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Complex Numbers Explained with Worked Examples

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DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2712.5442

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COMPLEX NUMBERS
EXPLAINED
WITH

By
Shefiu S. Zakariyah, PhD
PREFACE
After a successful maiden edition of this series – many thanks for your comments and
feedback –I am delighted to present another booklet for potential mathematicians,
scientists and engineers. This current work – Complex Numbers Explained with Worked
Examples – offers 50 worked examples on complex numbers accompanied with a
comprehensive background on the topic. The questions used in this work are of similar
standard to those in mathematics and engineering textbooks designed for A-level,
college and university students. Advanced learners and postgraduate engineering
students, particularly those returning to study electrical and electronics engineering
after a break from the academic environment, will also find this helpful. Additionally, it
could be used as a reference guide by teaching staff/ tutors/teachers during classes.

Finally, many thanks to my colleagues who have offered suggestions and comments,
especially Khadijah Olaniyan (LU, UK), Abdul Lateef Balogun (Universiti Teknologi
PETRONAS, Malaysia), T. A. Apalara (KFUPM, Saudi), Sakiru Adeleke (IIUM,
Malaysia) and K. F. Tamrin (UM, Malaysia and LU, UK).

Pertinent suggestions, feedbacks and queries are highly welcome and can be directed to
the author at the address below.

Coming soon in these series are:

 Worked Examples on Mechanics


 Worked Examples on Circuit Theorems
 Worked Examples on Digital Electronics

© Shefiu S. Zakariyah 2013

Email: shefiuz@theiet.org
Alternative Emails: S.Zakariyah@derby.ac.uk |S.S.Zakariyah@um.edu.my |Shefiu.Zakariyah@kaplan.com.

i
Disclaimer
The author has exerted all effort to ensure an accurate presentation of questions and
their associated solutions in this booklet. The author does not assume and hereby
disclaims any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors
or omissions, either accidently or otherwise.

ii
CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................. I

DISCLAIMER ........................................................................................................................................................... II

CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................................ III

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ............................................................................................................. 1

WORKED EXAMPLES ............................................................................................................................................ 16

SECTION 1: SIMPLIFICATION ...................................................................................................................................16


SECTION 2: MODULUS AND ARGUMENT ................................................................................................................21
SECTION 3: CONVERSION BETWEEN VARIOUS FORMS ............................................................................................23
SECTION 4: EQUATIONS ..........................................................................................................................................25
SECTION 5: PROOF ..................................................................................................................................................28
SECTION 6: POWERS AND MULTIPLE ANGLES AND ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS...............................................29
SECTION 7: LOGARITHMS AND LOCUS ...................................................................................................................35
SECTION 8: GEOMETRY ...........................................................................................................................................39
SECTION 9: VECTOR ................................................................................................................................................41
SECTION 10: AC CIRCUITS ......................................................................................................................................42

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING ............................................................................................ 49

iii
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. Introduction

Undoubtedly you have heard about numbers, its different classes and categorisations. A
particular classification of numbers is their division into real and imaginary numbers,
which is the focus of this work. Most of the numbers you might have encountered are
real. They are real in the technical- conventional sense and have nothing to do with any
linguistic meaning. Examples include integers, rational and irrational numbers, inter
alia. Surds are also considered real numbers.

Imaginary numbers on the other hand are not very common except in science and
engineering, and together with real numbers form the basis of complex numbers. Do
not panic. They are called complex numbers not because they are difficult to
understand or work with – this is merely conventional. Although as a precaution, we
should be aware that other numbers are not referred to as ‘simple’ numbers. The core
difference between complex numbers and other numbers are few and it only takes
understanding few tips about what constitutes complex numbers in order to spot these
dissimilarities. Additionally, you will need to apply more principles from other topics
in mathematics, particularly surds, to solve complex number problems than using new
rules or theorems from this topic.

Without further ado, let us delve into the explanation now. If you are however familiar
with this concept, feel free to proceed to the worked examples. Look out for footnotes
strategically placed to provide further information regarding the solutions.

2. Complex Number
2.1. Quadratic equations

In case you have not studied this for a while, let me briefly remind you that a quadratic
equation is a polynomial of degree two with two unknown variables. The solutions to a
quadratic equation can be obtained by using: (i) graphical, (ii) factorisation, (iii)
completing the square, or (iv) quadratic formula method.

The solutions to can be derived using the quadratic formula given by

1
where

The formula above indicates that is a determinant 1 or discriminant 2. We say that


when there are two solutions of and when i.e. when is negative, there
are no solution for . The reason for the ‘no-solution’ conclusion is primarily because
there is no ‘solution’ to the square root of a negative number. Why? Well, it is generally
known that ( ) ( ) and ( ) ( ) . In other words, the square of a number,
positive or negative, will only produce a positive number. Conversely, to find the
square root of a number, the number must be a product of two positive or negative
numbers. Therefore, a negative number cannot be a product of two positive or negative
numbers. Let’s quickly illustrate this

( ) ( ) and ( ) ( )

Therefore,

√ and √

This is because

√ √( ) ( ) and √( ) ( )

Or probably, you can apply one of the laws of indices to have

√ √ ( ) and √ √( ) ,( ) -

With this illustration it becomes obvious that using any previously known principle, it
is impossible to solve √ or any negative square root. However, this booklet will
shortly show you how to unravel this problem.

Before I move on I would like to draw your attention to an analogy. The no-solution
conclusion illustrated above can be compared to asking a child to solve: (that is
two take away three). The most probable answer is that such arithmetic problem is
either incorrect or impossible. Subsequently, the child would realise that this problem is
solvable and its answer is (negative one). The reason for the initial impossible
answer is due to the child’s limited knowledge about numbers. Similarly, due to our

1
This is because it determinates the possibility of having a real or otherwise solution.
2 This is because it ‘discriminates’ between the two possibilities.

2
acquaintance with only real numbers, we are unable to find the square root of negative
numbers.

2.2. The j operator

is simply an operator that works just like √ or other mathematical operators.


Letter is used in engineering while is employed in physics and mathematics for
vector analysis, although and denote the same numerical process.

As we know symbolises electric current in engineering and usually complex number is


applied in AC circuit analysis where electric current is also used. Consequently, it will
be difficult and confusing to discern when is used as electric current or complex
number operator. For this reason, is adopted in engineering and this notation will be
used throughout this booklet even when solving questions related to vector analysis.

So what is j? The answer is simply

√ or

In other words, is counter-clockwise rotation of a vector usually taken from the


positive x-axis. It should be noted that when such a rotation is performed twice, the
vector will be on the same line but pointing towards the opposite direction. It is
therefore not surprising that . In addition, when rotation is carried out on
a vector, the vector will return to its original position and again . We use
because there are four in .

For example, when a vector of units originally pointing East (that is on the positive x-
axis) is rotated counter-clockwise by , the new vector can be regarded as units
pointing northward or on the positive y-axis. If the same vector is rotated again in the
same direction and with the same magnitude, i.e. counter-clockwise, the new vector
has a value of units, which is – units. It therefore follows that .

3
This arrow indicates the
first 90o anti-clockwise
turning which corresponds
to multiplying by the 𝑗

=
operator.

×
2
=

)=
2
(

The third and fourth rotations will produce vectors of values units and
units respectively. Obviously after the third rotation, the vector will be
pointing southward. Because it is on the negative y-axis, its value is the same in
magnitude but opposite to the value of the vector pointing northward. Therefore,
or . Similarly, the fourth rotation will be identical in
magnitude and direction to the initial vector, thus or . In
summary, we have

It is important to note that has only four possible values, namely: They
respectively correspond to values of which when divided by leave the remainders

4
For example, since dividing by leaves as a remainder and this
corresponds to

So the problem of the square roots of negative numbers is finally solved. We can now
say that

√ √

√ √

To reiterate, whenever we take the square root of a number, we always have two
answers. The two solutions are equal in magnitude but with opposite signs. Generally,
is used to denote this, where is the magnitude (or number).

Numbers such as √ , are called imaginary numbers. A complex number is a


number that is made up of two parts, the real and the imaginary, which is expressed as

In the above equation, is the real part (or component) of the complex number,
abbreviated as ( ) and the imaginary part is , shortened as ( ). Note that the
imaginary does not include the operator itself. Sometimes the j operator is written first
before the number, or vice versa i.e. a number before the j operator. Therefore, can be
written as . Is there any number that is both real and imaginary? Yes, the answer is .
This is simply because so we can regard √ as real and √ as imaginary.

One other point that should be remembered is that in engineering, the real part refers to
the active (or in-phase) component and the imaginary is the reactive (or quadrature)
part.

2.3. Operation with complex numbers

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be performed on complex


numbers. The rules governing these operations are similar to other numbers with a
slight manipulation. Let us summarise the tips here:

 Addition and Subtraction: add/subtract the real parts and add/subtract the
imaginary parts. That is all you need to do.

5
 Multiplication: open the brackets as usual or carry out the multiplication as you
would normally do but remember that . In other words, if numbers
with j terms or values are multiplied, j will disappear leaving the new term (now
a real number) with a negative sign. Again, it is as simple as that.
 Division: division of complex numbers – either a complex number by another
complex number or a number by a complex number - is not straight forward. It
can only be done using the concept of rationalising the denominator. Remember
that multiplying a surd with its conjugate results in a rational number 3.
Similarly, when a complex number is multiplied by its conjugate complex
number, the result is a real number.

Given a complex number , its complex conjugate is denoted as ̅ .


Note that we only change the sign between real and imaginary parts of the complex
number to obtain a complex conjugate pair. is also used to indicate a complex
conjugate. The following are true of a complex number and its conjugate.

If

then

( ̅)

(̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅) ̅̅̅̅̅̅

̅ ( )

̅ ( )

2.4. The Argand diagram

An Argand diagram, named after the French mathematician Jean-Robert Argand (1768 -
1822), is a geometrical plot of complex numbers on x-y Cartesian plane, also known as
complex plane. The x-axis (horizontal axis) represents the real parts and the y-axis
(vertical axis) represents the imaginary parts of complex numbers. They are called real
axis and imaginary axis respectively.

2.5. Polar and exponential forms

3
For instance, if we multiply { √ } by its conjugate { √ }, we obtain 2, i.e. ( ).

6
The format of the complex number used so far is known as the Cartesian (or the
rectangular) form and is written as ; again is the real part and is the
imaginary part. There are other two forms, namely polar and exponential. The polar
form is denoted by where

is called the modulus (or magnitude) of the complex number, which is the length of
the line joining the origin to the point representing the complex number. It is
abbreviated as or | |. On the other hand, is the angle between the positive real-
axis and the line joining the complex with the origin as shown in the figure below.
Imaginary-axis

r = sin

= cos Real-axis

It follows that

{ }

{ }

The angle is generally called the argument of the complex number and is written as
( ). Note that the angle must be measured from the 1st quadrant i.e. positive x-axis
and it must be in the interval .

The other form is known as the exponential form represented thus:

where is the modulus of and the argument of measured in radians unlike


degrees in polar form.

7
It is important to add that when carrying out addition and subtraction of complex
numbers, Cartesian form is useful. However, multiplication and division of these
numbers can be easily evaluated in polar or exponential form. For example, consider
two complex numbers and , the four
operations are

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

( )

The following relationship is also valid and can be proven.

| | | || |
| |
| |
| |
and
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Conversion between various forms, particular a polar to rectangular and vice-versa, is


inevitable. A complex number in polar form has its rectangular form as
such that

It is important to sketch an Argand diagram to determine the quadrant of a complex


number when converting between the various forms since there are two possible values
for angle between and ( ).

The relationship between the different forms of complex numbers is summarised below.

8
Complex Number Forms

( ) 4

2.6. Equation involving complex numbers

When dealing with complex number equations, there are two rules to be applied

i) If a complex number is equal to zero, both the real part and the imaginary part
must also be equal to zero. In other words, if then and .
ii) If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts and imaginary parts
must be equal. For instance, given that and such that
then and .

The second rule is derived from the first as follows. From rule (ii), implies that

Collect the like terms

( ) ( )

Applying the first rule, we have

this implies that

and

this gives

4
This is also called a trigonometrical form in some textbooks, while some authors consider it as a rectangular form.
5
It is simply a representation, which can be considered as a derivative of the exponential form except that its angle is measured
in degrees while the former is in radians.

9
as before.

2.7. Phasor and j operator

In AC (alternating current) circuits, the current and voltage are either in phase, current
leading the voltage or current lagging the voltage depending on the elements in the
circuit. In a purely resistive circuit (in which only resistors are connected) the voltage
and the current are said to be in phase. In a circuit (having resistance and
inductance ), the voltage leads the current while current leads in a (having
resistance and capacitance ) circuit. The lead and lag angle of the current is in a
purely-capacitive and purely-inductive circuit respectively.

It is known that the angle between the x-axis and y-axis is , so it is possible that if the
positive x-axis is taken to represent the voltage in a series circuit, the circuit current
can be represented by the positive y-axis. Similarly, in a circuit, the current can be
represented by the negative y-axis while the voltage is kept on the positive x-axis. In
fact, leading is akin to multiplying a quantity by while lagging is similar to
multiplying a number by . In circuits, the lagging / leading factors vary; it is
however possible to identify which element is leading or lagging by expressing both
quantities in polar form.

This graphical representation of voltages and currents in an AC circuit is known as


phasor diagram, which is similar to an Argand diagram.

The following equations are handy when dealing with an AC circuit analysis.

for which

and

for which

10
where impedance of the circuit, capacitive reactance, capacitive
inductance, resistance, capacitance and inductance. In general, the
impedance in a circuit is given by

( )

2.8. De Moivre’s theorem

De Moivre’s theorem is used to find the roots and powers of complex numbers. It states
that if

then

, -

( )

( )

This is because if

then

, -
( )

( )

This theorem is valid for any real value of , i.e. positive, negative, whole and fractional
numbers.

2.9. nth root of complex number

As previously mentioned, there are two values for the square root of a number.
Similarly, when the square root of a complex number is taken, two complex numbers
are produced having the same magnitude | | such that their arguments only differ
in sign. If one of the angles is , the other will be , ( ) - or ( ). Hence,
the square roots of a complex number z, are | | and | | ( ). You may
wonder why angles and ( ) are said to be equal but only opposite in sign. Yes,

11
they are. Remember that rotation is equal to , which in turn equal to -1. In fact, if
the two roots are denoted by and , it follows that

| | and | |

or

| |, - and | |, -

Similarly, the cube root of a complex number will have three roots, which have the
same moduli but different arguments such that they are spaced by ,( ) - .
In general, the nth root of a complex number has n roots each having a magnitude of
| | . The first root has an angle ( ) and others are symmetrically spaced from
the first root and from each other by ( ) .

Since nth root has complex numbers, it is sometimes required to find what is
generally referred to as the principal root. This is the root that is closest to the positive
x-axis, which can either be the first or last root. If the first and last roots are equidistant
from the positive real axis the first root is conventionally taken as the principal root.

Finding nth root of a complex number


Given
, - ()
Let
( )
or

Taking nth root of equation (i), we have

√ √ √ ( ) ( )

or

√ √ √ ( )

where √ is the positive root of the positive number


Note that equation ( ) or ( ) is not the only solution of equation ( ) To get the
complete solution, we write

12
√ [ ( ) ( )] ( )

or

√ ( ) ( )

where For instance, if we are interested in a square root


i.e. then we compute equations for and , which results in two
roots. In general, root of a complex number 6 ( ) has values
/solutions as previously mentioned.

2.10. Powers of trigonometric functions and multiple angles

It is possible to evaluate powers and multiple angles of sine and cosine functions. Let

( )

If r = 1, then

Similarly,

From the last two expressions, we can have two distinct results by adding

and subtracting

When n = 1, we can also have

and

It is also possible to find the values of and using

( )
6
In fact this rule applies to any number. With a positive number, we are typically interested only in the real roots. For example,
√ has two roots ( √ ) both of which are real, √ has three roots, only one is real ( ) and √ has four roots, only two of
which are real ( ).

13
When the right-hand side of the above equation is expanded (using binomial series) and
the like terms are collected together, would be equal to the imaginary part and
equated to the real part. This is derived from De Moivre’s theorem in conjunction
with the rules used to solve complex number equations. In summary, De Moivre’s
theorem is primarily used to determine the values of , , and .

2.11. Logarithm of a complex number

Sometimes we need to find the logarithm of a complex number, particularly the natural
logarithm, which is the logarithm of a complex number to the base of . This is best
determined if the complex number is in exponential form. So let

This is usually expressed as

Since | | and , the natural logarithm of a complex number can be


expressed as

3. | |
3.1. Euler-trigonometric relationship

We will end this part of the booklet with a very important relationship. Although this is
not an isolated theorem, it will be useful in solving powers and multiple angles of
trigonometric functions. Using the various forms of a complex number in section 2.5,
we can write

( )

and

( )

If we add and subtract equations (vi) and (vii), we can respectively have

( )

14
and

( )

The above can be used to express multiple and power of sine and cosine of angles using
the relationship below.

Euler-trigonometric relationship

( )

( )

( )

( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Use equations (xii) and (xiii) to respectively expand the right-hand sides of equations (x)
and (xi).

END OF FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX NUMBER

AND

BEGINNING OF WORKED EXAMPLES

15
WORKED EXAMPLES
Section 1: Simplification

1) Simplify the following expressions involving j


(d) ( )
operator.
Solution 7

Hint ( ) ( )
( ) ()
In this question, the key rule is to realise that
()
and . See section 2.2 in this
( )
booklet for further explanation.
It is also important to understand and apply the
(e)
laws of indices when and where necessary. I hope
you are still comfortable with the laws. Good. I will Solution
provide further hints where I feel it is inevitable.

(a) ( )
()
Solution
Since is equal to – , the above expression
( )
becomes

( )

(b)
(f)
Solution
Solution

( )( )( )( )

( ) ( )
(c)

Solution
7
Powers of negative numbers or terms sometimes cause
( ) confusion but I’m sure you are aware of this. This is the
reason why I decided to break this down into ‘small pieces’.
( ) .

16
b) ( )
2) Without using a calculator, evaluate the c)
following: d)

a) √
b) √ Hint
c) √
All you need to watch out for is the presence or
otherwise of the j operator. If a term has the
Hint operator, it is the imaginary part. If otherwise it is

This question is probing your understanding of the the real part. See section 2.2.

basis of complex numbers, i.e. the square of a


negative number. Refer to section 2.1 for further Let Re (z) and Im (z) respectively represent the real
information. and imaginary parts of a complex number z.

a)
a) √
Solution
Solution
( )
√ ( )

b) √ b) ( )

Solution
Solution ( )
√ √ ( )
√ √
c)

Solution
c) √
( )
Solution Because
√ √ ( )

d)
√ √
Solution
( )
( )

3) State the real and imaginary components of 4) Use the quadratic formula to solve the

the following complex numbers: following equations leaving the answers in

a) surd form where applicable.

17
a) Now substitute the values of a, b and c and then
b) 3 simplify.
c) √( ) ( )( )
( )

Hint √

Refer to sections 2.1 and 2.2. √


I should also add that the standard expression for

a quadratic equation is . So the ( √ )

coefficient of and are and Hence, the solution to the equation are

respectively, and the constant term is . ( √ ) and ( √ ).

c)
a)
Solution
Solution 8

For this case, , and , therefore


For this case, , and , therefore

Now substitute the values of a, b and c and then


Now substitute the values of a, b and c and then
simplify. Here is the working:
simplify. Here is the working:
√ ( )( )
√ ( )( )
( )

√ √

Hence, the solution to the equation are and √


. Hence, the solution to the equation are

√ and √ .
b) 3
5) Simplify the following expressions.
Solution

For this case, , and , therefore Hint



We will be applying rationalisation in this question.
If there is a need for a review, refer to section
2.3(and sections 2.1 and 2.2 if you have not
8
Remember that can be written as
done so).
.

18
a) ( )( )( ) ( ) ( )
, - , -
( ) ( )
Solution
Open the bracket and simplify. Here is the
( )( )( ) working:
( )( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )

( )( )( )
( )( )
b) ( )

d) ( )
Solution
Solution

Let us do this bit by bit starting with the squared


You may remember this step from question 1.
part. So
( )

Now we need to rationalise the expression above


then the fraction
using the conjugate of the denominator. That is
( )( )
we need to multiply both the numerator and
( )( )
denominator by ( ).

( )( )
Open the bracket at the denominator which,
Hence,
because they are a conjugate pair, produces a real
number. ( )

( )

( )( )
c)
( )

Solution
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) e)

Now rationalise the denominator. Solution

19
Let and be the roots of a quadratic equation, it
follows that
( )( )

Now let us change the exponential form into a or

form we can handle easily. Here we go: ( )

a) When √ √

we have
( )
this implies that

( √ √ ) ( √ )( √ )
Simplifying this would produce

An alternative way to simplify the expression is: b) When

we have
( )
( )
Implying that
( )
,( ) ( )- ,( )( )-
, ( ) ( )-
Simplifying this would produce
, -
( ) ( )
Since and , we will have
()
7) Determine the roots of the equation
leaving the answer in surd form in the form
6) Find the quadratic equations whose roots are , such that and are real numbers.
given below

a) √ √
Hint
b)
The above cubic equation (and similar ones) can be
factorised using factor theorem or standard
Hint
expressions, namely
This is obviously an inverse of question 4 and you
( )( )
may have dealt with similar questions. The only
and
difference is that in this case we have complex
( )( )
roots.

Solution
Solution

20
can be expressed as , Applying the difference of two squares 9 for the
where and . numerator 10, we will have
( )( )
Thus
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )

Either Now open the brackets

which implies that


Divide each term by 2

or

Now it is time to rationalise using the complex


this implies that conjugate of the denominator, thus
√( ) ( )
{ } { }

√ Simplify the above expression to have


Therefore, the roots of are Now separate the complex number into real and

, √ and √ . imaginary parts by dividing each term by 20.

8) If , find the real and the imaginary


Hence
parts of the complex number .
( )
Solution ( )

If Section 2: Modulus and argument

9) Determine the modulus and argument of the

then its inverse is following complex numbers.


a)
b)
Thus c)

( ) ( ) 9
Difference of two squares is for example: (
( )( ) )( ).
10
You can as well open the brackets if this appeals to you
although I found this to be a clever way to handle this.

21
d) ( ) Solution

| |
Hint | |

The key point to know and apply here is that if a √

complex number is ( ) then its modulus


and
and argument are respectively given by
( ) ( )
| | √

( )

Refer to section 2.5 for further information.


d) ( )
a)
Solution
Solution ( )
| |
| | Therefore

√ | |
| |

and √( ) ( )
( ) ( )
and
( ) ( )

b)
11

Solution
10) Find the modulus and argument of
| | ( )( )
.
( )
| |

√ ( )
Hint

and
( ) ( ) 11
Note that a calculator will give , which is the angle
nd
measured to the negative x-axis (that is the 2 quadrant)
( ) st
rather than to the positive x-axis (1 quadrant). In other to
get the correct angle, we compute ( ) The
negative sign before the bracket is necessary because
is instead . This is why it is important to
c) sketch the complex plane especially when ( ) or/and
( ) is negative.

22
Here we need to simplify the expression until the
complex number is in its simplest rectangular form. ( ) ( )

We then carry out the workings similarly to


question 9. Section 3: Conversion between various
forms
Solution

( )( ) 11) Express the following complex numbers in


( ) Cartesian form leaving the answer in surd
We will start by simplifying the numerator and form where appropriate.
denominator separately. So here we go: a) ( )
Numerator b)
( )( )
c) √

Denominator
( ) ( )( ) Hint
Thus,
Conversion between various forms is very
( )( )
important and can quickly be done using a
( )
calculator. It is however essential that we are
familiar with the principles of how this is manually
Now it is time to rationalise: carried out. Refer to section 2.5 for detailed
information.
{ } { }

a) ( )
( )
Solution

( )
Separate this into real and imaginary parts.
√ √
( )

Let the modulus of the above complex number be (√ √ )

| | b)

Solution

√( ( )
| | ) ( )

( )

( √ )

23
c) √ and

Solution

√ √ ( )
Hence
√ ( )

√ ( )
b)

(√ )
Solution
√ (√ )
If , it follows that

12) Express the following in polar forms: √

a)
b) and

c)
d)

e) . /
Hence

Hint

c)
For the questions here let be the polar
form of the complex number . It Solution

follows that If , it follows that


| | √
√ ( )
and

and
Refer to section 2.5 for further information.

a)

Solution Hence

If it follows that


d)

24
Solution
and
If it follows
( )

( )
Therefore,
Hence

and √ . /



Hence

Section 4: Equations

e) . /
Hint
Solution
Refer to section 2.6 for the two ‘golden’ rules
If . / it follows that used when solving complex number equations.

( )
14) Find the values and given that (
Therefore,
)( )( ) .

and Solution

Let us start by simplifying the left-hand side


(LHS).
( )( )( )
Hence
( )( )
( ) ( )

13) Express in exponential form. Let us now equate both sides of the equation

Solution
therefore
( )

where 15) Given that ( ) ( ) ,


√ ( ) find the values of x and y that satisfy equation

25
above.

Solution

( ) ( )
Comparing both sides of the above equation, we
have
()
and ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) For equation (ii) to be valid, we will have
This has led to a simultaneous equation. We are
going to use elimination method to solve this ( )
problem, so multiply equation (i) by 2 to obtain and
( )
Add equation (ii) and (iii) to eliminate , ( )
Multiply equation (iv) by 3 to eliminate
( )
Substitute for in either equation (i) or (ii) to Now subtract equation (v) from equation (iii)
obtain the value of . From equation (i), we have

( )

From (ii)
16) Find the values of and that satisfy the

equation given that .


. /
Give the answers correct to 4 places of
decimal.

Solution 17) Find the values of and which satisfy the


equation
()

Multiply both sides of equation (i) by ( ).


( ) ( ) Solution

( )
()
But so we need to substitute for in
equation (ii) above and then simplify. Here is the Multiply both sides of equation (i) by ( ).

working: ( ) ( )( )

( ) ( ) ( )

26
( ) √
( )

Now we need to evaluate the square root of a


complex number. 12
( ) ( ) √ ( )
Therefore Convert the complex number to its polar form

( ) ( )
( )
The two roots are
and
and
( )
Multiply equation (iv) by 4 Alternative method

( ) Let the two square roots of be denoted as and

Subtract equation (v) from equation (iii) This corresponds respectively to where
and . Thus, given that

which implies
From (iv)
√ ( )
the roots are

(√ ) [ ( )
18) Solve the quadratic equation ( )
leaving the roots in rectangular form ( )]

, with values of and correct to 3 ( )


significant figures.
and
Solution

( ) ( ) (√ ) [ ( )

This is a quadratic equation such that


( )] 13

( ) .
, ( ) ( )-
Therefore
( )

( )
( )
Substitute for , and

( ) √, ( )- ( )

( ) √ 12
Refer to section 2.8 for how to evaluate powers and roots
of a complex number. There will more questions later in this
booklet.

27
as before. Numerator
( )( )

Substitute the values obtained into equation (ii),


that is 14
Group this into real and imaginary parts, which
( ) √
give:
( )
( )
Use trigonometric identities to simplify the above
or expression, which gives
( ) ( )

Denominator
Section 5: Proof
( )( )

19) Show that equals to

. Now, it is time to evaluate the whole expression.


Therefore
Solution

( )( )
Complex conjugate of the denominator is ( )( )
( ), so we need to multiply both the
numerator and denominator by this complex 20) If , where and are real, and if

conjugate. In other words, we need to rationalise { } , show that the point lies on a
the expression. Thus, straight line in the complex plane.

Solution

{ } { } Given that , then

( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ()
Now let us ’chew’ this step-by-step. We will start Thus
with the numerator and then the denominator.
( )
( )

13
Remember that .
14
You do not need to substitute the two roots obtained as
doing so would produce only two solutions.

28
Now rationalise the right-hand side (RHS) of Assuming is zero, we will have
equation (ii) by multiply both the numerator and ( ) , - ( ) , -
denominator by , ( )- and then simplify. ( ) ( )
, -, ( )- ( )
, ( )-, ( )-
( ) ( ) Since there is no component, it is evident that
( )
is a real number.

Section 6: Powers and multiple angles


and roots of complex numbers

We need to separate this into real and


Hint
imaginary parts
In this part of the worked examples we will be
( ) ( ) applying De Moivre’s theorem in solving the
Since the real part of . / is equal to 1, it questions so you may want to refer to sections

implies that 2.8 and 2.9 for a quick revision. We will also
approach the questions using the Euler-
( )
trigonometric relationship in section 3.1.
Cross multiply [that is multiply both sides of
equation (iii) by ( )-
22) If ( ) , find the

three cube roots of stating which of them is


the principal root. Also show the roots on a

Since and , it follows that complex plane.

Solution
The above expression is a complex equation of a
( )
straight line through point j, i.e. it is a horizontal
line in the complex plane.
( ) ( )
21) Show that ( ) ( ) is

a real number if is also a real number,.

Solution
For this case, the roots would be spaced at an
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) angle of ( ⁄ ). So let , and be the
( ) ( ) first, second and third roots respectively. Thus,
( ) , -
the first root is
( ) , -

29
and the two other roots are:
√ [ ( )
( )

( )]

, ( ) ( )-
( )
( )
( )
( )
or
( )
√ [ ( )

Hence, the principal root (also the closest to the


( )]
positive x-axis) is
, ( ) ( )-
( )
The complex plane is shown below
( )
( )

as before.
Note: The readers can choose between the two
approaches to evaluate roots of a complex
number. We will subsequently stick to the former.

23) Determine the four fourth roots of giving


the answers in Cartesian form. Leave the final
Alternative method
answers in surd form.
Let the three cube roots of be denoted as ,
Solution
and corresponding respectively to where
, and . Thus, given that
( ) where

√( )

√ [ ( ) √

( )]
and
( ) ( )

30
significant figures.
Therefore, the fourth root of is:
Solution

( ) ( ) ( ) ()
For ease of simplification, equation (i) will be
If , , and are the four roots of , then written in polar form so

Now convert this to Cartesian form. Here we go:


( ) ( )
√ √ ( )
( )
Now let us convert equation (ii) to rectangular
√ form and then simplify.
( )
( )
( )

( )
( )
√ √
( ) 25) Find the five fifth roots of . Give

the answers in both polar and exponential



( ) forms.
( )
Solution

( )
where
√ √
( )

√ √ √
( )
and
and
( )
( )

Hence
( )

√ √
( ) Therefore, the fifth root of

√ ( ) ( √ )
( )

24) If ( ), find and give


Since there are five roots, the spacing angle is
the answer in rectangular form correct to 3

31
If , , , and are the five roots of , then ( )
Now replace the values of and in equation
(iii), which gives
( ) ( )

( )

Group the above expression into real and


( ) imaginary parts
( )
(
) ( )
and Equating (i) and (iv), we will have
( )
(
)
(
26) Expand giving the answer in terms of ) ( )
powers of only. For (v) to be valid, according to the rules in
section 2.6, it follows that the real part on the LHS
Solution
must be equal to the real part on the RHS, and the
( )
imaginary part must be equated to its
()
corresponding imaginary component. In our
Let
current case, we need the real part only as we
essentially want to evaluate . Thus,

Equation (i) can be written as


Using the fact that , we will
( ) ( ) ( )
have
Expand the RHS of equation (ii) using binomial
( )
theorem 15, which implies that
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

15
Binomial expansion series: ( )
( ) ( )
∑ . /
∑ . / .

32
Alternative method express in terms of cosines of multiples

Using Euler-trigonometric relationship, we know of angle .

that Solution

( ) We know that

( )
()
Also,
( )

From equation (i), we have that

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
From (vi), for we have
Expand the RHS of equation (iii)
( )
( )

( ) ( )
( )
Use equation (ii) to express equation (iv) in terms
Similarly, from (vii) we have
of
( )
( ) ( )

Based on equation (iii), we can then write that


( )
( ) this implies that
Add equations (ix) and (x), gives

Divide through by
( )
( ) ( )

,( )-

28) Expand giving the answer in the


simplest form involving only powers of .
as before.

Hint
27) Apply DeMoivre’s theorem or otherwise to

33
This is similar to equation 26 so we should be able
to go over it quickly.

( ) ( )
Solution
( )
( ) () ( )
Let ( )

Substitute this in (i)


( ) ( ) ( )
Let us expand RHS of equation (ii)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 29) Using DeMoivre’s theorem express in
( ) ( ) terms of cosines of angles that are multiples of
.

( )
Hint
(
) This is similar to equation 27 so we should be able
Thus, to go over it quickly.
( )
( ) Solution
( We know that
) ( )
()
For (iii) to be valid, according to our ‘golden’
rules, it follows that the real part on the LHS must ( )
be equal to the real part on the RHS, and the
( )
imaginary must be equated to the corresponding
the imaginary component. In our current case, we ( )
need the real part only as we essentially want to
Therefore, from equation (i)
evaluate . Thus, comparing both sides of
(iii), we will have ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
Now replace the values a and b back into (iv) so
we will have

34
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) When , we have

( ) ( )

Thus ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Using binomial expansion theorem,
Now using identity (iv) above and substituting
( )
appropriately in (v), we will have
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
This implies that
Substituting equation (vi) in (x), we will have
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Therefore,

( )

,
( )
-
,
, -
-
, - as before.
Note: Readers can choose between the two
,
approaches when evaluating powers and multiple
-
angles of trigonometric functions.
Alternative method
Using Euler-trigonometric relationship, we know Section 7: Logarithms and Locus
that
30) If ( ) and
( ) ( ), find and

in Cartesian form leaving the answer correct


( )
to 3 places of decimal.

Solution

35
( ) √( )
Since
| |
where then

√( )
and
( )

Hence, the equation of the locus defined by


Therefore,
| | is

32) Given that , show that the locus of

points defined by | | is a circle and


Similarly
( ) determine its centre and radius.

( ) Solution

If then

where ( )
( )

and Also
| | |( ) |

√( )
Therefore √
Similarly

| | √( )


31) Find the equation of the locus of a point
We know that
which moves in a complex plane such that
| |
| | where . | |
| |
So
Solution

If then | |

( ) | | Therefore

| |

36
√ ( ) | |
( ) ( )
√ | ( )|

√ ( )


Multiply both sides by * + so that
and
( ) | |
|( ) |

√( )


Given that | | | | , it implies that
Divide through by 3
.√ / .√ /
Now it is time to do some simplification. Your
knowledge of ‘completing the square’ would be
helpful here. ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) Thus the equation is a circle having a value of
( )
( ) 34) Determine the equation defined by
( ) { } in the Argand diagram, where
( ) ( ) (√ ) .
The above is an equation of a circle 16 with centre

and radius ( ) and √ respectively. Hint


33) Determine the equation of the locus of points
Here we will approach the question in two
which is given by | | | | .
different ways.
Solution

If then Solution

Method 1

( ) Given that then


and
( )
()
( )
( )
Rationalise the RHS of equation (i) and then
Also
simplify
( ) ( ) ( )
, - , -
16
A circle is defined by ( ) ( ) where ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) is the centre and the radius of the circle.

37
*( ) +*( ) + ( )
( )
that is
( ) ( ) ( )
By using trigonometric identities, equation (iii)
( )
( ) can now be written as
Separate equation (ii) above into real and
( )
imaginary parts
We know from (i) and (ii)
( ) ( )
( )
Thus
( )
{ } ( )
Now let us evaluate the numerator and
and
denominator of (iv) as follows
( )

implying that ( ) ( )
( )( )
( )

Since ( )( )

by multiplying both sides of equation (iii) by


( )( )
,we will have Also

Method 2
( )( )
Let
( )( )
( )( )
( ) ()
and ( )( )
Hence,
( ) ( )
Therefore
becomes
( )
[ ] * +
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )
[ ] * +
Now take the tangent of both sides ( )( )
This implies

38
( ) √( )


by multiplying both sides of equation (vii) by

,we will have
̅̅̅̅ | |
|( ) ( )|
| |
as before.
√( ) ( )
Section 8: Geometry

35) Points P, Q, R, on a complex plane, represent √

the complex numbers , , and


̅̅̅̅ | |
, respectively. Represent this on a
|( ) ( )|
complex plane and show that triangle PQR is
| |
isosceles.
√( ) ( )
Solution


For triangle PQR, we have shown that ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅

therefore triangle PQR is isosceles. 17


36) Points A, B, C, D, on an Argand diagram,
represent the complex numbers ,
, , respectively. Show that the
quadrilateral formed by points A, B, C and D
is not a square.

Solution

Let
As shown in the diagram above, let

Also, let ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ be the lengths of the Also, let ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ be the lengths of
three sides of the triangle PQR, it follows that the four sides of the square, it follows that
̅̅̅̅ | | ̅̅̅̅ | |
|( ) ( )|
| | 17
An isosceles is a type of triangle having two sides of equal
lengths.

39
|( ) ( )| The complex plane showing , and is
| | shown below.
√( )

̅̅̅̅ | |
|( ) ( )|
| |

√( ) ( )


̅̅̅̅ | |
|( ) ( )|
| |
So we are given that
√( )


and
̅̅̅̅ | |
Let ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ be the lengths of the three
|( ) ( )|
sides of the triangle, it follows that
| |
̅̅̅̅ | |
√( ) ( ) |( ) ( )|
√ | |

√( )
One of the conditions for ABCD to be a square is

that ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅. This is not the case
̅̅̅̅ | |
here so ABCD is not a square. Furthermore, since |( ) ( )|
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ , ABCB cannot be any of the standard
| |
quadrilateral shapes such as rectangle or √
rhombus.

37) Given that , and
and
. If , and are represented on ̅̅̅̅ | |
a complex plane by the point P, Q, R |( ) ( )|
respectively, show that the triangle PQR is | |
right-angled. Find its area. √( ) ( )

Solution √

40
√ Solution
For PQR to be a right-angled triangle, it must The three forces (shown below) can be
obey Pythagoras theorem. So let us find the represented as complex number systems, with
squares of its sides
east taken as the reference axis.
150 o
F2
=2
0N
̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅
F1 = 12 N
and

F3 = 15 N
̅̅̅̅
Since ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ it follows that PQR is a

right-angled triangle.
Thus
The area of triangle (A) =

̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅

(√ )(√ )
and
( ) ( )
Section 9: Vector
Let represents the net force, therefore
38) Three coplanar forces are acting
on a point object. Force is 12 N acting ( ) ( ) ( )
eastward, is 20 N acting at an angle of
to force and is 15 N acting southward.
Using complex numbers, determine the Therefore the net force is which is at an
magnitude and direction of the net force on angle of measured clockwise from force
the object. or measured counter-clockwise from
the same force.
Hint 39) Two trains A and B are moving on horizontal
tracks with velocities ( )
The questions in this part can be solved using
and ( ) . Determine in polar
other methods, such as triangle and parallelogram
form the velocity of relative to .
laws of vectors and Lami’s theorem, among
others. However, we want to approach them from Solution
the complex number system route. Let represents the velocity of train A relative
to B,

41
( ) ( ) Section 10: AC circuits

41) In each case determine the resistance and


series reactance . Also determine the value
40) Vectors A, B and C are given by , of inductance or capacitance taking the
and respectively. Leaving frequency to be 60 Hz.
the answers in Cartesian form, determine the a) ( )
vectors represented by b)
a) , and c)
b) .

Hint
Solution

First, let us convert the vectors to polar form since The questions in this part relate to AC circuit

it is convenient to carry out addition and analysis. You may want to refer to section 2.7 for

subtraction in this form. Here we go: detailed explanation.

a) ( )

Solution

( )
and
( )

Because the reactive part is negative, it is


(a)
capacitive, , i.e. . Thus

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

( )
(b) ( )( )

( ) ( )
b)
( )
Solution
( )
( ) ( )

42
Solution
( )
If

Because the reactive part is positive, it is inductive


i.e. . Thus then given , , and ,
implies

( )( )
( )( )

The reactive component is the imaginary part of


( )
the impedance,
( )
c) 43) A current of ( ) flows in a circuit

Solution when it is connected to a supply voltage


( ) . Determine (a) magnitude of
( ) ( )
its impedance (b) resistance (c) reactance (d)

( ) power consumed.

Solution
( )
a) Impedance

Because the reactive part is negative, it is


capacitive i.e. . Thus

Therefore, the magnitude of the impedance is

( )( )
b) Resistance
42) Circuit impedance is given by
Resistance is the active component of the
. Express in rectangular impedance.

form given that , ,


and . What is the value of the reactive
( )
component?

43
Alternatively, Let be total impedance. Therefore, when the
components are connected in series, we will have

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
c) Reactance

( )
When the impedance are connected in parallel, we
will have
Alternatively,

( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
We need to convert the numerator to polar form
d) Power consumed
and add the denominator in the current
Power consumed is the power loss in the rectangular form. Here it is:
conductor or the active power, which is ( )( )

( )
( ) ( )

44) Two impedances ( ) and


( ) are connected in series in a , ( )-
circuit. Find the total circuit impedance in
Hence, the total circuit impedance is
rectangular and polar forms. What would be
the total impedance if they are connected in
or (in rectangular form)
parallel?
( )
45) If one of the three impedances in a delta
Hint connection, denoted as , is given by:

So far we have used rationalisation to solve


fractional complex numbers. In this example, we will
Determine given that ( ) ,
use a combination of rectangular and polar forms
( ) and ( ) . Express
to address this question as this is commonly used
the answer in rectangular form correct to 3
in engineering. See section 2.3 for further
significant figures.
information.
Solution
Solution

44
Let us express the impedances in both polar and connected in parallel and the combination is
rectangular form as follow. Here it is: in series with with the latter closest to the
AC source. Given that ( ) Ω,
( )
( ) , ( ) , and that the

( ) supply current is ( ) . Find the


magnitude of the supply voltage.

and Solution
( )
The circuit diagram is shown below
Z1
Now let us evaluate the terms in the original
expression one by one
( )( )

Z2

Z3
( )( ) Let the total impedance of the circuit be

So
and
( )( )
( )( )

and
Therefore
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )

It is now time to put everything together, thus ( )


( ) ( )

Source voltage is given by

( ) ( )
46) An AC circuit supplies three different loads of
( )( )
impedances , and . Loads and are

45
The magnitude of the supply voltage is the 48) Two impedances ( ) and
modulus of the complex number above which ( ) are connected in series to an
. AC power supply voltage of 240 V. Find the
47) A given AC circuit has its circuit components current phasor (magnitude and phase angle)

related by , where , , relative to the supply voltage.


If the two impedances were connected in
, , , and are passive elements and is parallel, determine the new current phasor
the angular frequency. Express in terms of relative to the source.
the real elements.
Solution
Solution
Let be the total impedance of the circuit. When
Let us simplify the RHS first so we have connected in series (as shown below)
Z1
{ }

Z2
240 V
Now we have

Cross multiply, i.e. multiply both sides by ( ) ( )


( ), and simplify
( )( )
From Ohm’s law, the circuit current is

( )

Now we can rationalise the RHS


Hence the current is at lagging.
( )( )
( )( ) Now when the impedances are connected in
parallel (as shown below), the total impedance is
Z1

Z2

Therefore, 240 V

46
( )( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
and
, -, -

( )( )

Again, the circuit current is

( )

From Ohm’s law, the circuit current is


In this parallel connection, the current is at
leading.
49) A series circuit is connected to a 230 V, 60
Hz supply. The circuit is made up of a 20
resistor, a 0.15 H inductive coil and a
the current is at lagging.
capacitor. Determine the phasor (relative to
the supply voltage) of the current flowing in
the circuit. What is the power factor of this 50) The characteristic impedance and the
circuit? propagation coefficient of a transmission

Solution line (lossy) are given by:

The circuit diagram showing the how various √


components are connected is shown below.
0.15 H and
100 µF
√,( )( )-
20 Ω
240 V
60 Hz Determine and for a transmission line
with Ω, , ,
and . Leave the
The circuit impedance can be expressed in
final answer in rectangular form correct to 2
rectangular form as
places of decimal.
( )
where Solution

47
Given that the characteristic impedance Similarly, given that the propagation coefficient
of a transmission is

√,( )( )-

Substitute the values of , , , and and substitute the values of , , , and and

simplify. simplify.

√( ),( ) -
( )( )

( )( ) √( )( )



( ) , -

( ) ( )

, -

, -

( ) ( )

, -

END OF WORKED EXAMPLES

48
Bibliography and Further Reading

1) Bird, J. 2010. Higher Engineering Mathematics. 6th ed. Oxford: Newnes - Elsevier.
2) Croft, A., Davison, R. and Hargreaves, M., 1995. Introduction to Engineering
Mathematics. Harlow: Prentice Hall - Pearson Education.
3) James, G., Burley, D., Clements, D., Dyke, P., Searl, J. and Wright, J., 2010. Modern
Engineering Mathematics. 4th ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall - Pearson Education.
4) Neil, H. and Quadling, D., 2004. Advanced Mathematics Core 1 & 2. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
5) Stroud, K.A. and Booth, D.J., 2013. Engineering Mathematics. 7th ed. London: Palgrave
Macmillan.
6) Taylor, D.C. and Atkinson, I.S., 1981. Essential Mathematics for A Level. Edinburgh:
Thomas Nelson.
7) Theraja, B. L., 1962. A text book of Electrical Technology. New Delhi: Tech India
Publications.

49
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