Wind Energy Conversion Systems(WECS)

Wind Energy
• Wind Energy is a manifestation of the solar Energy
• Wind is the air-in-motion

Origin of Wind

1. Planetary Winds
Daily rotation
Unequal temperature between polar
and equatorial regions

2. Local Winds
Unequal heating and cooling of ground surface and
ocean/lake surface during day and night
Wind Energy

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Wind Energy
 Applications of Wind Energy
• Agricultural and Rural
– Grinding flour
– Wood cutting saw
– Stone crushers
– Water pumping
– Mixtures

• Ocean Transport

• Power generation(commercially successful after 1988)

 Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS)
Classification:-
Based on rotation of axis
– Horizontal axis wind turbine
– Vertical axis wind turbine

Based on capacity
– Very small 0.5-1.0kW
– Small 1-15kW
– Medium 15-250kW
– Large 250-1000kW
– Very large  >1MW
Wind Machines
Horizontal Axis Wind Machines
Horizontal Axis Wind Machines
 Vertical Axis Wind Machines
Accepts wind from any direction without adjustment.
Gearing and generators can be directly coupled to the axis at ground level.

The basic vertical axis designs are

the Darrieus, which has curved blades,
the Giromill, which has straight blades, and
the Savonius, which uses scoops to catch the wind.
Darrieus

H-Darrieus-Rotor

Giromill
Vertical Axis Wind Machines
Vertical Axis Wind Machines
Horizontal Axis Wind Machines(Propeller Type)
Horizontal Axis Wind Machines
 Horizontal Axis Wind Machines(Lift force)
Axis of rotation is parallel to the air stream.

Lift machines can have blade sections moving considerably faster

than the wind speed.
e.g. A keeled sail boat which can sail faster than wind

Lift
Wind Energy Conversion System
 Power in Wind (Linear Momentum and basic theory)

In the unperturbed state a column of wind upstream of the

turbine, with cross sectional area A1 of the turbine disk,
has
Kinetic Energy = Work = ½muo2

Where:
m= mass of air entering
= density (ρ) x volume (Area x distance)
= ρ x A1x d
uo = velocity of air

A1
uo
d
Power in the Wind

Power Po = Work / t
= Kinetic Energy/ t R

= ½muo2/t = ½(ρA1d)uo2/t

= ½ρA1uo2(d/t) d/t = uo
d/t = V
= ½ρA1uo3 Swept Area – A = πR2 (m2)
Area of the circle swept by the rotor.
ρ = air density –its about 1-kg/m3
Power in the Wind
A typical value of

ρ =1.2 kg/m3, uo = 10 m/s R

Po = 600 W/m2

In gale force condition

uo ~ 25 m/s
So Po = 10,000 W/m2 Swept Area – A = πR2 (m2)
Area of the circle swept by the rotor.
ρ = air density –its about 1-kg/m3
Power in the Wind = ½ρA1uo3 (1)
 Power in the Wind Betz model for expanding airstream
The rotor is treated as an “actuator disc”, across which there is a change of
pressure as energy is extracted and a consequent decrease in the linear
momentum of the wind

Downstream Turbine Upstream

A1 is the rotor swept
area.
u2
u1
uo Ao is positioned in the
oncoming wind front
unaffected by the
turbine.

A2 is positioned at the
A2 A1 Ao minimum wind speed
before the wind front
reforms downwind.
 Power in the Wind
Betz model for expanding airstream
The force or thrust on the turbine is the reduction in
momentum per unit time from the air mass flow rate m:
F = muo-mu2 (2)

This force is applied by an assumed uniform air flow of

speed u1.

The power extracted by the turbine is

PT = Fu1 = m(uo-u2) u1 (3)
 Power in the Wind
Betz model for expanding airstream
The loss in energy per unit time by that airstream is the
power extracted from the wind:

Pw= ½ m(uo2-u22) (4)

 Power in the Wind
Betz model for expanding airstream
Equating (3) and (4)
(uo-u2) u1 = ½ (uo2-u22) = ½ (uo-u2) (uo+ u2) (5)

Hence
u1 = ½ (uo+ u2) (6)

Thus, the air speed through the actuator disk cannot be less
than half the unperturbed wind speed.
 Power in the Wind (Betz model for expanding airstream)

The mass of air flow in through the disk per unit

time is given by m:
m = ρA1u1 (7)

So in (3) i.e. PT = Fu1 = m(uo-u2) u1

The power extracted by the turbine is

PT = ρA1u12(uo-u2) (8)
 Power in the Wind (Betz model for expanding airstream)

Now substitute for u2 from u1 = ½ (uo+ u2)

PT = ρA1u12[uo-(2u1- uo)]

= 2ρA1u12(uo-u1) (9)
 Power in the Wind (Betz model for expanding airstream)

The interference factor α (induction or the perturbation

factor) is the fractional wind speed decrease at the
turbine.

Thus α = (uo-u1)/ uo (10)

and u1 = (1- α) uo (11)

Also From Eq (6) u1 = ½ (uo+ u2)

α = (uo-u2)/2uo
 Power in the Wind (Betz model for expanding airstream)
From (11) substituting for u1 in (9)
PT = 2ρA1 (1- α)2 uo2[uo- (1- α) uo]

= ½ ρA1uo3[4 α (1- α)2] (12)

PT = Po CP (13)

Where Po is the power in the unperturbed wind and

CP is the fraction of power extracted, the power coefficient:

CP = 4 α (1- α)2 (14)

The maximim value of Cp occurs when α = 1/3
Cpmax = 16/27 = 0.59

Betz' law states that only less than 16/27(or 59%) of the
wind power can be converted into mechanical power
using a wind turbine.

In practical operation, a good commercial WECS may have

a Cpmax = 0.4
Thrust on Turbines
 Thrust on Turbines
The motion of incompressible fluids in streamlined
frictionless flow is treated by Bernoulli’s equation.

po/ρo+gz1+uo2/2 = p2/ρ2+gz2+u22/2 (15)

The changes in z and ρ are negligible compared with the

other terms, so if ρ is the average air density then

Δp = po- p2= (uo2-u22)ρ/2 (16)

Δp is called the static pressure difference

 Thrust on Turbines
The terms in u2ρ/2 are the dynamic pressures.
The maximum value of static pressure difference occurs at
u2 approaches zero.

So Δpmax = ρuo2/2 (17)

The maximum thrust on the turbine is

FAmax. = Δpmax . A1= A1ρuo2/2 (18)

On a horizontal axis machine this thrust is centered on the

turbine axis and is called the axial thrust FA.
 Thrust on Turbines
The thrust equals the rate of loss of momentum of
the airstream:
FA = m (uo-u2) (19)

Also FA = (ρA1u1) (2uoα) (since uo-u2 = 2uoα)

= ρA1 (1- α) uo (2uoα) = ½ ρA1uo2 [4α (1- α)]

= CF (½ ρA1uo2 ) (20)
= CF Famax
Axial Force Coefficient CF = 4α (1- α)
 Thrust on Turbines

CF = 1 when α = ½, equivalent to u2=0.

CF = 8/9 Max. Power extraction by the Betz

criterion occurs when α = 1/3

CF = 1.2, in practice owing to edge effects.

The term ½A1uo2 in FA increases rapidly with

increase in wind speed.
 Thrust on Turbines
In practice normal WECS become unable to accept the
thrust forces for wind speeds above about 15 to 20m/s.
Power Output Increases with the Swept Rotor
Area
125m  6MW
How big will wind turbines be?
 How big will wind turbines be?

2010

.
1980
150 m2
1985
250 m2 1990
2005
800 m2 1995

2000
1,800 m2
A= 12,000 m2
3,700 m2
 Stalling of Wind Turbine
The following methods are used to stall the wind turbine:
1. To turn the turbine out of the wind.
2. To lessen power extraction and hence thrust by rotating the airfoils or
extending spoil flaps.
3. To design fixed blades so they become extremely inefficient and self-stalling
in high wind speed.
4. To stop the rotation by braking.
Method (3) is best, giving failsafe operation at low cost without severe stresses on
the machinery.
Self-stalling blades may have a low power coefficient and not give optimum power
extraction in normal conditions.

Lift STALL
 ωR
Torque
The torque causes rotational shaft power. R

For a propeller turbine of radius R

Tmax = Fmax R
Also

Au R
2
Tmax  1 o

2
For a working machine

T = CT Tmax
where CT is torque coefficient
 ωR
Torque
Tip Speed Ratio:

Outer blade tip speed(v t ) R

 
Unperturbed wind speed(u o ) u o

ω rotational frequency

Substituting for R in Torque

 A u (uo   Po 
2
Tmax  1 o

2 
The shaft power is the power derived from the turbine(PT)
PT = T ω

Also PT = Cp Po

Therefore

Cp Po = CT Tmax ω

Cp Po = CT Po λ

Fraction of power extracted(Power Coefficient) is given by

Cp = λ CT
In practice Cp and CT will both be functions of λ and
are not cont.
(CT)max = 0.59/ λ

Performance Over Range of Tip Speed Ratios

0.4
Cp
0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Tip Speed Ratio
 Blade Planform - Solidity
Blade planform is the shape of the
flatwise blade surface

Solidity is the ratio of total rotor planform R

area to total swept area
a
Low solidity (0.10) = high speed, low torque

Solidity = 3a/A
High solidity (>0.80) = low speed, high torque
Solidity and Tip speed ratio
 Characteristics of Practical Turbines
SOLIDITY: described by giving the number of blades.

• High solidity turbines operate at low values of tip speed ratio and
have high starting torque, but soon reach maximum power at low
rotational frequency (water pumping).

• Low solidity machines have low starting torque and may indeed not
be self-starting, but reach maximum power at high rotational
frequency.

• At high values of λ the torque coefficient(CT), and hence the torque,

drops to zero and the turbines ‘freewheel’.

• Maximum torque and maximum power extraction are not expected

to occur at the same values of λ.
Characteristics of Practical Turbines
 Drag Machines
The drag machine consists of flaps, which are moving parallel to the
undisturbed wind of speed uo.
The pressure difference across a stationary flap held perpendicular to
the wind velocity is given by (neglecting edge effects):

 uo2
Pmax 
2
For a flap, the max. drag force is
 A(uo  v) 2
Fmax 
2
Where A is c/s area of the flap
v is speed of the flap
17-m Darrieus blade during fabrication
 Drag Machines
The actual drag force departs from ideal drag force.

Therefore the actual drag force is given as:

CD  A(uo  v) 2
FD 
2
Where CD is drag coefficient

The Power transmitted to the flap is

CD  Auo  v) v 2
PD  FD v 
2
Pmax with respect to v
 Drag Machines
This is a maximum with respect to v when v = uo/3
so
4  Auo3
PD max  CD
27 2
The Power Coefficient for drag machines is defined as:

 Auo3
PD max  C p
2
So Cpmax = 4/27 CD
CD 0 for a pointed object
1.5(max.)for a concave shape as used in strd. Anemometers
The max. power coefficient for a drag machine is
Cpmax = 4/27 CD = 4/27(1.5) = 22%
 Drag Machines

The efficiency of lift machine is about 40%

The drag-only devices have power extraction efficiencies

of only 33% that of lift force turbines for the same area
of cross-section.

Power extraction may be improved by incorporating more

flaps or by arranging concentrated air flows.
 Dynamic Matching
Tip speed ratio
Power extraction efficiency will decrease from an optimum
if:

• The blades are so close together, or rotating so rapidly,

that a following blade moves into the turbulent air
created by a preceding blade
or

• The blades are so far apart or rotating so slowly that

much of the air passes through the cross-section of the
device without interfering with a blade.
 Dynamic Matching

Rotational Frequency too slow: Rotational Frequency too fast:

Some wind passes unperturbed through Energy is dissipated in turbulent motion
the actuator disc and vortex shedding
 Dynamic Matching
It becomes important to match the rotational frequency of the
turbine to particular wind speeds so that optimum efficiency is
obtained.

Rotational frequency optimum:

whole airstream affected, d is the length of
the wind strongly perturbed by the rotating
blades
Dynamic Matching
 Dynamic Matching
PT is function of the tb as compared with the tw.
Where
tb is time for one blade to move into the position previously occupied
by the preceding blade.

tw is the time between the disturbed wind moving past that position
and the normal airstreams becoming re-established.

It varies with size and shape of the blades and inversely as the
wind speed.

For an n-bladed turbine rotating at angular velocity ω

2
tb 
n
 Dynamic Matching

A disturbance at the turbine disk created by a blade into

which the following blade moves will last for a time tw,

tw = d/uo

where d is length of disturbed airstream

A1

uo
d
Maximum Power extraction occurs when tw~ tb at the blade tips,
where maximum incremental area is swept by the blades.
Therefore,
n 2

uo d
Multiplying by R each side of this,

n R 2 R 2 R
  n 
uo d d

λ is the tip speed ratio

2 R
  
n d
Substitute k = d/R
Substitute a constant k = d/R,
The tip speed ratio for maximum power extraction is

2
o 
kn
Practical results show that k ~ ½, so for an n-bladed turbine

4
o 
n
For a 2-bladed turbine Cpmax occurs for λo = 6
a 4-bladed turbine Cpmax occurs for λo = 3
Two-bladed wind turbine designs have the advantage of saving the cost of
one rotor blade and its weight.

But
•They require higher rotational speed to yield the same energy output.

•Two- and one-bladed machines require a more complex design with a

hinged (teetering hub) rotor.

Most modern wind turbines are three-bladed designs with the rotor position
maintained upwind (on the windy side of the tower) using electrical motors in
their Yaw Mechanism.
The wind turbine yaw
mechanism
 Airfoil Behavior

α = low
• The Lift Force is
perpendicular to the
direction of motion. We
want to make this force
α = medium
BIG.
<10 degrees

• The Drag Force is

parallel to the direction
of motion. We want to α = High
make this force small. Stall!!
 Characteristics of the Wind
Basic meteorological data
A standard meteorological measurement of wind
speed measures the length or run of the wind
passing a 10m high cup anemometer in10minutes.

• The direction of the wind refers to the compass

bearing from which the wind comes.

• Meteorological data are usually presented as a

wind rose showing the average speed of the wind
within certain ranges of direction

The Power of the Wind:

Cube of Wind Speed
The Wind Rose
 Characteristics of the Wind
Variation with height
Energy Production Terms
• Power in the Wind = 1/2AV3
• Betz Limit - 59% Max
• Power Coefficient - Cp
• Rated Power – Maximum
power generator can
produce.
• Capacity factor
– Actual energy/maximum
energy
• Cut-in wind speed where
energy production begins
• Cut-out wind speed where
energy production ends.
Typical Power Curve
 Site Characteristics
Wind Turbine broadly classified as

Small Machines (<100 kW)

Large Machines (>100 kW)

Siting Procedure for small machine involves evaluation of the wind characteristics and
finding the best acceptable site within the location

Large Machines

Used to generate power for distribution in central power

Large area require
Suitable site depends on upon the favorable wind activity

Mean Wind Energy Wind

Total energy production is less because:
1/ 3
n
 n 3
 ui   ui 
uE   1  Availability factor (<100%)
u 1
 n  Variation of wind velocity
n  
 
General Pattern of Wind Speed
Variations
Weibull Distribution
 Weibull Distribution

Weibull distribution model useful and appropriate for wind turbine

performance analysis

This model gives the probability that the wind velocity is grater than a selected
value U for a locality where the mean wind velocity u is known

Probability of the wind velocity is given by

 ( u / Cr ) Kr
P(ui  u)  e
Where,
P(ui>u) = probability that incoming wind velocity exceeds a value u at reference height
Kr = 1.09+ 0.2u

u
Cr  m/ s
1 1 / K r 

= gamma function
 Weibull Distribution

Velocity of the wind at the turbine hub


u H 
  
ur  H r 
Where
 log ur  Z 
0.2

   o 1    o   o 
 log uo   Hr 

Zo = surface roughness length = 0.4 m

uo = fixed velocity = 67.1 m/s
Hr = reference height = 30 ft = 9.1 m
Ur = velocity at reference height
Power Density Function
 Power Extraction by a Turbine
The total energy(E) extracted by the turbine in the period T is given
by  
1 3 
E   Eu du     u C p ( uT )  du
u 0  
u 0
2
The average power extracted if the air density is considered constant
is

E _

 PT    u u C p du
3

T 2 u 0

The Cp has be defined in terms of uo for evaluating the above

equation
There are four distinct wind speed regions :

1. Below cut-in speed uci:

Eu = 0 for uo<uci

2. Above the rated speed uR:

Eu = Φu > uR PRT
where PR is the rated power output

3. Above the cut-out speed uco:

Eu = 0 for uo>uco

Most machines do not cut out in high wind speeds, but continue to
operate at greatly reduced efficiency yet at reasonably high
power
4. Between uci and uR
The turbine power output PT will depend on the operating
conditions and type of machine.
For many machines
PT ~ auo3-b PR
where a and b are constants

At cut in , PT = 0; so uci3 =b PRT/a

At rated Power PT = PR so uR3 =(1+b) PR/a

Thus (uci/uR)3 = b/(1+b);

Hence a & b are determined in terms of uR, uci and PR