrosion
resistance of duplex stainless steels in Ca(OH)2 saturated solutions.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf, Grado, Italy.
[46] A. Fanica, E. Maiorana: UNS S 32205 for bridge construction: an
experience of application. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[47] G. Zili, F. Fattrini, E. Maiorana: Application of duplex stainlesss
steel for welded bridge construction in aggressive environment.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[48] R. Bertelli, R. Cristel: Stainless steel fire resistance: low nickel DSS
preliminary results. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[49] D. Eyzop ,J. Sjostrom, O. Kallgren: 304SRG : a growing market for
paper mill suction rolls. Duplex Stainless Steels '07 Conf., Grado,
Italy.
[50] C. Bergkvist, J. Olsson: machining in the new duplex grade LDX
2101-easier than expected. Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf. Grado,
Italy.
[51] S. Jacques, G. Hagi: "Tour Pomerol" chemical tanker: eight years
experience with duplex EN 1.4462. Duplex Stainless Steels'07
Conf., Grado, Italy.
[52] A. J. Invernizzi, L. Benedittiss, P. Trasalti: Corrosion behaviour of
duplex SAF 2507 in aquous acid organic solutions. Duplex Stainless
Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
[53] L. Peguet, A. Gauguin: Pitting and crevice corrosion behaviour of
ferritic and duplex stainless steels in hot chloride environments.
Duplex Stainless Steels'07 Conf., Grado, Italy.
465