1.

Basic Equations of Solid Mechanics

The primary aim of any stress analysis or solid mechanics problem is to find the distribution of
displacements and stresses under the stated loading and boundary conditions. If an analytical
solution of the problem is to be found, one has to satisfy the following basic or fundamental
equations of solid mechanics.

1.1 Equilibrium Equations

Due to the application of loads, stresses will be developed inside the body. If we consider an
element of material inside the body, it must be in equilibrium due to the internal stresses
developed. This leads to equations known as internal equilibrium equations.

Theoretically, the state of stress at any point in a loaded body is completely defined in terms of
the nine components of stress σx, σy, σz, xy, yx, yz, zy, zx, and xz, where the first three are the
normal components and the latter six are the components of shear stress. The equations of
internal equilibrium relating the nine components of stress can be derived by considering the
equilibrium of moments and forces acting on the elemental volume shown in Figure 1. The
equilibrium of moments about the x, y, and z axes, assuming that there are no body moments,
leads to the relations
………. [1]

Figure 1: Three-dimensional stress element

These equations show that the state of stress at any point can be completely defined by the six
components σx, σy, σz, xy, yx and yz. The equilibrium of forces in the x, y, and z directions gives
the following differential equilibrium equations:
 ………. [2]

where , and are the body forces per unit volume acting along the directions x, y, and z,
respectively.

1.2 Strain-displacement Relations

The deformed shape of an elastic body under any given system of loads and temperature
distribution conditions can be completely described by the three components of displacement u, v
and w parallel to the directions x, y and z, respectively. In general, each of these components u, v
and w is a function of the coordinates x, y and z. The strains induced in the body can be
expressed in terms of the displacements u, v and w as

………. [3]

1.3 Stress-strain Relations

In the case of a linear, elastic, isotropic three-dimensional solid, the stress–strain relations are
given by Hooke’s law as follows
 ………. [4]

which can be expressed in simpler form as

………. [5]

Sometimes, the expressions for stresses in terms of strains will be needed.

…. [6]

which can be expressed in simpler form as

………. [7]

2. Two-dimensional case
For a two-dimensional problem, there will be only three independent stress components (σx, σy,
xy) and the equilibrium equations, Equation [2], reduce to

………. [8]

In the case of two-dimensional problems, two types of stress distributions, namely plane stress
and plane strain, are possible.
2.1 Plane stress
The assumption of plane stress is applicable for bodies whose dimension is very small in one of
the coordinate directions. Thus, the analysis of thin plates loaded in the plane of the plate can be
made using the assumption of plane stress. In plane stress distribution, it is assumed that
………. [9]
where z represents the direction perpendicular to the plane of the plate as shown in Figure 2, and
the stress components do not vary through the thickness of the plate (i.e., in the z direction).
Although these assumptions violate some of the compatibility conditions, they are sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes provided the plate is thin.

Figure 2: Example of a Plane Stress Problem: Thin Plate under In-Plane Loading

In this case, the stress–strain relations, Equations [4] and [6], reduce to

………. [10]

and

………. [11]
2.2 Plane strain
The assumption of plane strain is applicable for bodies that are long and whose geometry and
loading do not vary significantly in the longitudinal direction. Thus, the analysis of dams,
cylinders, and retaining walls shown in Figure 4 can be made using the assumption of plane
strain.

Figure 4: Examples of Plane Strain Problems

In plane strain distribution, it is assumed that w = 0 and (∂w/∂z) = 0 at every cross section. Here,
the dependent variables are assumed to be functions of only the x and y coordinates provided we
consider a cross section of the body away from the ends. In this case, the three-dimensional
stress–strain relations given by Equations [4] and [6] reduce to
 ………. [12]

and

………. [13]

3. Finite Element Formulation

Equilibrium equations for two dimensional elasticity problem is given by

………. [14]

with boundary conditions

on

………. [15]
and on

Using weighted residual principle for first equation of Equation [14],

Using gradient theorem for first two terms,

Since

Since on and substituting on

………. [16a]

Repeating similar procedure for second first equation of Equation [14],

………. [16b]

Equations [16a] and [16b] can be expressed in combined form as

………. [17]

If the given domain is divided into a certain number of elements,

 ………. [18]

Now using strain displacement relations

………. [19]

where

is a linear operator.

Now using stress-strain and then strain-displacement relations

………. [20]

Substituting Equation [20] into Equation [18], we get

………. [21]

Using linear operator defined in Equation [19],

 ………. [22]

For a linear triangular element,

………. [23]

Equation [23] can also be expressed as

 ………. [24]

Substituting Equation [24] into Equation [20], we get

………. [25]

where
 is a constant matrix.

Using Galerkin method i.e.,

………. [26]

………. [27]

Substituting Equations [26] and [27] into Equation [22], we get

………. [28]

Then ith equation can be written as

………. [29]

where

Similarly jth and kth equation can be derived and assembling all these, we get equation for an
element as

where
and

should de calculated for the edges of the elements subjected to traction.

4. Variational Formulation of Solid Mechanics Problem

Total potential energy of any elastic body is given by the sum of elastic strain energy and
potential energy due to displacement produced by external forces, i.e.,
………. [30]

Elastic strain energy is given by

………. [31]

Equation [31] can also be expressed as

………. [32]

Substituting
and ,

into equation [32],

………. [33]

Similarly, potential energy due to displacement produced by external forces is given by

………. [34]

Equation [34] can also be expressed as

………. [35]

Substituting
 ,

into equation [35],

………. [36]

Substituting Equations [33] and [36] into Equation [30]

........ [37]

If the given domain is divided into a certain number of elements,

........ [38]

where

and
Assembling the equations,

………. [39]

Then using Ritz method,

 ………. [40]

5. Plane Elasticity Using Rectangular Element

Bilinear shape functions for a two dimensional rectangular element are

For a bilinear rectangular element,

………. [41]

Equation [41] can also be expressed as

 ………. [42]

Using strain-displacement relations

………. [25]

where

Then stiffness matrix is given by

Similarly, force vector due to body forces are given by