Limit and Continuity

In this first lecture, we study the functions, that is the way in which one quantity
y depends upon some other quantity x, according to y = f (x). In particular, we shall
study those functions for which y varies continuously with x, in the sense that a small
change in x results in a small change in y. First, let us consider some examples:

Example A Example B Example C

y y y

x x

( (
x2 , x 6= 0 1, x≥0
f (x) = x2 f (x) = f (x) =
1, x = 0 −1 , x < 0

The function in Example A should certainly be considered to be continuous. There

are no breaks or jumps in its graph, and it is clear that a small change in x produces
small change in x2 . In Example B, at x = 0, y = 1, a slightly change in x away from 0
will result in a sudden jump in the value of f (x) to a value near 0. The graph is broken
at x = 0, so that Example B is not a continuous function. Example C illustrates a
function which is not continuous because of the jump at the origin.
In this lecture we study the behavior of f (x) when x approaches a value, say, a.

• “approach” does not mean “equal”

• Two ways to approach a given value:

(i) approach from right, (ii) approach from left.

0 1 2

1
 From right 1.5 1.1 1.01 1.001
From left 0.5 0.9 0.99 0.999

The arrow on the left points to the right in the above diagram indicates that x ap-
proaches the value 1 from the left. Likewise, the arrow on the right points to the left
indicates that x approaches the value 1 from the right.

§ Example 1

Consider the function f (x) = 2x + 1, what happen to f (x) when x get closer and closer
to 3?

x f (x)
2.5 6
2.9 6.08
2.99 6.89
2.999 6.998

Table 1: f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer to 3 from left.

x f (x)
3.1 7.2
3.01 7.02
3.001 7.002
3.0001 7.0002

Table 2: f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer to 3 from right.

The table in above shows that the function f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer and
closer to 3 from left and right.

Definitions:

• Left-Hand Limit (LHL)

If f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches a from the left, we say that L is the left-hand
limit of f (x) at a and we write

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x→a− x→a, x<a

The symbol x → a− indicates that we consider only values of x that are less than a.
• Right-Hand Limit (RHL)

2
If f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches a from the right, we say that L is the right-hand
limit of f (x) at a and we write
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L
x→a+ x→a, x>a

The symbol x → a+ indicates that we consider only values of x that are greater than a.

§ Example 2

Consider
g(x) = x2
What happen to g(x) when x gets closer and closer to 3?

2.9 3

x g(x) = x2
2.9 8.41
2.99 8.9401
2.9999 8.9994
2.9999999 8.999999

lim g(x) = 9
x→3−

3 3.1

x g(x) = x2
3.1 9.61
3.01 9.0601
3.0001 9.0006001
3.0000001 9.0000006

3
 lim g(x) = 9
x→3+

As x gets closer to 3 separately from left and right, the function g(x) will separately
approaches 9. Therefore, the limit of g(x) = x2 as x approaches 3 from either sides is 9.
This is illustrated in the diagram below:

g(x)

x
3

§ Example 3

Consider (
−1 , x ≤ 0
f (x) =
1, x>0
What happen to f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0?

x f (x)
-0.5 -1
-0.1 -1
-0.01 -1
-0.001 -1

As x approaching 0 from left we see that f (x) approaches -1, i.e.

lim f (x) = −1
x→0−

4
 x f (x)
0.5 1
0.1 1
0.01 1
0.001 1

As x approaching 0 from right we see that f (x) approaches 1, i.e.

lim f (x) = 1
x→0+

f (x)

x
0

−1

The limits of f (x) from the left and the right are not equal, thus we may conclude
that LIMIT DOES NOT EXIST as x → 0.

Question: When does the limit exist?

The limit of a function exists when

lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L

x→a− x→a+

equal

5
that is to say that the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left is equal to
the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right. This can be written as

lim f (x) = L
x→a

This means that we make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but x 6= a. In other word, in finding the limit
of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a, we never consider x = a. In most of the cases,
f (x) need not even be defined when x = a. The thing that we only concern is how f (x)
is defined near a regardless of what happens at a. Conversely, if

lim f (x) = R and lim f (x) = L

x→a+ x→a−

where R 6= L, then the limx→a f (x) does not exist.

§ Example 4

Evaluate the right-hand and left-hand limits of f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 at x = 1.

x f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1
1.1 2.41
1.01 2.0401
1.0001 2.000400001
1.000001 2.000004000001

Thus, we have
lim f (x) = 2
x→1+

x f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1
0.9 1.61
0.99 1.9601
0.999 1.996001
0.9999 1.99960001

Thus, we have
lim f (x) = 2
x→1−

Since LHL and RHL are equal

lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 2

x→1− x→1+

Therefore, the limit of f (x) does exist and can be written as

lim f (x) = 2
x→1

6
§ Example 5

2x − 1 , x < 2
f (x) = 1
 , x≥2
x
What happen when x gets closer and closer to 2?
From left:

x f (x)
1.9 2.8
lim f (x) = 3
1.99 2.98 x→2−
1.999 2.998

From right:

x f (x)
2.01 0.4975
lim f (x) = 0.5
2.001 0.4996 x→2+
2.0001 0.49998

Thus,
lim f (x) = 3 and lim f (x) = 0.5
x→2− x→2+

Since
lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)
x→2− x→2

Therefore, the limit of f (x) does not exist. The diagram of function f (x) is shown below:

f (x)

0.5
2 x
−1

7
 Continuity

Using function notation we represent the value of the function f (x) at x = a as

f (a). Function notation gives us a nice compact way of representing function values.
To evaluate the function, everywhere we see an x on the right side we will substitute
whatever is in the parenthesis on the left side. For example, to evaluate the function
f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 4 at x = 1, we get

f (1) = 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 4 = 1

This is represented by the diagram below:

(1, f (1))

1 b

0 x
0 1 2

Let us consider the following function:


2
−x + x + 4
 , x < 2,
f (x) = 21 x + 1 , x > 2,

5 , x = 2.


It can be shown that (by evaluating the LHL and RHL) the limit of f (x) exists when x
approaches 2,
lim f (x) = 2
x→2

However, f (2) = 5. In this case,

lim f (x) 6= f (2) .

x→2

This function is represented by the graph below:

8
 y

5 b

0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5

This curve is discontinuous because there is a sudden jump/broken when x = 2.

Definition 1:

A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

This requires three conditions if f is continuous at a:

1. f (a) is defined (i.e., a is in the domain of f )

2. lim f (x) exists

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

These statements say that f (x) is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x approaches
a. Likewise, if f (x) is defined on an open interval containing a (except at a), we say
that f (x) is discontinuous at a if f (x) is not continuous at a.

9
 Back to the example above, if f (2) = 2, the curve becomes

2 b

0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5

The curve is now continuous as the broken point on the curve has been filled by the
solid dot.

Definition 2:

• A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a+

(See Example 5 of the previous section.)

• A function f is continuous from the left at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a−

(See Example 3 of the previous section.)

Definition 3:

A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the

interval.

§ Example 1

Explain why each of the following functions are discontinuous?

10
 x2 − x − 2
1. f (x) =
x−2

 1 , x 6= 0
2. f (x) = x2
1 , x=0
 2
x − x − 2
, x 6= 2
3. f (x) = x−2
1, x=2


4. f (x) = [[x]]

Solution:

1. Condition 1 fails because f (2) is not defined.

2. Condition 2 fails because lim f (x) does not exist (infinity).

x→0

3. Condition 3 fails because lim f (x) 6= f (2).

x→2

4. Condition 2 fails because lim+ f (x) = n but lim− f (x) = n − 1, thus lim f (x) does
x→n x→n x→n
not exist.

11
 Evaluate limit of functions

There are three ways to evaluate limits

1. Substitution
2. Factorization
3. Conjugate

z Substitution method
§ Example 1

sin 2t
Given f (t) = , using substitution method evaluate lim f (t).
t t→π
Solution:
sin 2t
lim f (t) = lim
t→π t→π t
sin 2(π)
= lim
t→π π
0
= =0
π

Theorem 1:
A polynomial
P (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn−1 xn−1 + cn xn
is continuous everywhere, i.e., it is continuous on R = (= ∞, ∞).
Remark: For all continuous functions, we can evaluate limit using Substitution
method.

Definitions:

For any polynomial functions

P (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn
where c0 , c1 , c2 , · · · are constant. For any real number of a,
lim P (x) = lim (c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn )
x→a x→a
= c0 + c1 a + c2 a2 + · · · + cn an
= P (a)

12
§ Example 2

Given f (x) = x2 − x − 2, using substitution method evaluate lim f (x).

x→2
Solution:

lim f (x) = lim (x2 − x − 2)

x→2 x→2
= (2)2 − (2) − 2
= 0


Definitions:

A rational function f (x) is a ratio of two polynomials

P (x)
f (x) = , Q(x) 6= 0
Q(x)

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

Theorem 2:
Any rational function
P (x)
f (x) = , Q(x) 6= 0
Q(x)
is continuous wherever it is defined (in its domain).

§ Example 3

Evaluate
2x3 − 3x2 + 2
lim
x→2 5x − 3
Solution:
This function is rational, by Theorem 2 that it is continuous on its domain except
at x = 35 . Therefore

2x3 − 3x2 + 2 2(2)3 − 3(2)2 + 2 6

lim = = .
x→2 5x − 3 5(2) − 3 7

13
§ Example 4

x2 − x − 2
Given f (x) = , evaluate lim f (x).
x−2 x→2

Solution:
What happen when we use the Substitution method? If we substitute x = 2 into
f (x) we obtain a value which is equal to zero divided by zero.

Important Remarks:
The substitution method cannot be used if the denominator of a rational function
gives 0.

z Factorization Method
If a rational function is formed by some polynomial functions and if it is factorizable,
we can use the factorization method to solve the problem (Example 4 continued):

x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
= lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2


z Conjugate Method
Quick Review:
Recall what is conjugate, for example
√ conjugate √
x − 3 −−−−−→ x+3
√ conjugate √
x − 1 + 2 −−−−−→ x−1−2

§ Example 5

Evaluate
x−4
lim √
x→4 x−2
Solution:
As the function consists of square root, we can use the conjugate method to solve
this problem as follows:

14
 √
x−4 x−4 x+2
lim √ = lim √ ×√
x→4 x−2 x→4 x−2 x+2
√
(x − 4)( x + 2)
= lim
x→4 x−4
√
= lim ( x + 2)
x→4
√
= 4+2=4

§ Example 6

Evaluate
3−x
lim √
x→3 x+1−2
Solution:
√
3−x 3−x x+1+2
lim √ = lim √ ×√
x→3 x+1−2 x→3 x+1−2 x+1+2
√
(3 − x)( x + 1 + 2)
= lim
x→3 x +√1 − 4
(3 − x)( x + 1 + 2)
= lim
x→3 x−3
√
−(x − 3)( x + 1 + 2)
= lim
x→3 x−3
√
= lim (− x + 1 − 2) = −4
x→3

EXERCISES 1:
Evaluate each limit using the suitable method.
x−1 2x + 1
1. lim 4. lim
x→2 x2 −x−1 x→−1/2 2x2 −x−1
x−1 x2 − x − 2
2. lim 5. lim 2
x→1 x2 − 1 x→2 x − 3x + 2
√
x−1−1 x2 − 1
3. lim 6. lim √
x→2 x−2 x→1 2−x−x

7. Given (
x +2, x<1
f (x) = 2
−x + 4 , x ≥ 1
Sketch the graph for the function f (x), and find lim f (x).
x→1

15
 Rules and Theorems

Rules:

(I) Finite case

Let a, b and c be any arbitrary real numbers, and suppose that

lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2

x→a x→a

Then

1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L1 + L2

x→a

2. lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L1 − L2

x→a

3. lim [cf (x)] = cL1 , for any c ∈ R

x→a

4. lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
x→a
 
f (x) L1
5. lim = , if L2 6= 0
x→a g(x) L2
6. lim [f (x)]n = L1 n
x→a

For those who are interested to verify the rules in above, please refer to the appendix.

§ Example 1

Given
lim F (t) = 8 , lim G(t) = −2 , lim H(t) = 0.1
t→2 t→2 t→2

Compute
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)H(t)]
t→2
p 
(ii) lim 3 F (t)
t→2
 
F (t)
(iii) lim + lim[H(t)]2
t→2 G(t) t→2

Solution:
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)H(t)] = 2(8)(−2)(0.1) = −3.2
t→2
p  √ 3
(ii) lim 3 F (t) = 8 = 2
t→2

16
  
F (t) 8
(iii) lim + lim[H(t)]2 = + (0.1)2 = −3.99 
t→2 G(t) t→2 −2

(II) Infinite case

When we evaluate the limit of a function, we have to find an appropriate method if the
following indeterminate forms are encountered:

1. infinity minus infinity, ∞ − ∞

2. infinity times zero, ∞ × 0

3. infinity divided by infinity, ∞

∞
0
4. zero divided by zero, 0

§ Example 2

Given
lim F (t) = ∞ , lim G(t) = −2 , lim H(t) = 0 .
t→2 t→2 t→2

Compute
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)]
t→2
p 
(ii) lim 3 F (t)
t→2
   2
F (t) G(t)
(iii) lim + lim
t→2 G(t) t→2 F (t)

Solution:

(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)] = −∞

t→2
p 
(ii) lim 3 F (t) = ∞
t→2
   2
F (t) G(t)
(iii) lim + lim = −∞ 
t→2 G(t) t→2 F (t)

17
§ Example 3

Evaluate
lim (t2 − t) =?
t→∞

Solution:
Since
lim t2 = ∞
t→∞

and
lim t = ∞ .
t→∞

So that
lim (t2 − t) = ∞ − ∞
t→∞

is an indeterminate form. But with different approach we can

lim (t2 − t) = lim t(t − 1) = lim t(t) = lim t2 = ∞

t→∞ t→∞ t→∞ t→∞


Theorem 3:
If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is close to a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both
exist as x approaches a, then
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x)
x→a x→a

Theorem 4: The Squeeze Theorem

If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is close to a (except possibly at a) and

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a

then
lim g(x) = L
x→a

The Squeeze Theorem says that if f (x) and h(x) have the same limit L at a, then g(x)
is forced to have the limit L at a.

§ Example 4

Evaluate 1
lim x2 sin
x→0 x

18
 Solution:
From our trigonometric knowledge
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤1
x
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2
x
Since
lim (−x2 ) = lim x2 = 0
x→0 x→0

By using Theorem 3,
 
2
−x ≤ x sin x1
2
≤ x2
h  1 i
lim (−x2 ) ≤ lim x2 sin ≤ lim x2
x→0 x→0 x x→0
h  1 i
0 ≤ lim x2 sin ≤0
x→0 x
From Theorem 4 we conclude that
1
2
lim x sin =0
x→0 x


19
 Infinite Limit and Limit at Infinity

Definitions:

Let f be any function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. If

limx→a f (x) = ±∞, this means that the value of f increases (positive) or decreases
(negative) without bound as x gets closer and closer to a, but not equal to a.
It is important to note that the ∞ is not regarded as a number. It just to express the
values of f (x) do not approach a number, i.e., the values f (x) become larger and larger
(positive or negative) as x becomes closer and closer to a, and so limx→a f (x) does not
exist.

§ Example 1

2
Consider h(t) = . What happen to h(t) as t gets closer and closer to 1?
t−1
2
lim h(t) = lim
t→1 t→1 t − 1

Does any methods learn earlier work in this case? How to evaluate the limit of function
h(t) as t gets closer and closer to 1? In fact, it appears from the table of the function h(t)
as shown below that the denominator t − 1 is a small negative number as t approaches 1
from the left, and h(t) is numerically large negative. Likewise, the denominator t − 1 is
a small positive number as t approaches 1 from the right, and h(t) is numerically large
positive.

t h(t) t h(t)
0.9 -20 1.1 20
0.999 -2000 1.001 2000
0.99999 -200000 1.00001 200000

2 2
lim− = −∞ lim+ = +∞
t→1 t−1 t→1 t−1

20
 Let’s sketch the graph to see how this function behaves.
h(t)

2
t−1

t
0 1

We see above that LHL and RHL at t → 1 are not equal and thus the limit of h(t)
does not exist. 

§ Example 2

Evaluate
2
lim
t→1 (t − 1)2

Solution:
2 2
t t
(t − 1)2 (t − 1)2
0.8 50 1.1 50
0.9 200 1.01 200
0.99 20000 1.001 20000
0.999 2000000 1.0001 2000000

2 2
lim− = +∞ lim+ = +∞
t→1 (t − 1)2 t→1 (t − 1)2

21
As t gets closer to 1, both the LHL and RHL are approaching positive infinity. Thus,
the values of the function do not approach a number, so the limit does not exist. 

Definitions:

• Vertical Asymptote

The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:

1. lim f (x) = ∞ 4. lim f (x) = −∞

x→a x→a

2. lim− f (x) = ∞ 5. lim− f (x) = −∞

x→a x→a

3. lim+ f (x) = ∞ 6. lim+ f (x) = −∞

x→a x→a

For instance, it can be seen in the Examples 1 and 2 that the line t = 1 is a vertical
asymptote.

• Horizontal Asymptote

The line y = L is called the horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞

is true.

§ Example 3

x 1/x
0.1 10
1
0.01 100 lim =∞
x→0, x>0 x
0.001 1000
0.0001 10000

The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the curve 1/x since it satisfies condition 3. 

22
§ Example 4

−x + 1 −(x − 1)
lim + = lim +
x→−1 x2 − 1 x→−1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
−1
= lim + = −∞
x→−1 x + 1

The line x = −1 is a vertical asymptote. 

§ Example 5

Consider
x
f (x) =
x−1
What happen to f (x) when x gets bigger and bigger and bigger.. towards INFINITY?

x
x
x−1
101 1.01
1001 1.001
10001 1.0001
100001 1.00001

Thus,
x
lim =1
x→∞ x − 1

In this case, the line y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.

y=1

23
§ Example 6

Consider
2
lim
x→∞ x + 1

What happen to f (x) when x is large?

2
x
x+1
99 0.02
999 0.002
9999 0.0002
99999 0.00002

Thus,
2
lim =0
x→∞ x + 1

The curve 2/(x + 1) approaches 0 as x getting larger and larger. The illustration of this
case is given in the diagram below:

x
−1 0

Remark: At infinity the limit of a polynomial is given by the limit of the monomial
with the highest degree. 

24
§ Example 7
 
2 x 21
lim (2x − x − 1) = lim 2x 1 − 2 − 2
x→∞ x→∞ 2x 2x
 
2 1 1
= lim 2x 1 − −
x→∞ 2x 2x2
= lim 2x2 = ∞
x→∞


§ Example 8

Evaluate
2x3 − 5x2 − 3
lim
x→∞ x3 − 1
What is the horizontal asymptote?
Solution:


2x3 − 5x2 − 3 x3 2 − x5 − x33
lim = lim

x→∞ x3 − 1 x→∞ x3 1 − x13


2 − x5 − x33
= lim

x→∞ 1 − x13
 
2
= lim =2
x→∞ 1

Now, we consider the highest degree terms.

2x3 − 5x2 − 3 2x3
lim = lim =2
x→∞ x3 − 1 x→∞ x3

Thus, y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote. 

§ Example 9

Evaluate √
9x4 − 5x2 − 3
lim
x→∞ 3x3 − 1
What is the horizontal asymptote?
Solution:
√ √
9x4 − 5x2 − 3 9x4
lim = lim
x→∞ 3x3 − 1 x→∞ 3x3
3x2
= lim
x→∞ 3x3
1
= lim = 0
x→∞ x

25
Thus, y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote. 

EXERCISE 2:

Evaluate the limit and find the vertical/horizontal asymptote.

x
1. lim +
x→−2 x2 −4
x
2. lim
x→∞ x2 − 4

2x2 + 3x − 1
3. lim
x→∞ 3x2 − 2x + 4

4. Find lim C, where a and C are constants.

x→a

26
 Appendix

Note: This section is for reference only.

Proof of rule 1 (Sum Rule):

Let ǫ > 0 and consider |[f (x) + g(x)] − (L1 + L2 )|. By the triangle inequality that

|[f (x) + g(x)] − (L1 + L2 )| ≤ |f (x) − L1 | + |g(x) − L2 | .

Now choose δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 so that

0 < |x − a| < δ1 ⇒ |f (x) − L1 | < ǫ/2 ,

and 0 < |x − a| < δ2 ⇒ |g(x) − L2 | < ǫ/2 .

Next put δ = min(δ1 , δ2 ). If 0 < |x − a| < δ, both conditions above come into operation and so

|[f (x) + g(x)] − (L1 + L2 )| ≤ |f (x) − L1 | + |g(x) − L2 | < ǫ/2 + ǫ/2 = ǫ ,

i.e., f (x) + g(x) → L1 + L2 , as required.

Proof of Rule 3 (Coefficient Rule):

If c = 0, the function cf (x) is just the constant zero function and the result is clear. So assume
c 6= 0. Let ǫ > 0. Choose δ > 0 such that
ǫ
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L1 | < .
|c|

It follows that
ǫ
|c · f (x) − cL1 | = |c| · |f (x) − L1 | < |c| · = ǫ,
|c|
i.e., 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |(cf )(x) − cL1 | < ǫ, as required.

Proof of Rule 2 (Difference Rule):

By using Rule 3,
−g(x) = (−1) · g(x) → −1 · L2 = −L2 .
Then, by using Rule 1,


f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + − g(x) → L1 + (−L2 ) = L1 − L2 .

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 Proof of Rule 4 (Product Rule):

Write
f (x)g(x) − L1 L2 = [f (x) − L1 ]L2 + f (x) · [g(x) − L2 ] .
Then
|f (x)g(x) − L1 L2 | ≤ |f (x) − L1 ||L2 | + |f (x)| · |g(x) − L2 | .
Since limx→a f (x) = L1 , there exists δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L1 | < 1, which in turn
implies that |f (x)| ≤ |f (x) − L1 | + |L1| < 1 + |L1|. So 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x)| < K, where K = 1 + |L1|.
Combining with the earlier inequality shows that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then

0 ≤ |f (x)g(x) − L1 L2 | ≤ |f (x) − L1 ||L2 | + K · |g(x) − L2 | .

As x → a, |f (x) − L1 | → 0 and so |f (x) − L1 ||L2 | → 0, by Rule 3. Similarly, |L1 | < 1 + |L1 | → 0 as

x → a. Therefore, by Rule 1, the right-hand side of inequality above tends to 0, as x → a. It follows
by the squeeze theorem that |f (x)g(x) − L1 L2 | → 0 as x → a, i.e., f (x)g(x) → L1 L2 .

Proof of Rule 5 (Quotient Rule):

We write  
 1 1  |g(x) − L2 |
 L2 − g(x)  = |L2 | · |g(x)| .


There exist δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |g(x)| > |L2 |/2. For such values of x then
 
 1 1  2
0≤  − ≤ · |g(x) − L2 | .
L2 g(x)  |L2 |2

As x → a the right-hand side of this inequality tends to 0 (by using Rule 3). So by the squeeze theorem
 
 1 1  1 1
 L2 − g(x)  → 0 , i.e., → .

g(x) L2

From this result and Rule 4,

f (x) 1 1 L1
= f (x) · → L1 · = ,
g(x) g(x) L2 L2

as required.

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