Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
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ii
Copyright American Gear Manufacturers Association
Provided by IHS under license with AGMA Sold to:SIDERCA, W0451298
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale,2007/10/18 13:1:12 GMT
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 912--A04
Contents
Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Normative references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
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7 Contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8 Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9 Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10 Bending fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Tables
1 Fracture appearance classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Foreword
[The foreword, footnotes and annexes, if any, in this document are provided for
informational purposes only and are not to be construed as a part of AGMA Information
Sheet 912--A04, Mechanisms of Gear Tooth Failures.]
AGMA Standard 110.01 was first published in October 1943 as means to document the
appearance of gear teeth when they wear or fail. The study of gear tooth wear and failure
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has been hampered by the inability of two observers to describe the same phenomenon in
terms that are adequate to assure uniform interpretation. AGMA Standard 110.02 became a
national standard, B6.12, in 1954. A revised standard with photographs, AGMA 110.03,
was published in 1960. The last version, AGMA 110.04, was published in 1979 and
reaffirmed by the members in 1989, with improved photographs and additional material.
The first draft of AGMA 912--A04 was developed in October, 1995. It was approved by the
AGMA membership on October 23, 2004.
Suggestions for improvement of this document will be welcome. They should be sent to the
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 500 Montgomery Street, Suite 350, Alexandria,
Virginia 22314.
ACTIVE MEMBERS
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
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must discern the difference between primary and tigation including shutdown, in--situ inspections,
secondary failure modes. Bending fatigue may be gear unit removal, transport, storage, and disassem-
the ultimate failure mode. However, it is often a bly. However, if the gears are damaged but still
consequence of some other mode of failure, such as functional, the company may decide to continue
scuffing or macropitting. Because multiple failure operation and monitor damage progression. In this
modes can occur concurrently, the primary mode of case, the gear system should be monitored under
failure often can only be observed in its early stages experienced supervision. For critical applications,
before it is masked by secondary, competing failure examine the gears with magnetic particle or dye
modes. penetrant inspection to ensure there are no cracks
before operation is continued. In all applications,
Failure modes vary in significance. For example,
check for damage by visual inspection and by
contact fatigue is often less serious than bending
measuring temperature, sound, and vibration.
fatigue. This is because contact fatigue usually
Collect samples of lubricant for analysis, drain and
progresses relatively slowly, starting with a few pits
flush the reservoir, and replace the lubricant.
which increase in size and number. As the teeth
Examine the oil filter for wear debris and
deteriorate, the gears may generate noise or vibra-
contaminants, and inspect magnetic plugs for wear
tion which warns of an impending failure. In contrast,
debris.
bending fatigue breaks a tooth with little warning.
3.3.1.3 Time constraints
It is often helpful to monitor the operating gear
system by measuring temperature, noise and vibra- In some situations, the high cost of shutdown limits
tion, analyzing the lubricant for contamination, or by time available for inspection. Such cases call for
visual inspection of the gear teeth. These actions careful planning. For example, dividing tasks
may help to warn of failure before it occurs. between two or more analysts reduces time
3.3 How to analyze gear failures required.
When gears fail, there may be incentive to quickly Before visiting the failure site, interview on--site
repair or replace failed components and return the personnel and explain what is needed to inspect the
gear system to service. However, because gear gear unit including personnel, equipment, and
failures provide valuable data that may help prevent working conditions.
future failures, a systematic inspection procedure
Request a skilled technician to disassemble the
should be followed before repair or replacement
equipment. However, make sure that no work is
begins.
done on the gear unit until it can be observed. This
The failure investigation should be carefully planned means no disassembly, cleaning, or draining of the
to preserve evidence. The specific approach can oil. Otherwise, a well--meaning technician could
vary depending on when and where the inspection is inadvertently destroy evidence. Emphasize that
made, the nature of the failure, and time constraints. failure investigation is different from a gear unit
rebuild, and the disassembly must be carefully
3.3.1.1 When and where controlled.
Ideally, the site visit and failed components should
Verify that gear unit drawings, disassembly tools,
be inspected as soon after failure as possible. If an
and adequate facilities are available. Inform the site
early inspection is not possible, someone at the site
supervisor that privacy is required to conduct the
must preserve the evidence based on specific
investigation and access is needed to all available
instructions.
information.
3.3.1.2 Nature of failure
Obtain as much background information as pos-
The failure conditions can determine when and how sible, including manufacturer’s specifications, ser-
to conduct an analysis. It is best to shutdown a failing vice history, load data, and lubricant analyses. Send
gear unit as soon as possible to limit damage. To a questionnaire to the site personnel to help expedite
preserve evidence, carefully plan the failure inves- information gathering.
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condition of seals and keyways must be recorded at extremes of teeth along tips, roots, and ends,
before disassembly. Otherwise, it may be impossi- where contact is lighter as evidenced by traces of
ble to determine when these parts were damaged. lacquer.
Before cleaning the exterior of the gear housing, 3.3.3.5 Endplay and backlash
inspect for signs of overheating, corrosion, Inspect endplay, radial movement of the input and
contamination, oil leaks, and damage. output shafts, and gear backlash.
the parts, look for signs of corrosion, contamination, helpful to eliminate certain failure modes and
and overheating. causes. For example, if there is no scuffing, it can
be concluded that gear tooth contact tempera-
3.3.8.2 Inspect after cleaning tures were less than the scuffing temperature of
the lubricant.
After the initial inspection, wash the components
with solvents and re--examine them. This examina- -- Search the bottom of the gear unit. Often this
tion should be as thorough as possible because it is is where the best preserved evidence is found,
often the most important phase of the investigation such as when a tooth fractures and falls free
and may yield valuable clues. A low power without secondary damage.
magnifying glass and 30X pocket microscope are -- Prepare for the inspection. Plan work careful-
helpful tools for this examination. ly to obtain as much evidence as possible.
It is important to inspect bearings because they often -- Control the investigation. Watch every step of
provide clues as to the cause of gear failure. For the disassembly. Don’t let the technician get
example: ahead of the inspection. Disassembly should
stop while inspecting and documenting the condi-
-- bearing wear can cause excessive radial tion of a component, then proceed to the next
clearance or endplay that misaligns gears; component.
-- Insist on privacy. Do not be distracted. If data. Often the first day’s inspection discloses a
asked about conclusions, answer that they can- need for other data, which can be gathered on the
not be formed until the investigation is complete. second day.
3.3.8.4 Gather gear geometry 3.3.9 Determine failure mode
The load capacity of the gears should be calculated. When several failure modes are present, the primary
For this purpose, obtain the following geometry data, mode needs to be identified. Other modes may be
from the gears and housing or drawings: consequences of the primary mode. These may or
may not have contributed to the failure. There may
-- number of teeth;
also be evidence of other independent problems that
-- outside diameter; did not contribute to the failure.
-- face width; The classes of gear failure modes to be discussed
-- gear housing center distance; are:
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for any geometric or metallurgical defects that may 3.3.12 Report results
have contributed to the failure. For example, if tooth
The failure analysis report should describe all
contact patterns indicate misalignment or interfer-
relevant facts found during analysis, inspections and
ence, inspect the gear for accuracy on gear inspec-
tests, weighing of evidence, conclusions, and rec-
tion machines. Conversely, where contact patterns
ommendations. Present data succinctly, preferably
indicate good alignment and loads are within rated
in tables or figures.
gear capacity, check teeth for metallurgical defects.
Good photos are especially helpful for portraying
Conduct nondestructive tests before any destructive
failure characteristics. If possible, include recom-
tests. These nondestructive tests, which aid in
mendations for repairing equipment, or making
detecting material or manufacturing defects and
changes in equipment design or operation to prevent
provide rating information, include:
future failures.
-- surface hardness and roughness;
3.4 Modes of failure
-- magnetic particle or dye penetrant inspection
ANSI/AGMA 1010--E95 provides nomenclature for
for cracks;
modes of gear failure. The gear failure modes are
-- acid etch inspection for surface temper; discussed and detailed.
-- gear tooth accuracy inspection. This information sheet provides additional informa-
Then conduct destructive tests to evaluate material tion on gear tooth failures, causes and remedies.
and heat treatment. These tests include: Also see references in clause 2 and the bibliography
for additional information on gear failure modes and
-- microhardness survey;
lubrication related failures.
-- microstructural determination using acid
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etches;
-- determination of grain size; 4 Wear
-- determination of nonmetallic inclusions;
4.1 Adhesion
-- SEM microscopy to study fracture surfaces.
Adhesive wear is classified as “mild” if it is confined
3.3.11 Form and test conclusions
to the oxide layers on the gear tooth surfaces. If,
When all calculations and tests are completed, one however, the oxide layers are disrupted and bare
or more hypotheses for the probable cause of failure metal is exposed, the transition to severe adhesive
should be formed, then determine if the evidence wear (scuffing) may occur. Scuffing is discussed in
supports or disproves the hypotheses. Evaluate all clause 5. For the present, it is assumed that scuffing
evidence that was gathered including: has been avoided.
-- documentary evidence and service history; When new gear units are first operated the contact
-- statements from witnesses; between the gear teeth may not be optimum
because of unavoidable manufacturing inaccura-
-- written descriptions, sketches, and photos;
cies. If the tribological conditions are favorable, mild
-- gear geometry and contact patterns; adhesive wear occurs during running--in and sub-
-- gear design calculations; sides with time, resulting in a satisfactory lifetime for
the gears. The wear that occurs during running--in is
-- laboratory data for materials and lubricant.
beneficial if it creates smooth tooth surfaces (in-
Results of this evaluation may make it necessary to creasing the specific film thickness) and increases
modify or abandon initial hypotheses, or pursue new the area of contact by removing minor imperfections
lines of investigation. through local wear. It is recommended that new
gearsets be run--in by operating for at least the first
Finally, after thoroughly testing the hypotheses
10 hours at one--half load.
against the evidence, reach a conclusion about the
most probable cause of primary failure. In addition, The amount of wear that is considered tolerable
identify secondary factors that may have contributed depends on the expected lifetime for the gears and
to the failure. requirements for the control of noise and vibration.
The wear is considered excessive when the tooth -- Use an adequate amount of cool, clean and
profiles wear to the extent that high dynamic loads dry lubricant of the highest viscosity permissible
are encountered or the tooth thickness is reduced to for the operating conditions;
the extent that bending fatigue becomes possible. -- Use nitrided gears if they have adequate ca-
pacity.
Some gear units operate under ideal conditions with
smooth tooth surfaces, high pitchline speed, and 4.2 Abrasion
high lubricant film thickness. It has been observed, Abrasive wear on gear teeth is usually caused by
for example, that turbine gears that operated almost contamination of the lubricant by hard, sharp--edged
continuously at 150 m/s pitchline speed still had the particles. Contamination enters gear units by being
original machining marks on their teeth even after built--in, internally--generated, ingested through
operating for 20 years. Most gears however, operate breathers and seals, or inadvertently added during
between the boundary and full--film lubrication maintenance.
regimes, under elastohydrodynamic (EHD) condi-
tions. In the EHD regime, provided that the proper Sand, machining chips, grinding dust, weld splatter
type and viscosity of lubricant is used, the wear rate or other debris may find their way into new gear units.
usually reduces during running--in and adhesive To remove built--in contamination, it is generally
wear virtually ceases once running--in is completed. worthwhile to drain and flush the gearbox lubricant
If the lubricant is properly maintained (kept cool, after the first 50 hours of operation, refill with the
clean and dry) the gearset should not suffer an recommended lubricant, and install a new oil filter.
adhesive wear failure. Internally--generated particles are usually wear
debris from gears, bearings or other components
Many gears, because of practical limits on lubricant due to Hertzian (contact) fatigue, macropitting, or
viscosity, speed and temperature, must operate adhesive and abrasive wear. The wear particles can
under boundary--lubricated conditions where some be abrasive because they become work hardened
wear is inevitable. Highly--loaded, slow speed (less when they are trapped between the gear teeth.
than 0.5 m/s pitchline velocity), boundary--lubricated Internally--generated wear debris can be minimized
gears are especially prone to excessive wear. Tests by using accurate, surface--hardened gear teeth
with slow--speed gears [1] have shown that nitrided (with high macropitting resistance), smooth tooth
gears have good wear resistance while carburized surfaces and clean high viscosity lubricants.
and through--hardened gears have similar, lower
Magnetic plugs may be used to capture ferrous
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wear resistance. Reference [1] concluded that
particles that are present at startup, or are generated
lubricant viscosity has a large influence on slow--
during operation. Periodic inspection of the magnet-
speed, adhesive wear. It found that high viscosity
ic plug may be used to monitor the development of
lubricants reduce the wear rate significantly. It also
ferrous particles during operation. Magnetic wear
found that some very aggressive additives that
chip detectors with alarms are also available.
contain sulphur--phosphorous extreme pressure
additives can be detrimental with very slow--speed The lubrication system should be carefully main-
(less than 0.05 m/s) gears, giving higher wear rates tained and monitored to ensure that the gears
than expected. receive an adequate amount of cool, clean and dry
lubricant. For circulating--oil systems, fine filtration
Methods for reducing adhesive wear helps to remove contamination. Filters as fine as 3
micrometers have been used to significantly in-
-- Use smooth tooth surfaces;
crease gear life, where the pressure loss in the filter
-- Run--in new gearsets by operating the first 10 can be tolerated. The lubricant may have to be
hours at one--half load; changed or processed to remove water and maintain
additive levels. For oil--bath gear units, the lubricant
-- Use high speeds if possible. Highly--loaded, should be changed frequently because it is the only
slow--speed gears are boundary lubricated and
way to remove contamination. In many cases the
especially prone to excessive wear;
lubricant should be changed at least every 2500
-- For very slow--speed gear (less than 0.05 operating hours or six months, whichever occurs
m/s), use lubricants with no sulphur--phospho- first. For critical gear units a regular program of
rous additives or those additives that have proven lubricant monitoring can be used to show when
to be less aggressive to the tooth surfaces; maintenance is required. The lubricant monitoring
may include such items as spectrographic and -- Minimize contamination that is added during
ferrographic analysis of contamination along with maintenance by using good housekeeping
analysis of acidity, viscosity, and water content. procedures;
Used filter elements may be examined for wear -- For circulating--oil systems, use fine filtration;
debris and contaminants.
-- Use an agglomeration system to remove very
Kidney--loop type systems may also be used to clean fine particles;
oil. Electrostatic agglomeration systems may be -- Change or process the lubricant to remove
used to reduce the amount of very fine particles that water;
normally would pass through the filters. Other
-- For oil--bath systems, change the lubricant at
systems may be used to remove water from the oil.
least every 2500 hours or every six months, or as
Breather vents are used on gear units to vent internal recommended by the manufacturer;
pressure which occurs when air enters through seals -- Monitor the lubricant with spectrographic and
or when the air within the gearbox expands and ferrographic analysis together with analysis of
contracts during normal heating and cooling. The acidity, viscosity and water content.
breather vent should be located in a clean, non-- 4.3 Polishing
pressurized area and it should have a filter to prevent
ingression of airborne contaminants. In especially The gear teeth may polish to a bright, mirror--like
harsh environments, the gearbox can sometimes be finish if the anti--scuff additives in the lubricant are
completely sealed, and the pressure variation can be too chemically aggressive, or a fine abrasive is
accommodated by an expansion chamber with a present. Although the polished gear teeth may look
flexible diaphragm. good, polishing wear can be undesirable if it reduces
gear accuracy by wearing the tooth profiles away
All maintenance procedures which involve opening from their ideal form. Anti--scuff additives such as
any part of the gear unit or lubrication system should sulfur and phosphorous are used in lubricants to
be carefully performed in a clean environment to prevent scuffing (they will be covered when scuffing
prevent contamination of the gear unit. is discussed). Ideally, the additives should react only
Abrasive wear due to foreign contaminants such as at temperatures where there is a danger of welding.
sand or internally--generated wear debris is called If the rate of reaction is too high, and there is a
three body abrasion. Two body abrasion occurs continuous removal of the surface films caused by
when hard particles or asperities on one gear tooth very fine abrasives in the lubricant, polishing wear
abrade the opposing tooth surface. Unless the tooth may become excessive.
surfaces of a surface--hardened gear are smoothly Polishing wear can be prevented by using less
finished, they may act like files if the mating gear is chemically active additives and clean oil. The
appreciably softer. This is the reason that a worm is anti--scuff additives should be appropriate for the
polished after grinding before it is run with a bronze service conditions. The use of any dispersed materi-
worm gear. al, such as some anti--scuff additives, should be
monitored since it may precipitate or be filtered out.
Methods for reducing abrasive wear
The abrasives in the lubricant should be removed by
-- Flush unit thoroughly before initial operation; using fine filtration or frequent oil changes.
-- Remove built--in contamination from new Methods for reducing polishing wear
gear units by draining and flushing the lubricant
-- Use a less chemically aggressive additive
after the first 50 hours of operation. Refill with
system;
clean recommended lubricant and install a new
filter; -- Remove abrasives from the lubricant by
using fine filtration or frequent oil changes.
-- Minimize internally--generated wear debris
by using smooth tooth surfaces and high viscosity 4.4 Corrosion
lubricants; Corrosion is the chemical or electrochemical reac-
-- Minimize ingested contamination by main- tion between the surface of the gear and its
taining oil--tight seals and using filtered breather environment. Corrosion usually leaves a stained,
vents located in clean, non--pressurized areas; rusty appearance and can be accompanied by rough
8
--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- AGMA 2004 ---- All rights reserved
Copyright American Gear Manufacturers Association
Provided by IHS under license with AGMA Sold to:SIDERCA, W0451298
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale,2007/10/18 13:1:12 GMT
AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION AGMA 912--A04
irregular pits or depressions. Identification of metal rotated frequently to distribute oil to the gears and
corrosion products is an indication of corrosion. For bearings.
example, the identification of --Fe2O3 H2O by X--ray 4.5 Fretting corrosion
diffraction on pitted steel is evidence of rusting.
Fretting occurs between contacting surfaces that are
Corrosion commonly attacks the tooth surface and it pressed together and subjected to cyclic, relative
may proceed intergranularly by preferentially attack- motion of extremely small amplitude. It occurs most
ing the grain boundaries of the gear surfaces.
often in joints that are bolted, keyed or press--fitted,
Etch pits from corrosion on the active flanks of gear in bearings, splines or couplings. It can also occur on
teeth cause stress concentrations which may initiate gear teeth under specific conditions where the gears
macropitting fatigue cracks. Etch pits on the root are not rotating and are subjected to vibration such
fillets of gear teeth may promote bending fatigue as during shipping.
cracks.
Under fretting conditions, the lubricant is squeezed
Water reduces fatigue life by causing hydrogen from between the surfaces and the motion of the
embrittlement which accelerates fatigue crack surfaces is too small to replenish the lubricant. The
growth.
natural, oxide films that normally protect the surfaces
The particles of rust are hard and they can cause are disrupted, permitting metal--to--metal contact
abrasive wear of the gear teeth. and causing adhesion of the surface asperities. The
Corrosion is often caused by contaminants in the relative motion breaks the welded asperities and
lubricant such as acid or water. Overly reactive, generates extremely small wear particles which
anti--scuff additives can also cause corrosion espe- oxidize to form iron--oxide powder (Fe2O3), which
cially at high temperatures. Corrosive wear caused has the fineness and reddish--brown color of cocoa.
by contamination or formation of acids in the The wear debris is hard and abrasive, and is the
lubricant can be minimized by monitoring the lubri- same composition as jewelers rouge. Fretting
cant acidity, viscosity and water content and by corrosion tends to be self--aggravating because the
changing the lubricant when required. wear debris builds a dam which prevents fresh
lubricant from reaching the contact area.
Methods for reducing corrosion
Fretting corrosion is sometimes responsible for
A gear lubricant should be changed if the neutraliza- initiating fatigue cracks, which, if they are in high
tion number increases 0.5 units over the baseline stress areas, may propagate to failure.
value of the unused product, the water content is
Methods for reducing fretting corrosion
greater than 0.1%, or the viscosity increases or
decreases to the next ISO viscosity grade. -- Ship the gear unit on an air--ride truck;
Gear units not properly protected during storage can -- Support the gear unit on vibration isolators;
become corroded. If the gear unit must be stored, -- Ship the gear unit filled with oil.
special precautions are usually required to prevent
rusting of the components. Condensation occurs 4.6 Cavitation
when humid air is cooled below its dew point and the Cavitation has been known to occur in the lubricant
air--water mixture releases water, which collects in film between mating gear teeth. Cavitation is
the form of droplets on exposed surfaces. It may characterized by the formation of vapor filled
occur where there are frequent, wide temperature bubbles at the interface between a solid and a liquid,
changes. For long term storage, it is best to generally in an area of low pressure. When the
completely fill the gear unit with oil and plug the bubbles travel into a region of high pressure they
breather vent. This minimizes the air space above collapse as they change state from gas to liquid. The
the oil level and minimizes the amount of condensa- implosion of the bubbles transmits localized forces to
tion. Where this is not practical, all exposed metal the surface which cause fracture of the surface
parts, both inside and outside, should be sprayed asperities. To the unaided eye, a surface damaged
with a heavy duty rust preventative. If stored by cavitation may appear to be rough and clean as if
outdoors, the gear unit should be raised off the it were sandblasted. The microscopic craters
ground and completely enclosed by a protective caused by cavitation are deep, rough, clean and
covering such as a tarpaulin. The gears should be have a honeycomb appearance.
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true metal--to--metal contact. The films of iron sulfide and largest at the ends of the path of action. Profile
and iron phosphate have high melting points, shift can be used to balance and minimize the
allowing them to remain as solids on the gear tooth temperature rise that occurs in the addendum and
surfaces even at high contact temperatures. The dedendum of the gear teeth. The temperature rise
rate of reaction of the anti--scuff additives is greatest may also be reduced by modifying the tooth profiles
where the gear tooth contact temperatures are with slight tip and/or root relief to ease the load at the
highest. Because of the sliding action of the gear start and end of the engagement path where the
teeth, the surface films are repeatedly scrapped off sliding velocities are the greatest. Also, the gear
and reformed. In effect, scuffing is prevented by teeth should be accurate and held rigidly in good
substituting mild corrosion in its place. Anti--scuff alignment to minimize the tooth loading and
additives may promote micropitting. Some anti-- temperature rise.
scuff additives may be too chemically active (see
4.3). This may necessitate a change to less The gear materials should be chosen with their
aggressive additives, such as potassium borate, scuffing resistance in mind. Nitrided steels such as
because it deposits a boundary film without reacting Nitralloy 135M are generally found to have the
to the metal. highest resistance to scuffing, while some stainless
steels may scuff even under near--zero loads. The
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For mineral oils without anti--scuff additives, the thin oxide layer on these stainless steels is hard and
critical scuffing temperature increases with increas- brittle and it breaks up easily under sliding loads,
ing viscosity, and ranges from 150° to 300°C. exposing the bare metal, thus promoting scuffing.
Anodized aluminum also has a low scuffing resist-
According to [3], the critical temperature is the total ance. Hardness alone does not seem to be a reliable
contact temperature, Tc, which consists of the sum of indication of scuffing resistance.
the gear bulk temperature, Tb, and the flash temper-
ature, Tf: Methods for reducing the risk of scuffing
macropitting occurs even at low stresses if the gears by the same fatigue process as macropitting, except
are operated long enough. Macropitting often the pits are extremely small.
initiates at non--metallic inclusions in the gear Many times micropitting is not destructive to the gear
material. Because there is no endurance limit, gear tooth surface. It sometimes occurs only in patches,
teeth must be designed for a suitable, finite lifetime. and may arrest after the tribological conditions have
improved by running--in. The micropits may actually
To prolong the macropitting life of a gearset, the
be removed by polishing wear during running--in, in
designer must keep the contact stress low, material
which case the micropitting is said to “heal”. Howev-
strength high, material relatively free of inclusions,
er, there have been examples where micropitting
and the lubricant specific film thickness high. There
has escalated into full scale macropitting, leading to
are several geometric variables such as diameter,
the destruction of the gear teeth.
face width, number of teeth, and pressure angle that
may be optimized to lower the contact stress. The lubricant’s specific film thickness is an important
Material alloys and heat treatment are selected to parameter that influences micropitting. Damage
obtain hard tooth surfaces with high strength, such seems to occur most readily on gear teeth with rough
as carburizing or nitriding. Maximum macropitting surfaces, especially when they are lubricated with a
resistance is obtained with carburized gear teeth low viscosity lubricant. Gears finished to a mirror--
because they have hard surfaces, and carburizing like finish have eliminated micropitting. Slow--speed
induces beneficial compressive residual stresses gears are prone to micropitting because their film
which effectively lower the shear stresses. High thickness is low. Hence, to prevent micropitting, the
lubricant specific film thickness is obtained by using specific film thickness should be maximized by using
smooth tooth surfaces and an adequate supply of smooth gear tooth surfaces, high viscosity lubri-
cool, clean and dry lubricant that has high viscosity cants, and if possible high speeds. ANSI/AGMA
and a high pressure--viscosity coefficient. 9005--E02 gives recommendations for viscosity as a
function of pitchline velocity.
Methods for reducing the risk of macropitting
Methods for reducing the risk of micropitting
-- Reduce contact stresses by reducing loads or -- Use smooth tooth surfaces or coatings;
optimizing gear geometry;
-- Use an adequate amount of cool, clean and
-- Use clean steel, properly heat treated to high
dry lubricant of the highest viscosity possible;
surface hardness;
-- Use high speeds if possible;
-- Use smooth tooth surfaces;
-- Use an adequate amount of cool, clean and -- Use carburized steel with proper carbon
dry lubricant of adequate viscosity; content in the surface layers;
-- Adequate surface hardness and case depth -- Reduce load, modify profiles.
after final processing. 7.3 Subcase fatigue
Subcase fatigue is influenced by contact stresses, Cracks resulting from heat treatment sometimes
residual stresses and material fatigue strength. The appear immediately, but at other times may not
subsurface distribution of residual stresses and appear until the gears have operated for a period of
fatigue strength depends on the surface hardness, time.
case depth and core hardness. There are optimum 8.1.1 Thermal stresses
values of case depth and core hardness which give
the proper balance of residual stresses and fatigue Thermal stresses are caused by temperature differ-
strength to maximize resistance to subcase fatigue. ences between the interior and exterior of the gear,
Inclusions may initiate fatigue cracks if they occur and increase with the rate of temperature change.
near the case--core interface in areas of tensile Cracking can occur either during heating or cooling.
residual stress. The cooling rate is influenced by the geometry of the
gear, the agitation of the quench, quench medium,
Overheating gear teeth during operation or and temperature of the quenchant. The temperature
manufacturing, such as grind temper, may lower gradient is higher and the risk of cracking greater
case hardness, alter residual stresses, and reduce with thicker sections, asymmetric gear blanks and
resistance to subcase fatigue. See 8.3 for discussion variable thickness rims and webs.
of grind temper.
8.1.2 Stress concentration
Methods for reducing the risk of subcase fatigue
Features such as sharp corners, the number,
-- Reduce contact stresses by reducing loads or location and size of holes, deep keyways, splines,
optimizing gear geometry; and abrupt changes in section thickness within a part
-- Use steel with adequate hardenability to cause stress concentrations, which increase the risk
obtain optimum case and core properties; of cracking.
-- Achieve optimum values of surface hard- Surface and subsurface defects such as nonmetallic
ness, case depth and core hardness to maximize inclusions, forging defects such as hydrogen flakes,
resistance to subcase fatigue; internal ruptures, seams, laps, and tears at the flash
line increase the risk of cracking.
-- Use analytical methods to ensure that sub-
surface stresses do not exceed subsurface 8.1.3 Quench severity
fatigue strengths;
Quenching conditions should be designed consider-
-- Avoid overheating gear teeth during ing size and geometry of the gear, required
operation or manufacturing. metallurgical properties, and hardenability of the
steel.
Quench severity and the risk of cracking are greater
8 Cracking with vigorously agitated, caustic, or brine quen-
chants and much less with quiescent, slow--oil
8.1 Hardening cracks quenchants.
Cracking in heat treatment occurs because of Hardening cracks may not occur while the gear is in
--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
excessive localized stresses. These may be caused the quenching medium, but later if the gear is
by nonuniform heating or cooling, or by volume allowed to stand after quenching without tempering.
changes due to phase transformation. Stress risers 8.1.4 Phase transformation
will make the part more susceptible to cracking.
Transformation of austenite into martensite is al-
Hardening cracks are generally intergranular with ways accompanied by expansion, and may result in
the crack running from the surface toward the center cracking. See [5].
of mass in a relatively straight line. Crack formation
8.1.5 Methods for reducing the risk of hardening
may be related to some of the same factors which
cracks
cause intergranular fracture in overheated steels. If
cracking occurs prior to tempering, the fracture -- Design the gear blanks to be as symmetric as
surfaces will be discolored by oxidation when the possible and keep section thickness uniform;
gear is exposed to the furnace atmosphere during -- Minimize abrupt change in cross section. Use
tempering. chamfers or radii on all edges, especially at the
ends of the teeth and at the edges of the gear cooling to 66°C prior to tempering. This practice
tooth toplands; minimizes the formation of scale.
-- Select steel type carefully; 8.2.3 Tempering practice
-- Design the quenching method, including the
agitation, type of quenchant and temperature of The longer the time the steel is kept at a temperature
the quenchant, for the specific gear and between room temperature and 100°C after the
hardenability of the steel; complete transformation of martensite in the core,
the more likely the occurrence of quench cracking.
-- Temper the gear immediately after
This arises from the volumetric expansion caused by
quenching.
isothermal transformation of retained austenite into
8.2 Steel grades martensite.
In general, the carbon content of steel should not There are two tempering practices which lead to
exceed the required level; otherwise, the risk of cracking problems: tempering soon after quenching,
cracking will increase. The suggested average that is, before the steel parts have transformed to
maximum carbon content for water, brine, and martensite in hardening, and superficial surface
caustic quenching are given below: (skin) tempering, usually observed in heavy sections
Induction hardening: (50 mm and thicker in plates and 75 mm and greater
in diameter in round bars).
Complex shapes 0.40%
Simple shapes 0.60% It is the normal practice to temper immediately after
the quenching operation. In this case, some restraint
Furnace hardening:
must be exercised, especially for large sections
Complex shapes 0.35% (greater than 75 mm) in deep--hardening alloy
Simple shapes 0.40% steels. The reason is that the core has not yet
completed transformation to martensite with expan-
Very simple shapes (such as bars) 0.50%
sion while the surface projections, such as flanges,
8.2.1 Part defects begin to temper with shrinkage. This simultaneous
Surface defect or weakness in the material may also volume change produces radial cracks. This prob-
promote cracking, for example, deep surface seams lem can become severe if rapid heating practice
or nonmetallic stringers in both hot--rolled and (such as induction, flame, lead or molten salt bath) is
cold--finished bars. Other problems are inclusions used for tempering.
and stamp marks. Forging defects in small forgings, 8.3 Grinding cracks
such as seams, laps, flash line or shearing cracks as
well as in heavy forgings such as hydrogen flakes Cracks may develop on the tooth surfaces of gears
and internal ruptures, aggravate cracking. Similarly, that are finished by grinding. The cracks are usually
some casting defects, for example, in water--cooled shallow and appear either as a series of parallel
castings, promote cracking. cracks or in a crazed, wire--mesh pattern. Like
hardening cracks, they may not appear until the
8.2.2 Heat treating practice
gears have operated for a period of time. Cracks
Anneal alloy steels prior to hardening (or any other may be caused by the grinding technique if the
high--temperature treatment, such as forging or grinding cut is too deep, grinding feed is too high,
welding) to produce grain--refined microstructure grinding speed is too high, grinding wheel grit or
and relieve stresses. Improper heat treating practic- hardness is incorrect, or flow of coolant is insuffi-
es, such as nonuniform heating or cooling, contrib- cient. Grinding cracks may result from transforma-
ute to cracking. Water hardening or air hardening tion of retained austenite to martensite in response
can cause cracking if the steel is not properly to the heat or stresses imposed by grinding. See [6].
processed. For example, the lack of tempering or Steels with hardenability provided by carbide--form-
use of oil quenching with an air hardening steel can ing elements such as chromium are prone to
lead to cracking. However, common practice in the grinding cracks. This is especially true for carburized
treatment of air hardening steels is to initially quench gears with a case that has high carbon content,
in oil until “black” (about 538°C), followed by air particularly if there are carbide networks.
--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Areas of the tooth surface where overheating has 8.5 Case--core separation
occurred can be detected by etching the surface with
Case--core separation occurs in surface hardened
nital. See ANSI/AGMA 2007--C00. Barkhausen
gear teeth when internal cracks occur near the case
(eddy--current) inspection may be used if properly
core boundary. The internal cracks may pop to the
qualified for the specific part. Magnetic particle or
surface of the teeth causing corners, edges or entire
dye penetrant inspection can be used to detect
tips of the teeth to separate. The damage may occur
grinding cracks.
immediately after heat treatment, during subsequent
Methods for reducing the risk of grinding cracks handling, or after a short time in service.
-- Control grinding technique to avoid local over Case--core separation is believed to be caused by
heating; high residual tensile stresses at the case--core
-- For carburized gears, control microstructure interface when a case is very deep.
to limit carbides; Because cracks follow the case--core interface, tips
-- Use nital etch to inspect ground surfaces for of teeth have concave fracture surfaces, and re-
tempering; maining portions of teeth have convex fracture
surfaces. Chevron (beach) marks may be apparent
-- Use magnetic particle or dye penetrant in-
on fracture surfaces if the fracture was brittle. These
spection of ground surfaces to detect grinding
--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cracks. marks are helpful because they point to the failure
origin. Beach marks may be found on fracture
8.4 Rim and web cracks surfaces if cracks grew by fatigue. Inclusions pro-
If the gear rim is thin, less than twice the gear tooth mote case--core separation especially when they
whole depth, it is subjected to significant alternating occur near the interface.
rim--bending stresses, which are additive to the When case--core separation is suspected as the
gear--tooth bending stress and may result in fatigue cause of failure, intact teeth should be sectioned to
cracks in the rim. determine if there are subsurface cracks near the
Web cracks can be caused by cyclic stresses due to tips of the teeth.
vibration when an excitation frequency is near a On carburized gears, case depth at the tip can be
natural frequency of the gear blank. controlled by avoiding narrow toplands or masking
Stress concentrations due to defects such as the toplands with copper plate to restrict carbon
inclusions, notches in the root fillets, and details such penetration during carburizing.
as keyways, splines, holes and sharp web--to--rim Methods for reducing the risk of case--core
fillets can cause cracks. separation
Magnetic particle or dye penetrant inspection should -- Control case depth especially at the tips of the
be used to ensure that the gear tooth fillets, gear rim gear teeth. On carburized gears, avoid narrow
and gear web are free of flaws. toplands or mask toplands of the teeth to restrict
carbon penetration;
Methods to reduce the risk of rim or web cracks
-- Temper gears immediately after quenching;
-- Use adequate rim thickness;
-- Use generous chamfers or radii on edges of
-- Design the gear blank such that its natural fre- the gear teeth to avoid stress concentrations;
quencies do not coincide with the excitation fre-
quencies; -- Control the alloy content, cleanliness of the
steel, and the core hardness. They all influence
-- Pay attention to details that cause stress con- the probability of case--core separation.
centrations such as keyways, splines, holes and
web--to--rim fillets;
-- Use magnetic particle or dye penetrant in- 9 Fracture
spection to ensure that the gear tooth fillets, gear
rim and gear web are free of flaws; When a gear tooth is overloaded because the local
-- Control manufacturing to avoid notches in the load is too high, it may fail by fracturing. If it fractures,
root fillets. the failure may be a ductile fracture preceded by
appreciable plastic deformation, a brittle fracture fracture. The critical stress intensity is a function of
with little prior plastic deformation, or a mixed--mode the material toughness.
fracture exhibiting both ductile and brittle
The toughness of a gear material depends on many
characteristics.
factors especially temperature, loading rate and
If fatigue cracks grow to a point where the remaining constraint (state of plane stress or plane strain) at the
tooth section can no longer support the load, a location of flaws. Many steels have a transition
fracture will occur. In this sense the remaining temperature where the fracture mode changes from
material is overloaded, however, the fracture is a ductile--to--brittle as temperature decreases. The
secondary failure mode that is caused by the primary transition temperature is influenced by the loading
mode of fatigue cracking. rate and constraint. The ductile--to--brittle transition
can be detected with the Charpy V--notch impact
Gear tooth fractures without prior fatigue cracking test. Some high strength, alloyed, quenched and
are infrequent, but may result from shock loads. The
tempered steels do not exhibit a transition tempera-
shock loads may be generated by the driving or
ture behavior. For low temperature service, the
driven equipment. They may also occur when
transition temperature is of primary importance, and
foreign objects enter the gear mesh, or when the
gear materials should be chosen which have
gear teeth are suddenly misaligned and jam together
after a bearing or shaft fails. transition temperatures below the service
temperature.
Fractures are classified as brittle or ductile depend-
The compliance of shafts and couplings in a drive
ing on their macroscopic and microscopic
system helps to cushion shock loads and reduce the
appearance (see table 1).
loading rate during impact. Gear drives with close--
coupled shafts and rigid couplings have less
compliance. If drive systems with low compliance
Table 1 -- Fracture appearance classifications
must be used in applications where overloads are
Characteristic Brittle Ductile expected, the gears should be large enough to
of fracture fracture fracture absorb the overloads with reasonable stress levels.
surface See [7].
light reflection bright gray (dark)
shiny dull The toughness of a material depends on its elemen-
tal composition, heat treatment and mechanical
texture crystalline silky
grainy matte processing. Many alloying elements that increase
rough smooth the hardenability of steel also decrease its tough-
coarse fine ness. Exceptions are nickel and molybdenum that
granular fibrous (stringy) increase hardenability while improving toughness.
orientation flat slant, or flat Tests on the impact fracture resistance of carburized
square angular, or steel have found the following, see [8]:
square
pattern radial ridges shear lips -- High--hardenability steels have greater im-
chevrons pact fracture resistance than low--hardenability
plastic negligible appreciable steels;
deformation -- High nickel content does not guarantee good
(necking or impact fracture resistance, but nickel and
distortion)
molybdenum in the right combination result in
microscopic cleavage dimples (shear) high impact fracture resistance;
features (facets)
-- High chromium and high manganese
contents tend to give low impact fracture resist-
--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tear, surface or subsurface inclusion, or porosity. -- Eliminate flaws, especially in the root fillets of
The flaw size may be small initially, but it may initiate gear teeth. Use magnetic particle on dye pene-
a fatigue crack that can grow until a critical size is trant inspection to detect flaws;
reached, at which point the crack may extend in a -- Reduce tensile bending stresses by
brittle fracture. The critical flaw size is not constant, optimizing gear tooth geometry;
but depends on the geometry of the part, shape and
-- Use case hardening, or shot peening, or both
orientation of the flaw, applied stress, and the
to increase compressive residual stresses.
fracture toughness of the material at the service
temperature and loading rate. 9.2 Ductile fracture
The root fillets of gear teeth are especially vulnerable Gear tooth failures that occur solely by ductile
to fracture because this is the location where tooth fracture are relatively infrequent because most
bending stresses are highest. Clean materials fractures occur at a pre--existing flaw which tends to
increase fracture resistance. promote brittle behavior. Factors that promote
ductile rather than brittle fracture are:
The gear tooth geometry should be selected to
-- high material toughness;
reduce the tensile bending stress in the root fillets.
The gear teeth may be cut with full--fillet tools to -- high temperature;
obtain large root fillets with minimum stress con- -- slow loading rate;
centrations. If the gears are to be finished by shaving
-- no significant material flaws;
or grinding, protuberance tools should be used to
reduce the risk of notching the root fillets. Case -- low tensile stress;
hardening by carburizing or nitriding can be benefi- -- high shear stress.
cial because these hardening processes may induce
Under these conditions gear teeth yield when the
compressive residual stresses which reduce the net
bending stresses exceed the yield strength of the
tensile bending stresses. Also, controlled shot
material, and subsequently shear off with significant
peening can be used to increase compressive
plastic deformation before ductile fracture.
residual stresses.
18 --``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing of the gear teeth occurs. However, local plastic the fatigue crack surface of gear teeth because mul-
deformation may occur in regions of stress con- tiple fatigue crack origins may occur in the root fillet.
centrations or areas of structural discontinuities, 10.1 Low--cycle fatigue
such as surface notches, grain boundaries or inclu-
sions. The cyclic, plastic deformation occurs on slip Low--cycle fatigue is defined as fatigue where mac-
planes that coincide with the direction of maximum roscopic plastic strain occurs in every cycle, and the
shear stress. The cyclic slip continues within these number of cycles to failure is usually less than
grains, usually near the surface where stress is high- 10,000. It is an uncommon failure mode for gear
est, until cracks are initiated. The cracks grow in the teeth except for instances where the gear teeth are
planes of maximum shear stress and coalesce greatly overloaded. The surface conditions of a gear
across several grains until they form a major crack tooth subjected to low--cycle fatigue and the material
cleanliness are less important than under high--cycle
front.
fatigue loading because the cyclic, plastic deforma-
tion tends to relax both stress concentrations and
The stage 2 propagation phase begins when the residual stresses. Cracks may initiate within the
crack turns and grows across grain boundaries gear teeth as well as on the surface, and a smaller
(transgranular) in a direction approximately perpen- fraction of the life is spent in initiating rather than
dicular to the maximum tensile stress. During the propagating cracks. Low--cycle fatigue life can be
propagation phase, the plastic deformation is con- extended by maximizing ductility and toughness
fined to a small zone at the tip of the crack, and the (see 9.1 for discussion regarding factors that
surfaces of the fatigue crack usually appear smooth promote toughness). Reference [9] recommends
without signs of gross plastic deformation. Under the the following methods to increase the toughness of
scanning electron microscope, ripples may be seen carburized gears:
on a fatigue cracked surface, called fatigue stri-
-- Use steels which contain nickel as a major
ations. They are thought to be associated with alter-
(more than 1%) alloying element;
nating blunting and sharpening of the crack tip, and
-- Quench to produce 15 to 30% retained
correspond to the advance of the crack during each
austenite in the case microstructure;
stress cycle. The orientation of the striations is at 90
degrees to the crack advance. If the crack propa- -- Temper an as--quenched case hardness of
58 HRC, or higher, down to 55 HRC, or lower
gates intermittently, it may leave a pattern of macro-
(avoid tempering temperatures of 250 to 400 de-
scopically visible “beach marks”. These marks grees C because of embrittlement of the core).
correspond to various positions of the crack front
Caution must be exercised when designing against
where the crack arrested, because the magnitude of
low--cycle fatigue because many of the recommen-
the stress changed.
dations that improve low--cycle fatigue life decrease
the high--cycle fatigue life. It is better to avoid low--
Beach marks are helpful to the failure analyst be- cycle fatigue by reducing the local stress level.
cause they aid in locating the origins of fatigue
10.2 High--cycle fatigue
cracks. The origin is usually on the concave side of
the curved beach marks and is often surrounded by High--cycle fatigue is defined as fatigue where the
several, concentric beach marks. Beach marks may cyclic stress is below the yield strength of the materi-
not be present, especially if the fatigue crack grows al. Most gear teeth fail by high--cycle fatigue rather
without interruption under cyclic loads that do not than low--cycle fatigue. Cracks usually initiate at the
vary in magnitude. The presence of beach marks is surface of the gear tooth root fillets and a large frac-
a strong indication that the crack was due to fatigue, tion of the life is spent initiating rather than propagat-
but not absolute proof, because other failure modes ing cracks. High--cycle fatigue life can be extended
sometimes leave beach marks, and stress corrosion by maximizing the ultimate tensile strength of the
under changing environment. If there are multiple material and ensuring that the microstructure of the
crack origins, each producing separate crack propa- surface of the gear teeth is optimum. Reference [9]
gation zones, ratchet marks may be formed. They recommends the following methods to increase the
are caused when adjacent cracks, propagating on high--cycle bending fatigue of carburized gears:
different crystallographic planes, join together form- -- Eliminate bainite, pearlite, and network
ing a small step. Ratchet marks are often present on carbides from the case microstructure;
19
Copyright American Gear Manufacturers Association
Provided by IHS under license with AGMA Sold to:SIDERCA, W0451298
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale,2007/10/18 13:1:12 GMT
AGMA 912--A04 AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
-- Eliminate microcracks especially near the Methods for reducing risk of high--cycle bending
surface of the root fillets; fatigue
-- Use cleaner steels, properly heat treated by
-- Maximize residual compressive stress in the
--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
carburizing;
case by using a steel with a lower possible carbon
content; -- Use case hardening, or shot peening, or both
with proper process control to increase compres-
sive residual stresses;
-- Eliminate defects on the surfaces of the root
fillets. -- For case hardened gears specify values of
case hardness, case depth and core hardness to
maximize resistance to bending fatigue;
There are several geometric variables, such as di-
ameter, face width, number of teeth, pressure -- Use steel with sufficient hardenability to
angles, and addendum modification that may be op- obtain a microstructure of primarily tempered
martensite in the gear tooth root fillets;
timized to lower the bending stress and increase the
bending fatigue life. The gear tooth geometry should -- Avoid embrittlement by using a steel in which
be designed to reduce the tensile bending stress in the desired hardness will be achieved without
tempering in the range of 250 to 400 degrees C;
the root fillets. The gear teeth should be cut with full--
fillet tools to obtain large radius root fillets with mini- -- For carburized gears, make sure that the
mum stress concentrations. If the gears are to be microstructure of the case is essentially free of
bainite, pearlite, network carbides and especially
finished by shaving or grinding, they should be
microcracks;
finished without notching the root fillets. See [10].
-- Use fine--grain steel;
-- Ensure that the surfaces of the root fillets are
Case hardening by carburizing or nitriding can be
relatively free from notches, tool marks, cracks,
beneficial because these hardening processes may nonmetallic inclusions, decarburizing, corrosion,
induce compressive residual stresses which reduce intergranular oxidation, or other potential stress
the net tensile bending stresses. Also, controlled risers;
shot peening can be used to increase compressive -- Use vacuum (low pressure) carburizing to
residual stresses. For carburized gears there are prevent decarburizing, intergranular oxidation,
optimum values of case hardness, case depth and and uneven case depth;
core hardness that give the best balance of residual -- Reduce bending stresses by reducing loads
stresses and fatigue strength to maximize gear tooth or optimizing gear geometry, especially the shape
resistance to bending fatigue. of the root fillet.
Bibliography
The following documents are either referenced in the text of AGMA 912--A04, Mechanisms of Gear Tooth
Failures, or indicated for additional information.
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--``,```,,,`,```,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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Analytical Approach for Establishing Case Depth 1980, pp 1--8.
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