EDUCATIONAL UNIT

“PATER NOSTER”

Computing
Student: Jose Jhoel Figueroa Ramirez

Course: 4º de Secundaria

Matter: inlges

Teacher: Freddy Obando

Place:
La Paz – Bolivia
computing
1. Introduction
This work is a practical report about the origin of computers , classifying them by generations, each generation
is given by changes and technological improvements, but before talking about each generation we must know
something of the history that led to build the 1st computer .
For centuries men have tried to use forces and artifacts of different types to perform their jobs, to make them
simpler and faster. The known history of artifacts that calculate or compute goes back many years before
Jesus Christ.
Two principlesThey have coexisted with humanity on this issue. One is to use things to count, be it the fingers,
stones, shells, seeds. The other is to place those objects in determined positions. These principles were
gathered in the abacus , an instrument that continues to this day, to perform complex arithmetic calculations
with enormous speed and precision.
In the seventeenth century in the West the rule of calculation was in use , calculator based on inv. of Nappier,
Gunther and Bissaker. John Napier (1550-1617) discovers the relationship between arithmetic and geometric
series, creating tables that he calls logarithms. Edmund Gunter is in charge of marking the logarithms of Napier
in lines. Bissaker on the other hand places the lines of Nappier and Gunter on a piece of wood , thus creating
the calculation rule. For more than 200 years, the slide rule is perfected, becoming an extremely versatile
pocket calculator. By the year 1700 the digital numerical calculators, represented by the abacus and the
analogous calculators represented by the calculation rule, were commonly used throughout Europe .
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), besides writing philosophical and literary treatises , scientists and mathematicians ,
there was time to invent machines . One of them is your calculating machine, capable of making additions and
subtractions. Despite its occasional inaccuracy, this early machine of Pascal, became the prototype of
calculating artifacts, which are widely distributed throughout the world.
Gottfried W. von Leibnitz (1646-1717), was the next to advance in the design of a mechanical calculating
machine. His artifact was based on the principle of repeated addition and built in 1694. Many adaptations of
the Leibnitz machine lasted in office equipment , until recently. It took a long time for scientists and engineers
to take care of making accurate calculation equipment. The advances were made by the watch industry , which
developed mechanisms of great precision and tolerance during the eighteenth and fifteenth centuries
IX. The techniques of watchmaking applied to calculating machines produced highly refined instruments.
Charles Babbage (1792-1781), professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge,England , developed
in 1823 the concept of an artifact, which he calls "differential machine". The machine was designed to perform
calculations, store and select information , solve problems and deliver printed results. Babbage imagined his
machine composed of several others, all working harmoniously together: the receivers collecting information; a
team transferring it; a storage element of data and operations ; and finally a printer delivering results. Despite
its incredible conception, Babbage's machine, which looked a lot like a computer, never came to be
built. Babbage's plans were too ambitious for his time. Too much and too soon. This advanced concept, with
respect to the simple calculator, earned Babbage to be considered as the precursor of the computer.
Babbage's girlfriend, Ada Augusta Byron, later Countess of Lovelace, daughter of the English poet Lord Byron,
who helps him develop the concept of the Differential Machine, creating programs for the analytical machine, is
recognized and respected, as the first programmer of computers.
A language of computing takes its name today: ADA.
Joseph Jacquard (1752-1834), French industrialist is the next to contribute something to the modern concept
of computers, to move forward.
Jacquard had the idea of using punch cards to handle knitting needles, on mechanical looms. A set of cards
constituted a program , which created textile designs.
An ingenious combination of the concepts of Babbage and Jacquard, give rise in 1890 to an electromechanical
equipment which saves from chaos to Census Bureau State States. Hermann Hollerith uses
a mechanical drillto represent letters of the alphabet and digits on paper cards, which had 80 columns and
rectangular shape. The Hollerith machine, using perforated information in the cards, performs the tabulation of
many data in a short time. This device is called by its inventor Unitary Registration Machine (MRU). Shortly
after, they begin to build in series and to sell by the company International Business Machinery -
IBM, company of the 3 letters.
1944 marks the date of the first computer, to the current mode, which is put into operation. It's Dr. Howard
Aiken at Harvard University, United States, who presents it with the name of Mark I. This is the first information
processing machine. The Mark I worked electrically, instructions and information are entered into it by means
of punched cards. The components work based on electromechanical principles. Despite its weight over 5 tons
and its slowness compared to current equipment, it was the first machine to have all the characteristics of a
real computer.
The first electronic computer was completed in 1946, by JPEckert and JWMauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania, USA and was called ENIAC. With it a new era begins, in which the computer it becomes the
center of technological development, and of a profound change in the behavior of societies .
 2. Classification of Computers
Generations
Taking into account the different stages of development that computers had, the following divisions are
considered as isolated generations with characteristics of each one, which are listed below.
First Generation (1951-1958)
Bulbs
Main Characteristics
 Systems consisting of vacuum tubes, they gave off a lot of heat and had a relatively short life.
 Large and heavy machines. The large ENIAC computer (30 tons) is built.
 High energy consumption The voltage of the tubes was 300v and the possibility of melting was great.
 Storing information inside magnetic drum. A magnetic drum had its inside of the computer, it collected and
memorized the data and the programs that were supplied to it.
 Continuous failures or interruptions in the process .
 They required special auxiliary air conditioning systems .
 Programming in machine language, consisted of long strings of bits, zeros and ones, so the programming was
long and complex.
 High cost .
 Use of punched cards to supply data and programs.
 Representative computer UNIVAC and used in the presidential elections of the USA in 1952.
 Industrial manufacturing The initiative ventured to enter this field and began the manufacture of serial
computers.

Second generation (1959-1964)

Transistors
When the vacuum tubes were replaced by the transistors , the latter were cheaper, smaller than
the miniaturized valves consumed less and produced less heat. For all these reasons, the density of the circuit
could be increased significantly, which meant that the components could be placed much closer to each other
and save much more space.
Main characteristics
 Transistor as the main power. The main component is a small piece of semiconductor, and is exposed in so-
called transistor circuits .
 Decrease in size
 Decrease in consumption and heat production .
 Its reliability reaches unimaginable goals with ephemeral vacuum tubes.
 More quickly, the speed of operations is no longer measured in seconds but in ms.
 Internal memory of ferrite cores.
 Storage instruments : tapes and discs.
 Improve the input and output devices, for the best reading of punched cards, photoelectric cells were available.
 Introduction of modular elements.
 Increase reliability
 The printers increase their ability to work.
 Programming languages more powerful, assemblers and high level (fortran, cobol and algol).
 Increasing commercial applications, for the preparation of payroll , billing and accounting , etc.

Third generation (1964 - 1971)

Integrated circuit (chips)
Main Features
 Integrated circuit developed in 1958 by Jack Kilbry.
 Integrated circuit, miniaturization and gathering of hundreds of elements on a silicon plate or (chip).
 Lower energy consumption
 Appreciable space reduction.
 Increase in reliability and flexibility.
 Increases storage capacity and reduces response time.
 Generalization of high level programming languages.
 Compatibility to share software between different equipment.
 Computers in Series 360 IBM.
 Teleprocessing: Remote terminals are installed, which access the central computer to perform operations,
extract or enter information in data banks , etc ...
 Multiprogramming: A computer that can process several Programs simultaneously.
 Timeshare: Use of a computer by several timeshare clients , as the device can discern between
different processes that it performs simultaneously.
 Renewal of peripherals .
 Instrumentation of the system .
 Extension of applications: in Industrial Processes, in Education , in the
Home, Agriculture , Administration , Games , etc.
 The minicomputer.

Fourth generation (1971-1982)

Integrated microcircuit
The microprocessor : the process of reducing the size of the components comes to operate at microscopic
scales. Microminiaturization allows the construction of the microprocessor, an integrated circuit that governs
the fundamental functions of the computer.
The applications of the microprocessor have been projected beyond the computer and are found in a multitude
of devices, be they medical instruments, automobiles, toys , appliances, etc.
Memoirs Electronics: The internal memories of ferrite magnetic cores are discarded and electronic memories
are introduced, which are faster. At first they present the disadvantage of their greater cost, but this diminishes
with the manufacture in series.
Database processing system : the quantitative increase of databases leads to create management forms that
facilitate the tasks of consultation and editing . The database treatment systems consist of a set
of interrelated hardware and software elements that allows a simple and fast use of information
Main characteristics
 Microprocessor: Developed by Intel Corporation at the request of a Japanese company (1971).
 The Microprocessor: Integrated Circuit that gathers in the silicon plate the main functions of the computer and
that is mounted in a structure that facilitates multiple connections with the other elements.
 Circuits are minimized, storage capacity increases.
 They reduce response time.
 Great expansion of the use of computers.
 Faster electronic memories.
 Database treatment systems.
 Generalization of applications: innumerable and affect practically all fields of human activity: Medicine ,
Home, Commerce , Education, Agriculture, Administration , Design, Engineering , etc ...
 Multiprocess
 Microcomputer

Fifth Generation And Artificial Intelligence (1982-)

The purpose of Artificial Intelligence is to equip Computers with "Human Intelligence" and the ability to reason
to find solutions . Another fundamental factor of the design, the ability of the computer to recognize patterns
and sequences of processing previously found, (Heuristic programming) that allows the computer to remember
previous results and include them in the processing, in essence, the computer will learn from Your own
experiences will use your original Data to obtain the answer through reasoning and will preserve those results
for later processing and decision making tasks. He Newly acquired knowledge will serve as the basis for the
next series of solutions.
Main characteristics
 Higher speed
 Greater miniaturization of the elements.
 Increase memory capacity .
 Multiprocessor ( interconnected processors ).
 Natural Language
 Programming languages: PROGOL (Programming Logic) and LISP (List Processing).
 Voice activated machines that can respond to words spoken in different languages and dialects.
 Capacity of translation between languages that will allow the instantaneous translation of spoken and written
languages.
 Intelligent elaboration of the knowledge and number of data processing.
 Processing characteristics similar to the Human processing sequences.
 Artificial Intelligence includes the following fundamental aspects:

A. Expert Systems
B. An expert system is not a Library (that provides information), but a counselor or specialist in
a subject (hence providing knowledge, experienced advice).
An expert system is a sophisticated computer program, has in its memory and its structure a large amount
of knowledge and, above all, strategies to debug it and offer it according to requirements, making the
system a specialist that is programmed.
It duplicates the way of thinking of recognized experts in the fields of medicine, strategy military, oil
exploration, etc ... The computer is programmed to react in the same way that experts would, to the same
questions, drew the same initial conclusions, verified in the same way the accuracy of the results and
rounded the ideas within well-defined principles.
It is that computers (and their applications in robotics ) can communicate with people without any difficulty
of understanding, either orally or in writing: talking with the machines and that they understand
our language and also make themselves understood in our language.
C. Natural language

Science that deals with the study, development and applications of robots. Robots are devices composed
of sensors that receive Input Data and that are connected to the Computer. It receives the input
information and instructs the Robot to perform a certain action and so on.
The purpose of the construction of robots lies mainly in their intervention in manufacturing
processes. example: paint in spray, weld car bodies , move materials , etc ...
D. Robotics
E. Voice Recognition

Voice recognition applications aim to capture, by a computer, the human voice, either for the treatment of
natural language or for any other type of function .
3. Conclusion
Thanks to computers and advances in relation to them we have reached a very high level of technology which
has served us in many areas, such as communications , medicine, education , etc.
Current research aimed at increasing the speed and capacity of computers is mainly focused on improving the
technology of integrated circuits and the development of even faster switching
components. Large- scale integrated circuits containing several million components on a single chip have been
built.
Computers have become the main tool used by man and they are already an essential part of each one of us.
Other developments:
The integrated circuits have reduced the size of the devices with the consequent decrease in manufacturing
costs and maintenance of the systems. At the same time, they offer greater speed and reliability. Digital clocks,
laptops and electronic games are systems based on microprocessors .
Medical electronics has progressed from computed tomography (CT) to systems that can further differentiate
the organs of the human body . Devices have also been developed that allow to see the blood vessels and the
respiratory system.
4. Bibliography
"Electronics." Microsoft ® Encarta® 2001 Encyclopedia . © 1993-2000 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved .
http : //www.iacvt.com.ar/generaciones.htm
http://www.formarse.com.ar/informatica/generaciones.htm
http://www.perantivirus.com/historia/index.htm
Basic concepts
Vacuum tubes
A vacuum tube consists of a glass capsule from which the air has been extracted, and which has several metal
electrodes inside it. A simple tube of two elements (diode) is formed by a cathode and an anode, the latter
connected to the positive terminal of a power source . The cathode (a small metal tube that is heated by a
filament) releases electrons that migrate towards it (a metallic cylinder aroundto the cathode, also called a
plate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the anode, the electrons will only flow towards the anode during
the positive half-cycle; During the negative cycle of the alternating voltage, the anode repels the electrons,
preventing any current from passing through the tube. The diodes connected in such a way that only the
positive half-cycles of an alternating current (ac) are allowed are called rectifier tubes and are used in the
conversion of alternating current to direct current.

The transistor
The bipolar transistor was invented in 1948 to replace the triode vacuum tube. It consists of three layers of
doped material, which form two pn (bipolar) junctions with pnp or npn configurations. One connection is
connected to the battery to allow current flow (frontal negative polarization, or direct polarization), and the other
is connected to a battery in the opposite direction (reverse polarization). If the current in the direct bias junction
is varied by the addition of a signal, the reverse bias junction current of the transistor will vary accordingly. The
principle can be used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal applied to the direct polarization junction
will cause a largechange in the reverse bias junction current.
Integrated circuits
Most integrated circuits are small pieces, or chips, of silicon, between 2 and 4 mm2, on which the transistors
are manufactured. Photolithography allows the designer to create hundreds of thousands of transistors on a
single chip by suitably positioning the numerous n and p-type regions. During manufacturing, these regions are
interconnected by tiny conductors, in order to produce complex specialized circuits. These integrated circuits
are called monolithic because they are manufactured on a single silicon crystal. Chips require much less space
and power , and their manufacture is cheaper than that of an equivalent circuit composed of individual
transistors.

This integrated circuit, an F-100 microprocessor, is only 0.6 cm2, and is small enough to pass through the eye
of a needle.