RESEARCH-CORE LECTURE

Dr. BASH A. AJIHIL

UZ-VPAA/Dean-SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
 *INTRODUCTION*

RESEARCH IS

• SYSTEMATIC
 OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS AND RECORDING OF CONTROLED OBSERVATIONS.
 LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF:

a. GENERALIZATIONS
b. PRINCIPLES
c. THEORIES

th
 RESULTING IN PREDICTION AND ULTIMATELY CONTROL OF EVENTS. (Best and Kahn, Research in Education, 8
Edition, 1998, p 18)
 Other Definitions:
 Good defines research as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature
and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution of a problem.” (Good, p. 464)

 Aquino has a more detailed definition of research. He says that “research is simply, the systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic or problem. After a careful, systematic search for research worker has analyzed and interpreted the data, he eventually
faces another essential task – that of preparing the research report.” (Aquino, p. 1)

 Research has been defined as “the process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.” (Manuel
and medel, p. 5)

 Parel defines research as a “systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher.”
(Sanchez, p. 2)

 Treece and Treece commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection
of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.”
(Treece and Treece, p. 3)

Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a
purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering analyzing,
classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a
problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the
expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

2. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be

helpful in predicting future occurrences.

3. Research is based on observable experience or empirical evidence.

4. Research demands accurate observation and description.

5.Research involvers gathering of new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.

6. Research is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
7. Research requires expertise.

8. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed, that data collected, and the conclusion reached.

9. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.

10. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.

th
12. Research sometimes requires courage. (Best and Kahn, Research in Education, 8
Edition, 1998, pp 18-19)
 PURPOSES OR RESEARCH (Aims, Objectives,
Goals)

 Principal purpose and goal – Preservation and improvement of the quality of

human life.


The purpose of research is to serve man, and the goal of research is the
good life. (Good and Scates, pp. 9-14)
 SPECIFIC PURPOSES AND GOALS
 To discover new facts about known phenomena.
 To find answers to problem which are only partially solved by existing methods and information
 To improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products.
 To discover previously unrecognized and elements.
 To discover pathways of action of known substances and elements.
 To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.

 To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in other undertakings.

To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in other
undertakings.
 To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
 To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.
 To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon.
 To expand or variety existing knowledge.
 To improve educational practices.
 To promote health and prolong life.
 To provide man with more of his basic needs.

 To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable. (Calderon and Gonzales,
pp 4-6)
 TRAITS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
• Scholarly • Critical thinker
• Imaginative of highest integrity • Patient
• Willing to spend long hours painstakingly • Resourceful
seeking knowledge
• Creative thinker

• Diligent (Best and Kahn,

 HINDRANCES TO SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY (Errors in
Personal Judgement)
• Tradition • Illogical reasoning
• Authority • Ego-involvement in unders

• Inaccurate observation • Mystification

• Overgeneralization • To err is human

• Selective observation • Dogmatism (Calderon and

• Make-up information
 KINDS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH
There are many kinds of research which are classified according to their
distinctive features. Some of the classifications are as follows:
1.According to purpose. Trow identifies three broadly different kinds of
research, namely; predictive, directive, and illuminative. (Treece, Jr., p. 5)
a. Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future operation of the variables investigation under
with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the
result from one specific educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical connection between characteristics of
students and a prediction of educational outcome.”
b. Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is
any.

c. Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being investigated, as for
example, “interaction of the components of educational system and aims to show the connections among, foe example, student
characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational consequences.”
2. According to goal. According to goal, research may be classified as basic
or pure research and applied research.

a. Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories opf principles. It is conducted for the
intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of research has been done in psychology and sociology. (Manuel And
Medel, p. 18)
b. Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the efficacy of theories and

principles. For instance, a principle says that praise reinforces learning. To determine if this is true. One conducts an
experiment in which there are two classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other class there is no praise at all.
All other things are kept equal. At the end of the experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes
without praise, then the principle is true.
3. According to the levels of investigation. French categorizes research according
to the levels of investigation into exploratory, descriptive research, and
experimental research.

a. In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.

b. In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.

c. In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the variables on each other. (Treece and
Treece, Jr., p.6)

4. According to the type of analysis. According to the type of analysis, Weis

classifies research into analytic research and holistic research.

a. In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research
situation.

b. The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and then on its
internal relationships. (Treece and Treece, Jr., p.6)
5. According to scope. Under this category is action research. This type of
research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem, which is
not so big. It is almost problem- solving.
In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem-solving or research used by teachers, supervisors,
and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions; it seeks more dependable and appropriate
means of promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with specific and generals objectives and attempts to
improve educational practices without reference to whether findings would be applicable beyond the group studied.
(Good, p. 464)

6. According to choice of answers. Ackoff divides research that is concerned

with findings answers to problems into evaluation and development research.
a. In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are4 specified and identified and the researcher tries to
find the most advantageous.

b. In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than
has been available. (Treece and Treece, Jr., p.6)
7. According to statistical content. Under this type may be mentioned quantitative
research and non-quantitative research.

a. Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the
study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This
type of research usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.
b. Non-quantitative research. This is research in which the use of quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is

especially true in anthropological studies where descriptive is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than
quantitative data.
8. According to time element. According to time element, Best classifies research as
historical, descriptive, and experimental.

a. Historical research describes what was.

b. Descriptive research describes what is.

c. Experimental research describes what will be. (Treece and Treece, Jr., p.6

Historical, descriptive, and experimental are the three major research methods. All other methods, kinds, and
types of research whatever they are called fall under these three major methods.

Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or field of activity. Hence, we have sociological
research, social research, psychological research, anthropological research, physical research, chemical research,
industrial research, economics research, health research, nursing research, curriculum research, educational research, and
countless others.
All researches involve the elements of observations, description, and the analysis of what happens
under certain circumstances. A rather simple four point analysis may be used to classify educational
research. Practically all studies fall under one, or a combination of these types:

1. Historical research describes what was. The process involves investigating, recording, analyzing, and interpreting the
events of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past for the
purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past and the present and, to a limited
extent, in anticipating the future.

2. Descriptive research (quantitative) uses quantitative methods to describe what is, describing, recording, analyzing
and interpreting conditions that exist. It involves some type of comparison or contrast and attempts to discover
relationships between existing nonmanipulated variables. Some form of statistical analysis is used to describe the
results of the study.

3. Qualitative descriptive research uses nonquantitative methods to describe what is. Qualitative descriptive research
uses systematic procedures to discover nonquantitative relationships between existing variables.

4. Experimental research describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. The
focus is on variable relationships. As defined here, deliberate manipulation is always a part of the experimental
methods. (Best and Kahn, p. 24)
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH

One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It follows scientific method of research which
includes the following sequential steps: (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 47)

1. Determining (recognizing) the problem;

2. Forming a hypothesis;
3. Doing the library search;
4. Designing the study;
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data;
6. Collecting the data;
7. Analyzing the data;
8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings; and
9. Making recommendations.
It should be borne in mind that the researcher goes through all the nine steps
when he does his research and when he writes his research report. If the standard
format of thesis writing is followed, the first two steps will be included in Chapter
1, The “Problem and Its Setting”; the third steps will be in Chapter 2, “Related
Literature and Studies”; the fourth, fifth and sixth steps will be discussed in
Chapter 3, “Methods of Research and Procedures”, the seventh step will be
presented in Chapter 4, “Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data"; and
the last to steps placed in Chapter 5, “Summary, Conclusions, and
Recommendations”.
 Principles of the scientific method. (Ibid., p. 50) the principles of the scientific method are:
1. Rigid control,
2. Objectivity,
3. Systematic organization, and
4. Rigorous standards.

Rigid refers to the manipulation of the research variables. Variables are those things that are vary in quantity and quality which are
to be manipulated by the researcher. Examples of variables are age, sex, population, adequacy, efficiency, etc. these are variables
which should be controlled rigidly, that is, kept constant or equal in a certain research work.

Objectivity means that there should be no bias or partially in treating the results in the inquiry. The results should not be
mpered with, whatever they may be.

Systematic organization refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as presenting them in statistical tables ready for
terpretation.

The fourth principles refers to the setting up the standards or principles which serve as basis for evaluating the findings
f the study. Such standards should not be changed to suit the expectations of the researcher. The principle also are refers to the
ccurate statistical computation and interpretation of quantified data.
 DESIGNING THE STUDY
Designing the study must follow the scientific method of research. Aside from choosing the
right problem, forming the hypothesis, and library research, designing the study also includes deciding on
the method of research to be used, the study population, the instrument for gathering data and its
preparation, the sampling design, statistical treatment of data, and analysis and presentation of data.

Following are discussions and explanations of each of these aspects of the research procedure.
After carefully studying these discussions and explanations, the researcher can already make a workable
design of research for his investigation.

There are three major research methods with their respective variations from which the
researcher may choose the methods he wants to use depending upon the nature of his investigation.
These are the historical, descriptive, and experiential methods of research.
 Discussed and explained also are the different methods of collecting
data such as the interview, questionnaire, observation, tests, and others as
well as the preparation of their respective instruments.

Sampling designs such as pure random, systematic, stratified, cluster and other types are also well
elaborated on.

Other activities involved in conducting research inquires and writing research reports are also given
clear explanation with illustrations for better understanding. How to write the research reports or thesis
have been given very ample explanations and illustrations, chapter by chapter for better understanding of
the whole process of research reporting or thesis writing.
 THE PROBLEM

According to Dewey a problem is:

 Any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or artificial, the

solution of which requires reflective thinking.

 A perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question or series

of questions that help determine the direction of subsequent inquiry.
 ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation.
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated.
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted.
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to
be conducted.
5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be
collected.
 Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be able to find funding for his research.
6. It is researchable and manageable, that is,

a. Data are available and accessible.

b. The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity, and verifiability.
c. Answers to the specific questions (subproblems) can be found.
d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or rejected.
e. Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and reliable results.
 7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless it is longitudinal research which
takes a long time for its completion.
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely, and of

current interest.
9. The results are practical and implementable.
10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it.
11. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough to be able to give
significant, valid, and reliable results and generalizations.
12. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the quality of human life.
13. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge.
14. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems intended to be solved.
15. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people.
16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence but by peaceful
eans.
17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher, either one or all of the following, of the
research report is completed:
a. Monetary, either increase in salary or publication of the results in which there is some kind of royalty.
b. Advancement of position, promotion. Generally, after fishing a graduate course, there is a promotion
especially in the educational system. It is easier to get a promotion with a graduate degree than
without one.
c. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work especially if the research subject is
related to the profession.
d. Enhanced prestige and reputation.
e. Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and interest.

18. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved, either physical, social, or legal.
 *THE TITLE*
Guidelines in writing the title:
 Formulate title before the research work.
 Maybe revised and refined later if there is a need.
 Title must contain the:
 Subject matter
 Locale
 Population
 Period
 Must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be studied.
 Must be brief and concise
 Avoid using the following phrases:
 A Study of
 An Investigation of
 And the like
 Use inverted pyramid if title concise of more than one line. All words must be in CAPITAL LETTERS.

Example of a complete title:

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOLS OF PROVINCE A AS PERCEIVED BY THE SCIENCE TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 1989-1990

A brief and concise form of the title and a better one follows:

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS PROVINCE A

It will be noted that the population, the science teachers and students as well as the period of the study, 1989-1990, are
omitted when writing the second form but they have to be mentioned in the scope and delimination of the study. It will be
noted also that the title, though brief and simplified, is broad enough to include all possible aspects of the subject matter. The
central theme, which is teaching of science, is also very clear.
 THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

Guidelines in formulating the general problem and the specific sub-problems or

specific questions.
1. The general statement of the problem and the specific sub-problems or questions should be formulated
first before conducting the research.
2. It is customary to state specific subproblems in the interrogative form. Hence, sub-problems are called
specific questions.
3. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal, that is it has only meaning. It must not have dual
meanings.
4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, that is, answers to each specific
question can be found even without considering the other questions.
5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Besides, data from such known
facts and phenomena must be accessible to make the specific questions.
6. Answer to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other specific questions.
7. Answer to each specific question must contribute to the development
of the whole research problem or topic.
8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a
complete development of the entire study.
9. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of the whole research
problem or study.

Before writing down the specific questions, determine first the different aspects of the research
Problem to be studied and then for each aspect make one specific question with subquestions if there is a
need. If the research topic is the teaching of science the different aspects may be the following:

a. Qualifications of the teachers, especially educational;

b. Methods and strategies of teaching used and their level of effectiveness;
c. Facilities available, instructional and non-instructional and their adequacy;
d. Adequacy of supervisory assistance extended to teachers;
e. Comparison between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students concerning the different
aspects;
f. Problems encountered by the teachers in teaching science;
g. Proposals to solve or help solve the problems; and
h. Implications of the study to the teaching of science.
10. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this should be broken up
into as many subproblems or specific questions as necessary. Example: This study was conducted
to investigate all aspects of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A during the
school year 1989-1990 as perceived by the science teachers and students. Specifically, the study
attempted to answer the following questions:

a. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools of Province A?
b. How effective are the methods and strategies used by the teachers in teaching science?
c. How adequate are the instructional as well as the non-instructional facilities for the teaching of science?
d. How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance extended to the teachers relative to the teaching of
science?
e. Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students
concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science?
f. What problems are being encountered by the teachers of science?
g. What suggestions are offered by the teachers and students to improve the teaching of science?
h. What are the implications of the findings to the teaching of science?
 ASSUMPTIONS

An assumption is a self-evident truth, which is based upon a

known fact or phenomenon.

Oftentimes, especially in descriptive and historical researches,

assumptions are not explicitly expressed but left implicit, that is,
they are unwritten. Generally, every specific questions is implicitly
based upon an assumption. If there is no question, expressed or
implicit, there can be no specific question.
Examples:

(1) Specific question: How qualified are the teachers handling science?

Implicit (unwritten) assumption: There are certain qualifications that one

should posses before he can teach science.

(2) Specific question: How adequate are the facilities that a school should acquire
before it can offer science as a subject?

Implicit assumption: There are certain required facilities that a school acquire before it
can offer science as a subject.

(3) Specific question: How effective are the methods used in the teaching of science?

Implicit assumption: There are certain methods that are effective in teaching of science.
Guidelines in the use of basic assumptions. The following are the guidelines in the use of basic
assumptions: (By Sugden as cited by Manuel, p. 81)

1. You cannot assume the value of your study. Such an argument should have been made under the
section, significance of the study.

2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you propose to use in your research.
Such a rationale and defense should be made under methodology.

3. You cannot assume the validity of basic data. Validity is established under methodology.

4. You cannot assume that your population is typical. This point is to be made under methodology.

5. An assumption is not tested, neither is it defended nor argued.

 HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific

question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated
guess about the answer to a specific question.

Forms of hypotheses. There are two forms of hypotheses. One

is in the operational form and the other is in the null form. The
operational form is stated in the affirmative while the null form is
stated in the negative. The operational form stated that there is a
difference between two phenomena while the null form states there
Guidelines in the formulation of explicit hypotheses. The following are the
guidelines in the formulation of explicit hypotheses:
1. In experimental investigations, hypotheses have to be explicit, they have to be expressed.
They have to be expressed also in comparative and correlational studies.

2. In descriptive and historical investigations, hypotheses are seldom expressed if not entirely absent. The subproblems or
specific questions raised before the start of the investigation and stated under the statement of the problem serve as the
hypotheses. With this fact, it is logical to presume that all studies in research have hypotheses and for what matter all theses
and dissertations have their own respective hypotheses. Consequently, no research is conducted without any hypothesis at
all.

3. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than a hypothesis in the
operational form. Testing a hypothesis simply means gathering data to answer it.

4. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific question upon which they are based.

Examples:
(1) Question: Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those students concerning
the different aspects in the teaching of science?
 Operational hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and
those of students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science.

Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of
the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science.

Null hypothesis: there is no significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of
the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science.

(2) Question: Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive method
and that of the deductive teaching of science?

Operational hypothesis: there is no significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive method and that of
the deductive method in the teaching of the science.

Null hypothesis: there is no significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive method and that of the
deductive method in the teaching of science.
Purposes, functions, and importance of hypotheses or specific questions. Hypothesis
(specific questions) perform important functions in research such as the following:

1. They help the researcher in designing his study: what methods, research instruments, sampling design, and
statistical treatments to use, what data to gather, etc.

2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions.

3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data.

4. They as bases for the explanation or discussion about the data gathered.

5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings and in formulating his conclusions are answers
to the hypotheses or specific questions raised at the start of the investigation.
 RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. For
instance, if the present study deals with drug addiction, literature to be reviewed or surveyed should be composed of
materials that deal with drug addiction. These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias,
professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications.
These materials are classified as:
1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

Related studies, on the other hand, are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the
present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as
manuscripts, theses, dissertations.
They may be classified as:
1. Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.
 IMPORTANCE, PURPOSES, AND FUNCTIONS
OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such reviewed literature and
studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide the
researcher in pursuing his research venture. Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the
following ways:
1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem or topic. By
reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar problem may be found better than the problem already
chosen. Replication is e study of a research problem already conducted but in another place.

.
2 They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related literature and
studies may clarify vague points about his problem.

3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if an investigation
already made is conducted again in the same locale using practically the same respondents. This is
avoided if a survey of related literature and studies be made first.
5. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information. This is
because the bibliography of a study already conducted indicate references about similar studies.
6. They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in

a. the formulation of specific questions to be researched on:

b. the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any;
c. the formulation of conceptual framework;
d. the selection and application of the methods of research:
e. the selection and application of sampling techniques;
f. the selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for gathering data;
g. the selection and application of statistical procedures.
h. The analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data; i.
The making of the summary of implications for the whole study;
j. The formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations; and

7. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with the findings of other
researchers on similar studies with the end in view of formulating generalizations or principles which are the
contributions of the study to the fund of knowledge.
 CHARACTERISTICS OR RELATED LITERATURE
AND STUDIES

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make

them of true value. Among these characteristics are:
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the
rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes. Findings several years ago may be of little value
today because of the fast changing life style of the people.
There are exceptions, however, Treaties that deal on universals or things of more or less permanent
nature may still be good today. There are mathematical laws and formulas and statistical procedures that had
been formulated a long, long time ago which are being used today with very, very little improvement. This is
also true with natural and physical laws. Books, on theses, though written a long time ago, are still being
cited today.
Another exception is when a comparison or contrast is to be made between the conditions of today
and those of a remote past, say ten or twenty years ago. Naturally, literature and studies about remote that
past have to be surveyed and reviewed.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly one-
sided, either political, or religious, etc. Comparison with these material cannot be made logically and
validity. Distorted generalizations may result.

3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some bearing or
similarity to the research problem at hand should be reviewed.

4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid
and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied just to complete a research report (thesis or
dissertation). Of course, this kind of deception is hard to detect and to prove. Thus, this is a real problem to honest
researchers.

5. Reviewed materials must not be too few not too many. They must only be sufficient enough to give insight into
the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number may also depend upon
the availability of related materials. Sometimes there is a paucity of such materials. Ordinarily, from ten to fifteen
related materials are needed for a master’s thesis and from fifteen to twenty-five for a doctoral dissertation
depending upon their availability, as well as their depth and length of discussions. For an undergraduate thesis,
from five to ten may do. The numbers, however, are only suggestive and not imperative nor mandatory. These are
only the average numbers observed from theses and dissertations surveyed by this author.
 SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE AND
STUDIES
The sources of related literature and studies may include the following:

1. Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references.

2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and other publications.
3. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries
4. Unpublished theses and dissertations.
5. The Constitution, and laws and statutes of the land.
6. Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and departments, especially from the Office of
the President of the Philippines and the Department of Education, Culture and Sports.
7. Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities
8. Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
9. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from the
government.
 WHERE TO LOCATE THE SOURCES OF
RELATED LIERATURE AND STUDIES
Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are
located in the following places:
1. Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.
2. Government and private offices.
3. The National Library
4. The Library of the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports.
The last two are especially rich depositories of related
 METHODOLOGY
• Locale of the Study
1.Describe the locale or place of the study;
2.If your study is about the educational practices of a certain locality,
present some educational statistics. If the topic is about health,
present some health statistics and so on.
3.Include a map or a locator.
Research Design
1.Decide on what research design to use. Your decision should be based on the purpose of
your research- will you do it to search a theory? To test a theory? Or to solve a problem?
2.Make a justification why you are going to use it, why you think it is appropriate, how you
are going to do it, etc.
3.Cite authorities to support your choice of research design,

Research Instruments
1.Decide on the type of research instruments that will best gather the data and information needed in your
study. Will you use the questionnaire, opinionnair, interview guide, observation? Will you use the
triangulation methods or a combination of other research methods?
2.From whom will you adopt your research instruments. Have they been validated? If so, are they reliable
and valid? Is there still a need to revalidate them?
3.Do they possess the basic characteristics of a good research instrument?
4.How about measurements and scaling of these research instruments? Are they explicitly stated?
5.Make sure the instructions are clear and explicit. Erroneous instructions will affect the respondents’
responses and likewise your data.
Validation of Research Instruments
1.Research instruments which have been adopted from previous studies usually do not need to
be revalidated. But when changes or revisions have been made to suit the needs of your study,
there is a need for you to revalidate them.
2.Researcher-made instruments need to be validated.
3.Decide on how you are going to validate your research instruments. Will you employ field
testing? Expert validation? Or a combination of the validation techniques?
4.If you are going to frame your testing instruments, will you subject the test items to item
analysis?
5.Cite your justification why you will no longer validate them.
6.Where will you validate your instruments? Who will be your pretest group? How many will be
involved, etc.?
Sampling Procedure

1.Cite the procedure for determining your sample size.

2.Decide on the sampling technique you are going to employ and why? Will you use a
combination of different sampling techniques or procedures?
3.Make sure the determination of the samples and the identification of your respondents have
been done following scientific procedures and not your arbitrary decision or subjective
judgments.

Scoring and Interpretation of Data

1.Describe your scoring or point system for every variable. Your data quantification should help you in your
statistical analysis.
2.Mention the source or author of the scoring pattern you have adopted.
3.Explain how your data will be scored and interpreted.
Data Gathering Procedure
1.Describe the step-by-step process in your data gathering, what you actually intend to do and
the individuals who will act as research aid.
2.Take note of unusual events, occurrences, or comments of the respondents in the courses of
your data gathering.
3.If using the triangulation method, be extra observant of whatever happens during the data
gathering.

Statistical Treatment of Data

1.Describe the statistical tools you are going to use and for what purpose you are going to use them.
2.Indicate the different formulas and the legend for the symbols used.
3.Indicate also at what level of significance will the interpretations be based.
 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

There are two ways of data analysis:

• Qualitative analysis which as the term implies, is not based on precise
measurement and quantitative claims. Social analysis is frequently qualitative
because the understanding of the phenomenon under study may not require
quantification or because the phenomenon itself does not lend itself to precise
measurement (PSSC: 2000: 51).

• Quantitative analysis is employed on data that have been assigned some numerical
value. Quantitative analysis can range from the examination of simple frequencies to
the description of events or phenomenon using descriptive statistics, and to the
investigation of correlation and casual hypothesis using various statistics tests
 Saavedra (1997) gives some guidelines in the presentation, analysis
and interpretation of data:
• The chapter is organized and divided into several main components or topics, each of which is
titled according to the sub-problem or hypothesis statement.
• Present only relevant data. Individually scored raw data should not be reported in the text. If
these need to be included at all, they should be placed in the appendix.
• In reporting data, choose the medium that will present them effectively. It will be helpful to summarize the
results and analysis through tables of figures.
• Do not repeat the same data in several places and do not include tables with data that can be presented as well
in a few sentences in the text.
• The textual presentation should supplement or expand the contents of tables and charts, rather than duplicate
them.
• Only objective data embodied in tables are made the bases of discussion. Highly opinionated and sweeping
statements should be avoided.
• The analysis of the data should be objective and logical. Make a careful distinction between fact and opinion.
Facts, not opinions, should prevail.
• In analyzing and interpreting data, point out those that are consistent or inconsistent
with the theory presented in the study’s theoretical framework.
These are three levels of interpretation:
a) based on inferences and deductions;
b) based on documented evidences, supporting or contradicting the
findings of the study;
c) based on the researcher’s insightful interpretation using implications and
synthesis.

• In reporting statistical tests of significance, include information concerning the value of the test, the
degree of freedom, the probability level, and the direction of the effect.
• The findings are compared and contrasted with that of other cited previous studies and
interpretations are made thereof.
 An example of a quantitative textual and tabular presentation is shown, taken
form the study of Evardone (1996) titled “ Elementary Teacher Education
Programs in Eastern Visayas: Status and Prospects.”

You will notice in the sample given that the textual presentation precedes the
tabular presentation. Schools may differ in their policies regarding format. Other
schools would require the tabular presentation to come before the textual
presentation.
As regards the in-service trainings attended by the respondents, the data in the Table 9b indicate that
generally, forty-five (45) or 31.47 percent attended 10 or more trainings and fifteen (15) or 10.49 percent
attended 7-9 in SUCs, thirteen (13) or 28.89 percent had attended 4-6 trainings; but among cooperating
teachers, nine (9) or 32.14 percent had attended 7-9 trainings and none failed to attend a training. This
shows that cooperating teachers in SUCs had a more intensive in-service training than the faculty. In private
colleges, on the other hand, most of both faculty and cooperating teachers had attended 10 or more
trainings, but nine (9) or 30 percent of the faculty and eight (8) or 20 percent of the cooperating teachers
had not had a single training. Hence, it can be said that there was not much differences in the number of in-
service trainings attended by the faculty and cooperating teachers in private colleges.
Comparing the number of in-service training of the faculty and cooperating teachers in the two types of
institutions, it appeared that although both groups had the same number of faculty who did not have any
Training, the faculty in private colleges have more trainings than those in the SUCs. Between the two
group of cooperating teachers, although the number of teachers in private colleges who had attended 10
or more trainings was almost triple than that in SUCs, it cannot be said that cooperating teachers in
private Colleges were more trained that those in SUCs because there were a number of cooperating
teachers in Private colleges who had not attended a single training while none in the SUCs failed to
attend a training.
 Table 9b
Number of In-Service Trainings Teachers Attended
Number of In- SUCs Private Colleges
service Trainings
attended Total
Faculty Coop. Teacher Faculty Coop. Teacher

F % F % F % F % F %

10 or more 10 22.22 5 17.86 12 40.00 18 45.00 45 31.47

7-9 2 4.45 9 32.14 3 10.00 1 2.50 15 10.49

4-6 13 28.89 6 21.43 1 3.33 7 17.50 27 18.88

1-3 11 24.44 8 28.57 5 16.67 6 15.00 30 20.98

0 9 20.00 0 0.00 9 30.00 8 20.00 26 18.18

TOTAL 45 100.00 28 100.00 30 100.00 40 100.00 143 100.00

 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION
The summary
The summary presents in brief and very concise terms the following:
1. Restatement of the main problem and sub-problems;
2. Type of research methodology employed, nature and size of sampling groups of
subjects or respondents and place of study:
3. Resume of the major findings which answer each sub-problem or hypothesis;
4. Findings are each stated in a statement or two, pointing out whether the null
hypothesis have been rejected or confirmed and the sub- problems duly answered.
 A sample summary is given, taken from the study of Cui (1995) titled “Correlates of People’s
Participation in Self-Help Projects in the Pacific towns of Northern Samar.”
Summary

This study sought to find out the correlates of people’s participation in self-help projects in the Pacific
Town of Northern Samar.

Specifically, it aimed to determine the profile of the respondents in terms of personal characteristic and
situational factors; identify the self-help projects participated by the respondents; evaluate their extent of
participation in self-help projects; classify their participation in self-help projects; determine their reasons
for participation; relate people’s participation in self-help projects with their personal characteristics and
the situational factors.

The population of the study consisted of the numbers of the organizations with self-help projects in the
Pacific Towns of Northern Samar namely, Gamay, Lapinig, Mapanas and Palapag. One hundred forty-
three respondents composed of teachers, farmers, vendors, housekeepers and fireman were used as
source of data. Stratified and fishbowl techniques were used to determine the number of respondents.
 The study was a descriptive-correlational type of research. It adopted frequency counts, percentages,
mean, median, ranking and multiple regression analysis.

The study revealed the profile of the respondents as follows:

More than one-half (79 or 55%) were old while 64 or 45% were young. In terms of educational
attainment, more than one-half (91 or 56.65%) were not professionals while 62 or 43.35% were
professional. In line with the occupation of the respondents, more than one-third (62 or 43.36%) were
teachers, 25 or 17.48% were farmers, while 22 or 19.58 were fishermen, 6 or 4.2% were vendors, while
22or 15.38 were housekeepers; More than one-half, 73 or 51% have large households sizes while 70 or
49% have small household sizes; 86 or 60.14% had more membership in organizations while 57 or
39.14% had less. As to trainings attended, 92 or 64% had inadequate attendance while 51 or 36% had
adequate attendance. In terms of social link, 81 or 57% had more social link while 62 or 43% less social
link;

The economic type of project was mentioned as the most participated in type ( 74 respondents). Social
type was listed second (22) while environmental type (18) and cultural type (14) followed, respectively.
 Personal benefit was identified as the most frequently mentioned (131 respondents) followed by
material benefit (78) and social benefits (46). Seventy-two or 50.355 had sufficient time while 71 or 49.65%
have insufficient time for participating in self-projects. The respondents were found to be most active in
participating in credit cooperative (74 respondents) followed by consumers cooperative (30 respondents)
and crop production (25 respondents);

As to the extent of participation in the project, more than three-fourths (116 or 81%) participated in the
selection of the project while 27 or 19% did not participate. Voting for the project was the most participated
from as indicated by 42 respondents, followed by those who were involved in deliberation (35) and in
suggesting ideas (28).

Of the initial activities, the respondents were involved most in the contribution of capital build-up as
mentioned by 100 respondents, while 43 respondents participated in the follow-up of papers, 40 on
budgeting and 32 in coordinating with other agencies.

More than one-half (74 or 51.75%) participated in the recruitment of members while 69 or 48.25% did
not participate. In line with attending meetings, nearly one-half (66 or 46) were found to attend the meeting
most often, 40 or 28% often, 27 or 19% occasionally while 10 or 7% seldom attend.
 Almost all (136 or 95%) participated in the election of officers. Only 7 or 5% did not participate. More
than three-fourths of those who participated mentioned having a participation was nominating a candidate
as identified by 88 respondents followed by those who participated only by voting (49).

More than one-half (74 or 52%) had been officers while nearly one-half (69 or 48) were not. More than
one-half (77 or 54%) participated in committees while 66 or 46% did not participate.

More than one-half (77 or 54%) did not participate in soliciting cash or materials for project.Twenty-
nine or 20% said they always participated while 37 or 26%, only sometimes.

In terms of contributing labor, more than one-half, 74 or 52% always participated while 37 or 26%
sometimes. Only 32 or 22% did not contribute labor.

Ninety-five or 66% always participated in the contribution of money/materials while 44 or 31

sometimes participated. Only four or 3& did not contribute money or materials.

Nearly three-fourths (100 or 70%) had monthly dues but paid their liabilities within the month (regular)
as mentioned by 41 respondents. Only seven or 5% paid their dues in advance.
 The respondents participated in contributing ideas or information as mentioned by 104 respondents.
Only 39 or 27% did not contribute ideas/information. The most commonly mentioned form of sharing
information was by sharing what they learned via radio (49 or 34.27) followed by those who conducted
trainings/echo seminars/demonstration class (36 or 27.17).

The respondents participated giving feedback, only 23 or 16% did not participate. Fifty-four or
38% mentioned having always participated while 66% or 46% sometimes participated.

One hundred forty-three or 100% availed of benefits. However, only 45 or 32% mentioned having
always participated while 97 or 68% sometimes received benefits only. More than one-half (83 or 58%)
participated in the evaluation of the project while 60 or 42 did not participate. Of those who participated 47
or 33% always participated while 36 or 25% sometimes participated.

In terms of people’s participation, 10 or 49% had active participation while 73 or 51% had inactive
participation.

The people’s reasons of participation were mostly because the activities were for the good of the
members as mentioned by 82 respondents , or beneficial (69) or sources of knowledge (45).
 In terms of the relationship of the variables, four correlates were found to be significantly related with
people’s participation in self-help projects. They were membership in organizations, attendance in
participatory-trainings activities, benefits received and availability of time for participating in self-help
projects.

factors like age, educational attainment, occupation, household size, social linl and type of project
were not significantly related with participation.

The Conclusion

Conclusions are broad statements or generalizations that are based on the findings of the study. Broad
generalizations not supported by data or findings should be avoided. Conclusions are logical, that is they flow from
the findings. Implications are meanings nor obviously expressed but could be deducted from the research findings.

The following sample conclusions and implications were derived from the dissertation of Tejero (1995) titled
“Women’s Participation in the Rural Development Programs in Eastern Visayas.
Conclusions and Implications

Based on the summary of the findings, the following conclusions and implications were drawn:

Conclusion

In terms of the physical variables on age and health status, it was found out that they were mature in
age and were physically healthy. As to the mental factors, it was disclosed that they were college
graduates who were much conscious of global issues and moderately aware of developmental concepts.
On the spiritual factors, it was reported that a great majority were Roman Catholics, with “uncertain” values
and “much favorable” attitudes.

There were varied rural development programs being implemented by government agencies in Region
VIII, particularly in the agriculture, education, environment and health sectors.

The extent or participation of the women-respondents in rural development programs on the aspect of
planning, implementation, and evaluation was moderate.
 The test of relationship between the independent and dependent variables indicated significant
relationships among the following variables: age, consciousness of global issues, occupation, and level of
empowerment.

There were significant difference in the planning and the overall participation of woman between
sectors and that there were no significant difference in the participation of women among provinces.

Implications

The findings on the women-respondents’ awareness of development concepts signified the need for
strengthening the training programs for women to include the development of knowledge and skills related
to development concepts in particular and development work in general.

The findings on low income would require the government to raise further the salaries of government
workers to a more decent level. This implies that the salary increases be made more compatible with the
present price indices. For as long as these two do not meet agreeably with the price indices above the
salaries of government workers, rampant poverty even among government workers will always prevail.
 The findings related to the “uncertain” values of the women-respondents implied the need for
reorientation of values through seminars and trainings.

There is a need for the government to rethink and reformulate its strategies in program planning,
implementation and evaluation. The government needs to adopt measures that would utilize the optimum
potentials pf the vast woman-power. This is imperative to raise the participation of women in rural
development.

The Recommendations

Recommendations are suggestions for the improvement of practices, policies and implementing strategies
relative to the topic under study. The recommendations are divided into two parts:
1. specific recommendations on the findings and conclusions of the study itself;
2. general recommendations

The specific recommendations are focused on the study’s findings and conclusions. They envision how the findings
can be used to further improve the pertinent aspects or variables that were subject of the investigation. The general
recommendations point out suggested measures which concerned institutions and the government may undertake and
implement for the betterment of society in general. Furthermore, the research recommendations should be based on
findings. They should not be opinionated. Rather, they must be based on evidences.
 Suggestions for further investigation in the same field may be made. Some closely related problems that seem
to have grown out of the study may be mentioned. Modifications that may be introduced if one were to study the
same problem again may also be given (Saavedra: 1997)

The sample recommendations that follow were taken from the study of Tejero (1995).

Recommendations

The following recommendations were formulated and advanced in answer to the problems and issues
raised.

1. To address the issues on low income of women-workers in the government, it is imperative that the
government rethink and revise its salary standardization scheme. Still on income generation and
augmentation, it is recommended that the government establish load funds which will be accessible to
them for income generating activities.
2. Training programs for women should be designed to integrate knowledge, skills and values
development. These appropriate trainings should be designed and held to incorporate such theme as
global issues, awareness and development concepts, values and attitudes, and empowerment skills.
This move will strengthen further the women’s consciousness along these concerns.
3. On the conceptualization and design of rural development programs, one of the recommendations of
the colloquium experts during the International Seminar for Women (International Council for
women:1997) have been adopted as a recommendation, to wit:

“Programs and projects should be in response to request and needs; planned in the light of the local
socio-economic situation and in cooperation with local personnel; using local ‘know-how’; based on
adequate research; action-oriented; constantly evaluated and followed; eventually sustainable at the
local level; and sensitive to the dignity of the women they are designed to assist.”

4. For maximum participation of women in rural development programs, award giving bodies should be
tapped whose main function is to recognize the meritorious performance of women in their involvement
in such programs.
5. Finally, there is a need for more researchers and case studies about women which will be part of
national significance so that the policy implications can be drawn and adopted on a wider basis.
 -END-
THANK YOU!