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M. B. Patil
mbpatil@ee.iitb.ac.in
www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xi x′i A x′i xo
xf
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
Amplifier
xo
gain limiter
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network
R C
Amplifier xo A
amplifier
Z1 C
R
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network Z2
β network
R C
Amplifier xo A
amplifier
Z1 C
R
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network Z2
β network
R C
Amplifier xo A
amplifier
Z1 C
R
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network Z2
β network
R C
Amplifier xo A
amplifier
Z1 C
R
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network Z2
β network
1
→ ω= ,A=3
RC
|H|
0.1
R C
V1 V2
0.01
C 90
R
R = 158 kΩ
H
C = 1 nF 0
6
−90
101 102 103 104 105
f (Hz)
V2 (jω) jωRC
H(jω) = = .
V1 (jω) −ω 2 (RC )2 + 3jωRC + 1
|H|
0.1
R C
V1 V2
0.01
C 90
R
R = 158 kΩ
H
C = 1 nF 0
6
−90
101 102 103 104 105
f (Hz)
V2 (jω) jωRC
H(jω) = = .
V1 (jω) −ω 2 (RC )2 + 3jωRC + 1
Note that the condition ∠H = 0 is satisfied only at one frequency, ω0 = 1/RC , i.e., f0 = 1 kHz.
At this frequency, |H| = 0.33, i.e., β(jω) = 1/3.
|H|
0.1
R C
V1 V2
0.01
C 90
R
R = 158 kΩ
H
C = 1 nF 0
6
−90
101 102 103 104 105
f (Hz)
V2 (jω) jωRC
H(jω) = = .
V1 (jω) −ω 2 (RC )2 + 3jωRC + 1
Note that the condition ∠H = 0 is satisfied only at one frequency, ω0 = 1/RC , i.e., f0 = 1 kHz.
At this frequency, |H| = 0.33, i.e., β(jω) = 1/3.
For A β = 1 → A = 3, as derived analytically.
|H|
0.1
R C
V1 V2
0.01
C 90
R
R = 158 kΩ
H
C = 1 nF 0
6
−90
101 102 103 104 105
f (Hz)
V2 (jω) jωRC
H(jω) = = .
V1 (jω) −ω 2 (RC )2 + 3jωRC + 1
Note that the condition ∠H = 0 is satisfied only at one frequency, ω0 = 1/RC , i.e., f0 = 1 kHz.
At this frequency, |H| = 0.33, i.e., β(jω) = 1/3.
For A β = 1 → A = 3, as derived analytically.
SEQUEL file: ee101 osc 1.sqproj
100 k R3
1.5
10 k 22.1 k R
Amplifier
2 Vo
xo R C
R1
gain limiter Vo 0
158 k 1 nF
Frequency−sensitive amplifier C
β xo network R
−1.5
0 1 2
t (msec)
Ref.: S. Franco, "Design with Op Amps and analog ICs" β network
SEQUEL file: wien_osc_1.sqproj
100 k R3
1.5
10 k 22.1 k R
Amplifier
2 Vo
xo R C
R1
gain limiter Vo 0
158 k 1 nF
Frequency−sensitive amplifier C
β xo network R
−1.5
0 1 2
t (msec)
Ref.: S. Franco, "Design with Op Amps and analog ICs" β network
SEQUEL file: wien_osc_1.sqproj
1 1
* ω0 = = → f0 = 1 kHz.
RC (158 k) × (1 nF)
100 k R3
1.5
10 k 22.1 k R
Amplifier
2 Vo
xo R C
R1
gain limiter Vo 0
158 k 1 nF
Frequency−sensitive amplifier C
β xo network R
−1.5
0 1 2
t (msec)
Ref.: S. Franco, "Design with Op Amps and analog ICs" β network
SEQUEL file: wien_osc_1.sqproj
1 1
* ω0 = = → f0 = 1 kHz.
RC (158 k) × (1 nF)
R2
* Since the amplifier gain is required to be A = 3, we must have 1 + = 3 → R2 = 2 R1 .
R1
100 k R3
1.5
10 k 22.1 k R
Amplifier
2 Vo
xo R C
R1
gain limiter Vo 0
158 k 1 nF
Frequency−sensitive amplifier C
β xo network R
−1.5
0 1 2
t (msec)
Ref.: S. Franco, "Design with Op Amps and analog ICs" β network
SEQUEL file: wien_osc_1.sqproj
1 1
* ω0 = = → f0 = 1 kHz.
RC (158 k) × (1 nF)
R2
* Since the amplifier gain is required to be A = 3, we must have 1 + = 3 → R2 = 2 R1 .
R1
* For gain limiting, diodes have been used. With one of the two diodes conducting,
R2 → R2 k R3 , and the gain reduces.
100 k R3
1.5
10 k 22.1 k R
Amplifier
2 Vo
xo R C
R1
gain limiter Vo 0
158 k 1 nF
Frequency−sensitive amplifier C
β xo network R
−1.5
0 1 2
t (msec)
Ref.: S. Franco, "Design with Op Amps and analog ICs" β network
SEQUEL file: wien_osc_1.sqproj
1 1
* ω0 = = → f0 = 1 kHz.
RC (158 k) × (1 nF)
R2
* Since the amplifier gain is required to be A = 3, we must have 1 + = 3 → R2 = 2 R1 .
R1
* For gain limiting, diodes have been used. With one of the two diodes conducting,
R2 → R2 k R3 , and the gain reduces.
* Note that there was no need to consider loading of the β network by the amplifier because of
the large input resistance of the Op Amp. That is why β could be computed independently.
I
A B
V
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2
I
A B
V
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2
I
A B
V
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2
I
A B
V
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2
10−2
|I(s)/V(s)| (A/V)
I
A B
V
10−10
C1 C2 C3 270
R1 R2
6 (I(s)/V(s)) (deg)
180
SEQUEL file: ee101_osc_4.sqproj
90 f (Hz)
101 102 103 104 105
10−2
|I(s)/V(s)| (A/V)
I
A B
V
10−10
C1 C2 C3 270
R1 R2
6 (I(s)/V(s)) (deg)
180
SEQUEL file: ee101_osc_4.sqproj
90 f (Hz)
101 102 103 104 105
(R1 = R2 = R = 10 k, and C1 = C2 = C3 = C = 16 nF .)
I (jω) 1 (jωRC )3
β(jω) = = .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
10−2
|I(s)/V(s)| (A/V)
I
A B
V
10−10
C1 C2 C3 270
R1 R2
6 (I(s)/V(s)) (deg)
180
SEQUEL file: ee101_osc_4.sqproj
90 f (Hz)
101 102 103 104 105
(R1 = R2 = R = 10 k, and C1 = C2 = C3 = C = 16 nF .)
I (jω) 1 (jωRC )3
β(jω) = = .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
For β(jω) to be a real number, the denominator must be purely imaginary.
1 1
→ 3(ωRC )2 + 1 = 0, i.e., 3(ωRC )2 = 1 → ω ≡ ω0 = √ → f0 = 574 Hz .
3 RC
10−2
|I(s)/V(s)| (A/V)
I
A B
V
10−10
C1 C2 C3 270
R1 R2
6 (I(s)/V(s)) (deg)
180
SEQUEL file: ee101_osc_4.sqproj
90 f (Hz)
101 102 103 104 105
(R1 = R2 = R = 10 k, and C1 = C2 = C3 = C = 16 nF .)
I (jω) 1 (jωRC )3
β(jω) = = .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
For β(jω) to be a real number, the denominator must be purely imaginary.
1 1
→ 3(ωRC )2 + 1 = 0, i.e., 3(ωRC )2 = 1 → ω ≡ ω0 = √ → f0 = 574 Hz .
3 RC
Note that, at ω = ω0 ,
√
1 (j/ 3)3 1 −6
β(jω0 ) = √ =− = −8.33 × 10 .
R 4 j/ 3 12 R
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Phase-shift oscillator
I
I Rf
A B A B
V V
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R1 R2
β network current−to−voltage
converter
Note that the functioning of the β network as a stand-alone circuit (left figure) and as a feedback
block (right figure) is the same, thanks to the virtual ground provided by the Op Amp.
I
I Rf
A B A B
V V
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R1 R2
β network current−to−voltage
converter
Note that the functioning of the β network as a stand-alone circuit (left figure) and as a feedback
block (right figure) is the same, thanks to the virtual ground provided by the Op Amp.
I (jω) Rf (jωRC )3
V (jω) = −Rf I (jω) → Aβ(jω) = −Rf =− .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
I
I Rf
A B A B
V V
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R1 R2
β network current−to−voltage
converter
Note that the functioning of the β network as a stand-alone circuit (left figure) and as a feedback
block (right figure) is the same, thanks to the virtual ground provided by the Op Amp.
I (jω) Rf (jωRC )3
V (jω) = −Rf I (jω) → Aβ(jω) = −Rf =− .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
1 1 I (jω) 1
As seen before, at → ω = ω0 = √ , we have =− .
3 RC V (jω) 12 R
I
I Rf
A B A B
V V
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R1 R2
β network current−to−voltage
converter
Note that the functioning of the β network as a stand-alone circuit (left figure) and as a feedback
block (right figure) is the same, thanks to the virtual ground provided by the Op Amp.
I (jω) Rf (jωRC )3
V (jω) = −Rf I (jω) → Aβ(jω) = −Rf =− .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
1 1 I (jω) 1
As seen before, at → ω = ω0 = √ , we have =− .
3 RC V (jω) 12 R
For the circuit to oscillate, we need Aβ = 1 → Rf (1/12 R) = 1, i.e., Rf = 12 R
I
I Rf
A B A B
V V
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R1 R2
β network current−to−voltage
converter
Note that the functioning of the β network as a stand-alone circuit (left figure) and as a feedback
block (right figure) is the same, thanks to the virtual ground provided by the Op Amp.
I (jω) Rf (jωRC )3
V (jω) = −Rf I (jω) → Aβ(jω) = −Rf =− .
V (jω) R 3(jωRC )2 + 4 jωRC + 1
1 1 I (jω) 1
As seen before, at → ω = ω0 = √ , we have =− .
3 RC V (jω) 12 R
For the circuit to oscillate, we need Aβ = 1 → Rf (1/12 R) = 1, i.e., Rf = 12 R
1k
Amplifier
xo Vo
β network
gain limiter 125 k R 0
16 nF 16 nF 16 nF f
Frequency−sensitive
β xo network C1 C2 C3 Vo
−6
R1 R2 0 1 2 3 4
10 k 10 k amplifier t (msec)
Ref.: Sedra and Smith, "Microelectronic circuits" (i−to−v converter)
1 1
ω0 = √ → f0 = 574 Hz, T = 1.74 ms .
3 RC
R2
1k
Vs R1
Vo
RL
R2
1k
Vs R1
Vo
RL
* As seen earlier, AV = −R2 /R1 → |AV | should be independent of the signal frequency.
Inverting amplifier, revisited
R2
1k
Vs R1
Vo
RL
* As seen earlier, AV = −R2 /R1 → |AV | should be independent of the signal frequency.
* However, a measurement with a real Op Amp will show that |AV | starts reducing at higher
frequencies.
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
50 k
R2
1k 25 k
AV (dB)
Vs R1 20
10 k
Vo
R2 = 5 k
RL
* As seen earlier, AV = −R2 /R1 → |AV | should be independent of the signal frequency.
* However, a measurement with a real Op Amp will show that |AV | starts reducing at higher
frequencies.
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
50 k
R2
1k 25 k
AV (dB)
Vs R1 20
10 k
Vo
R2 = 5 k
RL
* As seen earlier, AV = −R2 /R1 → |AV | should be independent of the signal frequency.
* However, a measurement with a real Op Amp will show that |AV | starts reducing at higher
frequencies.
* If |AV | is increased, the gain “roll-off” starts at lower frequencies.
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
50 k
R2
1k 25 k
AV (dB)
Vs R1 20
10 k
Vo
R2 = 5 k
RL
* As seen earlier, AV = −R2 /R1 → |AV | should be independent of the signal frequency.
* However, a measurement with a real Op Amp will show that |AV | starts reducing at higher
frequencies.
* If |AV | is increased, the gain “roll-off” starts at lower frequencies.
* This behaviour has to do with the frequency response of the Op Amp which we have not
considered so far.
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
The gain of the 741 Op Amp starts falling at rather low frequencies, with fc ' 10 Hz!
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
The gain of the 741 Op Amp starts falling at rather low frequencies, with fc ' 10 Hz!
The 741 Op Amp (and many others) are designed with this feature to ensure that, in typical
amplifier applications, the overall circuit is stable (and not oscillatory).
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
The gain of the 741 Op Amp starts falling at rather low frequencies, with fc ' 10 Hz!
The 741 Op Amp (and many others) are designed with this feature to ensure that, in typical
amplifier applications, the overall circuit is stable (and not oscillatory).
In other words, the Op Amp has been internally compensated for stability.
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
The gain of the 741 Op Amp starts falling at rather low frequencies, with fc ' 10 Hz!
The 741 Op Amp (and many others) are designed with this feature to ensure that, in typical
amplifier applications, the overall circuit is stable (and not oscillatory).
In other words, the Op Amp has been internally compensated for stability.
The gain of the 741 Op Amp can be represented by,
A0
A(s) = ,
1 + s/ωc
with A0 ≈ 105 (i.e., 100 dB), ωc ≈ 2π × 10 rad/s.
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
ωt
A0
A(jω) = .
1 + jω/ωc
A0
For ω ωc , we have A(jω) ≈ .
jω/ωc
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
ωt
A0
A(jω) = .
1 + jω/ωc
A0
For ω ωc , we have A(jω) ≈ .
jω/ωc
|A(jω)| becomes 1 when A0 = ω/ωc , i.e., ω = A0 ωc .
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
ωt
A0
A(jω) = .
1 + jω/ωc
A0
For ω ωc , we have A(jω) ≈ .
jω/ωc
|A(jω)| becomes 1 when A0 = ω/ωc , i.e., ω = A0 ωc .
This frequency, ωt = A0 ωc , is called the unity-gain frequency.
For the 741 Op Amp, ft = A0 fc ≈ 105 × 10 = 106 Hz.
ideal
100
Gain (dB)
Op Amp 741
Vi Vo
−20 dB/decade
0
10−1 106
f (Hz)
ωt
A0
A(jω) = .
1 + jω/ωc
A0
For ω ωc , we have A(jω) ≈ .
jω/ωc
|A(jω)| becomes 1 when A0 = ω/ωc , i.e., ω = A0 ωc .
This frequency, ωt = A0 ωc , is called the unity-gain frequency.
For the 741 Op Amp, ft = A0 fc ≈ 105 × 10 = 106 Hz.
Let us see how the frequency response of the 741 Op Amp affects the gain of an inverting amplifier.
R2 R2
R2 Vs Vs
R1 Ro R1
Vs R1
Vi Vo Vi Vo
Vo
Ri AV (s) Vi AV (s) Vi
R2 R2
R2 Vs Vs
R1 Ro R1
Vs R1
Vi Vo Vi Vo
Vo
Ri AV (s) Vi AV (s) Vi
R2 R2
R2 Vs Vs
R1 Ro R1
Vs R1
Vi Vo Vi Vo
Vo
Ri AV (s) Vi AV (s) Vi
R2 R2
R2 Vs Vs
R1 Ro R1
Vs R1
Vi Vo Vi Vo
Vo
Ri AV (s) Vi AV (s) Vi
R2
1k
Vs R1
Vo
RL
R2
1k
Vs R1
Vo
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
AV (dB)
Vs R1
20
Vo
R2 = 5 k
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
AV (dB)
Vs R1
10 k 20 91 20
Vo
R2 = 5 k
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
AV (dB)
Vs R1
10 k 20 91 20
Vo 10 k
R2 = 5 k
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
AV (dB)
Vs R1
10 k 20 91 20
Vo 10 k
25 k 28 38 R2 = 5 k
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
AV (dB)
Vs R1
10 k 20 91 20
Vo 10 k
25 k 28 38 R2 = 5 k
RL
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
AV (dB)
Vs R1
10 k 20 91 20
Vo 10 k
25 k 28 38 R2 = 5 k
RL
50 k 34 19.6
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1
Inverting amplifier, revisited
40
50 k
R2 gain (dB) fc ′ (kHz)
R2
1k 25 k
5k 14 167
AV (dB)
Vs R1
10 k 20 91 20
Vo 10 k
25 k 28 38 R2 = 5 k
RL
50 k 34 19.6
Vo (s) R2 1 ωt
=− ωc0 = , (ft = 1 MHz).
Vs (s) R1 1 + s/ωc0 1 + R2 /R1