Introduction To

A 7-Part CPD Series

of Lectures
Geosynthetics
Kaytech CPD Lecture No 1 of 7 1) Introduction to Geosynthetics

2) Filtration and Drainage with Geosynthetics

3) Erosion Control with Geosynthetics

4) Soil Reinforcement Using Geosynthetics

5) Lining Systems Incorporating Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)

A Founder Member of 6) Road Pavement Maintenance with Geosynthetics

The Geosynthetics Interest
7) Formed In-Situ Dam Linings with Geosynthetics
Group of South Africa 1 3

4 5

1
 The SAIBD Will
Automatically
Log your CPD
Points With
SACAP

6 7

Lecture Notes and Content of 4GB Flash Drive

Support Documents (4GB Drive) (196 MB Data)

10 11

2
 Separation:
What Is A Geosynthetic ? Heavy-Grade bidim® ‘U44’ (A6) Grade Nonwoven Geotextile Over
Low-Bearing Capacity Soil

“A Planar, Polymeric (Synthetic or N2 Durban Area: 1975

Natural) Material,

Used In Contact With Soil / Rock . .

And / Or Any Other Geotechnical Material

In Civil Engineering Applications.”

International Geosynthetics Society

(IGS) ( www.geosyntheticssociety.org )

Geosynthetics Interest Group of South Africa

(GIGSA) ( www.gigsa.org )
12 13

Separation:
Heavy-Grade Nonwoven Geotextile Over a Low-Bearing What Is A Geosynthetic ?
Capacity Soil

M3 Tokai “A Planar, Polymeric (Synthetic or

Natural) Material,

Used In Contact With Soil / Rock . .

And / Or Any Other Geotechnical Material

In Civil Engineering Applications.”

International Geosynthetics Society

(IGS) ( www.geosyntheticssociety.org )

Geosynthetics Interest Group of South Africa

(GIGSA) ( www.gigsa.org )
14 15

3
 A South African
Private Company

Founded In
Durban
in 1945
16 17

Head Office Regional Office & Stores

Regional Office In P.E. & East London
& Stores in Durban

Regional Office & Stores

18 Regional Office & Stores in Cape19Town,
in Johannesburg Factory At Atlantis

4
 Atlantis, Western Cape Atlantis
Production Facility Production
Facility:

20 21

Needlepunched Nonwoven
Continuous-Filament Polyester Geotextiles Types of Geotextile
(1978)

22 23

5
 Types of Geotextile

Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles

24 25

Warp-Knitted Polyester Geogrids RockGrid ‘PC’ on Gautrain / Snake Valley

(2007) Traverse Over Dolomitic Strata

‘PC’ Type
GeoComposite

26 27

6
 N2 Kokstad

‘KX’
Type

GeoComposite

17 m High Block Retaining Wall (Tunney Industrial - Germiston)

Friction Reinforced Structures
28 cc 29

Needlepunched Nonwoven
Types of Geotextile Staple-Fibre Polypropylene Geotextiles
(2009)

30 31

7
 EnviroRock Geocontainers
Langebaan Lagoon

32 33

Beach Preservation with Geocontainers

34 35
Client: eThekwini Municipality Client: eThekwini Municipality

8
 Amanzimtoti Rail Rehabilitation
Client: PRASA
Consultant Madan Singh & Associates
36 Contractor: Leomat Plant
37 Hire
Amanzimtoti Rail Embankment Collapse : Dec 11 2012

Needlepunched
Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)
(2010)

GeoComposite
GeoComposite

38 39

9

Kaytech Factory in Albury, Australia
40
(Geofabrics Australasia)
Manufacture of Kaytech’s
Continuous Filament Polyester
Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles:
bidim®
42
Assisted by a Network of
Distributors & Agents, e.g:
•Angola . . .NBK Ltda
• Botswana . . . Road & Rail Engineering Products
• Ethiopia . . . Abokker Trading Co PLC
• Kenya . . . Ragged Mercantile
• Mauritius . . . Harel Mallac & Co Ltd
• Mozambique . . . Modil Distributors
• Namibia . . . Industrial Building Supplies
• Nepal . . . HG Enterprises Pvt Ltd
• Tanzania . . . Nabaki Afrika Ltd
• Uganda . . . Terrain Services Ltd
Etc . . . 41
Food-Grade Polyester (PET)
43
10
 44 45

Labour-Intensive Reclamation

46 47

11
 48

100% Food-Grade Polyester (PET)

“Recycling polyester reduces energy
consumption by 84%
and greenhouse emissions by 71%”
(compared to using virgin fibre)

USA National Association

for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR)

Consumption Equivalent to 30 Million 2-Litre

http://www.napcor.com/pdf/FinalReport_LCI_Postconsumer_PETandHDPE.pdf
Soft Drink Bottles per Year
50 51

12
 Polyester
Spunbonded
Continuous Extrusion
Filament
Drawing
Web
Needlepunching

Spunbonding
(A Process Invented by Rhône-Poulenc in 1968)
52 53

Spunbonded
Continuous
Filament

Needlepunched

Q.C: The Atlantis Factory Is

Finished Geotextile SABS ISO 9001 2008 Accredited
“A large number of openings
should be present in the geotextile
so that proper flow can be
maintained even if some of the
openings later become blinded,
blocked or clogged”
(SANRAL Drainage Manual: 6th
Edition Page 12 -8)
54 55

13
 56 57
Off To Site - to do What ?. . .

Continuous Filament
Needlepunched
Nonwoven Geotextiles:

A Global Industry Worth Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles

Billions of US$ Per
Annum…

Manufactured in Most Industrialised

Countries Throughout The World…

58 59

14
 Geotextile Manufacturing
Issues
• What Is Polymer Used?
ØPolyester (PET)
ØPolypropylene (PP)

• How is the Product Made?

ØNonwoven
ØWoven
There Are Other Uses for Empty Soft Drink Bottles!
60 61

Manufacturing Techniques
Windhoek : Kupferberg Landfill
1.Woven Geotextiles
• Woven Flat Tape (e.g.) “Kaytape ” MultiCell® Lining Protection
(Usually HIGH Tensile Modulus & Usually Made of PP)

• Low Permittivity
• High Strength
Compared to
Woven Needlepunched
Nonwoven,
Slit Film Very Few Pores
per m2
Geotextile
(Magnified x 100)

Drainage Grades Multi-Cell:

Picture Courtesy of 63
Jan Palm
= ± 40-80L/m2/s 62
Made From Woven Flat Tape Geotextile Consulting Engineers

15
 64 65

Erosion Protection: Multi-Cell Concrete

Erosion Protection: Multi-Cell Grass-Lined
Community Labour-Based Road
Stormwater Channel Lining (Medupi)
Stormwater Channel

Construction

Erosion Protection: Multi-Cell Concrete

Stormwater Channel Lining (Stellenbosch
Landfill)

Liner Protection: Multi-Cell 66

Concrete 67
Stormwater Dam Lining (Assmang Cato Ridge)

16
 Load Distribution: Transnet
Dbn-Jhb Main Line at Hidcote

Village of Ngcingcinikhwe (E.C.)

68 69

Manufacturing Techniques
Types of Geotextile
1.Woven Geotextiles
• Woven Flat Tape (e.g.) “Kaytape ”
(Usually HIGH Tensile Modulus & Usually Made of PP)

• Low Permittivity
• High Strength
Compared to
Woven Needlepunched
Nonwoven,
Slit Film Very Few Pores
per m2
Geotextile
(Magnified x 100)

Drainage Grades
= ± 40-80L/m2/s 70 71

17
Manufacturing Techniques Charl Malan Quay: Port Elizabeth

1.Woven Geotextiles
• Woven Monofilament (e.g. “Robusta”)
(Usually HIGH Tensile Modulus)

Woven Monofilament Geotextile

Woven
Monofilament Dredged silts &
Sands

Geotextile Silt fraction flow

Sand

72 73

(Geomesh®)

74
(Endecon Ubuntu)

18
 Manufacturing Techniques
Types of Geotextile
2. Woven Geotextiles
• Woven Multifilament Geotextile (e.g.) “ReStrain ”
(Always HIGH Tensile Modulus)

Woven
Multifilament
Geotextile
(Magnified x 100)

76 77

Types of Geotextile

Woven
Multifilament
Geotextile
78 79

19
 Spunbonded
Continuous
Filament

Needlepunched

Finished Geotextile

Geotextile – Calendared Product

80 81

Manufacturing Techniques
2. Nonwoven Geotextiles
Heat & • Continuous Filament
Pressure
• Thermally Bonded (e.g. “Terram”)
Thick Fluffy (Usually MEDIUM Tensile Modulus)

Fabric In
Non -Woven
Thin Fabric Out Continuous
Filament
Thermally
Bonded
Geotextile
82 (Magnified x 100) 83

20
 Manufacturing Techniques
2. Nonwoven Geotextiles
• Continuous Filament, Needlepunched (PP or PET)

• Mechanically Bonded ( e.g. “bidim”,

“bidim”, “Polyfelt” etc.)
(Usually LOW Tensile Modulus)

Non -Woven
Continuous
Filament 80%
Needle Porous
Punched Drainage
Grades
Geotextile = 280 - 230
(Magnified x 100) l /m2/s)
84 85

Geotextile Properties
Derived from Polymer
and Construction

86 87

21
 Characteristics Of
Continuous Filament
Needlepunched Nonwoven
Polyester Geotextiles (e.g. bidim )

• Isotropic (Nearly Equally Strong In All Directions)

Woven
Geotextiles
Are
Anisotropic

88 89

N.PIGNONE TPS 600 VAMATEX SP 1151 ES

“Machine Direction”
(MD)
or “WARP” NB: Woven Geotextile Directional Strength May Depend
or on What Type of Loom Made The Woven Fabric!
“Longitudinal”
“Transverse Direction
(TD) or
Direction”
“XD”
or “Weft” or
“Across”
Direction 90 91
SULZER P7100 TOYOTA JAT 610/600

22
When Using a Uniaxial Woven When Using a Uniaxial Woven
Geotextile or any Uniaxial Geogrid Geotextile or any Uniaxial Geogrid
For Reinforcing Purposes – The Material For Reinforcing Purposes – The Material
Must Be Correctly Orientated Must Be Correctly Orientated

92 93

When Using a Uniaxial Woven Or Failure Can

Geotextile or any Uniaxial Geogrid Occur . . .
For Reinforcing Purposes – The Material
Must Be Correctly Orientated

Isotropic Materials Are Safer to Work With if Fulltime

Professional Supervision is Going to be a Problem!
94 95

23
How Long Will These Geosynthetics
Last on Your Project?
Durability

96 97

Concrete – Over 2 000 Years of

Successful History
Polyethylene – 1931
Aramid Polyamide (Nylon) – 1935
(The Pantheon in Rome Polyester Polyester – 1941
– World’s Largest Unreinforced Coffered Concrete Dome)
Polypropylene – 1954
Polyamide
Aramid – 1966 (1st use – 1972)

Stress kN/m
Polypropylene

Polyethylene

Strain %
99
98
Comparitive Stress - Strain for Polymers

24
 Expected Lifespan Of Geosynthetics
Expected Lifespan Of Geosynthetics
The Polymers That Geosynthetics Are Made From
The Polymers That Geosynthetics Are Made From
Are Resistant To Biodegradation
Are Resistant To Biodegradation (Anticipated Lifespan > 500 Years)
(Anticipated Lifespan > 500 Years)
What About Animal Attack?

100 101

Up to 30% of the Volume of PVC Sheeting is

Expected Lifespan Of Geosynthetics Made up of Plasticiser

Animal Attack:
Not a Problem

+ Plasticiser
(± 30% by Volume) =
There is no Plasticiser
102 In Modern Geotextiles

25
 Characteristics Of
False-Colour Image of the Sun's Corona
As Seen in Deep Ultraviolet by the Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope

Continuous Filament
Needlepunched Nonwoven
Polyester Geotextiles
• Resistant To Strong Chemicals
Action of Sulphuric Acid Over 72 Hours Action of Sodium Hydroxide at 100oC

4%
Sodium
Hydroxide
at 20°C
has a pH
of 14

This image was generated by NASA via

104
http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/sunearthday/media_viewer/flash.html

UV Damage to a Polyester Nonwoven

Geotextile Exposed Under Inadequate Riprap
Layer.

A Geotextile Should Never be used as the

Sole filter layer Under riprap on a Dam!

106

26
 Polyester
Resistance To

Sunlight

109

Specification is Important: These Are Not Systems

Bought In A Bazaar!
Geosynthetics Include:

• Geotextiles
• Geogrids
• Geopipes
• Geocells
• Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)

• Geocontainers
• Geomembranes
• Geocomposites
111

27
 Filtration:
The 6 Main Functions Of Lining to a Roadside Subsoil Drain

Geosynthetics ““A large number of openings

should be present in the geotextile
so that proper flow can be
• Filtration maintained even if some of the
openings later become blinded,

• Drainage
blocked or clogged”
(SANRAL Drainage Manual: 6th
• Separation Edition Page 12 -8)

• Reinforcement
• Barrier
• Erosion Control
112 113

Manufacturing Techniques
http://sanral.ensight-
cdn.com/content/Drainage_Manual
_6th_Edition_(Sept_2013).pdf
2. Nonwoven Geotextiles
Why Does • Continuous Filament, Needlepunched (PP or PET)

the SANRAL • Mechanically Bonded

(Usually LOW Tensile Modulus)
( e.g. “bidim”,
“bidim”, “Polyfelt” etc.)

Drainage Non -Woven

Manual Say Continuous
Filament
That? Needle
80%
Porous
Punched Drainage
Grades
Geotextile = 280 - 230
(Magnified x 100) l /m2/s)
ISBN 978-0-620-55429-9 ( 34 Mb Download
114 ) 115

28
Manufacturing Techniques Characteristics Of

Bidim Fabric
1.Woven Geotextiles Continuous Filament Soil
• Woven Flat Tape (e.g.) “Kaytape ” Needlepunched Nonwoven
(Usually HIGH Tensile Modulus & Usually Made of PP)
Polyester Geotextiles
• Low Permittivity
• High Strength • High Permittivity
Compared to
Woven Needlepunched
(Ability To Transmit Water
Perpendicular to Normal Plane)
Flat Tape
Nonwoven,
Very Few Pores

Geotextile
per m2 Bidim A2

(Magnified x 100) Drainage Grade

= 235 l/m2/sec
Drainage Grades (In The Laboratory)
= ± 40-80L/m2/s 116 117

Project: N1 Pienaarsrivier
to Bela Bela
bidim A4 – 85 000 m2
Flo-Pipe 110 – 32 000 m
Client: Bakwena N1 / N4 Toll
Consultant: Jeffares & Green
Contractor: Concor

N1 Section 23 – from km 13,4 to km 42,6

Pienaarsrivier to Bella Bella
250 000 m² x Glasgrid Grade 8511

Client Bakwena
Consultant: Jeffares & Green
Contractor: Concor Roads
118 119
Completion June 2014

29
 These Issues Examined
In Detail in Our CPD-Accredited
Applications for
“Filtration & Drainage”
Geosynthetics
Lecture

120 121

Filtration & Drainage: Sportsfield Drainage

Correct Sports Stadia Field Drainage

Moses Mabhida Peter Mokaba

Green Point Jhb Athletic

122 123

30
 Conventional Playing in Cold, Wet Mud
“Herringbone”
Drainage Builds Character!
Layout Surface water
has to filter
through many
metres of soil
between
drains

Slow
Draining:

Inappropriate
for National
Stadia
124 125

Bafokeng Stadium
Blanket Drain

Typically 300 mm

126 127

31
Poor Sportsfield Drainage
Centurion - The afternoon before the big game…

FAILURE!
128 129

Note water ponding on clay

where grass has been
harvested…

Note organic, slow-draining

soil…

!!

130 131

32
 Mbombela Stadium: Nelspruit

Grass Grown in Sandy Soil,

With Lightweight Grid in Root
Zone

132 133

Site Supervision:
Designers & Supervisors Must Have Eyes
In the Back of Their Heads!

134 135

33
Site Supervision: Filtration & Drainage:
You Must Have Eyes In the Back of Your Head! Correct Sports Stadia Field Drainage

Moses Mabhida Peter Mokaba

Green Point Jhb Athletic

136 137

Green Point Stadium Cape Town

138 139

34
 Green Point Stadium
Cape Town
MegaFlo Drainage
System

Moses Mabhida Stadium Durban

MegaFlo Drainage System

40 mm Profile Height
Enables Thinner Blanket
Drain Profile
140 141

Princess Magogo Stadium – KwaMashu

MegaFlo Drainage System

Let’s Take a Short Break

142 143

35
Filters in Earth Embankment
& Rockfill Dams
Filter On
Filter Under Rip-Rap On
Both Sides Bill Legge
Earth Embankment Dam DWAF Chief Engineer
Of Core Drain
On Earth (Civil Design)
Dam 1972 to Retirement in 1986

Filter Around A South African (and World)

Pioneer In the Use of Geotextiles
Toe Drain On In Large Embankment Dams
Earth Dam

Filter On Both Sides Of

Clay Core On Rockfill 144 145
Dam

Riprap Applications Are Very

Filters in Earth Embankment Demanding of the Geotextile:

& Rockfill Dams Heavy Grade Required

Filter Under Rip-Rap On

Earth Embankment Dam

146 147

36
 Drainage Blanket Between Chimney Drain
Filters in Earth Embankment And Toe Drain Of Kwena Earth Dam
& Rockfill Dams

Filter Around
Toe Drain On
Earth Dam

148 149

Filters in Earth Embankment Filter Blanket On Both Sides Of Clay Core On

& Rockfill Dams Mokol Rockfill Dam

Filter On Both Sides Of

Clay Core On Rockfill 150 151
Dam

37
Note Grading
Of Combination Filter

These Issues Examined

Clay Core In Detail in Our CPD-Accredited
Fabric
Sand
Fine Gravel
Coarse Gravel
“Filtration & Drainage”
Lecture

152 153

The 6 Main Functions Of “A large number of openings

should be present in the geotextile
Drains Come In All so that proper flow could be

Geosynthetics Sizes, And Usually

maintained even if some of the
openings later become blinded,
blocked or clogged”
Include: (SANRAL Drainage Manual:
• Filtration Corrected Pages, Addenda 1-15
October 2007: WEB2B: P 9-7)

• Drainage • An Excavation (Deep

As Possible)
• Separation
• A Geotextile Filter
• Reinforcement
• A Pervious Pipe
• Barrier
• Drainage Media
• Erosion Control
• And The Filter Wraps
154 Up Everything 155

38
 Alternative:
Subsoil Drainage With
Flo-Drain®

But…
At ± R 350 / m3 –
Crushed Drainage
Media is an Expensive
Option…

156 157

Flo-Drain®
Can Flo-Drain
Really Perform
as Well as
Something Like
This?

158 159

39
Flo-Drain®

160 161

GeoPipe Wall 70% Open

For Infiltration

162 163

40
 Figure 9.2 page
9-6 of SANRAL
Drainage Manual
(5th addition)

164 165

If Soil Conditions Allow, Narrow Trenching Saves

On Drainage Costs One Truck Can
Carry 100s of
Metres of
Complete Drain

41
Basement Tanking & Drainage Drainage:
• Flo-Drain
• Geopipe
RockGrid High-
• Flownet
strength geogrid under • Bidim
bedding sand to prevent
differential settlement Fully-bonded waterproofing (may
of paving over be painted-on rubberised bitumen,
compacted fill area as Flo-Drain prevents hydrostatic
pressure on waterproofing)

Flo-Drain findrain leads

seepage water to collector
drain and prevents damage to
waterproofing

Collector drain: M100R

Geopipe surrounded by 19 mm
crushed stone, with a bidim A2
geotextile filter jacket

Drainage of Basement Blanket drain: FloNet with bidim A2

Structures (NTS) geotextile filter against soil and 169
concrete
floor cast on 250 micron plastic

Good for Structural Cost of

Drainage Materials to
Site
1km Sub-soil Drain:
1m Deep x 450mm
(conventional)

For 1 km of conventional stone subsoil drain Rate Value

19mm Stone = 450m³ (75 6m3 Truckloads) R 350/m3 R 157 500

Bidim A2 = 3 707 m² R 7.0/m2 R 25 949

Flo-Pipe 100mm ø = 167 lengths x 6m R 24/m R 24 048

Total/km: R 207 497

42
 Cost of
Materials to
Site
1km Sub-soil Drain
(Flo-Drain x 1 m High)

For 1 km of Flo-Drain subsoil drain Rate Value

Flo-Drain 1000 = 1 020m² R 50/m R 51 000

Geopipe 100 mm ø = 1 002m R 33/m R 33 066

“Conventional” = R 207 497 (59 % Saving) Total/km: R 84 066 173

Subsoil Drainage Design Characteristics Of

Capacity of Flo-Drain
Continuous Filament
W 6
Needlepunched Nonwoven
Polyester Geotextiles
• High Transmissivity (Ability To Transmit Water
Through Plane Of Material)
Flo-Drain Geocomposite
Insitu soil Q = H 0.21 litres/s/m @ 40
permeability (k) kPa
H = 1 000

= (1.0m x 0.00021)
Ks = 5.79 x 10-6m/s = 2.1 x 10-4 m2/s per
linear metre NonWoven Geotextile
F.O.S. = 2.1 x 10-4m3/s
5.79 x 10-6m3/s
Geotextile Acts As a Drain
400
F.O.S. = 36 175

43
Drainage:
Geotextile Acts As Sole Drainage Media Between
Approach Fill and Bridge Abutment

176 177
Lydenburg June 1981

178 179

44
 Septic Tank Drainfields

180 181

Alternative:
‘Infiltrator’
Chambers:
Alternative to Rubble or
Stone - Filled Leachfields

(Over 3 x Storage
Volume of Stone-
Filled Drain)
Good for shock-
loadings (e.g.
schools)

182 183

45
 Characteristics Of Drainage:
Continuous Filament Geotextile Acts As Sole Drainage Media Between
Needlepunched Nonwoven Approach Fill and Bridge Abutment
Polyester Geotextiles
• High Transmissivity (Ability To Transmit Water
Through Plane Of Material)

NonWoven Geotextile

Geotextile Acts As a Drain

184 185
Lydenburg June 1981

Septic Tank Drainfields Alternative:

‘Infiltrator’
Chambers:
Alternative to Rubble or
Stone - Filled Leachfields

(Over 3 x Storage
Volume of Stone-
Filled Drain)
Good for shock-
loadings (e.g.
schools)

186 187

46
 INSPECTION EYE
100mm PIPE AND END CAP

MOUND FOR PROPER DRAINAGE ESTABLISH VEGETATIVE COVER

TOPSOIL

300 min.
INSITU BACKFILL COVER

INSITU
SOIL

406
LOUVRED
255 SIDEWALL 255

700
864
900
188 189
SECTION

Infiltrator Chamber Stormwater

Attenuation and Soakaway
MOUND FOR PROPER DRAINAGE ESTABLISH VEGETATIVE COVER

TOPSOIL

300 min.
NON-TRAFFIC
BACKFILL AREAS

INSITU
SOIL

Stormwater Attenuation
100° PIPE
OUTLET TO MUNICIPAL
405 STORMWATER SYSTEM
LOUVRED

260
260
SIDEWALL

864 BIDIM GEOTEXTILE WRAP

AROUND EXTERIOR OF BLOCKS

380
VOID 390 x 190 x 190
CEMENT BLOCKS
ON EDGE

520 STONE SPLASH PAD ON

BIDIM GEOTEXTILE
900

SECTION ELEVATION

HIGH CAPACITY TRENCH DETAIL

190 (NOT TO SCALE) 191

47
 These Issues Examined
In Detail in Our CPD-Accredited

“Filtration & Drainage”

Lecture

Infiltrator Chamber Stormwater

Attenuation and Soakaway 192 193

How Do You Construct A Project

The 6 Main Functions Of Over A Swamp ?
Geosynthetics
1. Dig the mud out and remove it from site (putting it where ?)
• Filtration - Then bring in good material for the foundation layers.

• Drainage
• Separation
• Reinforcement
• Barrier
• Erosion Control
194 195

48
Excavation How Do You Construct A Project
Over A Swamp ?

2. Bring in good material and compact it into the mud until you
have displaced all the soft soil and formed a good foundation
(e.g. Rapid impact Compaction, or Dynamic
Compaction).

196 197

Dynamic Rapid Impact

Compaction Compaction

198 199

49
 How Do You Construct A Project
Over A Swamp ? Constructing Structures On Soft Soils
Using Separation Layers
Is Older Than The Techniques Used By The
3. Lay a strong, pervious separation layer over the mud and Romans
build the structure over the top of this

Paving
Basecourse
200 Willow Fascines 201
Soft Subgrade

Separation: Separation:
Heavy-Grade Nonwoven Geotextile Over a Low-Bearing Heavy-Grade Nonwoven Geotextile Over a Low-Bearing
Capacity Soil Capacity Soil

M3 Tokai N2 Durban Area

202 203

50
 Separation: Separation:
Heavy-Grade Nonwoven Geotextile Over a Low-Bearing
Capacity Soil •Geotextiles e.g. bidim A7
• Geogrids e.g Rockgrid GX
N2 Durban Area •Geocomposites (e.g.
Rockgrid PC)

204 205

Coega

N4 Matola Toll Plaza

206 207

51
208 209

Rockgrid ‘KX’ 100

• High tensile strength

• Low creep
• High fiber interlock strength
• High soil interaction and pullout strength
• Suitable for long term (>100 years)
reinforcement applications
• Inert to chemical degradation
210 • Resistant to prolonged exposure to sunlight 211

52
Separation & Reinforcement: How The Separation
RockGrid Over a Low-Bearing Capacity Soil Function Works
1. Mass of Drainage Layer and Fill Layers
Compresses Soft Subgrade.
2. Water Under Pressure Filters Through
Geosynthetic Layer, Into Drainage Layer
– Soil consolidates

Fill Layers

Drainage Layer
Strong Geotextile
Soft
Subgrade
212
Wick Drains May be Required 213

Many Different Kinds Of Premanufactured Band Drains

However:
If Soft Saturated Soil Is Very Deep

Consider Band (Wick) Drains

(Prefabricated Vertical Drains – ‘PVDs’)

Kaytech
WickDrain®
214 215

53
 Accelerating Consolidation of Saturated Soils Using WickDrain®

Embankment With
Surcharge Load

Sand Drainge Layer: WickDrain

Provides Route to It

Without WickDrain, dissipation of excess pore water

Fine Alluvium is a slow process

WickDrain
Coarse
Fine

Old Method:
Coarse
Fine
Coarse

Drill Out & Fill

Fine Alluvium

Coarse Alluvium
With Sand 216
Bedrock
217
With WickDrain, shear strength increases rapidly,
avoiding stability problems and construction delays

Wick Drains to
Assist
Consolidation

Hillendale Smelter
Richards Bay

218 219

54
Wick Drains to Assist
Consolidation

220 221

222 223

55
 Susceptibility to
Damage Reduces

100

W
% of Ultimate Strength
80

B
-H
W
CN

NP
NP
60 W : Woven

W-
W-
CNW-HB : Continuous Filament

SN
CN
40 Non Woven -Heat Bonded
CNW-NP : Continuous Filament
Non Woven - Needle Punched
20 SNW-NP : Staple Fibre Non Woven -
Needle Punched

10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The Fabric Must be Ductile Strain (%)
224 225
to Survive Installation

Characteristics Of Continuous Filament

Needlepunched Nonwoven Polyester Functions of Geosynthetics
Geotextiles (e.g. bidim )

• Low Tensile Modulus (Will Extend

Considerably Before Breaking) • Filtration
(Later)
Bidim A2 Bidim A4 Bidim A6
• Drainage
• Separation
• Reinforcement
• Barrier
• Surface Erosion Control
226 227

56
Functions of Geosynthetics

Now:
• Filtration
• Drainage Testing Geosynthetics
• Separation
• Reinforcement
Prakash Julal
• Barrier (Manager: Geosynthetic Laboratory, Pinetown)
• Surface Erosion Control
228 229

Let’s Take A
Information
Overload? 10 Minute
Break!

“Mr. Davies, may I be excused?

230
My brain is full.”

57