Title

Flow through a Convergent-Divergent Duct

Objective

To demonstrate the application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a convergent-
divergent duct.

Introduction

Bernoulli’s principle states that for an inviscid flow, the pressure of the fluid decreases as the
speed of the fluid increases. It can be applied to many types of fluid flow which denoting it as
the Bernoulli equation.

Basically, there are many forms of Bernoulli equation for different types of scenario, but the
simplest form of Bernoulli equation is valid for compressible flow and incompressible flow.
Besides, Bernoulli’s principle obeys the principle of conservation of energy which states that all
points in the enclosed path of flowing fluid is the same as the overall sum of all forms of
mechanical energy along the streamline. The core properties of fluid particles are pressure and
their own weight. If the fluid is flowing with high speed, it might be transferred from a higher
region to a lower pressure region. Therefore, the high-speed fluid is always come with a low
pressure. It can be analysed by applying the convergent-divergent duct. The fluid (water) will
flow through the convergent-divergent duct with a different set of flow rate and the pressure
head in the manifold is recorded.

Bernoulli’s principle can only be applied under certain condition and assumptions. The fluid
must be frictionless (inviscid-no viscosity) and constant density; the fluid must pass through all
the points in the pipe, and steady flow conditions.
Formulae
The Bernoulli equation is given by the following relationship

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = 𝐻
𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔

where,
𝜌1 and 𝜌2 are the density of water.
𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration.
𝑉1 is the velocity at cross section 1.
𝑉2 is the velocity at cross section 2.
𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are the elevation.
𝐻 is the total pressure head.

Water may be considered to be incompressible, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌

For a horizontal convergent - divergent duct, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 = 𝑧

The velocity of the flow and can be calculated from the cross sectional area & the volume flow
rate, Q.

The volume flow rate, Q = 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 (Continuity equation)

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴1 =𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 = 𝑑2 2
4 4
Assuming no frictional losses in the Ideal case, H remains constant.

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = 𝐻𝑜
𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔

The Ideal Pressure Head is obtained from

𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ 𝑧2 = 𝐻𝑜 −
𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔

However because of frictional losses, the actual H drops along the venturi duct.

Therefore, the Actual pressure head isless than the Ideal Pressure Head.
Materials and Equipment

Quantity estimation
Item Description *Item category
(e.g. per set/group of student)
Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus Equipment 1
LS-1801-5-BT
Hydraulic Bench LS-1801 Equipment 1

Procedures
1. The water outlet was made sure that directed to the sump of the apparatus.
2. The water pump was switched on.
3. The main input water flow was keeping fully opened, the bypass water valve was
adjusted to control volume flow rate.
4. The water flow was adjusted to the maximum possible flow rate by closing the bypass
valve. The flow was allowed to stabilize and to remove all air bubbles in the system.
5. The air pump provided was fitted to the right end of the manifold on top of the
manometers.
6. The pump was used to control the base line level of the manometer readings by
increasing or decreasing the pressure in the manifold. The base line need not fall exactly
at the zero line because the velocity calculations use only the pressure difference.
7. The pressure in the manifold increased by pumping action of the air pump.
8. The pressure in the manifold decreased by pressing on to the needle valve on the right
hand side of the manifold to release the air in the manifold.
9. The volume flow rate reading and all the manometer readings were taken. The readings
were entered into the spreadsheet in the computer for the purpose.
10. The bypass valve was adjusted to decrease the flow rate to obtain different sets of
manometer readings for flow rates of 6.5, 6.0, 5.0, 4.0, 3.0 gallons/min.

Results

[ REFER TO SPREADSHEET ]
Calculations
Volume flow rate, Q = 3 gal/min

0.00378541
=3×( )
60

= 1.893 x 10-4 m3/s

𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 1000 𝑚3

𝑚
𝑔 = 9.8
𝑠2

𝑧 = 30𝑚𝑚

Diameter, 𝑑 = 26𝑚𝑚
𝜋
Area, 𝐴 = 4 (24)2

= 452.4𝑚𝑚2

For ideal case: For actual case:

𝑄 𝑄
Velocity, 𝑉 = 𝐴 Velocity, 𝑉 = 𝐴
1.893 ×10−3 1.893 ×10−3
𝑉= 𝑉=
452.4 ÷ 10002 452.4 ÷ 10002

𝑉 = 0.42𝑚/𝑠 𝑉 = 0.42𝑚/𝑠

𝑃 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧1 = 𝐻𝑜 + + 𝑧1 = 𝐻𝑜
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
0.422 0.422
105.6 + ( ) × 103 + 30 = 𝐻𝑜 105 + ( ) × 103 + 30 = 𝐻𝑜
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑜 = 144.5𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑜 = 144𝑚𝑚

144.5−144
Percentage Error = | | × 100%
144.5

= 0.35%
Discussion

According to our calculation above, it is clearly showing that there is a minor difference
between actual pressure head value and ideal pressure head value. The reading of manometer
from the tube with diameter of 24mm showed at the actual pressure head value of 105mm when
we set the flow rate to 3gallons/min. Meanwhile, the ideal pressure head value is 105.6mm
which resulting a percentage error between actual and ideal total pressure head of 0.35%.

One of the reasons that resulting the value different is the frictional losses occurred when
the fluid (water) pass through the convergent-divergent duct. As been stated by Dr. Khalil (2010),
frictional losses can be divided into two categories, which are skin-friction and form friction.
Roughness in the inner part of pipe is factor that causing skin-friction. On the other hand, form
friction happens when there is an obstruction present in the pipeline or a band or control value
that changing the flowing pattern of the fluid. Bernoulli’s equation can then modify by the
inclusion of the frictional head loss, 𝐻𝑓 .

𝑃 𝑉2
𝐻= + + 𝑧 + 𝐻𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Besides, the fluid (water) is assumed to be incompressible with constant density condition.
However, the temperature changes all the time as well as the fluid density which directly
affecting the experimental value of the total head. Last but not least, human and apparatus error
might unintentionally cause actual cases result different from the expectation results. The
parallax error is the common human error occurred when we are recording values form the
manifolds.

From the table in the result spreadsheet, it is showing that the pressure head will decrease
when the fluid passes through from converging duct while it will increase when the fluid passes
through diverging duct. As been stated by Dr. Steven (2011), this is due to the velocity of the
fluid will increase when it flows from a wider area to a narrow area. Therefore, the fluid velocity
decrease when the fluid passes through a larger cross-sectional area and vice versa. This can be
explained by the continuity equation shows at below,

𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇2

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
Since, we have assumed the water as incompressible fluid, thus the density of fluid will stay
constant as well which further simplified the formula as below,

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

If the convergent-divergent duct is inclined upwards, the total head H, will remain
constant, while the pressure head at the higher position will be higher than the pressure head at
the lower position. It can be explained by using the derived Bernoulli’s equation where
position 1 is at a lower height than position 2.

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔 (Eric W. 1996)
Since the diameter of tubes are the same and we can assume that the fluid flows at the constant
velocity, 𝑉1 = 𝑉2. Besides, we can also assume it is an incompressible fluid which leads to
constant density at point 1 and 2, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 .

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔

The equation can be further simplified to :

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
From the simplified equation above, we can confirm that the pressure head will
increase when it flows through a higher position. The velocity head will decrease and
eventually come to zero when the velocity at point 1 is same as point 2. At last, the
corresponding total head, H will stay the same.

Conclusion

The application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a convergent-divergent duct
is demonstrated. Based on this experiment, we can conclude that the velocity of the fluid will
increase when it flows from a larger to a narrower cross section area and vice versa.
Reference

Dr. Khalil M. Alastal, (2010). Experiment(7): Investigation of Bernoulli’s Theorem. Available

from: http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/mymousa/files/Experiment-7-hydraulics-lab-.pdf
[Accessed: 30th June 2018]

Dr. Steven. (2011). Bernoullis Theorem. Available from:

https://www.canutesoft.com/Hydraulic-calculation-for-fire-protection-
engineers/bernoullis-theorem.html [Accessed: 30th June 2018]
Eric W. Weisstein (1996). Bernoulli's Law. Available from:
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/BernoullisLaw.html
[Accessed: 30th June 2018]
Experiment Title : Impact of Water Jet

Course : UEME2123 Fluid Mechanics I

Program : BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS) CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Name of Student : Lim Jing Hui

Student ID No : 17UEB02968

Year and Trimester : Y1T1

Date of Experiment : XX June 2018

Name of Lecturer : Dr.Wong Mee Chu