Section - 2 - Propagation Loss Prediction Models

TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Communications Engineering
TLT – 6206
RADIO PROPAGATION IN
WIRELESS NETWORKS
Section 2
Propagation path loss prediction models
Contents
Introduction
General models
Models for cellular networks (base station to mobile station)
Empirical models
Physical models (including semi-empirical)
Deterministic models
Indoor models
Comparisons of models
TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 2

Objectives of path loss prediction
Path loss prediction is one of the fundamental tools for (long-
range) wireless system dimensioning (like cellular networks,
microwave links, satellite links, etc.)
In cellular networks, the target is to estimated base station positions
based on path loss predictions so that network-wide coverage
targets are met
Also backhaul connections of base stations (connections towards core
networks) are often based on microwave links
Typically, the only means of providing estimates of the initial
network coverage
Network statistics and drive tests can be used for more accurate coverage
maps when the network is operational
Applicable also for broadcast systems, private mobile radio, fixed
access applications as WiMax, etc.
A classification of cell types in wireless systems
Pico/indoor
Micro
Macro
Megacell (non-terrestrial)

Classification of propagation models
Based on derivation
Empirical
Physical (including semi-empirical models)
Deterministic
Based on environment or usability
Megacells
Macrocell / semi-macro
Microcells
Picocells / indoorcells

Propagation models
Planning tool aided radio network planning is based on proper
signal level predictions
For example, in GSM, frequency planning can be made according
interference calculations
Classification of propagation models
Empirical models are typically equations derived from massive field
measurements using regression methods
Physical models treat analytically certain propagation mechanism (e.g.
diffraction)
Semi-empirical models introduce certain empirical correction to a physical
model
Deterministic models solve numerically electromagnetic wave equations or
use ray optical methods to calculate field strengths
Any of these types cannot be used effectively in all environments

Information supplied to a model
General information Topographical information
Type of environment (urban, Terrain profile
suburban, rural) Topographic map, building map
Distance Morphographical information
Antenna heights
Land usage (open area, forests,
Frequency band built-up area, water)
Specific geographical Terrain permittivity, roughness
information
Street orientation, building
heights and spacings
Building shape information
Terrain information (sloping,
hilly, rolling)
Presence of foliage

2D building information (raster data)
Top view of building raster
data

3D building database

Basic information for propagation models
Frequency range
Environment
Distance
Antenna heights

General models
Definition of path loss
Received power can be expressed as:
PG G
t t r
Pr
Lt LLr
Providing a reference antenna (an isotropic raditor), the effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is given as:
Pt Gt
EIRP Pti
Lt
Antenna gain Gt Antenna gain Gr
Pti Pri
Transmit power Pt Received power Pr

Path loss L
TX RX
Feeder loss Lt Feeder loss Lr

Definition of path loss
where Pti is the effective isotropic transmit power. Similarly, for
the reception end the effective isotropic received power equals:
Pr Lr
Pri
Gr
The path loss (or propagation loss) can be hence written:
Pti Pt Gt Gr
L
Pri Pr Lt Lr
which is essentially independent of the system gains and losses, but

provides the loss corresponding to the medium and environment.
The main goal of propagation modeling is to predict L for defining
accurately the ranges required for wireless networks / systems.

Free space loss
Recall the received power Pr of an isotropic radiator (polarizations
*
matched). If antenna gains are included in the formulation, the
equation becomes:
Pt Gt Ae
Pr S r Ae 2
4 r
The relation between maximum gain of an antenna and effective
aperture is: 4
Gr 2
Ae
Re-arranging the terms, and we obverse Friis transmission

formula:
2
Pr
Gt Gr
Pt 4 r
* Note that antennas are directed
according to their maximum gain.

Free space loss
Using Friis transmission formula to solve the propagation loss in
free space yields:
2 2
Pt Gt Gr 4 r 4 rf
LF
Pr c
Expressing the same in desibels, frequency in MHz and distance R
in kilometers:
LF ( dB ) 32.4 20 log10 ( Rkm ) 20 log10 ( f MHZ )

Two--ray reflection
Two
Another simple expression for propagation loss is to use two-ray
reflection to model (Recall Section 1):
4
Pt Pdirect 1 r
L2 RAY 2 2 2 2
Pr 2 hT hR hT hR
Pdirect 4sin
4 r r
Expressing this in dBs:

L2 RAY 40log10 r 20log10 hT 20log10 hR
Note that the attenuation of two-ray reflection model does not

depend on frequency! The loss is called also plane earth loss.

FSL and PEL
hm = 1.5 m
Hb = 30 m
f = 900 MHz

Empirical models
Empirical models
Empirical models are based on extensive measurement campaigns.
Typically they are suitable for macrocellular environment, since
the propagation is mainly defined by the land use, not reflections
and diffractions as in micro/picocellular environments.
Empirical models are rather accurate in environments with same
characteristics. However, using empirical model in different
environment requires tuning.
The environment is specified with low complex input parameters
such as type (urban, suburban, rural, water, open areas) and
irregulations of terrain provided by terrain data base.
There exists a range of empirical models in the literature (such as
Okumura-Hata, Lee’s, Young’s, Allsebrook’s, and Ibrahim-
Parson’s model), which apply the same methodology.

Empirical models
Prospects advantages
Simple
Low computation time
Detailed description of the environment not needed
Suitable for macrocellular dimensioning
Disadvantages
Accuracy problems
Have to be tuned for different environments / areas / countries

Philosophy of empirical models
Measurement points Path loss is given by
Pr 1 k
n
L 10nlog10 r K
Pt L r
This is generally referred to

as power law model.
Parameter n is defined as
path loss exponent, and it
depends, e.g., on antenna
heights and environment.
Best-fit empirical model

Clutter factor correction
Path loss exponent corresponds to ~4 in measurements taken in
urban and suburban areas.
Just as two-ray model, but with different K
This has lead to usage of two-ray model (or plane earth model)
with a constant clutter correction factor.

Okumura--Hata
Okumura
Okumura made extensive measurement campaigns in Tokyo area
and provided a series of graphs for predictions.
Later on, Hata fitted these measurements in a more precise
mathematical form.
The original model is basically computed by adding an empirical
attenuation correction factor (as a function of distance and
frequency) to free space loss.
This result is furthermore corrected by BS and MS antenna heights.
COST-231 –project extended the validity of the model up to 2 GHz
range.
Okumura-Hata (or COST-231-Hata) is perhaps the most famous
(and most accurate) empirical model. Often, the performances of
different propagation models are compared to Okumura-Hata,
which is formulated as follows:

COST--231-
COST 231-Hata model
L A B log10 ( f ) 13.82log10 (hbs ) a(hms ) C 6.55log10 (hbs ) log10 ( d ) Cm
where
L Path loss [dB]
A Constant (see table)
B Constant (see table)
f Frequency [MHz] (150 MHz f 2000 MHz)
hbs Base station effective antenna height [m] (30 m hbs 200 m)
hms Mobile station antenna height [m] (1 m hms 10 m)
d Distance between BS and MS [km] (1 km d 20 km)
C Propagation slope term
Cm Area type correction factor
Frequency range
Initial offset parameters,
Parameter 150-1500MHz 1500-2000MHz
A and B, are given as a
A 69.55 46.3
function of frequency.
B 26.16 33.9

COST--231-
COST 231-Hata model
Dependency of mobile station antenna height depends on the size
of the city.
a (hms ) (1.1log10 f 0.7) hms (1.56log10 f 0.8) for small/medium city

2
a (hms ) 3.2(log10 (11.75hms )) 4.97 for large city
Moreover, the path loss can be affected by area correction factor,

which depends on the environment varying typically from -25 dB
(water) up to even 30 dB (buildings).
There exists lots of modifications of COST-231-Hata models, but
mostly they are suitable for particular locations only.

COST--231-
COST 231-Hata model limitations
BS antenna height should be between 30 m and 200 m
The lower limit, however, is not a strict limit; in order to guarantee the
functionality of OH, the base station antenna should be clearly above the
roof top level (i.e., suitable for pure macrocellular environment and most of
the propagation occurs above buildings roof top levels).
Moreover, the calculation range of COST-231-Hata model should
be from 1 to 20 km.

Example of COST
COST--231
231--Hata predictions

Difference between predictions and measurements

Dual slope
Simple power law path loss model fails typically in microcellular
environment. Therefore, a dual slope model that exploits
breakpoint distance has been introduced.
Path loss is modelled as:
k 10n1 log10 r L1 for r rb
n
for r rb
1 r
L dB r
L k 10n2 log10 10n1 log10 r L1 for r rb
n2 n1
for r rb rb
r rb rb
where L1 is reference path loss at r = 1 m, rb is the breakpoint

distance, n1 is the path loss exponent for r rb and n2 for r rb.
In order to avoid sharp transition, following approach has been
suggested

Dual slope
1 k r
n2 n1 L L1 10n1 log10 r 10 n2 n1 log10 1
L r n1
1 r rb rb
n1 = 2
n2 = 4
rb = 100 m
L1 = 20 dB

Neural networks
Another empirical propagation model can be developed using
neural network techniques.
The training of the network can be either done by applying
accurate models (as UTD) or by measurements.
The main propagation mechanisms (diffraction, reflection, and
shadowing) are considered. Also, terrain and building profiles
can be taken into account.
Neural network is heavily based and relies on the learning
algorithm, and the validly of predictions depends on the training
process.
Low computation times can be achieved with cost of long
training periods.

Physical models (incl. semi
semi--empirical)
Physical models
Physical models provide physical insight into the actual
propagation mechanisms.
Physical models are typically based on physical optics and some
assumptions made for geometry of buildings.
Generally, they are suitable for small macrocells or microcells (in
general for built-up areas).
However, physical models need more precise description of the
environment than empirical ones. On the contrary, they are more
accurate than empirical models and require also more computation
time.
Semi-empirical models incorporate certain empirical correction to
a physical model.

Allsebrook--Parson model
Allsebrook
This semi-empirical model is actually the first one that tried to
provide physical basis for urban propagation.
‘Flat-city model’ can be expressed as
LT Lp LB
where Lp is plane earth loss and
h0 hm hb h0
LB 20 log10
3
548 d m 10 fc hm
5 2
2.03 6.67 f c 8.1 10 f c
dm
Physical interpretation of Allsebrook-Parson model.

COST--231-
COST 231-Walfisch
Walfisch--Ikegami
The model is intended mainly for densely homogenously built-up
city area with flat terrain.
Applicable mainly for small macrocell and microcells.
This model is based on a city structure model (physical basis) and
deterministic prediction at specified points (Ikegami’s contribution)
Multiple knife-edge diffraction model is embedded by Walfisch-
Bertoni.
COST-231 incorporated empirical corrections for the model.
Path losses for line-of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS (NLOS)
situations are given:
LOS-situation NLOS-situation
LLOS 42.6 26log10 d 20log10 f LNLOS LFS max 0, LMSD LRTS

COST--231-
COST 231-Walfisch
Walfisch--Ikegami
In a NLOS situation, the conceptual situation is depicted below.
The model assumes that BS antennas are at roof-top level.
Received signal comprises of roof-top diffrated and its reflected
wave.
Roof-top
Roof-top diffraction
diffraction +
reflected
wave
hB=base station antenna height [m] w = average street width [m]

hB=difference between hb and roof top level [m] b = average building separation [m]
hm = mobile station antenna height [m] hb = average building height [m]

COST--231-
COST 231-Walfisch
Walfisch--Ikegami
Walfisch-Bertoni introduced model for multi-screen diffraction
excess loss.
The model for the process uses numerical evaluation of Kirchhoff-
Huygens intergral, and the loss is obtained as a limit case for large
number of n.
LMSD Ka K d log10 d km K f log10 f MHz 9log10 b K hB [dB ]
K a 68.9 Kf 9
K d 18 K hB 18 log10 hB
Roof top level

Buildings replaced by
semi-infinite absorbing
screens.

COST--231-
COST 231-Walfisch
Walfisch--Ikegami
COST-231 introduced empirical correction factors, since Walfisch-
Bertoni’s model fails for hb 0 (i.e., antennas above roof top
level microcell)
54 hB 0
hB 0 18log10 1 hB hB 0
Ka 54 0.8 hB K hB
d 0.5 km 0 hB 0
hB 0
54 1.6 hB d
d 0.5 km
medium-sized cities
f
0.7 1 suburban centers
18 hB 0 925
Kf 4 with moderate tree density
Kd hB
18 15 hB 0 f
hB 1.5 1 metropolitan centers
925

COST--231-
COST 231-Walfisch
Walfisch--Ikegami
Ikegami’s model attempts to produce an entirely deterministic
prediction.
Ikegami’s excess roof-top-to-street loss ( LRTS) is given as:
2
LRTS 5.8 10log10 1 3 R 10log10 w 20log10 hb hM 10log10 f K
where R denotes the reflection coefficient of the walls and
1) Roof-top K 10log10 sin

diffraction
2) Roof-top
diffraction +
reflected
wave
Street orientation
TX

COST--231-
COST 231-Walfisch
Walfisch--Ikegami
Choosing =1/2 yields:
LRTS 8.2 10log10 w 20log10 hb hM 10log10 f K [dB]
COST-231 empirical modification for K( ) are given as:
10 0.354 0 35
K 2.5 0.075 35 35 55
4.0 0.114 55 55 90
COST-231-Walfisch-Ikegami is limited by following ranges;

f=[800-2000 MHz], hB=[4-50 m], hms=[1-3m], and d =[0.02-5km].

Flat edge model
This model assumes all the building having the same height and
spacing.
Given the following scenario, the excess loss is given as:
Lex Ln 1 t Lke
where Lke accounts for single edge diffraction over final building
and Ln-1 for multiple diffraction over (n-1) buildings.
r1 = distance from
the first building [m]
is given in [rad]

Flat edge model
Provided that r1 >> nw (i.e., the base station is relatively distant
from the first building, which is the case typically of suburban
macrocell environment), t can be given as
w
t
And
n 1
1
Ln t Lm t Fs jt n m
where nm 0
e jx 2 2 1 2 1
Fs jx S x j C x
2j 2 2
and S(.) and C(.) are the Fresnel sine and cosine integrals.

Deterministic propagation models
Deterministic models provide analytical estimations of the radio
wave.
Approach of deterministic models can be divided between solving
electromagnetic formulas numerically or applying ray optical
methods with some diffraction method (as UTD/GTD)
Deterministic models rely on very detailed and accurate input
parameters (such as material parameters, 3D building information,
etc.)
On the other hand, these models produce very accurate results,
naturally, with cost of high computation time.
Typically, deterministic models are targeted for microcellular and
picocellular environment. However, numerical methods are
targeted also for macrocellular environment.

Deterministic propagation models
Basically, the models can predict all kinds of propagation
phenomena (attenuation, LOS, reflection, transmission, diffraction,
multiple diffraction, scattering).
In the calculation algorithm, the most time-consuming part is to
find relevant paths from transmitter to receiver. However,
deterministic models are emerged as a highly promising models.
Numerical methods
Integral equation methods (magnetic and electric)
Parabolic equation methods (FFT multiple half-screen method and parabolic
differential equation method)
Ray optical methods
Ray tracing
Ray launching

Integral equation model
Integral equation (IE) model is based on the field integral equation
for a smooth surface. The boundary condition of a perfect magnetic
conductor, which has been observed to be a good approximation
for both polarizations, is applied with finite-electric conductivity
and small grazing angles. The equivalent surface current density is
introduced as follows:
M = nˆ × E
T
M = TM i + nˆ × M ' ds '
4 S
where is the free-space Green's function (in 3D), T is 2 if the

point is on the surface and 1 elsewhere, n̂ is the outward normal
to the surface, Mi corresponds to the field from the source in free
space, and the remaining term represents the scattered field from
the surface (forward scattering considered only).
The back scattering is here neglected as well as fast fading
component
All reflections, diffractions and shadowing is included
Only forward scattering!

If the surface is assumed as two-dimensional with no variations
transverse to the direction of propagation, the integral turns into a
line integral and discretises and can be given as follows:
n 1
T
Mn TM n ,i M n f n, m lm
4 m 0
where
R1 j kR2 /4
f n, m nˆ rˆ2 e
R2 R1 R2
2 2
R1 sm m h1
2 2
R2 xn xm h2 m

Example predictions for 970 MHz and 1900 MHz along undulating
road together with IE predictions
970 MHz: Mean error 5.6 dB, STD 6.3 dB

1900 MHz: Mean error 5.1 dB, STD 8.7 dB
Terrain profile

Parabolic equation model
One very efficient deterministic propagation method is the
parabolic equation (PE) model.
It utilizes parabolic equation method for developing an
approximation of the wave equation:
2 2
U x, z U x, z 2
2 2
k 0 U x , z 0
x z
where x is the horizontal and z the vertical coordinate.
Introducing (field strength related to field of a linear source) for
fast phase variations, 1 jkz
U e
x
the following approximation can be written
2
j
2
0
x 2k 0 z
Parabolic equation model
This is so called standard parabolic equation (SPE)
PE model takes into account conductivity and dielectricity of
ground as well as obstacles
Mainly intended for macrocellular environments (also for partly
built-up areas)
Sample at 945 MHz shown below.

Ray optical methods
Ray optical models are typically referred to site specific models
The target is to provide predictions based on the actual shape of a
building or a small area. Hence, extremely accurate model of the
environment is needed. On the contrary, prediction accuracy of the
model is high
Ray optical methods can be roughly divided into ray tracing and
ray launching algorithms
They can be based either on 2D or 3D description of the
environment
Since, ray optical method are computationally very heavy, most of
the current research is concentrating on acceleration of
computation time

Ray tracing
Ray tracing techniques are typically based on geometrical optics
and some diffraction theory. Obstacles are modeled as planar
structures with smooth surfaces.
This means that the fields reflected from a surface can be replaces
by the fields from an effective image source with a proper
reflection coefficient. Usability of ray-tracing models is restricted
to indoor and microcellular predictions
BA
due to huge computation
R A
time.
AB B
Ray tracing between two walls using image theory.

Ray tracing using a 2D building database
Building are assumed to be infinitely Advantages
high Account for low base station
Almost all models neglect antennas among high rise buildings
transmission through the building Computationally efficient
2D ray tracing around building in Limitations
the horizontal plane
Less accurate in an area of mixed
Rays that are considered building heights
Multiple specular reflections from Fails for rooftop base stations
the building walls
Single or double diffraction at the
vertical edge of a building Rx Rx
Rx
Ground reflection © 2000 by H. L. Bertoni
Diffuse scattering from the building

walls Rx
Tx
No Diffraction
Single Diffraction
Double Diffraction

Vertical plane/slant plane method
Rays are traced in the vertical plane containing TX and RX to
account for propagation over buildings.
Rays are traced in the slant plane containing TX and RX to account
for propagation around buildings. Rx
c
Building Height
b d c
Tx
d
b
Rx Right
Left propagation
0 propagation channel
Range
channel
Tx

Ray launching
In ray launching, the space around the transmit antenna is divided
into equiangular regions in 2D or 3D space as needed.
Field strength is summed at all potential receiver points and the ray
search is stopped when energy falls below a minimum or a given
maximum of interactions is reached.
Ray launching technique suits better for macrocellular
environment. However, a tradeoff between angular increase and
accuracy is faced.

Example of a ray
ray--tracing model performance
Mean error 0 dB with standard deviation of 6.60 dB
Ray-tracing model tuning
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
Probability
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Error [dB]
3D building vectors with a 5m resolution!

Example of path loss calculations with ray tracing
Path loss

Indoor models
Indoor propagation models
Indoor propagation differs from outdoor (macro/micro) due to
shorter distances. Moreover, propagation between different floors
should be modeled.
Another point is propagation outside from a building and inside to
a building outdoor network
Naturally, simple power law (or dual-slope) model could be
applied with a cost of accuracy
Indoor propagation models
Empirical
Physical
Ray optical
Here only some empirical models are introduced

Propagation within buildings
Wall and floor factor models
An extension to simple path loss
model was introduced by
Keenan, who characterizes
indoor path loss exponent with 2
and introduces additional
attenuation parameters related to
number of floors nf and walls nw.
The propagation loss is given as:
L L1 20 log10 r nf af nwaw
where af and aw are the

attenuation factors per floor and
per wall. L1 is reference path loss
at r = 1 m.
Example predictions.

Similar approach was taken within ITU-R, except that only
the floor loss is accounted explicitly, and the loss between
points on the same floor is included implicitly by changing
the path loss exponent. The path loss is given as:
L 20 log10 f MHz 10nlog10 rm Lf n f 28
where Lf(nf) is the floor penetration factor.

Values for path loss exponent n
Values for the floor penetration factor Lf(nf).

COST--231 multi
COST multi--wall model
COST-231 multi-wall model incorporates a linear component loss,
which depends on number of penetrated walls and floors:
W
nf 2 nf 1 b
LT LF Lc Lwi nwi Lf n f
i 1
where LF is free space loss, nwi is number of walls crossed by the

direct path of type i, W is the number of wall types, Lwi is the
penetration loss (type i), nf is the number of floors crossed, and b
and Lc are empirically derived constants and Lf is loss per floor.

COST--231 multi
COST multi--wall model

Propagation into buildings
COST--231 line
COST line--of
of--sight model
The total path loss in this model is:
2
LT LF Le Lg 1 cos max L1 ,L2
where LF is free space loss for total oath length (ri+re), Le is the
path loss through the external wall at normal incidence ( =0º), Lg is
the additional external wall loss incurred at grazing incidence
=90º), and
L1 nw Li
2
L2 ri 2 1 cos
where nw is te number of walls crossed by the internal path ri, Li

is the path loss per internal wall and is specific attenuation [dB
-1
m ].

COST--231 line
COST line--of
of--sight model
Parameters for COST-231 LOS model

COST--231 non
COST non--line-
line-of
of--sight model
In this model, the loss is given as:
LT LF Le Lge max L1 ,L3 G fh
where L3= ri and ri, Le, and Li are defined as in COST-231 LOS
model, and floor height gain Gfh is given by
nGn
G fh
hGn
where h is floor height above the outdoor reference height [m] (2
m) and n is floor number.

Comparisons
DIGITAL MOBILE RADIO TOWARDS

FUTURE GENERATION SYSTEMS
COST-231 final report
http://www.lx.it.pt/cost231/final_report.htm
Macrocell models

Microcell models

Indoor models (deterministic)

Section - 2 - Propagation Loss Prediction Models

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TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Communications Engineering

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 2

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 4

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 5

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Transmit power Pt Received power Pr

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which is essentially independent of the system gains and losses, but

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 13

Re-arranging the terms, and we obverse Friis transmission

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 14

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Expressing this in dBs:

Note that the attenuation of two-ray reflection model does not

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This is generally referred to

Best-fit empirical model

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L A B log10 ( f ) 13.82log10 (hbs ) a(hms ) C 6.55log10 (hbs ) log10 ( d ) Cm

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 24

a (hms ) (1.1log10 f 0.7) hms (1.56log10 f 0.8) for small/medium city

Moreover, the path loss can be affected by area correction factor,

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 25

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where L1 is reference path loss at r = 1 m, rb is the breakpoint

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where Lp is plane earth loss and

Physical interpretation of Allsebrook-Parson model.

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 34

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hB=base station antenna height [m] w = average street width [m]

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 36

Roof top level

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where R denotes the reflection coefficient of the walls and

1) Roof-top K 10log10 sin

TLT-6206 Radio Propagation in Wireless Networks 39

COST-231 empirical modification for K( ) are given as:

COST-231-Walfisch-Ikegami is limited by following ranges;

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where is the free-space Green's function (in 3D), T is 2 if the

Only forward scattering!

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