PHYS1002 ELECTROSTATICS

April 2018

Coulomb’s Law
Electric force decreases with distance. If two particles having charges q1 and q2
are a distance r apart, the particles exert forces on each other of magnitude:

K|q1 ||q2 |
F1 on 2 = F2 on 1 =
r2

They are an action/reaction pair, equal in magnitude, opposite in direction.

NOTE: Force directed along line joining the two particles, repulsive for like
charge, attractive for opposite. Law only applies for point charges, particles
with mass, charge but no size.

The Electric Field

Electric Field Models

Electric field is the agent that exerts an electric force on a charged particle.
Newton’s view: particle interact directly. Faraday’s view: particle alters space
around it, other particle responds to altered space, altered space exerts a force
on other particle.
• Set of charges, source charges, alter space around them creating an electric
~ at all points in space
field E
• Seperate charge q in electric field experiences an electric force F~ = q E
~
exerted by the f ield. Force on positive charge is in direction of e-field,
force on negative is opposite of e-field.

Electric field is defined as force-to-charge ratio, strength is:

~ F~on q at (x, y, z)
E(x, y, z) =
q

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Electric Field of Point Charge

Electric field at a point may be determined using a point charge q 0 . Force

on q is given by:
1 qq 0
F~on q0 =( , away f rom q)
4π0 r2
The electric field where q 0 is, is:
~
~ = Fon
E
q
=(
1 q
, away f rom q)
q0 4π0 r2
Multiple Point Charges

~
~ = Fonq =
X
E ~i
E
q i

The Electric Field of a Dipole

Dipole - Two equal but opposite charges seperated by a small distance form
an electric dipole.
Dipole Moment - Product of the seperation of the ends of a dipole and the
magnitude of the charges (~
p = qs).

~ dipole = 1 2~ p
E
4π0 r3

~ dipole = − 1 p~
E
4π0 r3
The field of a dipole decreases more rapidly than the field of a point charge.

Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution

Not practical to analyse every electron. Consider charge to be continuous and

describe distribution over an object. The linear charge desnsity for a rod (1)
and a plate (2) is:
Q
λ=
L

Q
η=
A

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Electric Fields of Shapes

Infinite Line of Charge (Wire)

Field decreases slower than a point charge 1r . Despite not being infintely long,
wires are modelled well by the formula:

~ = 1 2|λ|
E
4π0 r
Electric Field of a Ring of Charge

Electric Field of a Disk of Charge Add all rings, integrating the equation for a
ring from r = 0 to r = R.

η z
(Edisk )z = [1 − √ ]
20 z 2 + R2
Where z is the distance above the disk of charge.
Electric Field of a Plane of Charge
The electric field of a plane of charge with charge density of η is:
η
Eplane =
20

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The electric field is uniform and is independant of distance. This means the field
strengh 1000mm from the plane is the same as the field strength 1mm from the
plane.

Explanation:

”AS FAR THE OBJECT MOVES FROM THE PLANE the more ”effective”
charge it can feel from it. So of course it would fall because of its distance, but
on the other hand it raises because the ’charge it sees’ changes.”

Electric Field of a Sphere of Charge

The electric field outside the sphere is the same as the electric field of a point
charge Q at the center of a sphere. For r ≥ R:

~ sphere = Q
E r̂
4π0 r2
The Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Definition: Two equal but opposite electrodes faced a distance d apart.

• The electric field inside the capacitor is uniform (modelled as infinite plates
of charge)

• The net electric charge of a capacitor is zero (gain of one plate = loss of
the other)
~ − and E
• Outside the capacitor, E ~ + point in opposite directions with the
same magnitude; no electric field outside capacitor.
The electric field of a parallel-plate capacitor is:

~ capacitor = Q
E
0 A
Motion in a Uniform Field

A charged particle in a uniform electric field will move with constant accel-
eration. Magnitude of acceleration is:
qE
a= = constant
m

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Guass’ Law

Symmetry

The symmetry of the electric field must match the symmetry of the charge dis-
tribution. Why is symmetry needed? Makes the shape of electric fields easier
to determine. This allows for electric field strength to be easier to determine.

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Electric Flux

Definition: Measure of flow of electric field through a given area. It is use-

ful in measuring the charge enclosed within a surface where the electric flux
is being measured. More flux means more charge inside that is producing the
greater number of electric field lines.

The fundamental ideas are:

• There is an outward flux through a closed surface around a net positive
charge
• There is an inward flux through a closed surface around a net negative
charge
• There is no net flux through a closed surface around a region of space in
which there is not net charge
Guass’ Law

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The net electric flux through any hypothetical closed surface is equal to  times
the net electric charge within that closed surface

The integral form of Guass’ law is:

I
Q ~ · dA
~
φe = = E
0 s

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 • Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size
• The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law includes the sum of all charges
enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located anywhere inside the
surface

• Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the elec-
trostatic field when the system has some symmetry. This is facilitated by
the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface.
• Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance con-
tained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate
departure from the inverse square law.

The Electric Potential

Mechanics Revision
A systems mechanical energy is conserved for particles that interact via conser-
vative forces, where K and U are kinetic and potenial energy:

∆Emech = ∆K + ∆U = 0

Kinetic Energy
System’s energy of motion. For a multiparticle system, K, is the sum of the
kinetic energies of each particle in the system.
1
K= mv 2
2
Potential Energy
Interaction energy of the system. It is the energy due to position in a field.
Change in potential energy is:

∆U = −Winteration (i → f )

Work Work is done when a force acts on a particle as it is being displaced.

Constant force F~ does work

W = F~ · ∆~r

Conversative Force
Work done by force only depends on inital and final position. The electric force
is a conservative force. Conservative force CONSERVE mechanical energy (PE
+ KE). If a force is conservative it has a potential energy associated with it
where PE → KE and KE → PE (e.g. decompress and compress a spring).

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Uniform Electric Field
A uniform electric field is analogous to a gravitational field, where gravitational
is similar to electric force. The electric potential energy of a charge q in a
uniform electric field is:

Uelec = U0 + qEs

Where s is distance from negative plate, and U0 is the potential energy at the
negative plate s = 0 (this is just a reference point, doesn’t really matter).

Transferring Between Kinetic and Potential Energy in a Uniform Electric Field

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The Potential Energy of Point Charges
The potential energy of a two point charge system is:
Kq1 q2
Uelec =
x

Charged-Particle Interactions

The Electric Potential

Like the electric field, electric potential is a property of the source charges and
it fills the area surrounding the charge.
P Eq = [q]×[potential for interaction with source charges]
This electric potential, V , is:
Uq+sources
V ≡
q
J
Which uses the units [ C ] = 1 volt = 1V , and may be rearranged:

Uq+sources = qV

Electric potential, the amount of work needed to move a unit charge from a
reference point to a specific point against an electric field. It is the ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL ENERGY PER UNIT CHARGE.

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The electric potential in a region of space allows us to determine whether
charged particle slows down or speeds up as it moves through that region. Pos-
itive charge slows down as it moves into a region of higher electric potential.

The Electric Potential Inside a Parallel-Plate Capacitor

The electric potential inside a parallel-plate capacitor is

V = Es
Where s is the distance from the negative electrode. Electric potential increases
linearly from the negative to the positive plate.

Graphical Representations of the Electric Field Inside a Capacitor

• The electric field vectors are perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces

• The electric field points in the direction of decreasing potential. Electric
field points ”downhill”

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 • Battery is often used a source of potential
Graphical Representations of Potential of a Point Charge*

*The figure assumes that the charge q is positive.

Electric Potential of a Charged Sphere

The potential of a sphere is V0 on the surface and decreases inversely with

distance:
R
V = V0
r
Note: Potential also obeys the law of superposition and the potential of multiple
charges may be found through summation.

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Electric Potential Worked Examples

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Potential and Field
Connecting Field and Potential

The electric potential and electric field are not two distinct entities, they are
two different perspectives of how source charges alter the space around them.

Uq+sources
V ≡
q
Z Si Z i
∆U = −W (i → f ) = − Fs ds = − F~s · d~s
Sf f
Z sf Z f
∆V = Vf − Vi = − Es ds = − ~ · d~s
E
Si i

We can find the potential difference between two points if we know the electric
field.

The work done against the electric field by an external agent in carrying the
charge from point A to B which implies that the work would be given by nega-
tive component of the electric field in the direction of motion .

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Finding the Electric Field from the Potential

The electric field is essentially constant over a short distance ∆S. The work
done by the electric field as a charge q moves through this distance is
W = Fs ∆S = qEs ∆s. The potential difference between these two points is:
∆Uqs+sources −W
∆V = q = Q = −Es ∆s.

In terms of potential, the component of the electric field in the s direction is:

dV
Es = −
ds
Electric Field of a Point Charge

dV d q 1 q
Er = − =− ( )=
dr dr 4π0 r 4π0 r2

Electric Field of a Ring of Charge

dV d 1 Q 1 zQ
Ez = − =− ( √ )= √
dz dz 4π0 z + R
2 2 4π0 ( z 2 + R2 ) 23

Kirchoff ’s Loop Law

The work done in moving a charge between points 1 and 2 is independant of

path. The potential difference between the points 1 and 2 along the two paths
is ∆V = 20V . IMPORTANT: ∆V = 0 around a closed path (think walking up
a hill and then back down).

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For any path that starts and ends at the same point:

X
∆Vloop = (∆V )i = 0
i

DEFINITION (KIRCHOFF’S LOOP LAW): The sum of all the potential dif-
ferences encountered while moving around a loop or closed path is zero.

Sources of Electric Potential (Batteries and EMF)

An electric potential difference is created by separating positive and negative

charge (energy is required to seperate these charges). Chemical energy from a
battery can be used to seperate positive and negative charge.

Batteries in Series

Can produce larger potential difference by placing batteries in series (in succes-
sion). Total potential difference can be found by summing individual terminal
voltages.

Capacitance and Capacitors

Capacitance is the ability of a system to store electric charge in an electric

field [Farads (1F) or VC ]. Capacitance depends only on the geometry of the

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electrodes. In a capacitor:
Q
C=
∆Vc
Capacitor Recap

How does a capacitor work?

• Positive particles are fixed in place while electrons can move. A metal is
typically neutral.
• Consider that two metal plates are close. If electrons are forced onto the
first plate, it will repel electrons in the second plate.
• Positive particles left on the second plate will experience a positive force
from the electrons on the first plate.
• As electrons are added to first plate, the same amount of electrons will
leave the second plate. After a certain number of electrons accumulate on
the first plate, they will repel and new electrons trying to enter.
• First plate is now negative and second plate is now positive. Can make
charge on each plate larger by applying a larger external force. When
force is removed, process will be reversed, net charge on each plate will be
zero.
• NOTE: A capacitor will charge until ∆Vbattery = ∆Vcap .
Capacitor Combinations

PARALLEL CAPACITORS: Two top electrodes connected by a conducting

wire, they form a single capacitor in electrostatic equilibrium. Capacitors in
series have the same potential difference (charge across them just sums, so does
the capacitance).

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

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SERIES CAPACITORS: If you place two capacitors in a series the potential
differences will add, the capacitors do not become one as they are now isolated
as there is no net charge on the wires connecting them (section between them
Q
will have a net charge of 0). Given that C = ∆V C
:

1 ∆VC ∆V1 + ∆V2 ∆V1 ∆V2 1 1

= = = + = +
Ceq Q Q Q Q C1 C2
Given capacitors in series each have the same charge,
1 1 1
Ceq = ( + + + ...)−1
C1 C2 C3
The Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Instantaneous charge on both plates is ±q, the charge seperation establishes a

potential of ∆V = Cq . Additional charge dq is in the process of being transfered
from neg to pos electrode, and battery must do work to lift charge dq to higher
potential. Potential energy of dq + capacitor increases by:
q · dq
dU = dq∆V =
C
Total energy transferred from the battery to the capacitor is found by integrating
from start of charging (q = 0) to end of charging (q = Q):
1 Q Q2
Z
UC = q · dq =
c 0 2C
2
Q 1
UC = = C∆(VC )2
2C 2
What is important about a capacitor?

Can be charged slowly but can then release energy very quickly. Like a stretched
spring, holds energy until we release it. PE is trasferred into KE of the charges
(electric current).

The Energy in the Electric Field

Potential difference across the capacitor is related to the electric field by ∆VC =
Ed The capacitance is C = 0dA
1 0 A 0
UC = C(∆Vc )2 = (Ed)2 = (Ad)E 2
2 2d 2
The energy of a capacitor is stored in it’s electric field in the volume Ad, where
energy density uE of a field can be defined as:
energy stored UC 0
uE = = = E2
volume in which it is stored Ad 2

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Dielectrics

Polarization of Dielectric
When there is not electric field, a material that contains polar molecules will
be in random orientations. Applied electric field will polarize the material by
orientating the dipole moments of polar molecules.

Decreases the effective electric field between the plates and will increase the
capacitance of the places. Dielectric must be a good insulator to reduce any DC
leakage current (poor grounding is usual cause) through a capacitor.

Parallel Plates with Dielectrics

Insertion of dielectric increases capacitance. Dielectric is characterized by di-
electric constant k.

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Current and Resistance
Charge Carriers
Charges that move in a conductor are charge carriers (not always electrons). In
metals, valence electrons become detatched from their parent atoms and form
a ’sea of electrons’; electrons are the charge carriers in metals.

Electrons have no net motion in a metal, just random thermal motions. Can
push electron sea with an electric field causing motion at drif t speed (vd ). The
electron current ie is the number of electrons pass through a cross-section per
second. The nuner of electrons that pass through the cross section during time
interval ∆t.
Ne = ie ∆t
If the number density of conduction electrons is ne electrons per cubic meter,
then the total number of electrons in the cylinder is:
Ne = ne V = ne A∆x = ne Avd ∆t
The electron current is wire is:
ie = ne AVd
Creating a Current
Collisions between the electrons and the atoms of the metal transform the elec-
trons’ kinetic energy into thermal energy of the metal (metal gets warm). Sea
of electrons stops unless more force is applied by an electric field (like friction),
force needs to keep being applied for charge to move. An electron current is a
nonequilibrium motion of charges sustained by an internal electric field.

Establishing the Electric Field in a Wire

A nonuniform distribution of surface charges along a wire creates a net elec-

tric field inside the wire that points from the more positive end of the wire to
~ that pushes the
the more negative end of the wire. The internal electric field E
electron current from the wire.

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Model of Conduction
Conduction electrons are the electrons that make up the electron sea. Conduct-
ing electrons bounce back and forth with a net velocity of 0. When electric
field is applied, KE is increased until collisions with ions where energy is trans-
ferred to the ions, raising the thermal energy of the wire. The magnitude of the
electron’s average velocity, due to the electric field, is the drift speed vd of the
electron. Electron current is directly proportional to the electric field strength.

Current and Current Density

The current I in a wire is the rate of charge flow:
dQ
I= [Ampere (A)]
dt
The electron current ie is related to conventional current I by:
Q eNe
I= = = eie
∆t ∆t

Difference Between Electron Current and Conventional Current

Differ only by a scale factor e; one is rate of charge (more practical), the other
is rate of electrons (more fundamental). Each move in different directions:
• The direction of current is defined to be the direction in which positive
charges seem to move. Direction of I is the same as the direction of the
electric field.
• The direction of the current I in a metal is opposite the direction of motion
of the electrons.

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The Current Density in a Wire
As the current in a wire of cross-section area A is ie = ne Avd which means
I = eie = ne evd A. The current density J is current per unit of area:
I
J = current density = = ne evd
A
Charge Conservation and Current

The rate of electrons leaving a lightbulb (or any other device) is the same as
the rate of electrons entering the lightbulb. Current does not change. Current
is not used up, only energy. Due to conservation of charge, the current must be
the same at all points in a current-carrying wire. By conservation, Kirchoff’s
junction law states:
X X
Iin = Iout

Conductivity and Resistivity

Conductivity
A material is a better conductor of current if the mean time between collisions
τ is smaller and there is a greater density of electrons. The conductivity of a
material is:
ne e2 τ J
σ = conductivity = [ ]
m E
Given conductivity, current density becomes:

J = σE

Three important things from the equation above:

• Current is caused by an electric field exerting force on the charge carriers
• Current density and current depend linearly on the strength of the electric
field
• The current density depends on the conductivity of the material. Differ-
ent materials will have different properties such as mean time between
collisions and current density

Resistivity The inverse of conductivity. Resistivity indicates how reluctant the

electrons are to move in response to an electric field:
1 m V
ρ = resistivity = = [Ohms = 1Ω = 1 ]
σ ne e2 τ A

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Ohm’s Law and Resistance
Current is directly proportional to the potential difference between the ends of
a conductor. The resistance of a conductor is:
ρL
R=
A
Difference Between Resistivity and Resistance

• Resistance is the obstruction offered to the flow of current by a conductor.

It is the property of an object as it depends on the property of the object
(e.g. copper wires). It depends on dimensions.
• Resistivity is the obstruction offered to the flow of current by the flow
of current by UNIT AREA of the conductor. It is the property of the
substance (e.g. copper, zinc)

Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor is:

∆V
I= [Ohm0 s Law]
R
Explanation of Ohm’s Law
Establishing a potential difference ∆V between the ends of a conductor of resis-
tance R creates an electric field (via nonuniform distribution of surface charges)
that causes a current I through the conductor. Smaller the resistance, the larger
the current.

Batteries and Current

Current supplied by a battery is sustained, current supplied by a capacitor

is transient.

1. A battery is a source of potential differnence Vbat = epsilon

2. The battery creates a potential difference ∆Vwire = ∆Vbat
∆V
3. The potential difference ∆Vwire causes and electric field E = L in the
wire

4. The electric field establishes a current I = JA = σAE in the wire

5. The magnitude of the current is determiend jointly by the battery and the
wire’s resistance R to be I = ∆VRwire

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