Direct solar energy-Box 5 18/06/08 10:40 PM

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Harnessing direct solar energy – a progress report

Box 5 | Chemical fuels from the sun

Putting the sun’s energy into a light and portable form is the only way
to allow all sectors of modern society to run entirely on solar energy.

Solar energy can help to produce energy in a portable form

In Australia, the CSIRO Division of Energy Technology, in collaboration

with Pacific Power, has tested the idea of using high temperatures from
concentrated solar energy to drive a chemical reaction between carbon
dioxide and methane in the presence of a chemical catalyst. The resulting
gas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide) can then be stored and
transported; it releases energy (which can be changed into electricity)
when it is allowed to separate back into its two component gases. These
can then be recombined with a further energy input from solar power.

Advantages of hydrogen as a fuel

But for many in the field, it’s clear that the ultimate fuel is hydrogen – the
lightest substance in the universe. We can produce hydrogen from water,
but need energy to do so. Once we have the hydrogen gas, it can be
safely stored and transported. Hydrogen is currently only used to power
rockets, but with some modifications it could power all our transport and
electricity generators. When burnt, hydrogen releases energy and
combines with oxygen in the air to form water – a product with no pollution
potential! At the same time, the water that was used to produce the
hydrogen is regenerated – so the cycle can continue until the sun burns
out.

Ways to generate hydrogen

Hydrogen can be generated from water by using an electric current; this is

called electrolysis. The electricity can be derived from sunlight. Another
possibility would be to simply use very high temperatures from
concentrated sunlight, which can literally tear apart the molecules of water
into its hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Ideally the gases would then be
separated.

But there are much more sophisticated ways of splitting water using
sunlight. The secret lies in plants. When exposed to light, green plants
continually split water – releasing the oxygen into the air for us to breathe,
and combining the hydrogen with carbon dioxide to form sugars. If we
could duplicate this process, we would be well on the way to becoming a
truly solar society. Research continues.

The future of hydrogen as an energy source

Australia’s Sir Mark Oliphant, the distinguished physicist, is one of several

experts who consider that the move to a solar-powered ‘hydrogen’ society
will eventually come. If he is right, desert areas could be used for

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Direct solar energy-Box 5 18/06/08 10:40 PM

intensive solar collection and the production of liquid fuels would power
our world, in much the same way that modern agriculture, with its huge
area of wheatfields, continually converts sunlight into solid chemical
energy for us to eat. If this comes about, those countries with a large area
receiving intense sunlight – such as Australia – could be as rich as
today’s oil-exporters.

Related Nova topics:

Which way ahead for hydrogen cars?

Fuelling the 21st century

Other boxes

Box 1. Eliminating the zeroes

Box 2. Driving on a sunbeam

Box 3. Light to electricity

Box 4. The Big Dish

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Page updated February 2006.

The Australian Foundation for Science is a supporter of Nova.

This topic is sponsored by the Australian Government's National Innovation Awareness Strategy.

© Australian Academy of Science

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Direct solar energy-Glossary 18/06/08 10:40 PM

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Glossary | Harnessing direct solar energy – a progress report

alternative energy sources. Energy sources different from those in

widespread use at the moment (which are referred to as conventional).
Alternative energy usually includes solar, wind, wave, tidal, hydroelectric
and geothermal energy. Although they each have their own drawbacks,
none of these energy sources produces significant air pollution, unlike
conventional sources.

fossil fuels. Carbon or hydrocarbon fuels, derived from what was living
material, and found underground or beneath the sea. The most common
forms are coal, oil and natural gas. They take millions of years to form.
Their energy is only released upon burning, when the carbon and
hydrogen within them combine with the oxygen in air to form carbon
dioxide (CO2 ), or carbon monoxide (CO) and water (H2O). Other
elements within the fuels (such as sulfur or nitrogen) are also released
into the air after combining with oxygen, causing further pollution with SO 2
and nitrogen oxide gases. In the case of coal, ash particles are also a
problem.

non-renewable energy. Used to describe energy sources that exist in a

limited amount on Earth. Thus all available material could eventually be
completely used up. Coal, oil and gas (see fossil fuels) are considered as
non-renewable energy sources because the rate of their formation is so
slow on human timescales that they we are using them without them
being replaced. Uranium (used in nuclear power) is also non-renewable,
although its reserves are very large compared to its rate of use. Compare
renewable energy.

passive solar heating. The use of the sun to heat buildings. Careful
design and positioning of buildings can ensure that sunlight in the winter
months will warm them by day, with much of the warmth remaining during
the night. Summer sunlight is usually kept out. This does not involve the
conversion or harnessing of solar energy.

photovoltaic (PV) cells. Also known as solar cells. A photovoltaic cell is

made of thin wafers of two slightly different types of silicon. One, doped
with tiny quantities of boron, is called P-type (P for positive) and contains
positively charged 'holes', which are missing electrons. (Electrons are
negatively charged particles that orbit the nuclei of atoms.) The other type
of silicon is doped with small amounts of phosphorus and is called N-type
(N for negative). It contains extra electrons. Putting these two thin P and
N materials together produces a junction which, when exposed to light,
will produce a movement of electrons – and that constitutes an electric
current. Photovoltaic cells thus convert light energy into electrical energy.

renewable energy. Used to describe energy sources that are replenished

by natural processes on a sufficiently rapid time-scale so that they can be
used by humans more or less indefinitely, provided the quantity taken per
unit of time is not too great. Examples are animal dung, ethanol (derived
from plant sugars), wood, wind, falling water and sunlight. Compare non-

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Direct solar energy-Glossary 18/06/08 10:40 PM

renewable. For more information see Renewable energy (Australian

Greenhouse Office).

solar collectors. Devices for capturing the sun’s energy over a large area
and focussing it on a small area, thereby concentrating it. In this way it
can be made to provide extremely high temperatures, used to generate
steam that will expand, or to carry out a chemical reaction to produce a
portable fuel such as hydrogen. Solar collectors may be curved dishes -
like satellite receiving dishes – coated with reflective material, or can
consist of an array of reflectors, arranged like flower petals, focussing
onto a central point. Usually the dish or the individual reflectors can be
steered to follow the sun across the sky.

solar energy. Energy derived ultimately from the sun. It can be dt8ived

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Direct solar energy-Activities 18/06/08 10:41 PM

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Activities | Harnessing direct solar energy – a progress report

1. Photovoltaic cells and solar collectors

2. Calculating the amount of solar radiation that can be converted to

electricity

3. Aspects of solar energy collection and use

4. The cost of solar energy

5. Showing the movement of water as it heats

6. Making a solar water heater

Other activities

Science upd8 (UK)

Solar car challenge – students learn about energy transfers in
solar cars and consider design features to maximise a solar
car’s speed.

Mobile Inquiry Technology (The Concord Consortium, USA)

Solar cell – use a solar cell to investigate changes in the
amount of sunlight at ground level.

Re-Energy (The Pembina Institute, Canada)

Students learn about renewable, solar power, wind, water power
and biomass energy. Lesson and construction plans for working
models of solar power cars, solar ovens, wind power turbines,
water wheels and biogas generators are available.
The colour sensitivity of a photovoltaic cell – students use
coloured light to test the colour sensitivity of one or more
kinds of photovoltaic cells. Using digital voltmeters, students
measure the voltages and then graph the results.
Building and testing a solar oven – students work in small
groups to build a solar oven. They test the oven using two
baking pans and record the temperature changes.
Instructions on how to build the solar oven are available.

Queensland Department of Education (Australia)

Power for a sustainable future – provides an extensive list of
activities and fact sheets on different forms of energy.

Science NetLinks (American Association for the Advancement

of Science)
Harnessing solar energy – students discover the properties of
radiant energy from the sun by experimenting with solar
collectors, cookers and calculators.
Star power! Discovering the power of sunlight – students
estimate the energy output of the sun and how much power
sunlight provides to the Earth.

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Direct solar energy-Activities 18/06/08 10:41 PM

Energy Information Administration Kid's Page (USA)

Click on ‘Classroom Activities’ and then ‘Teachers and students’ to
access a list of activities including:
Solar cooking – students build and test a solar hot dog
cooker.
Energy in the round – students play a game to reinforce
learning about forms of energy.
Solar collectors – students compare black and white
materials as solar collectors.

SunWind Solar Lessons (Sunwind Solar Industries Inc., USA)

Happy birthday Theremin – students change the pitch of the
tune played by a birthday card by altering light levels.
Smooth black stone – students compare insulating materials
using three black rocks.
‘Notes and links’ – provides background information on solar
energy and its uses.

Ergon Energy (Australia)

How to make a solar water heater – students make a solar
water heater using a plastic bag and test it with a
thermometer.

External sites are not endorsed by the Australian Academy of Science.

Page updated November 2006.

The Australian Foundation for Science is a supporter of Nova.

This topic is sponsored by the Australian Government's National Innovation Awareness Strategy.

© Australian Academy of Science

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Direct solar energy-Further reading 18/06/08 10:41 PM

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Further reading | Harnessing direct solar energy – a progress report

ATSE Focus
March/April 2004
Renewables to the rescue? Wind and solar energy in Australia (by Ian
Grey)
Looks at the capacity of Australia to meet its energy requirements using
wind and solar power.

Australasian Science
September 2006, pages 31-32
Photosynthetic photovoltaics (by Simon Grose)
Profiles solar cell technology that is inspired by photosynthesis.

Cosmos
18 April 2007
Slicing the cost of solar power (by David Kay)
Looks at a novel approach to make low cost photovoltaic cells.

Ecos
No. 131, 2006, pages 12-14
Solar cities generating new approaches (by Hartley Henderson)
Describes the Solar Cities program to trial the latest solar technology in
cities across Australia.

No. 130, 2006, page 33

Roof tiles go solar (by Steve Davidson)
Describes a roof tile that is a solar panel that provides both solar power
and solar hot water to homes.

No. 129, 2006, page 4

Solar thermal power warms up
Suggests that solar thermal energy is emerging as a cost-competitive
source of electrical power.

No. 124, 2005, pages 28-30

A stirling idea (by Wendy Pyper)
A new spin on the age-old technology of the Stirling engine could provide
a cheap, portable, low maintenance renewable energy unit.

No. 124, 2005, page 27

Sun-power technology centre underway
Covers the construction of the National Solar Energy Technology Centre
at Newcastle, Australia.

No. 121, 2004, page 30

Reconciliation re-invigorates solar development (by Wendy Pyper)

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Direct solar energy-Further reading 18/06/08 10:41 PM

A new project aims to provide energy from renewable sources for the
Yolngu people of Dhuruputjpi in Arnhem Land.

No. 117, 2003, pages 8-9

One golden pond (by Wendy Pyper)
Describes a 'solar pond', which uses shallow ponds of saline water to
harness solar energy.

No. 116, 2003, pages 10-12

Siphoning the sun (by Graeme O'Neill)
Describes the kilometer-high solar tower project which could power
200,000 homes.

Nature
7 September 2006, pages 19-22
A new day dawning?: Silicon Valley sunrise (by Oliver Morton)
Looks at interest in photovoltaic research in California's Silicon Valley.

New Scientist
A collection of stories on energy and fuels is available.

8 December 2007, pages 32-37

Solar power: The future’s bright (by Bennett Daviss)
Explores the future of power generation from solar energy.

24 November 2007, pages 42-45

Plugging into the sun (by Dan Cho and David Cohen)
Investigates the potential of space solar power.

5 May 2007, page 15

High cost of capturing solar energy is diminishing (by Jim Giles)
Looks at the potential of concentrated solar power as a source of energy.

9 December 2006, page 32

Cut-price solar panels follow the sun (by Duncan Graham-Rowe)
Reports on a new solar panel that is designed to cut the cost of
harnessing the sun’s energy.

11 November 2006, pages 30-31

Take a leaf out of nature's book to tap solar power (by Duncan Graham-
Rowe)
Looks at mimicking the process of photosynthesis to harness energy from
sunlight more efficiently.

14 October 2006, pages 52-55

Hello solar (by Tim Thwaites)
Tells the story of a solar powered ferry.

27 May 2006, pages 44-47

Two for the price of one (by Herb Brody)
Explains how nano solar cells improve the efficiency of energy production
from sunlight.

29 October 2005, page 28

Box of tricks takes surgery into the sticks (by Michael Day)

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Direct solar energy-Further reading 18/06/08 10:41 PM

Describes the solar powered 'hospital in a box' used to perform operations

in remote locations.

18 December 2004
Pliable solar cells are on a roll (by Fred Pearce)
Describes a light, flexible solar panel that is made in rolls and can be cut
to any length.

17 July 2004
Is the green dream doomed to fail? (by Jenny Hogan and Philip Cohen)
Questions the ability of renewable energy sources to replace fossil fuels
without subsidies and incentives.

15 May 2004, page 16

Wring more might from your light
A new semiconductor nanocrystal could convert 60 per cent of sunlight
into useable power by releasing more electrons per photon.

Scientific American
January 2008, pages 34-35
Sun power gets a boost (by Mark Alpert)
Explores the incorporation of an artificial photosynthesis process in
photovoltaic cell design.

December 16 2007, pages 48-57

A solar grand plan (by Ken Zweibel, James Mason and Vasilis Fthenakis)
Presents a grand plan employing solar technology to provide the U.S. with
power.

External sites are not endorsed by the Australian Academy of Science.

Page updated March 2008.

The Australian Foundation for Science is a supporter of Nova.

This topic is sponsored by the Australian Government's National Innovation Awareness Strategy.

© Australian Academy of Science

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Direct solar energy-Useful sites 18/06/08 10:41 PM

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Useful sites | Harnessing direct solar energy – a progress report

Your Home (Australian Government)

Solar hot water

Provides technical details about domestic solar hot water systems.
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs43.htm

Photovoltaic systems
Provides technical details about domestic photovoltaic systems.
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.htm

Concentrating Solar Thermal Systems (Solar Thermal Group,

Australian National University)

Provides technical descriptions of some solar thermal collecting systems.

http://engnet.anu.edu.au/DEresearch/solarthermal/high_temp/concentrators/basics.php

Tapping into the sun (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA)

An article on photovoltaic cells with case studies.

http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/16631.pdf

How Stuff Works, USA

How solar cells work

Examines how solar cells convert the sun's energy into electricity.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm

How power grids work

Looks at the equipment that brings electricity to your home.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/power.htm/printable

Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water,

Heritage and the Arts

Solar thermal
Lists technologies that use energy from the sun to produce
electricity or heat.
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/renewable/recp/solar/index.html

Renewable energy commercialisation in Australia

Lists the renewable energy projects that are being commercialised
in Australia, including solar thermal and solar photovoltaics projects.
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/renewable/recp/

Solar cities: A vision of the future

Outlines the Government’s Solar Cities project, in which seven
Australian cities will participate.
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/solarcities/index.html

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Direct solar energy-Useful sites 18/06/08 10:41 PM

Map of operating renewable energy generators in Australia

(Geoscience Australia)

Provides maps of proposed and operational renewable energy generators

across Australia.
http://www.agso.gov.au/renewable/

Australian Broadcasting Corporation

Solar future (Catalyst, 27 July 2006)

Looks at a number of promising solar technologies being
developed.
http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1698520.htm

Dye solar cell (Catalyst,18 November 2004)

Describes the development of a new type of solar cell that does not
use silicon.
http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1241478.htm

Sunrise or sunset? (transcript from Earthbeat, 24 April 2004)

Discusses the current status in Australia of research into three
types of solar energy: photovoltaics, solar thermal energy and solar
hot water.
http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/earth/stories/s1093111.htm

Revisiting solar power's past (Solarenergy.com)

A 10-page history of attempts to convert solar radiation into mechanical

power. (An article by Charles Smith from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology's Technology Review, July 1995.)
http://www.solarenergy.com/info_history.html

Disclaimer: We cannot guarantee the accuracy of information in external sites.

Page updated February 2007.

The Australian Foundation for Science is a supporter of Nova.

This topic is sponsored by the Australian Government's National Innovation Awareness Strategy.

© Australian Academy of Science

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