1) The ability to find an individual item in a file immediately direct access is used.

2) To make a notebook act as a desktop model, the notebook can be connected to a

docking station which is connected to a monitor and other devices

3) You can use the tab key to move a cursor across the screen, indent a paragraph.

4) A collection of related files is called Database.

5) Storage that retains its data after the power is turned off is referred to as non-volatile storage.

6) Internet is an example of connectivity.

7) Testing is the process of finding errors in software code.

8) A syntax contains specific rules and words that express the logical steps of an algorithm.

9) Changing an existing document is called the editing documentation

10) Virtual memory is memory on the hard disk that the CPU uses as an extended RAM.

11) Computers use the binary number system to store data and perform calculations.

12) The windows key launched the start buttons.

13) To move to the beginning of a line of text, press the home key.

14) When sending an e-mail, the subject lines describe the contents of the message.

15) Tables, paragraphs and indexes work with when formatting text in word.

16) Storage Units chart

17) The operating system tells the computer how to use its components.

18) When cutting and pasting, the item cut is temporarily stored in clipboard.
19) The blinking symbol on the computer screen is called the cursor.

20) Magnetic tape is not practical for applications where data must be quickly recalled
because tape is a sequential
because tape is a sequential access medium.

21) Rows and columns are used to organize data in a spread sheet.

22) When you are working on documentation on PC, the document temporarily stored
in flash memory.

23) One megabyte equals approximately 1 million bytes.

24) Information travels between components on the motherboard through buses.

25) RAM refers to the memory in your computer.

1)The method of communication in which transmission takes place in both directions, but only one direction at a time is
called Half Duplex

2)Error detection at the data link level is achieved by Cyclic Redundancy Code

3)The topology with highest reliability is:Mess Topology

4)”BAUD” rate means the rate at which the signal changes

5)Start and stop bits are used in serial communication for synchronisation

6)Unmodulated signal coming from a transmitter is know as Baseband signal

7)ARPANET network uses dynamic or adaptive routing.

8)The Residual Error Rate measures the number of lost or garbled messages as a fraction of the total sent in the sampling
period.

9)In session layer, during data transfer, the data stream responsible for the “control” purpose (i.e control of the session
layer itself) is Capability Data

10)The Network topology that supports bi-directional links between each possible node is Mesh.

11)In a broad Sense, a railway track is an example of half Duplex

12)PAN network has connectivity range up to 10 meters.

13 Unicode Represents symbol or characters used in any language.

14)Correct method for full duplex mode of communication is: Both stations can transmit and receive data at the same
time.

15)A data communications system has 5 components

The five components are :
1. Message – It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text, pictures, audio, video
etc. Text is converted to binary, number doesnt converted, image is converted to pixels, etc.
2. Sender – It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.
3. Receiver – It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.
4. Transmission Medium – It is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radio waves etc.
5. Protocol – It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.

16)00 represents a pixel that pixel is known as Black Pixel

17)Time required for a message to travel from one device to another is known as:Transit time

18)If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active. Which topology does this? – Star Topology

19) OSI model means:Open systems interconnection

20)Fibre Optic Cable transport signals in the form of light.

21)Twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, optical fiber cables are the examples of: Wired Media

22)Twisted Pair Cable is used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

23) Guided Media VS unguided media.Guided media is guided one.example- twisted pair cable,fibre optical wire,copper
wire.
Unguided :- Here information is transmitted by sending electromagnetic signals through free space and hence the name
unguided media, as the signals are not guided in any specific direction or inside any specific medium

24)Switching at the network layer in the Internet uses the datagram approach to:Packet Switching

25) IPV4 is also known as a connectionless protocol for a packet-switching network that uses the Datagram approach

1)The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding data communications between any
two networked systems. It divides the communications processes into seven layers. Each layer both performs specific
functions to support the layers above it and offers services to the layers below it. The three lowest layers focus on passing
traffic through the network to an end system. The top four layers come
into play in the end system to complete the process.
An Overview of OSI model

2)OSI Model Layer Mnemonics

• Top to bottom
– All People Seem To Need Data Processing
• Bottom to top
– Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

or Please Don Not Touch Superman Private Area (naughty one :P)

3)
4)

5)Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications, as well as the medium
(cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural specifications are provided for sending
a bit stream on a computer network.

6)Components of the physical layer include:

• Cabling system components
• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
• Network Interface Card (NIC)

7)In a LAN environment, Category 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable is generally used for the physical layer
for individual device connections. Fiber optic cabling is often used for the physical layer in a vertical or riser
backbone link. The IEEE, EIA/TIA, ANSI, and other similar standards bodies developed standards for this layer.
Note: The Physical Layer of the OSI model is only part of a LAN (Local Area Network).

8)Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:
• Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages
• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
• Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving messages
• Provides error-detection capability

9)Common networking components that function at layer 2 include:

• Network interface cards
• Ethernet and Token Ring switches
• Bridges
NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address. A switch uses this address to filter and forward traffic, helping relieve
congestion and collisions on a network segment.
10)Bridges and switches function in a similar fashion; however, bridging is normally a software program on a CPU,
while switches use Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware,
which is much faster.

11)Layer 3 – The Network Layer

Layer 3, the network layer of the OSI model, provides an end-to-end logical addressing system so that a packet
of data can be routed across several layer 2 networks (Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay, etc.). Note that network layer
addresses can also be referred to as logical addresses.

12)Initially, software manufacturers, such as Novell, developed proprietary layer 3 addressing. However, the networking
industry has evolved to the point that it requires a common layer 3 addressing system. The Internet
Protocol (IP) addresses make networks easier to both set up and connect with one another. The Internet uses
IP addressing to provide connectivity to millions of networks around the world.

13)To make it easier to manage the network and control the flow of packets, many organizations separate their
network layer addressing into smaller parts known as subnets. Routers use the network or subnet portion of
the IP addressing to route traffic between different networks. Each router must be configured specifically for
the networks or subnets that will be connected to its interfaces.

14)Routers communicate with one another using routing protocols, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
and Open version of Shortest Path First (OSPF), to learn of other networks that are present and to calculate the
best way to reach each network based on a variety of criteria (such as the path with the fewest routers).
Routers and other networked systems make these routing decisions at the network layer.

15)When passing packets between different networks, it may become necessary to adjust their outbound size to
one that is compatible with the layer 2 protocol that is being used. The network layer accomplishes this via a
process known as fragmentation. A router’s network layer is usually responsible for doing the fragmentation.
All reassembly of fragmented packets happens at the network layer of the final destination system.

16)Two of the additional functions of the network layer are diagnostics and the reporting of logical variations in
normal network operation. While the network layer diagnostics may be initiated by any networked system, the
system discovering the variation reports it to the original sender of the packet that is found to be outside normal network
operation.

17)The variation reporting exception is content validation calculations. If the calculation done by the receiving system
does not match the value sent by the originating system, the receiver discards the related packet with no
report to the sender. Retransmission is left to a higher layer’s protocol.
Some basic security functionality can also be set up by filtering traffic using layer 3 addressing on routers or
other similar devices.

18)Layer 4 – The Transport Layer

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, offers end-to-end communication between end devices through a
network. Depending on the application, the transport layer either offers reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless,
best-effort communications.
Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:
• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
• Transmission-error detection
• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the receiving side
• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link
The most common transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and the connectionless UDP User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
19)Layer 5 – The Session Layer
Layer 5, the session layer, provides various services, including tracking the number of bytes that each end of
the session has acknowledged receiving from the other end of the session. This session layer allows applications
functioning on devices to establish, manage, and terminate a dialog through a network. Session layer
functionality includes:
• Virtual connection between application entities
• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Connection parameter negotiations
• Partitioning of services into functional groups
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

20)Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer

Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the data to be sent out onto the
network. The presentation layer basically allows an application to read (or understand) the message.
Examples of presentation layer functionality include:
• Encryption and decryption of a message for security
• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting
• Content translation
• System-specific translation

21)Layer 7 – The Application Layer

Layer 7, the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a device connected to a network. This layer
is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application (such as Web browser or e-mail); that
is, this application layer is the data the user views while using these applications.
Examples of application layer functionality include:
• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web

22)Whether a designed to be a humorous extension or a secret technician code, layers 8, 9, and 10 are not officially part of
the OSI model. They refer to the non-technical aspects of computer networking that often interfere with the smooth design
and operation of the network.

23)Layer 8 is usually considered the “office politics” layer.

24)Layer 9 is generally referred to as the “blinders” layer.

25)Layer 10, the “user” layer

1)Files created with Lotus 1-2-3 have an extension 123

2)Device drivers that are loaded in windows 3.X are loaded into the sytem.ini file.

3)30 pin SIMM’s, 72 pin SIMM’s, 168 pin DIMM’s types of RAM sockets can be seen on mother boards.

4) The standard defined for fiber optics is 802.8

5)A longer instruction length may be -1024 to 1023

6)Digitizers can be converted from “dumb” to “smart” through the addition of a microprocessor
7)The extension of database file is given by dbf

8)Usually security in a network is achieved by cryptography

9)In MS-logo Bye command is used to come out from that screen

10)PSTN stands for public switched telephone network

11)A protocol that permits the transfer of files between computer on the network is FTP

12)The shortest path in routing can refer to the least expensive path

13)In C++ programming, the command to save the program file is F3

14)A data structure, in which an element is added and removed only from one end is known as stack.

15)Gateway uses the greatest number of layers in the OSI model

16)A set of standards by which servers communicate with external programs is called common gateway interface

17) Netiquettes are some rules and regulations that have to be followed by users.

18)Multi vibrator is a two stage amplifier with output of one feedback to the input of the other.

19)A set of devices or combination of hardware and software that protects the systems on one side from system on the
other side is firewall.

20)When bandwidth of medium exceeds the required bandwidth of signals to be transmitted we use frequency division
multiplexing

21)Simple, transparent, multi post are bridge types.

22)65535 characters can be typed in a single cell in Excel.

23)DBRM takes care of storage of data in a data base.

24)Various input and output devices have a standard way of connecting to the CPU and Memory. These are
called interface standards.

25)Acknowledgement from a computer that a packet of data has been received and
verified is known as ACK.

26)Acoustic coupler is a communications device which allows an ordinary

telephone to be used with a computer.

1)In Oracle, SYS owns the data dictionary.

explanation :-One of the most important parts of an Oracle database is its data dictionary, which is a read-only set of
tables that provides information about the database.
SYS, Owner of the Data Dictionary
The Oracle user SYS owns all base tables and user-accessible views of the data dictionary. No Oracle user should ever
alter (UPDATE, DELETE, or INSERT) any rows or schema objects contained in the SYS schema, because such activity
can compromise data integrity. The security administrator must keep strict control of this central account.
2)The reason the data outputs of most ROM ICs are tri-state outputs is to :permit the connection of many ROM chips to a
common data bus.

3) To drop a column that is used as a foreign key, first:drop the foreign key constraint

4)In the straight CGI approach to database connectivity on the internet :the external program is located between the web
server and the database server.

CGI or Common Gateway Interface is a means for providing server-side services over the web by dynamically
producing HTML documents, other kinds of documents, or performing other computations in response to communication
from the user. In this assignment, students who want to interface with the Oracle database using Oracle’s Pro*C
precompiled language will be using CGI.

Java Servlets are the Java solution for providing web-based services. They provide a very similar interface for interacting
with client queries and providing server responses. As such, discussion of much of the input and output in terms of HTML
will overlap. Students who plan to interface with Oracle using JDBC will be working with Java Servlets.

Both CGI and Java Servlets interact with the user through HTML forms. CGI programs reside in a special directory, or in
our case, a special computer on the network (cgi-courses.stanford.edu), and provide service through a regular web server.
Java Servlets are separate network object altogether, and you’ll have to run a special Servlet program on a specific port on
a Unix machine.

5)Spanning Tree Protocol is the name of the protocol used to eliminate loops.

6)The effect of the ROLLBACK command in a transaction is to Undo all changes that the database resulting from the
execution of the transaction..
some other commands used to control transactions:
COMMIT: to save the changes.
ROLLBACK: to rollback the changes.
SAVEPOINT: creates points within groups of transactions in which to ROLLBACK
SET TRANSACTION: Places a name on a transaction.

7)In Oracle, 512 is the default number of transactions that MAXTRANS is set to if not specified.

8)Cut-through switching methods provides the greatest frame throughput.

9)Cipher lock includes a keypad that can be used to control access into areas.

10)A gateway is :a point in one network that is an entrance point to another network.

11)Network routing information distributed among routers is stored in Router memory.

12)If the destination did not receive a segment, how will the TCP host know to resend the
information?,The ACK (acknowledgement) received will include the segment number that was not received.

13)What are the effects of mixing RAM modules with different speed ratings?The system may not run, or it crashes
periodically.

14)”request/response “kind of scheme is the HTTP protocol.

15)An NMI error is created by memory parity error .

Short for Non-Maskable Interrupt, NMI is the highest-priority interrupt capable of interrupting all software and non-vital
hardware devices. The NMI is not commonly used and usually only used to verify if a serious error has occurred or stop
all operations because of a failure. For example, when you press Ctrl+Alt+Del when the computer freezes or stops
responding a NMI is sent to the CPU.( buzzer u might see in Quiz shows also send NMI)
NOTE:Unlike a INTR or interrupt, the NMI cannot be interrupted by any other interrupt.

16)From smallest to largest, rank the following logical pieces of the database :
data block, extent, segment, tablespace ( Trick :- DbEST ~ the best,db-data block)

17)Data Blocks

At the finest level of granularity, Oracle stores data in data blocks (also called logical blocks, Oracle blocks, or pages).
One data block corresponds to a specific number of bytes of physical database space on disk. You set the data block size
for every Oracle database when you create the database. This data block size should be a multiple
of the operating system’s block size within the maximum limit. Oracle data blocks are the smallest units of storage that
Oracle can use or allocate.

18)Extents

The next level of logical database space is called an extent. An extent is a specific number of contiguous data blocks that
is allocated for storing a specific type of information.

19)Segments

The level of logical database storage above an extent is called a segment. A segment is a set of extents that have been
allocated for a specific type of data structure, and that all are stored in the same tablespace. For example,each table’s data
is stored in its own data segment, while each index’s datails stored in its own index segment. Oracle allocates space for
segments in extents. Therefore, when the existing extents of a segment are full, Oracle allocates another extent for that
segment. Because extents are allocated as needed, the extents of a segment may or may not be contiguous on disk. The
segments also can span files, but the individual extents cannot.

20)Databases and table spaces

An Oracle database is comprised of one or more logical storage units called table spaces. The database’s data is
collectively stored in the database’s table spaces.

21)Table spaces and data files

Each table space in an Oracle database is comprised of one or more operating system files called data files. A table
space’s data files physically store the associated database data on disk.

22)Databases and datafiles

A database’s data is collectively stored in the data files that constitute each table space of the database. For example, the
simplest Oracle database would have one tablespace and one datafile. A more complicated database might have three table
spaces, each comprised of two data files (for a total of six data files).

23)cookies are stored in On the client.

24)In Oracle,Index organized table is more appropriate to store a small list of values in a single column in each
row for your address table.

25)While searching a website, you have been unable to find information that was on the site
several months ago. What might you do to attempt to locate that information?
Visit Google’s cached page to view the older copy.
As the name suggests, the database management system consists of two parts. They are:
Database and Management System

What is a Database?
To find out what database is, we have to start from data, which is the basic building block of any DBMS.
Data: Facts, figures, statistics etc. having no particular meaning (e.g. 1, ABC, 19 etc).
Record: Collection of related data items, e.g. in the above example the three data items had no meaning. But if we
organize them in the following way, then they collectively represent meaningful information.

Table or Relation: Collection of related records.

The columns of this relation are called Fields, Attributes or Domains. The rows are called Tuples or Records.
Database: Collection of related relations. Consider the following collection of tables:
We now have a collection of 4 tables. They can be called a “related collection” because we can clearly find out that there
are some common attributes existing in a selected pair of tables. Because of these common attributes we may combine the
data of two or more tables together to find out the complete details of a student. Questions like “Which hostel does the
youngest student live in?” can be answered now, although Age and Hostel attributes are in different tables.
In a database, data is organized strictly in row and column format. The rows are called Tuple or Record. The data items
within one row may belong to different data types. On the other hand, the columns are often called Domain or Attribute.
All the data items within a single attribute are of the same data type.
{ trick :- Re-tu (ritu) Row ri hai …….re- record tu- tuple}
Do At Kullu.. DO- domain , At- attributes , Kullu- Column

What is Management System?

A management system is a set of rules and procedures which help us to create organize and manipulate the database. It
also helps us to add, modify delete data items in the database. The management system can be either manual or
computerized.
The management system is important because without the existence of some kind of rules and regulations it is not possible
to maintain the database. We have to select the particular attributes which should be included in a particular table; the
common attributes to create relationship between two tables; if a new record has to be inserted or deleted then which
tables should have to be handled etc. These issues must be resolved by having some kind of rules to follow in order to
maintain the integrity of the database.

Three Views of Data

We know that the same thing, if viewed from different angles produces difference sights. Likewise, the database that we
have created already can have different aspects to reveal if seen from different levels of abstraction. The term Abstraction
is very important here. Generally it means the amount of detail you want to hide. Any entity can be seen from different
perspectives and levels of complexity to make it a reveal its current amount of abstraction. Let us illustrate by a simple
example.

A computer reveals the minimum of its internal details, when seen from outside. We do not know what parts it is built
with. This is the highest level of abstraction, meaning very few details are visible. If we open the computer case and look
inside at the hard disc, motherboard, CD drive, CPU and RAM, we are in middle level of abstraction. If we move on to
open the hard disc and examine its tracks, sectors and read-write heads, we are at the lowest level of abstraction, where no
details are invisible.

In the same manner, the database can also be viewed from different levels of abstraction to reveal different levels of
details. From a bottom-up manner, we may find that there are three levels of abstraction or views in the database. We
discuss them here.

The word schema means arrangement – how we want to arrange things that we have to store. The diagram above
shows the three different schemas used in DBMS, seen from different levels of abstraction.
The lowest level, called the Internal or Physical schema, deals with the description of how raw data items (like 1, ABC,
KOL, H2 etc.) are stored in the physical storage (Hard Disc, CD, Tape Drive etc.). It also describes the data type of these
data items, the size of the items in the storage media, the location (physical address) of the items in the storage device and
so on. This schema is useful for database application developers and database administrator.
The middle level is known as the Conceptual or Logical Schema, and deals with the structure of the entire database.
Please note that at this level we are not interested with the raw data items anymore, we are interested with the structure of
the database. This means we want to know the information about the attributes of each table, the common attributes in
different tables that help them to be combined, what kind of data can be input into these attributes, and so on. Conceptual
or Logical schema is very useful for database administrators whose responsibility is to maintain the entire database.

The highest level of abstraction is the External or View Schema. This is targeted for the end users. Now, an end user
does not need to know everything about the structure of the entire database, rather than the amount of details he/she needs
to work with. We may not want the end user to become confused with astounding amount of details by allowing him/her
to have a look at the entire database, or we may also not allow this for the purpose of security, where sensitive information
must remain hidden from unwanted persons. The database administrator may want to create custom made tables, keeping
in mind the specific kind of need for each user. These tables are also known as virtual tables, because they have no
separate physical existence. They are crated dynamically for the users at runtime. Say for example, in our sample database
we have created earlier, we have a special officer whose responsibility is to keep in touch with the parents of any under
aged student living in the hostels. That officer does not need to know every detail except the Roll, Name, Addresss and
Age. The database administrator may create a virtual table with only these four attributes, only for the use of this officer.

Data Independence
This brings us to our next topic: data independence. It is the property of the database which tries to ensure that if we make
any change in any level of schema of the database, the schema immediately above it would require minimal or no need of
change.
What does this mean? We know that in a building, each floor stands on the floor below it. If we change the design of any
one floor, e.g. extending the width of a room by demolishing the western wall of that room, it is likely that the design in
the above floors will have to be changed also. As a result, one change needed in one particular floor would mean
continuing to change the design of each floor until we reach the top floor, with an increase in the time, cost and labour.
Would not life be easy if the change could be contained in one floor only? Data independence is the answer for this. It
removes the need for additional amount of work needed in adopting the single change into all the levels above.
Data independence can be classified into the following two types:
Physical Data Independence: This means that for any change made in the physical schema, the need to change the
logical schema is minimal. This is practically easier to achieve. Let us explain with an example.
Say, you have bought an Audio CD of a recently released film and one of your friends has bought an Audio Cassette of
the same film. If we consider the physical schema, they are entirely different. The first is digital recording on an optical
media, where random access is possible. The second one is magnetic recording on a magnetic media, strictly sequential
access. However, how this change is reflected in the logical schema is very interesting. For music tracks, the logical
schema for both the CD and the Cassette is the title card imprinted on their back. We have information like Track no,
Name of the Song, Name of the Artist and Duration of the Track, things which are identical for both the CD and the
Cassette. We can clearly say that we have achieved the physical data independence here.

Logical Data Independence: This means that for any change made in the logical schema, the need to change the external
schema is minimal. As we shall see, this is a little difficult to achieve. Let us explain with an example.
Suppose the CD you have bought contains 6 songs, and some of your friends are interested in copying some of those
songs (which they like in the film) into their favorite collection. One friend wants the songs 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, another wants 1,
3, 4, 5 and another wants 1, 2, 3, 6. Each of these collections can be compared to a view schema for that friend. Now by
some mistake, a scratch has appeared in the CD and you cannot extract the song 3. Obviously, you will have to ask the
friends who have song 3 in their proposed collection to alter their view by deleting song 3 from their proposed collection
as well.

Database Administrator
The Database Administrator, better known as DBA, is the person (or a group of persons) responsible for the well being of
the database management system. S/he has the flowing functions and responsibilities regarding database management:
Definition of the schema, the architecture of the three levels of the data abstraction, data independence.
Modification of the defined schema as and when required.
Definition of the storage structure i.e. and access method of the data stored i.e. sequential, indexed or direct.
Creating new used-id, password etc, and also creating the access permissions that each user can or cannot enjoy. DBA is
responsible to create user roles, which are collection of the permissions (like read, write etc.) granted and restricted for a
class of users. S/he can also grant additional permissions to and/or revoke existing permissions from a user if need be.
Defining the integrity constraints for the database to ensure that the data entered conform to some rules, thereby
increasing the reliability of data.
Creating a security mechanism to prevent unauthorized access, accidental or intentional handling of data that can cause
security threat.
Creating backup and recovery policy. This is essential because in case of a failure the database must be able to revive
itself to its complete functionality with no loss of data, as if the failure has never occurred. It is essential to keep regular
backup of the data so that if the system fails then all data up to the point of failure will be available from a stable storage.
Only those amount of data gathered during the failure would have to be fed to the database to recover it to a healthy
status.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Database Management System

We must evaluate whether there is any gain in using a DBMS over a situation where we do not use it. Let us summarize
the advantages.
Reduction of Redundancy: This is perhaps the most significant advantage of using DBMS. Redundancy is the problem
of storing the same data item in more one place. Redundancy creates several problems like requiring extra storage space,
entering same data more than once during data insertion, and deleting data from more than one place during deletion.
Anomalies may occur in the database if insertion, deletion etc are not done properly.

Sharing of Data: In a paper-based record keeping, data cannot be shared among many users. But in computerized DBMS,
many users can share the same database if they are connected via a network.

Data Integrity: We can maintain data integrity by specifying integrity constrains, which are rules and restrictions about
what kind of data may be entered or manipulated within the database. This increases the reliability of the database as it
can be guaranteed that no wrong data can exist within the database at any point of time.

Data security: We can restrict certain people from accessing the database or allow them to see certain portion of the
database while blocking sensitive information. This is not possible very easily in a paper-based record keeping.
However, there could be a few disadvantages of using DBMS. They can be as following:
As DBMS needs computers, we have to invest a good amount in acquiring the hardware, software, installation facilities
and training of users.
We have to keep regular backups because a failure can occur any time. Taking backup is a lengthy process and the
computer system cannot perform any other job at this time.
While data security system is a boon for using DBMS, it must be very robust. If someone can bypass the security system
then the database would become open to any kind of mishandling.

Computer Networks Basics and OSI Model

1)When collection of various computers seems a single coherent system to its client, then it is called distributed system.

2)Two devices are in network if a process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in another device.

3)overlay network is built on the top of another network.

4)In computer network nodes are

~ the computer that originates the data
~ the computer that routes the data
~ the computer that terminates the data.

5)Communication channel is shared by all the machines on the network in broadcast network.

6)Bluetooth is an example of PAN (personal area network).

7)A router is a device that forwards packets between networks by processing the routing information included in the
packet.

8)A list of protocols used by a system, one protocol per layer, is called protocol stack.

9)Network congestion occurs in case of traffic overloading.

10)virtual private network extends a private network across public networks.

11)The IETF standards documents are called RFC (Request For Comments.)

12)In the layer hierarchy as the data packet moves from the upper to the lower layers, headers are Added.Every layer adds
its own header to the packet from previous layer.

13)The structure or format of data is called Syntax.Semantics defines how a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what
action is to be taken based on that interpretation.

14)Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves Simplex transmission.Data flows in single direction.

15)The first Network is ARPANET.

16)The Medium is the physical path over which a message travels.Message travel from sender to reciever via a medium
using a protocol.

17)FCC organization has authority over interstate and international commerce in the communications field.

18)Switch is not a network edge device.Network egde devices refer to host systems, which can host applications like web
browser.
19)A set of rules that governs data communication is Protocols.

20)Three or more devices share a link in Multipoint connection.

Reference Models
1)OSI stands for open system interconnection.

2)The OSI model has 7 layers.

3)TCP/IP model does not have session layer,presentation layer but OSI model have these layers.

4) transport layer links the network support layers and user support layers.

5)physical address and logical address,port address,specific addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP
protocols.

6)TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

7)transport layer is responsible for process to process delivery.

8)port address identifies a process on a host.

9)Application layer provides the services to user.

10)Transmission data rate is decided by physical layer.

Physical Layer
1) The physical layer concerns with bit-by-bit delivery.. Data format is bits.

2)optical fiber transmission media has the highest transmission speed in a network.

3)Bits can be send over guided and unguided media as analog signal by digital modulation.

4)The portion of physical layer that interfaces with the media access control sublayer is called physical signalling
sublayer..

5)physical layer provides

~mechanical specifications of electrical connectors and cables
~electrical specification of transmission line signal level
~specification for IR over optical fiber.

6)In asynchronous serial communication the physical layer provides

~start and stop signalling
~flow control

7)The physical layer is responsible for

~line coding
~channel coding
~modulation

8)The physical layer translates logical communication requests from the data link layer into hardware specific operations.

9) A single channel is shared by multiple signals by multiplexing.

10)Wireless transmission can be done via
~radio waves
~microwaves
~infrared

Data Link Layer

1)Date format if FRAMES.The data link layer takes the packets from network layer and encapsulates them into frames
for transmission.

2)tasks done by data link layer are

~framing
~error control
~flow control

3)media access control sublayer of the data link layer performs data link functions that depend upon the type of medium.

4)Header of a frame generally contains

~synchronization bytes
~addresses
~frame identifier

5)Automatic repeat request error management mechanism is provided by logical link control sublayer.

6)When 2 or more bits in a data unit has been changed during the transmission, the error is called burst error.

7)CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check.

8)The technique of temporarily delaying outgoing outgoing acknowledgements so that they can be hooked onto the next
outgoing data frame is called piggybacking.

Protocols :-