Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
• Aircraft icing in flight is usually classified as being either structural icing or
induction icing.
• Structural icing refers to ice forming on aircraft and components while
induction icing refers to ice formation in the engine induction system.
STRUCTURAL ICING
• Ice forms on aircraft structure and surfaces when super cooled water
droplets impinge on them and freeze.
• Small and/or narrow objects are the best collectors of water droplets and
ice up rapidly.
INDUCTION ICING
• In turbo jet aircraft, air is drawn into the engine creates an area of reduced
pressure at the inlet, which lowers the temperature below that of the
surrounding air.
• In marginal icing condition, this reduction in temperature may be sufficient
to cause ice to form on the engine inlet, disrupting airflow into the engine.
LEVELS OF INTENSITY
TRACE
• Ice becomes perceptible.
• Rate of accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of sublimation.
• It is not dangerous even though de-icing/anti-icing equipment is not used,
unless encountered for an extended period of time. (say over one hour)
LIGHT
• The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this
environment.(say over one hour)
• Occasional use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents ice
accumulation.
• It does not present a problem if de-icing/anti-icing equipment is used.
MODERATE
• The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become
potentially dangerous and use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment is
necessary. Diversion of flight is necessary.
SEVERE
• The rate of accumulation is such that the de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails
to reduce or control the hazard. Diversion of flight is necessary.
RIME ICE
• Rime ice is the term given to a rough opaque white structure.
• Rime ice can form at ground level or at altitude.
• In flight, rime ice forms on the leading edge of an aircraft when it flies
through a low density cloud of small super cooled water droplets.
• Low temperatures, lesser amount of liquid water, low velocities and small
droplets favour formation of rime ice.
• Rime ice usually forms on areas such as leading edge of wings or struts.
MIXED ICE
• Mixed ice is a mixture of Rime ice and glaze ice.
• Mixed ice has the bad characteristics of both Rime ice and glaze ice.
• Mixed ice forms rapidly.
• Ice particles become embedded in clear ice, building a very rough
accumulation.
FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT
ARRANGEMENT OF FORCES
• Even though the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, all
of them cannot be concentrated to act at one point, because their position
are liable to alter and upset the balance.
• Therefore one important thing to be observed is the lift and weight
couplemust always be arranged in one pattern. That is, “Weight always in
front of Lift”. Which will give the aircraft in the event of engine
failure(Thrust failure) a gliding attitude with a slight nose down tendency.
If the lift is in front of the weight, in the above case, the aircraft will stall.
• The next couple to be concentrated is the thrust and the drag. This couple is
to be arranged in such a way that it is used to counteract the nose down
tendency.
• This is possible only when the drag is placed above the thrust. This is the
normal arrangement done on any land planes.
• In one sentence, we can say “ weight forward of lift, drag above the thrust”
In the case of sea planes, where the position of the engines got to be high enough
to keep away from the water, the line of thrust remains above the drag. So, both
the couple gives the aircraft a resultant nose down tendency.
This tendency is counteracted by one of the following ways.
1. By slightly inclining the line of thrust to the horizontal.
2. By providing an inverted camber on the tail plane which provides
downward force.
3. By having an adjustable tail plane, whose angle can be varied in flight.
• In level flight, the force of lift acts opposite to and exactly equal in
magnitude to the force of gravity.
• Gravity tends to pull all bodies to the center of the Earth; therefore, this
force always acts in a vertical plane with respect to the Earth.
• On the other hand, total lift always acts perpendicular to the relative wind,
which for the purposes of this discussion is considered to be the same as
acting perpendicular to the lateral axis of the wind.
• With the wings level, lift acts directly opposite to gravity.
• However, as the airplane is banked, gravity still acts in a vertical plane, but
lift will now act in an inclined plane.
• As illustrated in the given figure, the force of lift can be resolved into two
components, vertical and horizontal.
• During the turn entry, the vertical component of lift still opposes gravity,
and the horizontal component of lift must overcome apparent centrifugal
force.
• Consequently, the total lift must be sufficient to counteract both of these
forces.
• The total resultant lift acts opposite to the total resultant load.
• So long as these opposing forces are equal to each other in magnitude, the
airplane will maintain a constant rate of turn.
• If the pilot moves the controls in such a manner as to change the magnitude
of any of the forces, the airplane will accelerate or decelerate in the
direction of the applied force.
• This will result in changing the rate at which the airplane turns.