Running head: MINDFULNESS IN K-12 1

Mindfulness in K-12 Settings

Jessie Byrd, Kara McNamara, and Nicole Simpson

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Abstract

The goal of this research was to determine whether participation in mindfulness

interventions would influence K-12 students’ mindful behavior. Specifically, the research

measured K-12 students’ mindful attention, mindful acceptance, and mindful approach and

persistence as self-reported on the Mindful Student Questionnaire (MSQ). The hypothesis was

that there would be no difference between K-12 students’ mindful behavior and their

participation in a mindfulness intervention.​ ​Findings revealed that there is a significant

difference in K-12 students’ self-reported mindful behavior prior to receiving mindful

interventions and K-12 students’ self-reported mindful behavior following mindfulness

interventions, with some exceptions at the middle school level.

​ indfulness, K-12, mindful student questionnaire, mindful attention, mindful

Keywords: m

acceptance, approach and persistence

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Introduction

Mindfulness involves focusing one’s attention on the present moment through careful

observation of thoughts and feelings. Mindfulness interventions are often effective in school

systems since they are time efficient, practical, and can be adapted to meet specific student

needs. Students who practice mindfulness often experience improved academic success through

enhanced prosocial behaviors, emotion regulation and resilience, decreased levels of stress,

anxiety and depression and lower reports of conduct problems. Mindfulness interventions can be

conducted at all levels of education and with students of all backgrounds. This research aims to

observe these interventions across K-12 school settings.

Mindfulness

Renshaw and Cook (2017) operationalize mindfulness in a range of definitions, from the

commonly cited definition by Kabat-Zinn (1994) as “paying attention in a particular way: on

purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” to more unconventional definitions like

“ungluing from unhelpful insides” (p. 5). Mindfulness interventions can both build capacity in

both individuals’ skills (e.g. stress reduction practices, mindful breathing techniques) and

attitudes (i.e. a general approach to one’s life that is mindful and intentional). By building skills

and capacity in self-awareness, emotional regulation, and acceptance of negative events or

emotions, individuals can access more positive outcomes, such as decreased anxiety, increased

attention, increased social and emotional awareness, and behavioral and academic gains as a

result of these skills working in concert (Worthen & Luiselli, 2017).

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Mindfulness in schools.

The majority of research on mindful interventions focuses on their effectiveness and

empirically supported benefits with adult populations. More recently, however, society has

become increasingly interested in the effects of mindfulness training with school-age children,

and initial research is yielding promising findings (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). A meta-analysis

of current literature and research on implementing mindful based practices with youth, ranging

all the way from preschool through high school, reveals beneficial results when interventions are

adapted to meet the specific development needs of younger participants (Zoogman, Goldberg,

Hoyt, & Miller, 2015). Such adaptations might include an intentional focus on concrete examples

rather than abstract concepts, shorter and more frequent sessions, and inclusion of parents and

other stakeholders for reinforcing practices. While there is controversy about the most

appropriate age for introducing mindfulness to children, research provides evidence that mindful

practice produces benefits for all school-age children (Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths, 2012).

Research has shown that fostering mindfulness skills in youth helps them develop

cognitive, social, and emotional skills needed for success, and there is a current push in

educational systems to focus on supporting the social-emotional development of students

alongside their academic development (Schonert-Reichl, 2015). Since schools serve as a

foundation for learning such skills, there is an increasing interest in researching the effects of

mindfulness programs in educational settings (Vickery & Dorjee, 2016). Schools appear to be an

effective site for such programs, since mindful practices in nature are cost and time effective,

versatile and easily adaptable, and simple to teach (Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths, 2012). The
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school setting, regardless of level, provides continuous opportunities for learning and application

as well as consistent and reinforced implementation.

Elementary school.

While mindfulness-based interventions have been thoroughly studied with adults, more

limited research exists with elementary age students. However, these interventions in younger

children are more recently gaining interest and attention, in part due to the significance of the

developmental stages occurring during this time. The elementary school years of a child’s life

are found to be integral in building the foundations for individual success; children’s

personalities, behaviors, and competencies expressed and influenced during these years begin to

consolidate into traits that carry into adolescence and adulthood (Coholic & Eys, 2016). Mindful

programs provide children at this stage of development with lifelong skills that can also in turn

consolidate and become beneficial habits, including emotional regulation, coping and social

skills, confidence and self-esteem, empathy, and attention and focus (Coholic & Eys, 2016).

Students receiving mindfulness training at a young age would also have an increased

understanding of their thoughts and feelings, more intentional decision making skills, and

healthier emotional expression, leading to improved functioning both in and out of the school

community, and setting the child up for success for the rest of their academic and personal

development (Coholic & Eys, 2016).

For mindfulness based interventions to be effective with elementary school aged children,

interventions must be adapted to meet the specific needs of younger clients. Mindfulness

programs with young children often require more frequent and intentional guided explanations

and prompting, a shifted focus onto physical observations rather than abstract concepts,
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incorporation of a significant amount of breathing techniques, and tend to be implemented

mostly during transitional times (Bostic et al., 2015). These programs in elementary schools

should also be adapted to accommodate shorter attention spans; activities and lessons that are

shorter in duration and provide engaging opportunities for movement and expression tend to be

more effective with young students who lack refined abilities to pay attention, focus, or sit still

for long periods of time (Coholic & Eys, 2016).

As the implementation of mindful interventions with elementary aged children in school

settings generates more interest and attention, these programs are being studied for their

effectiveness in order to gather empirical evidence. In a recent study, Schonert-Reichl et al.

(2015)​ ​explored the effectiveness of a mindfulness program with 4th and 5th grade students

(Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). This particular social and emotional learning (SEL) program was

specifically designed for the elementary school setting, and students were randomly assigned to

either the SEL lessons or a social responsibility program. After receiving the SEL lessons,

students showed improved cognitive control, increased empathy and emotional control,

improved relational skills, and increased peer acceptance and prosocial behaviors when

compared to their peers who received no intervention (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). These

findings are consistent with similar research and show promising outcomes of mindful

interventions with elementary school students.

Research on the implementation of mindfulness interventions in elementary schools have

not only revealed positive outcomes in students, but also supported the claim that these programs

are easy to implement and adaptable for diverse groups of children at this age. In the UK, an 8

week mindfulness program known as Paw b was explored as a possible appropriate intervention
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for children in primary schools (Vickery & Dorjee, 2016). This early intervention and preventive

program (EIPP) was incorporated into classroom curriculum and administered by teachers to

their students ranging from 7-9 years old, hypothesizing that students receiving the EIPP would

show increased emotional well-being (displayed differently across individual students) and

enhanced metacognition when compared to their peers receiving regular education (Vickery &

Dorjee, 2016). The study’s findings were not only consistent with this hypothesis, but also

provided evidence to support current research claiming mindfulness interventions are feasible for

elementary school teachers to deliver in their regular curriculum, as well as capable of positively

impacting a wide range of students (Vickery & Dorjee, 2016).

Middle school.

Recently, investigations of mindfulness interventions have taken shape specifically

pertaining to middle school students. These investigations include classroom-based mindfulness

meditation among sixth grade students (Britton, Lepp, Niles, Rocha, Fisher, & Gold, 2014),

effects of mindfulness on Latino adolescent students (Edwards, Adams, Waldo, Hadfield, &

Biegel, 2014), and homeless youth (Viafora, Mathiesen, & Unsworth, 2015). Some interventions

from the aforementioned research can be implemented in a variety of other settings in an attempt

to generalize many positive findings associated with each.

Britton et al. (2014) utilized a nonelective, classroom-based, teacher implemented

mindfulness meditation in comparison to a nonelective, classroom-based, teacher implemented

experiential activity in sixth grade classrooms. The mindfulness meditation consisted of breath

awareness and counting, awareness of thoughts, feelings, and sensations, and body sweeps.

Results suggested improvements in difficulties associated with internalizing, externalizing,

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attention, and affect for both conditions. The mindfulness condition specifically decreased the

risk of suicidal ideation as well as self-harming thoughts and behaviors. Britton et al. (2014) also

demonstrated the feasibility of implementing a mindfulness meditation intervention into standard

middle school curriculum.

Latino students considered at risk also experienced benefits, despite some lack of

significance, following implementation of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Teens

curriculum (Edwards et al., 2014). The curriculum included body scan meditation, sitting

meditation, hatha yoga, and walking meditation as well as didactic presentations, group sharing

of related experience, and instruction and encouragement for at-home mindfulness practice.

After completing the curriculum, students demonstrated significant increases mindfulness and

self-compassion. Other non-significant benefits include decreases in perceived stress and

depression, as well as decreases in anxiety and hostility.

Viafora et al. (2015) further provides evidence of the positive implications for

mindfulness-based interventions among middle school students. The investigation explored the

effects regarding a mindfulness intervention of strategies associated with mindful listening,

mindful eating, mindful pausing, mindful movements, guided mindful breathing, pleasant

experiences, class discussion, test taking role-play, and home activity practice. All students

reported improvements in dealing with a range of emotions and behaviors, particularly anger and

stress, across a multitude of situations. Students also rated high enjoyment of the mindfulness

course, indicating that students respond positively to such an intervention.

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High school.

In the adolescent stage of development, high school students have a constellation of tasks

and outcomes that can be attended to through mindfulness interventions, including academics,

behavior, and socio-emotional needs. Research conducted on developmentally-appropriate

mindfulness interventions at the secondary school level has demonstrated that such interventions

can yield positive outcomes for adolescents, such as the growth of interpersonal competencies,

emotional self-regulation, attention capacity, self-awareness, and coping strategies. Mindfulness

practice by adolescents is theorized to help promote academic, socioemotional, and behavioral

success, as adolescents are taught strategies that can help lower stress levels, engage students in

behavioral regulation, and encourage students to replace maladaptive behaviors with positive

alternative strategies. An example of an effective mindfulness intervention program at the high

school level is “Learning to Breathe: A Universal Prevention Program”, which targets emotional

regulation, awareness of psychological and physiological manifestations of stress, and explicit

teaching and discussion of mindfulness practices (Broderick & Jennings, 2012).

Pepping, Duvenage, Cronin, and Lyons (2016) discuss the prevalence of adolescent

exhibition of symptoms of psychopathology, including both internalizing (anxiety, depression,

and other changes within the psyche that impact mood and interaction) and externalizing (overt

interpersonal and behavioral tendencies that violate social norms) disorders.

Developmentally-appropriate mindfulness interventions can help mitigate symptoms of such

disorders and promote emotional regulation in adolescents; once learned, these strategies can

serve adolescents throughout the lifespan. In this study, 113 high school students were given a

variety of assessments (including those that measure mindfulness awareness and practice,
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emotional regulation, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, depression, and anxiety) that

were cross-checked to look for meaningful trends. The results demonstrate that having higher

levels of mindfulness awareness can have a positive impact on psychological outcomes, such as

anxiety, stress, and depression. The authors theorized that improved emotional regulation can

positively impact symptoms of psychopathology in adolescents, as opposed to low levels of

mindfulness practice and awareness which is a maladaptive strategy to address negative

emotions and experiences. These results align with research outcomes in studies on an adult

population. This study measured dispositional mindfulness, but mindfulness and emotional

regulation skills can be taught to adolescents in the school setting in order to work to improve

outcomes for students.

Worthen and Luiselli (2017) conducted a study with high school students in order to

evaluate the implementation and content of a 10-week-long mindfulness intervention program,

based off the curriculum by Williams and Penman called “Mindfulness: An Eight Week Plan for

Finding Peace in a Frantic World”; students also could supplement their practice by using the

Headspace application for smartphones. The students, who had a wide range of experience with

mindfulness practice, attended the full mindfulness course and then participated in a social

validity assessment of the course. The results of the social validity assessment spoke to the value

and utility of the mindfulness training; more than 85% of students reported that the course was a

positive experience and that it should be required for all students. More than 80% of students

also reported that the course taught them positive strategies for stress and anxiety, being more

mindful of their emotions, and being more mindful of their physiological well-being.
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Students with learning differences.

Students diagnosed with learning differences often struggle with comorbid

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or anxiety; symptoms for both of which can be

addressed by mindfulness interventions in order to enhance students’ academic and

social-emotional development. Within the last six years, researchers have shifted their focus to

identify some of the benefits associated with mindfulness for individuals with learning

differences.

Haydicky, Winer, Badali, Milligan, and Ducharme (2012) explored the effects of a

Integra Mindfulness Martial Arts for adolescent boys with learning differences and co-occurring

ADHD and anxiety. Mindfulness Martial Arts is intended to decrease problematic behavior and

increase self-awareness, self-control, adaptability, social skills and self-defense skills in

adolescents. Participants were exposed to the concepts of impermanence, nonjudgment,

acceptance, letting go and focusing on the moment through body scans, sitting meditation, and

walking meditation. Students with co-occurring ADHD demonstrated improvements in

externalizing behaviors, oppositional defiance, misconduct, social problems and monitoring

skills while students with co-occurring anxiety demonstrated improvements in self-reported

internalizing symptoms following the intervention. This mindfulness intervention also included

aspects of cognitive behavioral therapy.

Tarrasch, Berman, and Friedmann (2016) employed similar mindfulness activities as

described in the previous study, including body scans, sitting meditation, and stretching

exercises, through a Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction intervention for adults with dyslexia

and ADHD. Results indicated a decrease in overall reading errors and increases in maintaining
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lexical track as well as sustaining attention. Participants also reported improved mindfulness,

perceived stress, rumination, depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. Incorporating a slightly

different means of implementing a mindfulness-based intervention for students with attentional

difficulties, Idler, Mercer, Starosta, and Bartfai (2017) implemented a mindful breathing exercise

simultaneously during a reading fluency task. The mindful breathing exercise instructed students

to listen to the sound of a chime as long as they could hear it while focusing on breathing in and

out. Despite limitations due to sample size, students did not demonstrate improvements in

reading fluency, however, there were improvements in self-reported attention and stress during

the activity.

Mindfulness interventions are valuable across grade levels and school settings, as they

are comprised of universal and sustainable strategies that can be used to meet a variety of needs.

Observing the effects of these interventions across K-12 grade levels has the potential to further

support the need for mindful education in school settings.

Hypothesis

Based on the current literature, this research aims to answer the question “What are the

effects of mindful interventions on students’ mindful behavior in elementary, middle, and high

schools?” The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between elementary, middle, and

high school students’ mindful behavior and their participation in a mindfulness intervention. The

alternate hypothesis states that elementary, middle, and high school students receiving

mindfulness interventions will exhibit increased mindful behavior.

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Method

Participants

Elementary school.

Participants at this grade level attended a suburban elementary school in central North

Carolina. This population had a relatively low free and reduced lunch, as well as a high level of

parent involvement. Students who participated in this program attended the before school care

program, where their parents or guardians have registered and paid for their attendance. The

demographics of student participants varied for each session based on student interest and the

day of the week, as some students did not attend the before school care program every day.

Students ranged from Kindergarten through 5th grade and represented both genders.

All students in the before school care program had the choice of either attending their

regularly scheduled activity, which was based on grade level, or participating in the mindfulness

intervention. At the time of transition to these activities, the school’s counselor intern verbally

asked for student interest and students self-elected to follow the counselor to the library where

the intervention took place. The counselor intern led the intervention for a half hour before

having the students rejoin their peers at the end of the activity period.

Middle school.

Participants at the middle school level consisted of 31 students who attend a suburban

independent K-12 school in central North Carolina, specializing in teaching students who

struggle academically. This sample of participants represented 70% of all middle school

students at the school. Participants were comprised of students from grades 6 - 8, both males and

females, and represented a variety of ethnic backgrounds including White, African-American,

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Asian-American/Pacific Islander, and Latino(a). Students were selected to participate in the

mindfulness intervention based on teacher availability and scheduling. All students received one

of the 20-minute interventions via classroom guidance either in their classroom or the

counselor’s office. Students completed the pre-test prior to the intervention and completed the

post-test immediately following the intervention. Student participation was voluntary and

students could opt out at any time.

High school.

High school-level participants consisted of 12 students who attended a rural high school

(grades 9 through 12) in central North Carolina. Participants represented all four grade levels,

and the group was composed of six male students and six female students. The makeup of the

sample included nine Latino students (75% of the sample), two Caucasian students (16.7% of the

sample), and one African-American student (8.3% of the sample); all demographic information

was self-reported by students. Overall, the 900-student high school included 57% Latino

students, 14% African-American students, 24% Caucasian, 4% Multiracial students, and 1%

Asian. 71% of students received free or reduced lunch.

Participation in the mindfulness intervention was through student self-selection. The

intervention opportunity was marketed school-wide via announcements and video boards, but

particular groups were more specifically invited to attend the mindfulness lessons due to the

convenience of being able to market to large groups, such as students in all health classes,

students in the in-school suspension classroom, and students involved in after-school

extracurricular activities. All forms of marketing for the intervention directed interested students

to come to a conference room near the cafeteria during their respective lunch period to attend the
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mindfulness lessons. There, the school counseling intern had all materials and activities prepared

for participants.

Procedure

For each of the designated elementary, middle, and high schools, students from

previously identified groups self-elected to participate in this quasi-experimental mindfulness

interventions based on interest. There were 4 open classroom guidance lessons, led by the

school’s counseling intern, and participants were not required to attend all lessons. Each lesson

was pre-planned, clearly understood by the counselor intern, and each lasted approximately 20

minutes.

All students in the identified groups (before school program, self-selected at lunchtime,

and classroom guidance) were administered a pretest before the intervention took place.

Attendance was taken at each lesson to keep track of participants and contribute to process data.

Perception data was collected throughout the lessons via activities and questions that required

participants to show what they know, can do, or had just learned. Each student in the identified

groups was also administered a posttest at the conclusion of the four lessons, regardless of their

level of involvement in the intervention. Pretest and posttest results were reviewed, and the

self-reported results were compared and analyzed. Outcome data was collected after the

intervention terminated by analyzing behavioral results of the posttest.

Measures/Materials

The Mindful Student Questionnaire (MSQ) was given to students as a pre-test prior to the

mindfulness intervention as well as a post-test following the mindfulness intervention to assess

the effectiveness of the intervention (Appendix A). The MSQ is a 15-item self-report behavior
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 16

rating scale for measuring students’ school-specific mindfulness. It was designed for use as an

outcome and progress-monitoring measure for mindfulness-based interventions in schools.

Scoring responses to the MSQ reveals students’ Mindful Attention and Mindful Acceptance, the

combination of which indicates a Mindful Student Composite Score. Items on the MSQ also

yield a score for Approach and Persistence, behavior changes facilitated by mindfulness.

Research had demonstrated that the MSQ is internally reliable as well as convergently valid with

other measures of student well-being (Renshaw, 2016).

In addition to the quantitative data collection from the MSQ results, all administrations of

the mindfulness lessons also included a qualitative collection of data, through the use of a

grounded theory approach. Following each lesson, students were asked to share their

perceptions, opinions, and experiences. Students were asked about their experience of the

lessons, their understanding of the measures of the lessons (e.g. mindful attention), their beliefs

about mindfulness, and their consideration of how they might apply their knowledge of mindful

student behavior to future situations. The qualitative data was collected in writing or through

verbal sharing.

Lesson plans for the four mindfulness classroom guidance interventions are included in

the appendices, outlining activities involving breathing, art, yoga, meditation, and other

mindfulness psychoeducational topics.

Results

K-12

A paired samples t-test was conducted to investigate the influence of mindful

interventions on K-12 students’ mindful behavior. As shown in both Table 1 and Figure 1
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below, the analysis revealed a significant influence of mindfulness interventions on K-12

students’ mindful attention scores (t​(96)​= -5.238, p < .001), mindful acceptance scores (t​(96)​=

-5.295, p < .001), mindful composite scores (t​(96)​= -7.926, p < .001), and mindful approach and

persistence scores (t​(96)​= -3.539, p = .001) The results indicate that there is a significant

difference between K-12 students’ mindful attention scores (M=13.701, SD=3.254), mindful

acceptance scores (M=15.227, SD=3.650), mindful composite scores (M=30.814, SD=6.558),

and mindful approach scores (M=16.814, SD=2.848) prior to the mindfulness interventions and

K-12 students’ mindful attention scores (M=14.804, SD=3.151), mindful acceptance scores

(M=16.340, SD=3.697), mindful composite scores (M=33.217, SD=7.058), and mindful

approach and persistence scores (M=17.423, SD=2.742) following the mindfulness interventions.

Therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between K-12 students’

behavior and their participation in a mindfulness intervention is rejected.

Table 1
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Figure 1

Elementary school

A paired samples t-test was conducted to investigate the influence of mindful

interventions on elementary school students’ mindful behavior. As shown in both Table 2 and

Figure 2 below, the analysis revealed a significant influence of mindfulness interventions on

elementary school students’ mindful attention scores (t​(53)​= -4.283, p < .001), mindful acceptance

scores (t​(53)​= -4.579, p < .001), mindful composite scores (t​(53)​= -6.460, p < .001), and mindful

approach and persistence scores (t​(53)​= -3.063, p = .003) The results indicate that there is a

significant difference between elementary school students’ mindful attention scores (M=13.537,

SD=3.549), mindful acceptance scores (M=16.259, SD=3.234), mindful composite scores

(M=29.796, SD=5.399), and mindful approach scores (M=17.500, SD=3.033) prior to the

mindfulness interventions and elementary school students’ mindful attention scores (M=14.963,

SD=3.330), mindful acceptance scores (M=17.537, SD=2.938), mindful composite scores

MINDFULNESS IN K-12 19

(M=32.500, SD=4.693), and mindful approach and persistence scores (M=18.258, SD=2.748)

following the mindfulness interventions. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no

relationship between elementary school students’ behavior and their participation in a

mindfulness intervention is rejected.

Table 2

Figure 2
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Middle school

A paired samples t-test was conducted to investigate the influence of mindful

interventions on middle school students’ mindful behavior. As shown in both Table 3 and Figure

3 below, the analysis did not reveal a significant influence of mindfulness interventions on

middle school students’ mindful attention scores (t​(30)​= -1.616, p = .117), mindful acceptance

scores (t​(30)​= -1.916 p = .065), and mindful approach and persistence scores (t​(30)​= -0.000, p =

.1.000). However, the analysis revealed a significant influence of mindfulness interventions on

middle school students’ mindful composite scores (t​(30)​= -2479, p = .019). The results indicate

that there is not a significant difference between middle school students’ mindful attention scores

(M=13.710, SD=3.013), mindful acceptance scores (M=14.581, SD=3.784), and mindful

approach and persistence scores (M=16.226, SD=2.552) prior to the mindfulness interventions

and middle school students’ mindful attention scores (M=14.097, SD=3.134), mindful

acceptance scores (M=15.419, SD=4.178), and mindful approach and persistence scores

(M=16.226, SD=2.591) following the mindfulness interventions. Although, the results indicate

that there is a significant difference between middle school students’ mindful composite scores

(M=28.290, SD=4.268) prior to the mindfulness interventions and middle school students’

mindful composite scores (M=29.516, SD= 5.51) following the mindfulness interventions.

Therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between middle school

students’ mindful behavior and their participation in a mindfulness intervention is accepted for

mindful attention, mindful acceptance, and mindful approach and persistence; the null hypothesis

is rejected for mindful composite scores.

MINDFULNESS IN K-12 21

Table 3

Figure 3

High School

A paired samples t-test was conducted to investigate the influence of mindful

interventions on high school students’ mindful behavior. As shown in both Table 4 and Figure 4
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 22

below, the analysis revealed a significant influence of mindfulness interventions on high school

students’ mindful attention scores (t​(11)​= -3.954, p = .002), mindful acceptance scores (t​(11)​=

-4.733, p = .001), mindful composite scores (t​(11)​= -7.000 p < .001), and mindful approach and

persistence scores (t​(11)​= -4.180, p = .002) The results indicate that there is a significant

difference between high school students’ mindful attention scores (M=14.417, SD=2.503),

mindful acceptance scores (M=12.250, SD=3.279), mindful composite scores (M=41.917,

SD=5.265), and mindful approach scores (M=15.250, SD=1.658) prior to the mindfulness

interventions and high school students’ mindful attention scores (M=15.917, SD=1.881), mindful

acceptance scores (M=13.333, SD=3.284), mindful composite scores (M=46.000, SD=5.134),

and mindful approach and persistence scores (M=16.750, SD=1.712) following the mindfulness

interventions. Therefore, the null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between high

school students’ behavior and their participation in a mindfulness intervention is rejected.

Table 4
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Figure 4

Qualitative Results for K-12

Qualitative results for the K-12 mindfulness intervention were also noted through

grounded theory application in the form of written and verbal sharing, where students were

prompted to express their perceptions, opinions, and experiences. 89% of students participating

in the intervention responded positively to the lessons, and themes of new content knowledge,

relaxed bodies, and increased awareness of self were connected across these informal interviews.

While two third graders vocalized lack of excitement in the activities, and one middle schooler

conveyed irritation of the school counseling intern’s voice, the overwhelming majority of

conversations reflected positive attitudes towards learning and applying mindful skills.

Discussion

This research targeted the impact of a series of mindfulness classroom guidance lessons

on students’ mindful behavior. Students, through selection and referral for participation that

varied by grade level, participated in four mindfulness sessions that encouraged mindful
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 24

attention, acceptance, and approach and persistence through students’ experience of yoga, art,

and learning about the brain and senses. The study was comprehensive in terms of the

presentation of the lessons to a wide range of grade levels, from kindergarten through the twelfth

grade, and the results largely support the hypothesis of this study, which asserts that the

mindfulness intervention will result in changes of the participants’ understanding and

perceptions of mindful student behavior.

Results are consistent with rejecting the null hypothesis that there is no difference

between K-12 students’ mindful behavior prior to participation in mindfulness interventions and

K-12 students’ mindful behavior following participation in mindfulness interventions. Students

demonstrated significant increases in mindful acceptance scores, mindful attention scores, and

mindful approach and persistence. While middle school students did not display significant

increases in these measures, self-reports on the Mindfulness Student Questionnaire indicate that

scores increased slightly. One possibility for the discrepancy in significant increases could be

due to the influence of students’ learning differences at the middle school level. In general,

findings reflect trends in current literature - mindfulness interventions are efficient and practical

in K-12 settings. Participation in mindfulness interventions strengthened students approach and

persistence mindsets, which is crucial for successful social-emotional development as well as

stress reduction when faced with challenges at school.

Validity, Reliability, and Limitations

The results’ statistical significance, particularly at the elementary and high school levels,

as well as the qualitative information shared with researchers, support fairly strong internal

validity of the results. As for external validity, the diversity of the samples in this research, both
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 25

in terms of grade levels and racial demographics, helps to boost the external validity of the

results. However, the limited size of the sample limits the generalizability of the results. The

results were largely significant across settings, grade levels, demographics, and administrators of

the interventions, which supports the reliability of the results. The impact of age on results was

considered prior to administration of the intervention, and the interventions and instrument used

in this research were suitable for comprehension by all ages represented in this study. To sum up

the limitations of the research, the limited sample size, particularly of the high school sample,

and the use of only one measure of mindfulness could be changed in future research in order to

have more valid results.

Recommendations for Future Research

For future research, a larger sample size and the utilization of an additional measure of

mindfulness could be useful in collecting data. A larger sample size, especially one that

continues the diversity of age and race and school setting demonstrated in this study, can be

helpful in examining the generalizability of results across settings and demographics, but on a

larger scale. As for utilizing a second mindfulness instrument, future researchers would be able

to cross-reference the impact of the mindfulness intervention on students by analyzing the data

from two distinct measures of mindfulness. This helps to further examine and understand the

impact of the intervention through multiple facets of the research questions.

Implications for School Counselors

Although there are limitations to the research conducted, the results indicate that even

minimal, intentional lessons and conversations about mindful behavior have the potential to

produce positive outcomes in students. While the effectiveness of mindful interventions are
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 26

supported by empirical data and research, school counselors need not limit these interventions to

formal lessons and programs. Mindfulness, as a life skill, can be incorporated by school

counselors into core curriculum and counseling language so that students in all grades are

capable of understanding and implementing mindful practices. By modeling, teaching, and

applying mindful skills throughout a comprehensive program, whether that be short breathing

techniques or a formal intervention, school counselors can provide students with support for their

emotional, social, and academic success. Collaboration and training with teachers and other

stakeholders would further widen the range of impact, and provide students with multiple

individuals in their lives to reinforce their development of mindful skills.

Conclusion

Mindfulness interventions can be impactful in the school setting, across grade levels, as it

can teach students to experience their surroundings and emotions differently, to pay attention in a

mindful way, and to be aware of their approach and persistence with regards to various tasks.

Once taught, students can integrate mindfulness skills and attitudes into their daily routines,

which can then help to support positive outcomes longitudinally. The impact of mindfulness

interventions can be far-reaching across domains as well, helping students academically,

socially, and emotionally to reach positive outcomes; such possibilities make mindfulness

interventions a persuasive option for schools to implement. The results of this study support

previous findings in the literature that mindfulness interventions can positively impact students’

mindful behavior, both within and outside of the school setting.

MINDFULNESS IN K-12 27

References

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Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24​(2), 245-245. 10.1016/j.chc.2014.11.010

Britton, W., Lepp, N., Niles, H., Rocha, T., Fisher, N., & Gold, J. (2014). A randomized

controlled pilot trial of classroom-based mindfulness meditation compared to an active

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10.1016/j.jsp.2014.03.002

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Coholic, D. A., & Eys, M. (2016). Benefits of an arts-based mindfulness group intervention for

vulnerable children.​ Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 33(​ 1), 1-13.

10.1007/s10560-015-0431-3

Edwards, M., Adams, E. M., Waldo, M., Hadfield, O. D., & Biegel, G. M. (2014). Effects of a

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Idler, A. M., Mercer, S. H., Starosta, L., & Bartfai, J. M. (2017). Effects of a mindful breathing
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Renshaw, T., & Cook, C. (2017). introduction to the special issue: Mindfulness in the schools:

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Viafora, D. P., Mathiesen, S. G., & Unsworth, S. J. (2015;2014;). Teaching mindfulness to

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Appendix A
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 31

Retrieved from: h​ ttps://drive.google.com/file/d/0B52MeWxiYaIBZ0RDX3hWRWc1VXM/view

Appendix B

​Lesson Plan 1: Mindfulness and The Brain

School Counselor​: Nicole Simpson (Elementary School), Jessie Byrd (Middle School), Kara
McNamara (High School)
Grade: ​K-12
Date​: TBD
Activity: ​Mindfulness and The Brain

ASCA and NCGES Student Standards:

B-SMS 2. Demonstrate self-discipline and self-control
RED.SE.1.1 Understand the importance of self-control and responsibility.
RED.SE.1.2 Identify ways of controlling behaviors associated with emotional states, feelings,
and moods.

Learning Objectives:
1. Students will be able to define mindfulness.
2. Students will gain an understanding of mindfulness as a way of thinking and the role of
different parts of the brain in mindfulness.
3. Students will learn mindfulness breathing.
Materials:​ Attendance sheet, index cards, pens, ​Your Fantastic Elastic Brain​, “Mind the Bump”
video, brain diagram, breathing activity
Procedure:
1. The school counselor will take attendance and give students the pre-test survey. Mindfulness
will be defined as “​state of active, open attention on the present. When you're mindful, you
carefully observe your thoughts and feelings without judging them good or bad. Instead of letting
your life pass you by, mindfulness means living in the moment and awakening to your current
experience, rather than dwelling on the past or anticipating the future.” ​The school counselor will
review how mindfulness involves awareness, observation, and being nonjudgmental.
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 32

2. The school counselor will lead the class in a short breathing activity, choosing a
developmentally appropriate activity from “18 Amazing Mindfulness Activities for the
Classroom” from TeacherStarter.com.
3. Brain Activity​: The counselor will discuss how mindfulness, as a new way of thinking, is a
powerful tool for changing the brain. If we know more about the brain, we can train it and help it
grow in ways that will help us be more successful. The counselor will introduce and explain the
three important parts of a mindful brain: the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus.
Younger students will read ​Your Fantastic Elastic Brain​ by JoAnn Deak and older students will
watch “​Mind the Bump: Mindfulness and How the Brain Works​” on Youtube.
4. On index cards, students will write their own definition of mindfulness. The counselor will
assist with writing as needed.

Plan for Evaluation:

Process Data – ​Attendance will be recorded for each session.
Perception Data – ​Students’ definitions of mindfulness.
Outcome Data –​ ​Analysis of posttest results and referrals to the counselor for
mindfulness-related interventions.
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 33

Appendix C

​Lesson Plan 2: Mindfulness and Muscle Relaxation

School Counselor​: Nicole Simpson (Elementary School), Jessie Byrd (Middle School), Kara
McNamara (High School)
Grade: ​K-12
Date​: TBD
Activity: ​Mindfulness and Yoga

ASCA and NCGES Student Standards:

B-SMS 2. Demonstrate self-discipline and self-control
RED.SE.1.1 Understand the importance of self-control and responsibility.
RED.SE.1.2 Identify ways of controlling behaviors associated with emotional states, feelings,
and moods.

Learning Objectives:
1. Students will learn how to participate in mindful muscle relaxation.
2. Students will gain an understanding of various mindful activities to employ in their daily lives.
Materials: ​Breathing activity, muscle relaxation script, index cards, pens
Procedure:
1. The school counselor will take attendance and introduce the lesson to students. Mindfulness
will be defined as “​state of active, open attention on the present. When you're mindful, you
carefully observe your thoughts and feelings without judging them good or bad. Instead of letting
your life pass you by, mindfulness means living in the moment and awakening to your current
experience, rather than dwelling on the past or anticipating the future.” ​The school counselor will
review how mindfulness involves awareness, observation, and being nonjudgmental.
2. The school counselor will lead the class in a short breathing activity, choosing a
developmentally appropriate activity from “18 Amazing Mindfulness Activities for the
Classroom” from TeacherStarter.com. (A different activity than the previous session)
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 34

3. The school counselor will lead students in a guided muscle relaxation activity.
4. On index cards, students will write one way that they will be mindful before the next group
session. Counselor will assist with writing as needed.

Plan for Evaluation:

Process Data – ​Attendance will be recorded for each session.
Perception Data – ​Students’ description of one way they will be mindful before the next group
session.
Outcome Data –​ ​Analysis of posttest results and referrals to the counselor for
mindfulness-related interventions.

Muscle Relaxation

Have students sit in their seat, hands on their knees and palms facing up. Make sure legs are not
crossed. Follow the script below in a slow, calm, soothing voice.

“Everyone, I would like for you to close your eyes. Focus on your breathing and nothing else.
There are no other worries in this room. Breathe in, breathe out, breathe in, breathe out.”

Pause

“Take one hand and ball it into a fist. Tighten it as hard as you can. Even harder. Feel the tension
in your hand. Feel the tension travel up your arm…up to your shoulder…. into your chest. Feel
the tension travel to your other shoulder, down your other arm and into your other hand. Ball
your other hand into a fist. Feel the tension in your whole body. Embrace it”.

Pause

“Now I want you to focus on the hand you started with. Slowly open your hand, releasing that
tension. Feel the tension leaving your hand. Feel the tension being released from your arm… and
your shoulder… and your chest. Feel the tension leaving your other shoulder… and arm… and
hand. Open your other hand as well. Embrace the negative energy leaving your body.”

Pause

“Breathe in, breathe out, breathe in, breathe out.”

Pause for a long time, allowing for relaxation. Remind students every few minutes to bring their
attention back to their breathing.

“Slowly bring your mind back to your senses. Notice how your body feels. Slowly open your
eyes.”
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 35

Appendix D

​Lesson Plan 3: Mindfulness and Art

School Counselor​: Nicole Simpson (Elementary School), Jessie Byrd (Middle School), Kara
McNamara (High School)
Grade: ​K-12
Date​: TBD
Activity: ​Mindfulness and Art

ASCA and NCGES Student Standards:

B-SMS 2. Demonstrate self-discipline and self-control
RED.SE.1.1 Understand the importance of self-control and responsibility.
RED.SE.1.2 Identify ways of controlling behaviors associated with emotional states, feelings,
and moods.

Learning Objectives:
1. Students will identify and depict calming images.
2. Students will learn the importance of visualization in mindfulness.

Materials: ​Breathing activity, paper, and art supplies

Procedure:
1. The school counselor will take attendance and introduce the lesson to students. Mindfulness
will be defined as “​state of active, open attention on the present. When you're mindful, you
carefully observe your thoughts and feelings without judging them good or bad. Instead of letting
your life pass you by, mindfulness means living in the moment and awakening to your current
experience, rather than dwelling on the past or anticipating the future.” ​The school counselor will
review how mindfulness involves awareness, observation, and being nonjudgmental.
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 36

2. The school counselor will lead the class in a short breathing activity, choosing a
developmentally appropriate activity from “18 Amazing Mindfulness Activities for the
Classroom” from TeacherStarter.com. (A different activity than the previous session)
3. The school counselor will then provide students with blank paper and art supplies. Students
will be instructed to draw something that makes them feel calm (i.e. any place, person, thing, or
other image).
3. The school counselor will then explain the benefit of visualization in mindfulness.
4. With a partner, students will share what mindfulness means to them and then each pair will
share with the larger group.

Plan for Evaluation:

Process Data – ​Attendance will be recorded for each session.
Perception Data – ​Students’ sharing ideas of what mindfulness means to them.
Outcome Data –​ ​Analysis of posttest results and referrals to the counselor for
mindfulness-related interventions.
Appendix E

​Lesson Plan 4: Mindfulness and The Senses

School Counselor​: Nicole Simpson (Elementary School), Jessie Byrd (Middle School), Kara
McNamara (High School)
Grade: ​K-12
Date​: TBD
Activity: ​Mindfulness and The Senses

ASCA and NCGES Student Standards:

B-SMS 2. Demonstrate self-discipline and self-control
RED.SE.1.1 Understand the importance of self-control and responsibility.
RED.SE.1.2 Identify ways of controlling behaviors associated with emotional states, feelings,
and moods.

Learning Objectives:
1. Students will be able to define mindfulness.
2. Students will learn how mindfulness pertains to each of their five senses.

Materials: ​Breathing activity, index cards, pens

Procedure:
1. The school counselor will take attendance and introduce the lesson to students. Mindfulness
will be defined as “​state of active, open attention on the present. When you're mindful, you
carefully observe your thoughts and feelings without judging them good or bad. Instead of letting
your life pass you by, mindfulness means living in the moment and awakening to your current
experience, rather than dwelling on the past or anticipating the future.” ​The school counselor will
review how mindfulness involves awareness, observation, and being nonjudgmental.
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 37

2. The school counselor will lead the class in a short breathing activity, choosing a
developmentally appropriate activity from “18 Amazing Mindfulness Activities for the
Classroom” from TeacherStarter.com. (A different activity than the previous session)
3. Students will discuss how mindfulness pertains to the five senses, using developmentally
appropriate examples, based on the guided notes listed below.
4. If time allows, take students outside and ask them to be mindful of the experience as it pertains
to their five senses.
5. On index cards, students will again write one way that they will be mindful before the next
group session. Counselor will assist with writing as needed.

Plan for Evaluation:

Process Data – ​Attendance will be recorded for each session.
Perception Data – ​Students’ definition of mindfulness. (Compared to initial definition)
Outcome Data –​ ​Analysis of posttest results and referrals to the counselor for
mindfulness-related interventions.
“What your five senses can teach you about mindfulness” - Guided Notes for Discussion

1. Taste

Whenever you are eating or drinking, really focus on the taste of item. Is it bitter or sweet? Salty
or spicy? ​Being mindful when you are eating is so important​, and will help you to slow down
and aid your digestion.

2. Sight

Electronic gadgets keep us out of the present moment and unaware of what's happening outside
of the screen. Try leaving your phone at home and take a walk. So many of us walk with our
heads down, buried in our thoughts, without even realizing it. Look up to the beautiful horizon
and to the people you pass on the street. Notice how the shadows dance in the sun.

3. Sound

We rarely pay attention to everything we hear. Instead of using selective hearing and only
focusing on one sound, close your eyes, soften your ears and allow yourself to absorb all of the
sounds around you — the whirl of the wind, the rustle of dry leaves, or the jingle of the tags on a
dog's collar when it walks by. Bathe yourself in all of the sounds that surround you.

4. Touch

We are always touching something, but the majority of the time we are not aware of it unless it is
an unpleasant sensation like pain or burning. Practice becoming aware of everything that is
touching your body — from the warmth of the sun on your face, to ​the texture of the grass
MINDFULNESS IN K-12 38

beneath your bare feet​. Feel the fabric of your shirt touching your skin as it drapes over your
body.

5. Smell

Our sense of smell is such a gift, so literally allow yourself to stop and smell the roses!
Appreciate the smell of wet dirt in the cold morning dew, or the scent of coffee roasting with
cinnamon wafting through your kitchen.

Grounding yourself to these sensual, earthly experiences, will allow you to relish the present
moment. The residual effects on your mind and your body are highly beneficial. You don't
always need a meditation pillow and a mantra to practice mindfulness. Simply allow your body
to receive and delight in all the glorious gifts that surround us in each moment, by tuning into
your senses.